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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4 + "Basso-relievo" to "Bedfordshire" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: November 22, 2010 [EBook #34405] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +One typographical error has been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME III SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Basso-relievo to Bedfordshire</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BASSO-RELIEVO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BAY ISLANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BASS ROCK, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BAYLE, PIERRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BASSUS, AUFIDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BAYLO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BASSUS, CAESIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BASSUS, CASSIANUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BASSUS, SALEIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BAYONET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BASSVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BAYONNE</a> (town of France)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BASTAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BAYONNE</a> (New Jersey, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BASTARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BAYOU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BASTARNAE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BAYREUTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BASTI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BAZA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BASTIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BAZAAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BASTIAN, ADOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BASTIDE, JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BAZARD, AMAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BASTIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BAZAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BAZIGARS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BASTILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BAZIN, RENÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BASTINADO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BAZIRE, CLAUDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BASTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BDELLIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BASTWICK, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BEACH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BASUTOLAND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BEACHY HEAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BEACON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BATAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BATALA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of Tasmania)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BATALHA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of South Africa)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BATANGAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BEACONSFIELD</a> (town of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BATARNAY, IMBERT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BEAD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BATAVIA</a> (residency of Java)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BEADLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BATAVIA</a> (city of Java)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BEAK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BATAVIA (New York, U.S.A.)</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BEAKER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BEALE, DOROTHEA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BATEMENT LIGHTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BEAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BATES, HARRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BATES, HENRY WALTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BEAN-FEAST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BATES, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BEAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BATES, JOSHUA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BATES, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BATESON, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BEARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BATH, THOMAS THYNNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BEARDSTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BATH</a> (county of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BEARER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BATH</a> (Maine, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BEARINGS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BATH-CHAIR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BEAR-LEADER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BATHGATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BÉARN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BATHOLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BEAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BATHONIAN SERIES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BEAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BEATIFICATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BATHOS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">BEATON, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BATHS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">BEATRICE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BATHURST, EARLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">BEATTIE, JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BATHURST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">BEATUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BATHVILLITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">BEAUCAIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BATHYBIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">BEAUCE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BATHYCLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">BEAUCHAMP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BATLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BATON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">BEAUFORT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BATON ROUGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">BEAUFORT, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BATRACHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BATRACHOMYOMACHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">BEAUFORT SCALE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BATTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">BEAUFORT WEST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BATTAGLIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">BEAUGENCY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BATTAKHIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">BEAUHARNAIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BATTALION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BATTAMBANG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">BEAUJEU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BATTANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">BEAULIEU</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BATTAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">BEAULY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BATTEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">BEAUMANOIR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BATTEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BATTENBERG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">BEAUMARIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BATTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">BEAUMONT</a> (English family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BATTERING RAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BATTERSEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BATTERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">BEAUMONT and FLETCHER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BATTEUX, CHARLES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">BEAUMONT</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BATTHYANY, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">BEAUNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BATTICALOA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BATTISHILL, JONATHAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BATTLE</a> (town of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BATTLE</a> (military engagement)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">BEAUVAIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BATTLE ABBEY ROLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">BEAUVILLIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BATTLE CREEK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">BEAUX, CECILIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BATTLEMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">BEAVER</a> (animal)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BATTUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">BEAVER</a> (part of the helmet)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BATTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">BEAVER DAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BATU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">BEAVER FALLS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BATUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">BEAWAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BATWA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BATYPHONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">BECCAFICO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BAUAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BAUBLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BAUCHI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">BECCLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BAUDIER, MICHEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">BECERRA, GASPAR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">BÊCHE-DE-MER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BAUDRY, OF BOURGUEIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">BECHUANA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BAUER, BRUNO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">BECHUANALAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BAUFFREMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">BECK, DAVID</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BAUHIN, GASPARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BAULK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">BECKENHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BAUMBACH, RUDOLF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">BECKER, HEINRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BAUMÉ, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">BECKET, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">BECKFORD, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar243">BECKINGTON, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar244">BECKMANN, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar245">BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BAUTZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar246">BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BAUXITE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar247">BECKX, PIERRE JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BAVAI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar248">BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BAVARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar249">BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BAVENO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar250">BECQUEREL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BAWBEE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar251">BED</a> (furniture)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BAXTER, ANDREW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar252">BED</a> (layer of rock)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BAXTER, RICHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar253">BEDARESI, YEDAIAH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar254">BÉDARIEUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BAXTER, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar255">BEDDGELERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar256">BEDDOES, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BAYAMO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar257">BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar258">BEDE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar259">BEDE, CUTHBERT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BAYAZID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar260">BEDELL, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BAYBAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar261">BEDESMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BAY CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar262">BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BAYEUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar263">BEDFORD</a> (town of England)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar264">BEDFORD</a> (Indiana, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BAYEZID I</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar265">BEDFORD</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BAYEZID II</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar266">BEDFORDSHIRE</a></td></tr> +</table> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BASSO-RELIEVO<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (Ital. for “low relief”), the term applied to +sculpture in which the design projects but slightly from the plane +of the background. The relief may not project at all from the +original surface of the material, as in the sunken reliefs of the +Egyptians, and may be nearly flat, as in the Panathenaic procession +of the Parthenon. In the early 19th century the term +<i>basso-relievo</i>, or “low relief,” came to be employed loosely for all +forms of relief, the term <i>mezzo-relievo</i> having already dropped +out of general use owing to the difficulty of accurate application.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASS ROCK, THE,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a small island in the Firth of Forth, about +2 m. from Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular +in shape, measuring a mile in circumference, and is 350 ft. high. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +On three sides the cliffs are precipitous, but they shelve towards +the S.W., where landing is effected. The Bass Rock is an intrusive +mass of phonolitic trachyte or orthophyre. No nepheline +has been detected in the rock, but analcite is present in small +quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green soda-augite. +It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of +North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic. +It is regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic +vent, from which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone +period. It used to be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton +was thought to be unusually good, but its principal denizens are +sea-birds, chiefly solan geese, which haunt the rock in vast +numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash lantern of 39,000 candle +power was opened in 1002. For a considerable distance E. and +W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft. high, +accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been +given to several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland, +occupied a hermitage on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the +14th century the island became the property of the Lauders, +called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from whom it was +purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons +was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned. +Among them were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years, +and John Blackadder (1615-1686), who died there after five +years’ detention. At the Revolution four young Jacobites +captured the Rock, and having been reinforced by a few others, +held it for King James from June 1691 to April 1694, only +surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the island +was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III. +Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the +ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It +is let on annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the +sea-birds and for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from +Canty Bay and North Berwick.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, AUFIDIUS,<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> a Roman historian, who lived in the +reign of Tiberius. His work, which probably began with the +civil wars or the death of Caesar, was continued by the elder +Pliny, who, as he himself tells us, carried it down at least as far +as the end of Nero’s reign. The <i>Bellum Germanicum</i> of Bassus, +which is commended, may have been either a separate work or +a section of his general history. The elder Seneca speaks highly +of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in that +writer’s <i>Suasoriae</i> (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are +characterized by an affected style.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i>, praefatio, 20; Tacitus, <i>Dialogus de Oratoribus</i>, +23; Quintilian, <i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 103.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, CAESIUS,<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign +of Nero. He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated +his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on +Persius, vi. 1). He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of +Vesuvius (79). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian +(<i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 96) goes so far as to say that, with the exception of +Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading. He is also +identified with the author of a treatise <i>De Metris</i>, of which considerable +fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are extant +(ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally in verse, +and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as +an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some +of the metres of Horace (in Keil, <i>Grammatici Latini</i>, vi. 305), +bearing the title <i>Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris</i> is not by him, but +chiefly borrowed by its unknown author from the treatise +mentioned above.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, CASSIANUS,<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> called <span class="sc">Scholasticus</span> (lawyer), one of the +<i>geoponici</i> or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the +end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> He +compiled from earlier writers a collection of agricultural literature +(<i>Geoponica</i>) which was afterwards revised by an unknown editor +and published about the year 950, in the reign of Constantine +Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been ascribed. +It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the +subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle, +sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Complete Editions</span>.—Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh +(1895); see also Gemoll in <i>Berliner Studien</i>, i. (1884); Oder in +<i>Rheinisches Museum</i>, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in +<i>Annuaire de l’Assoc. pour l’Encouragement des Études Grecques</i>, viii. +(1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASSUS, SALEIUS,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> Roman epic poet, a contemporary of +Valerius Flaccus, in the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits +him with a vigorous and poetical genius (<i>Instit</i>, x. 1. 90) and +Julius Secundus, one of the speakers in Tacitus <i>Dialogus de +Oratoribus</i> (5; see also 9) styles him a perfect poet and most +illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by poverty, but +was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present +of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been preserved; +the <i>Laus Pisonis</i>, which has been attributed to him, is +probably by Titus Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, <i>De Saleio Basso</i>. +1834).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASSVILLE,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Basseville</span>, <b>NICOLAS JEAN HUGON DE</b> +(d. 1793), French journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbeville +on the 7th of February 1753. He was trained for the +priesthood, taught theology in a provincial seminary and then +went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published <i>Éléments de mythologie</i> +and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the recommendation +of the prince of Condé he became tutor to two young +Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin, +made the acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member +of the Berlin Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution +he turned to journalism, becoming editor of the <i>Mercure international</i>. +Then, through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu, +he entered the diplomatic service, went in May, 1792, as secretary +of legation to Naples and was shortly afterwards sent, without +official status, to Rome. Here his conduct was anything but +diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the protector of +the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the +French <i>émigrés</i> who had taken refuge there, including the +“demoiselles Capet,” and ordered the <i>fleur-de-lys</i> on the +escutcheon of the French embassy to be replaced by a picture +of Liberty painted by a French art student. He talked at large +of the “purple geese of the Capitol” and met the remonstrances +of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with insults. +This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the 13th +of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family +to the Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly +handled that he died. The affair was magnified in the Convention +into a deliberate murder of the “representative of the Republic” +by the pope’s orders. In 1797 by an article of the treaty of +Tolentino the papal government agreed to pay compensation +to Bassville’s family. Among his writings we may also mention +<i>Mémoires historiques, critiques el politiques sur la Révolution de +France</i> (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Masson, <i>Les Diplomates de la Révolution</i> (Paris, 1882); +Silvagni, <i>La Carte e la Società romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX</i>. +(Florence, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTAR,<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattisgarh +division of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In +1901 the population was 306,501, showing a decrease of 1% +compared with an apparent increase of 58% in the preceding +decade. Estimated revenue £22,000; tribute £1100. The +eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to +2000 ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions +are very mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and +plains. On the plateau there are but few hills; the streams +run slowly and the country is a mixture of plain and undulating +ground covered by dense <i>sál</i> forests. Principal mountains of the +district: (1) a lofty range which separates it from the Sironcha +district; (2) a range of equal height called the Bela Dila lying +in the centre of the district; (3) a range running N. and S. +near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E. and W.; +(5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur +state. There is also a small range running from the river Indravati +to the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal +or Talper, are the chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents +of the Godavari. The soil throughout the greater portion of +Bastar consists of light clay, with an admixture of sand, suited +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +for raising rice and wet crops. In the jungles the Marias, who +are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond origin, raise kosra +(<i>Panicum italicum</i>) and other inferior grains. Aboriginal races +generally follow the migratory system of tillage, clearing the +jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two or +three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use +the plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows; +their only agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe. +They are a timid, quiet, docile race, and although addicted to +drinking not quarrelsome. They inhabit the densest jungles +and are very shy, avoiding contact with strangers, and flying to +the hills on the least alarm; but they bear a good character for +honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily dressed, +wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow and +arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved, +excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted, +tangled mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown. +The Marias and the Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of +the true Gond family. All the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship +the deities of the Hindu pantheon along with their own national +goddess Danteswari.</p> + +<p>Bastar is divided into two portions—that held by the Raja +or chief himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under +him. The climate is unhealthy—fever, smallpox, dysentery +and rheumatism being the prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur, +Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the only places of any +note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati river) being +the residence of the raja and the chief people of the state. The +principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk, horns, hides, +wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the rivers +to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into +connexion with the railway at Raipur.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (O. Fr. <i>bastard</i>, mod. <i>bâtard = fils de bast</i>, “pack-saddle +child,” from <i>bast</i>, saddle), a person born out of legal +wedlock. Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as +<i>nothi</i>, children born in concubinage, and <i>spurii</i>, those not so +born. Both classes had a right of succession to their mother, +and the <i>nothi</i>, were entitled to support from their father, but had +no rights of inheritance from him. Both, however, had in other +respects most of the rights of citizenship. The Germanic law +was based upon an entirely different principle. It recognized +as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same social +rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status +of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes +was to preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for incestuous +unions are not censured. The influence of the Germanic +law lasted throughout the early feudal period, and bastards were +debarred rights of inheritance. In the 13th century the influence +of Roman law tended again to modify this severity. An exception +was probably made in the case of those whose fathers were +of royal blood, in which case it even seems that no stigma was +attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they suffer from +the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended those of +illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks +we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom +with the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was +created king of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William +the Conqueror actually assumed the appellation of bastard.</p> + +<p>In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His +rights are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit +nothing, being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes +called <i>filius nullius</i>, sometimes <i>filius populi</i>. This, however, does +not hold as to moral purposes, <i>e.g.</i> he cannot marry his mother +or bastard sister. Yet he may gain a surname by reputation +though he has none by inheritance, and may even be made +legitimate and capable of inheriting by the transcendent power +of an act of parliament.</p> + +<p>For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settlement +of their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its +mother. The mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its +custody in preference to the father, and consequently the responsibility +of its support falls primarily on her. But the +English law has always recognized the principle that to a certain +extent the father must share in that responsibility. This, however, +was imposed not with the idea of furnishing the woman +with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect against the man, +but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the bastard child +from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon the +subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate +part of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English +bastardy law, empowered justices to take order for the punishment +of the mother and reputed father of every bastard child +left to the care of the parish, and to charge the mother and +reputed father with the payment of a weekly sum or other +needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and 1733, +enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become +chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even +the imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the +parish, provisions which were made somewhat more stringent +by acts passed in 1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was +appointed to inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and +the commissioners in their report gave great attention to the +subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various acts from 1576 +downwards and gave examples of their operation. The conclusion +to which the commissioners came was that the laws +“which respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise,” +and that they gave rise to many abuses. For example, the +weekly payment recovered by the parish was usually transferred +to the mother; even in many cases guaranteed. The commissioners +recommended that the mother alone should be responsible +for the maintenance of the child. “This,” they said, +“is now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for +giving to vice privileges which we deny to misfortune.” Acting +on the recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law +Amendment Act of 1834 endeavoured to discourage the principle +of making the putative father contribute by introducing a somewhat +cumbersome method of procedure. The trend of public +opinion proved against the discouragement of affiliation, and +an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation cases from +quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry on +the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended “that +affiliation should be facilitated,” and, accordingly, by the +Bastardy Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation +by giving the mother an independent civil remedy against the +putative father and dissociating the parish altogether from the +proceedings. Subsequently, legislation gave the parish the right +of attaching, and in some cases suing for, money due from the +putative father for the maintenance of the child. The existing +law is set out under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Affiliation</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in +this, that he cannot be heir to any one; for being <i>nullius filius</i>, +he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom +an inheritable blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no +other claimant upon an inheritance than such illegitimate child, +it escheats to the lord. And as bastards cannot be heirs themselves, +so neither can they have any heirs but those of their own +bodies; for as all collateral kindred consists in being derived +from the same common ancestor, and as a bastard has no legal +ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and consequently no +legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent from himself. +And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised therefor +without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of the +fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders, +and disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity +in the church; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other +respects there is no distinction between a bastard and another +man. By the law of Scotland a bastard is not only excluded +from his father’s succession, because the law knows no father +who is not marked out by marriage; and from all heritable +succession, whether by the father or mother, because he cannot +be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the brief; +but also from the movable succession of his mother, because he +is not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession +deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +<i>jure sanguinis</i>, may succeed by destination, where he is specially +called to the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as +in England, a bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his +own body; and hence, failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds +to him as last heir. Formerly bastards in Scotland without +issue of their own could not make a will, but this disability was +removed by a statute of 1835. If bastards or other persons +without kindred die intestate without wife or child, their effects +go to the king as <i>ultimus haeres</i>; but a grant is usually made of +them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled to the +administration.</p> + +<p>According to the common law, which is the law of England, a +bastard cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless +by the supreme power of an act of parliament. But in those +countries which have followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard’s +status may be provisional, and he can be made legitimate by +the subsequent marriage of his parents. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Legitimacy and +Legitimation</a></span>; and, for statistics, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Illegitimacy</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Bacquet, <i>Traité de la bâtardise</i> (1608); Du Cange, +<i>Gloss. Lat.</i>, infra “Bastardus”; L.G. Koenigswater, <i>Histoire de +l’organisation de la famille en France</i> (1851), and <i>Essai sur les enfants +nés hors mariage</i> (1842); E.D. Glasson, <i>Histoire des droits et des +institutions de l’Angleterre</i> (6 vols., 1882-1883), <i>Histoire du droit et +des institutions de la France</i> (1887); Pollock and Maitland, <i>History +of English Law</i> (1898); Stephen’s <i>Commentaries</i>; Nicholls and +Mackay, <i>History of the English Poor Law</i> (3 vols., 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTARNAE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> the easternmost people of the Germanic race, +the first to come into contact with the ancient world and the +Slavs. Originally settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they +appeared on the lower Danube about 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and were used by +Philip V. of Macedon against his Thracian neighbours. Defeated +by these the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their +number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an island in the +Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the +eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and +of Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they +had hostile relations with the Romans who in the time of +Augustus defeated them, and made a peace, which was disturbed +by a series of incursions. In these the Bastarnae after a time +gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem to have amalgamated, +and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor +Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the +authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo, +having learned of the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans, +first allows a German element; Tacitus expressly declares their +German origin but says that the race was degraded by intermarriage +with Sarmatians. The descriptions of their bodily appearance, +tribal divisions, manner of life and methods of warfare are +such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an outpost +of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong +Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements.</p> +<div class="author">(E. H. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTI,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur +division of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of +villages, is on the river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway. +The population in 1901 was 14,761. It has no municipality. +The district has an area of 2792 sq. m. It stretches out in one +vast marshy plain, draining towards the south-east, and traversed +by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar, Ami and +Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams +consists of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to +inundations, but producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In +1901 the population was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3% +in the decade. A railway from Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through +the district, and the river Gogra is navigable. A large transit +trade is conducted with Nepal. The export trade of the district +itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other agricultural produce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIA,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island +of Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509. +Bastia, the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the +densely-populated quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of +steep and narrow streets, and of a more modern quarter to the +north, which has grown up round the new port. La Traverse, +a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north to south. Rising +from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia presents an +imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of its +houses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer. +Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are +florid in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the +hôtel-de-ville. The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a +keep of the 14th century. As capital of an arrondissement, +Bastia is the seat of a tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect, +while it is also the seat of the military governor of Corsica, of a +court of appeal for the whole island, of a court of assizes, and of +a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and has a lycée, a branch +of the Bank of France, and a library with between 30,000 and +40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce, especially +with Italy. The new port has 1100 ft. of quayage, served by a +railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number +of vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551, +of which 203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut +extract for tanning, cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables, +fish, copper ore and antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain, +flour and wine. Industry consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c., +and coral), the manufacture of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning, +and the preparation of preserved citrons and of macaroni and +similar provisions.</p> + +<p>Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or +“bastille” by Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it +was long the principal stronghold in the north of the island, and +the residence of the governor; and in 1553 it was the first +town attacked by the French. On the division of the island in +1797 into the two departments of Golo and Liamone, Bastia +remained the capital of the former; but when the two were +again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was +taken by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIAN, ADOLF<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1826-  ), German ethnologist, was +born at Bremen on the 26th of June 1826. He was educated as a +physician, but from his early years devoted himself to travel. +Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as surgeon on a vessel, he had +visited almost every part of the world before his return in 1859. +In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East which lasted five +years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of his +great work on <i>The Peoples of Eastern Asia</i>, an immense storehouse +of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in +Berlin, where he was made professor of ethnology at the university +and keeper of the ethnological museum. He succeeded +R. Virchow as president of the Berlin Anthropological Society, +and to him was largely due the formation in 1878 of the German +Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to encourage German +colonization in Africa. Later he undertook further scientific +travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of +these explorations were made public in a long series of separate +publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psychological +problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also +edited the <i>Zeitschrift für Ethnologie</i> from 1869, in conjunction +with Virchow and Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth +birthday, 1896 (during which year he started on an expedition +to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume of essays composed +by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration of the event +and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may +be mentioned:—<i>Der Mensch in der Geschichte</i> (Leipzig, 1860); +<i>Die Völker des östlichen Asien</i> (Jena, 1866-1871); <i>Ethnologische +Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1871-1873); <i>Die Kulturländer des alten +Amerika</i> (Berlin, 1878); <i>Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologie</i> +(Berlin, 1881); <i>Indonesien</i> (Leipzig, 1884); <i>Der Fetisch an der +Küste Guineas</i> (Berlin, 1885); <i>Die mikronesischen Kolonien</i> +(1899-1900); <i>Die wechselnden Phasen im geschichtlichen Sehkreis +und ihre Rückwirkung auf die Völkerkunde</i> (1900).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIAT, FRÉDÉRIC<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1801-1850), French economist, was +the son of a merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on +the 29th of June 1801. Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever +and of Sorèze, he entered in 1818 the counting-house of his +uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine of mercantile life being +distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a property at Mugron, +of which he became the owner on the death of his grandfather. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span> +Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure being +devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm +the Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a <i>juge de paix</i> of his +canton, and in 1832 a member of the <i>conseil général</i> of the Landes. +In 1834 he published his first pamphlet, and between 1841 and 1844 +three others, all on questions of taxation affecting local interests. +During this period an accidental circumstance led him to become +a subscriber to an English newspaper, the <i>Globe and Traveller</i>, +through which he was made acquainted with the nature and +progress of the crusade of the Anti-Corn-Law League against +protection. After studying the movement for two years, he +resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To +prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the <i>Journal des +Économistes</i> an article “Sur l’influence des tarifs anglais et +français,” which attracted great attention, and was followed by +others, including the first series of his brilliant <i>Sophismes +Économiques</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the +publication of his <i>Cobden et la Ligue, ou l’agitation anglaise pour +la liberté des échanges</i>, and was very cordially received by the +economists of the capital. From Paris he went to London and +Manchester, and made the personal acquaintance of Cobden, +Bright and other leaders of the league. When he returned to +France he found that his writings had been exerting a powerful +influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux the +first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberté +des Échanges). The rapid spread of the movement soon required +him to abandon Mugron for Paris.</p> + +<p>During the eighteen months which followed this change his +labours were prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central +committee of the association, organized and corresponded with +branch societies, waited on ministers, procured subscriptions, +edited a weekly paper, the <i>Libre-Échange</i>, contributed to the +<i>Journal des Économistes</i> and to three other periodicals, addressed +meetings in Paris and the provinces, and delivered a course of +lectures on the principles of political economy to students of the +schools of law and of medicine. The cause to which he thus devoted +himself at the expense of his health and life appeared for a time +as if it would be successful; but the forces in its favour were much +weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in France than +in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle +proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the +Revolution of February 1848. This event made the socialistic and +communistic principles, which had been gathering and spreading +during the previous thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">National Workshops</a></span>.) In this grave crisis Bastiat nobly +performed his duty. Although exhausted by the far too heavy +labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of his +voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he +could do but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the +Constituent Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the +committee of finance of which he was vice-president, and he could +still use his pen with a vigour and dexterity which made him +capable of combating single-handed many opponents.</p> + +<p>He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective +pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with +protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus +within the space of two years there appeared <i>Propriété et Loi, +Justice et Fraternité, Propriété et Spoliation, L’État, Baccalauréat +et Socialisme, Protectionisme et Communisme, Capital et Rente, +Maudit Argent, Spoliation et Loi, Gratuité du Credit</i>, and <i>Ce qu’on +voit et ce qu’on ne voit pas</i>. While thus occupied he was meditating +the composition of a great constructive work, meant to renovate +economical science by basing it on the principle that “interests, +left to themselves, tend to harmonious combinations, and to the +progressive preponderance of the general good.” The first volume +of this work <i>Les Harmonies économiques</i> was published in the +beginning of 1850. In the autumn of that year, when working on +the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him to +go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached +Rome, but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the +fiftieth year of his age.</p> + +<p>The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated, +requires to be considered in three aspects. (1) He was the +advocate of free-trade, the opponent of protection. The general +principles of free-trade had, of course, been clearly stated and +solidly established before he was born, but he did more than +merely restate them. He showed, as no one before him had done, +how they were practically applicable to French agriculture, trade +and commerce; and in the <i>Sophismes Économiques</i> we have the +completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest +exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and +consequences which exists in any language. (2) He was the +opponent of socialism. In this respect also he had no equal +among the economists of France. He alone fought socialism hand +to hand, body to body, as it were, not caricaturing it, not denouncing +it, not criticizing under its name some merely abstract theory, +but taking it as actually presented by its most popular representatives, +considering patiently their proposals and arguments, and +proving conclusively that they proceeded on false principles, +reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by foolish +and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury +of weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets +published by Bastiat between 1848 and 1850. (3) He attempted +to expound in an original and independent manner political +economy as a science. In combating, first, the Protectionists, +and, afterwards, the Socialists, there gradually rose on his mind a +conception which seemed to him to shed a flood of light over the +whole of economical doctrine, and, indeed, over the whole theory +of society, viz. the harmony of the essential tendencies of human +nature. The radical error, he became always more convinced, +both of protectionism and socialism, was the assumption that +human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably prove +antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures +ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer +the producer, &c.; and the chief weakness of the various schools +of political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their +imperfect apprehension of the truth that human interests, when +left to themselves, when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered +with, tend to harmonious combination, to the general good.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> are in 7 vols. The first contains +an interesting <i>Memoir</i> by M. Paillottet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIDE, JULES<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at +Paris on the 22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time, +and afterwards engaged in business as a timber merchant. In +1821 he became a member of the French Carbonari, and took a +prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. After the “July +Days” he received an artillery command in the national guard. +For his share in the <i>émeute</i> in Paris (5th of June 1832) on the +occasion of the funeral of General Maximilien Lamarque, Bastide +was sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return +to Paris in 1834 he was acquitted, and occupied himself with +journalism, contributing to the <i>National</i>, a republican journal of +which he became editor in 1836. In 1847 he founded the <i>Revue +nationale</i> with the collaboration of P.J. Buchez (<i>q.v.</i>), with whose +ideas he had become infected. After the Revolution of February +1848 Bastide’s intimate knowledge of foreign affairs gained for +him a secretarial post in the provisional government, and, after +the creation of the executive commission, he was made minister +of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his portfolio, +and, after the <i>coup d’état</i> of December 1851, retired into private +life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise +<i>De l’éducation publique en France</i> (1847); +<i>Histoire de l’assemblée législative</i> (1847); +<i>La République française et l’Italie en 1848</i> (1858); +<i>Histoire des guerres religieuses en France</i> (1859).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIDE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (Provençal <i>bastida</i>, building), a word applied to the +fortified towns founded in south-western France in the middle +ages, and corresponding to the <i>villes neuves</i> of northern France. +They were established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown, +frequently by two of these authorities in co-operation, and were +intended to serve as defensive posts and centres of population +for sparsely-inhabited districts. In addition, they formed a +source of revenue and power for their founders, who on their +part conceded liberal charters to the new towns. They were +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span> +built on a rectangular plan, with a large central square and +straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to one +another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified +in the existing <i>bastide</i> of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the +English in 1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides, +was founded in 1141, and the movement for founding them +lasted during the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, attaining its +height between 1250 and 1350.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Ménault, <i>Les Villes Neuves, leur origine et leur influence +dans le mouvement communal</i> (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, <i>Essai +sur les villes fondées dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de +bastides</i> (Toulouse, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1848-1884), French painter, was +born in the village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the 1st of +November 1848 and spent his childhood there. He first studied +at Verdun, and prompted by a love of art went in 1867 to Paris, +where he was admitted to the École des Beaux-arts, working +under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of 1870 and 1872 +works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his mark +with his “Song of Spring,” a study of rural life, representing a +peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His +“Portrait of my Grandfather,” exhibited in the same year, was +not less remarkable for its artless simplicity and received a +third-class medal. This success was confirmed in 1875 by the +“First Communion,” a picture of a little girl minutely worked +up as to colour, and a “Portrait of M. Hayem.” In 1875 he +took the second Prix de Rome with his “Angels appearing to the +Shepherds,” exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour to +win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with “Priam at the Feet of +Achilles” was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and +the painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon +of 1877 he sent a full-length “Portrait of Lady L.” and “My +Parents”; and in 1878 a “Portrait of M. Theuriet” and “The +Hayfield.” The last picture, now in the Luxembourg, is regarded +as a typical work from its stamp of realistic truth. Thenceforth +Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as the leader of a +school, and his “Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt” (1879), +painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of Honour. +In 1880 he exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and “Joan +of Arc listening to the Voices”; and in the same year, at the +Royal Academy, the little portrait of the “Prince of Wales.” +In 1881 he painted “The Beggar” and the “Portrait of Albert +Wolf”; in 1882 “Le Père Jacques”; in 1883 “Love in a +Village,” in which we find some trace of Courbet’s influence. +His last dated work is “The Forge” (1884). The artist, long +ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in Algiers. +He died in Paris on the 10th of December 1884, when planning a +new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works +may also be mentioned the portrait of “Mme J. Drouet” +(1883); “Gambetta on his death-bed,” and some landscapes; +“The Vintage” (1880), and “The Thames at London” (1882). +“The Little Chimney-Sweep” was never finished. An exhibition +of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Theuriet, <i>Bastien-Lepage</i> (1885—English edition, 1892); +L. de Fourcaud, <i>Bastien-Lepage</i> (1885).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTILLE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>bastir</i>, now <i>bâtir</i>, to build), originally +any fortified building forming part of a system of defence or +attack; the name was especially applied to several of the +principal points in the ancient fortifications of Paris. In the +reign of King John, or even earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine +was flanked by two towers; and about 1369 Hugues Aubriot, +at the command of Charles V., changed it into a regular bastille +or fort by the addition of six others of massive structure, the +whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25 ft. +wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards +effected; but the building remained substantially what it was +made by the vigorous provost, a strong and gloomy structure, +with eight stern towers. As the ancient fortifications of the city +were superseded, the use of the word bastille as a general designation +gradually died out, and it became restricted to the castle of +Saint Antoine, the political importance of which made it practically, +long before it was actually, the only bastille of Paris. +The building had originally a military purpose, and it appears +as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When +Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents +in the city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared +to defend with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them +to capitulate. In 1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the +Bastille, gave the command of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon +afterwards shut up the whole parlement within its walls, for +having refused their adherence to the League. When Henry IV. +became master of Paris he committed the command of the +Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at +the time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres. +On the 11th of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the +forces of the Fronde, and after a short cannonade capitulated +on the 13th of that month. The garrison consisted of only +twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a peace with the +court on the 11th of March; but it was stipulated by treaty +that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact +was not restored to the king till the 21st of October 1651.</p> + +<p>At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed +for the custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much +more of a prison than a fortress. According to the usual account, +which one is tempted to ascribe to the popular love of poetical +justice, the first who was incarcerated within its walls was the +builder himself, Hugues Aubriot. Be this as it may, the duke +of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one of those iron cages +which Louis XI. called his <i>fillettes</i>; and Jacques d’Armagnac, +Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not till +the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular +place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it +was frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women +of every age and condition. Prisoners were detained without +trial on <i>lettres de cachet</i> for different reasons, to avoid a scandal, +either public or private, or to satisfy personal animosities. +But the most frequent and most notorious use of the Bastille +was to imprison those writers who attacked the government or +persons in power. It was this which made it so hated as an +emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in +the Revolution.</p> + +<p>Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various +accounts have been given even by those who speak from personal +experience, for the simple reason that it varied greatly in different +cases. The prisoners were divided into two main classes, those +who were detained on grounds of precaution or by way of +admonitory correction, and those who lay under presumption +or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no investigation +or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended +on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the +ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the +Arsenal—though even in their case the interval between their +arrest and their trial was determined solely by the royal decree, +and it was quite possible for a man to grow old in the prison +without having the opportunity of having his fate decided. +Until guilt was established, the prisoner was registered in the +king’s name, and—except in the case of state-prisoners of importance, +who were kept with greater strictness and often in absolute +isolation—he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and freedom. +Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed; +and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts +of the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for +the better class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown +of people living below their allowance and, by arrangement with +the governor, saving the surplus. When the criminality of the +prisoner was established, his name was transferred to the register +of the “commission,” and he became exposed to numerous +hardships and even barbarities, which however belonged not so +much to the special organization of the Bastille as to the general +system of criminal justice then in force.</p> + +<p>Among the more distinguished personages who were confined +in this fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI., +were the famous <i>Man of the Iron Mask</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Iron Mask</a></span>), Foucquet, +the marshal Richelieu, Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville, +Voltaire, Latude, Le Prévôt de Beaumont, Labourdonnais, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page503" id="page503"></a>503</span> +Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La Chalotais. While +no detestation is too great for that system of “royal pantheism” +which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of +even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary +to give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found +currency during the excitement of the Revolution, and which +historical evidence, as well as <i>a priori</i> considerations, tends to +strip of their more dreadful features, and even in many cases to +refute altogether. Much light of an unexpected kind has in +modern times been shed on the history of the Bastille from the +pages of its own records. These documents had been flung out +into the courts of the building by the revolutionary captors, and +after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally +stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-called) +Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by François +Ravaisson, who devoted himself to their arrangement, elucidation +and publication.</p> + +<p>At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked +by the Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken +and razed to the ground on the 14th of July 1789. At the time +of its capture only seven prisoners were found in it. A very +striking account of the siege will be found in Carlyle’s <i>French +Revolution</i>, vol. i. The site of the building is now marked by a +lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the memory of the patriots +of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded figure of the +genius of liberty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Memoirs</i> of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry, +tome iii. 18mo, 1791-1793); also François Ravaisson, <i>Les Archives +de la Bastille</i> (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, <i>Histoire de la +détention des philosophes à la Bastille</i> (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon, +<i>La Bastille</i> (1893); Fr. Funck-Brentano, <i>Les Lettres de cachet à Paris, +étude suivie d’une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille</i> (1904); G. Lecocq, +<i>La Prise de la Bastille</i> (1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTINADO<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (Span. <i>baston</i>, Fr. <i>bâton</i>, a stick, cudgel), the +European name for a form of punishment common in the east, +especially in Turkey, Persia and China. It consists in blows +with a light stick or lath of bamboo upon the soles of the feet or +on the buttocks. The terror of the punishment lies not in the +severity of the blows, which are on the contrary scarcely more +than tapping, but in its long continuation. A skilful bastinadoist +can kill his victim after hours of torture.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTION<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (through the Fr. from late Lat. <i>bastire</i>, to build), a +work forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace +of a bastion is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a +triangle and a narrow rectangle, the base of the triangle coinciding +with the long side of the rectangle. The two sides of the +triangle form the “faces” of the bastion, which join at the +“salient” angle, the short sides of the rectangle form the +“flanks.” Bastions were arranged so that the fire from the flanks +of each protected not only the front of the curtain but also the +faces of the adjacent bastions. A “tower bastion” is a case-mated +tower built in bastion form; a “demi-bastion” is a work +formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and +by a parapet along the line of bisection; a “flat bastion” is a +bastion built on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASTWICK, JOHN<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1593-1654), English physician and +religious zealot, was born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after +a brief education at Cambridge, wandered on the continent and +graduated in medicine at Padua. On his return he settled in +Colchester. His celebrity rests on his strong opposition to the +Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he printed in Holland +two Latin treatises, entitled <i>Elenchus Religionis Papisticae</i>, and +<i>Flagellum Pontificis et Episcoporum Latialium</i>; and as Laud +and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was +fined £1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated +and prohibited from practising physic, while his books were +ordered to be burnt and the author himself consigned to prison. +Instead of recanting, however, he wrote <i>Apologeticus ad Praesules +Anglicanos</i>, and another book called <i>The Litany</i>, in which he +exclaimed vehemently against the proceedings of the court, and +charged the bishops with being the enemies of God and “the tail +of the beast.” William Prynne and Henry Burton coming under +the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they were all +censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to +pay a fine of £5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears, +and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the +kingdom, Bastwick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640 +reversed these proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation +of £5000 out of the estates of the commissioners and lords who +had sentenced him. He joined the parliamentary army, but in +later years showed bitter opposition to the Independents. He +died in the latter part of 1654.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BASUTOLAND<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (officially “The Territory of Basutoland”), +an inland state and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated +between 28° 35′ and 30° 30′ S. and 27° and 29° 25′ E. It has an +area of 10,293 sq. m., being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and +is bounded S., S.E., and N.E. by the Drakensberg, N. and N.W. +by the Caledon river, S.W. by a range of low hills extending from +the Caledon above Wepener to the Orange river, and south of the +Orange by the Telle or Tees river to its source in the Drakensberg. +Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145 m.; its greatest breadth +N. to S. 120 m. On every side it is surrounded by British colonies, +north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and south by +Cape Colony, and east by Natal.</p> + +<p>Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms +the south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa, +and has a rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of +6000 ft. The Drakensberg (<i>q.v.</i>) forming the buttress of the +plateau seaward, attain their highest elevation on the Basuto-Natal +border. The frontier line follows the crest of the mountains, +three peaks some 10,000 or more ft. high—Giant’s Castle, +Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux Sources—towering +high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which +lies north of the waterparting, is over 9000 ft. high. From +Mont aux Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos +<i>Potong</i> (Antelope), a second range of mountains, the Maluti, +runs S.W. through the entire length of Basutoland. The crest of +the Maluti is in few places lower than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha, +the culminating point, is about 10,500 ft. From the tableland +north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise, the most noted being +the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo—the rallying place of the +Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent +Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country +is westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the +chief rivers rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of +that mountain descend the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from +its seaward face the Tugela flows through Natal to the Indian +Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti, the Senku south +of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend many +streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the +Senku and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper +Orange (<i>q.v.</i>). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites +with the Orange beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily +shallow, the rivers after heavy rain fill with great rapidity, +sweeping away everything in their path. In the richer soil they +cut deep channels; the denudation thus caused threatens to +diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture land. The +river beds contain dangerous quicksands.</p> + +<p>The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often +beautiful, fully justifying the title, “The Switzerland of South +Africa,” often applied to it. Viewed from a distance the +mountains appear as dark perpendicular barriers, quite impenetrable; +but narrow paths lead round the precipitous face of the +hills, and when the inner side is gained a wonderful panorama +opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant valleys +through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms, +magnificent waterfalls—that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken +leap of over 600 ft.—and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in +seeming endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened +by the snow which caps all the higher peaks.</p> + +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper division +(Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest +strata (Volcanic group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the +Drakensberg mountains which extend along the eastern territorial +boundary. It has been suggested that these spurs represent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page504" id="page504"></a>504</span> +the sites of vents or fissures of eruption. The upper part of +the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and diabases +belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the “pipe” +amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great +distances down the Vaal river. The amygdales are three or four +inches long and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. +Heulandite, with thomsonite, stilbite, scolecite, calcite and +chalcedony, occur as infilling minerals.</p> + +<p><i>Climate.</i>—The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for +Europeans and natives. The mean annual temperature is about +60° F. The four seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South +Africa, where the transition from summer to winter is generally +very rapid. The heat of summer (December-March, which is +the rainy season) is tempered by cool breezes; winter (May-September, +inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and frost prevails +for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in. +The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost +unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox +and typhoid occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange +River and Cape Colonies, has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of +whom about 91 per 1000 are sufferers from this disease.</p> + +<p><i>Flora and Fauna.</i>—A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land +there is none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows +and wild olive trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus +and the pine have been planted. Heaths, generally somewhat +rare in South Africa outside the Cape peninsula, are abundant +in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very beautiful. There are +few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and smaller antelopes +are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal. Mountain hares, +partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and great +hawks live in the mountains. The few fish include the barbel. +Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are +eaten by the Basuto.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Towns.</i>—Considering the extensive area of +uninhabitable mountain land it contains, the Territory supports +a large population. The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in +1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The females outnumber the males by +about 20,000, which is, however, about the number of adult males +away from the country at any given period. The majority live +in the district between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon +river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are +some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto +proper are a branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids. +The white inhabitants in 1904 numbered 895, and there were +222 coloured persons other than natives. The seat of government +is Maseru, on the left bank of the Caledon, with a population of +about 1000 including some 100 Europeans. Mafeteng, in the +N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural centre, as +is Butha Buthe in the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru, +is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded +by the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is +Matsieng, the kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who +died in August 1905). There are numerous mission stations +throughout Basutoland, to several of which Biblical names have +been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda, Berea.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade.</i>—Basutoland is one of the greatest +grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of +land is that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon +river. In summer the country appears as one waving field of +wheat, millet and mealies; whilst on the mountain slopes and +on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep, cattle and goats, and +troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be descended from +Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840, strayed +into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied, sure-footed, +and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed have +been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly +every Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories, +and the minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people, +are not worked. The land is wholly in the possession of the +natives, who hold it on the communal system. Whites and +Indians are allowed to establish trading stations on obtaining +special permits from the government, and the Indians absorb +much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat, mealies, +Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of +the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on +regular rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously +diminish. The average annual value of trade for the five years +ending the 30th of June 1905 was:—Exports £215,668, imports +£203,026. Trade is almost entirely with Orange River Colony +and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of the South +African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average) +find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom +seek farm and domestic service. A small proportion go to the +Johannesburg gold mines, and others obtain employment on the +railways.</p> + +<p>Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by +road; none of the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway, +16½ m. long, starting from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and +joins the line connecting Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This +railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the right bank of the Caledon, +and affords a ready means of transport for the cereals raised on +the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads, maintained by +the government, traverse every part of the country, and bridges +have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of conveyance +is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the +Drakensberg into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little +used. There is a complete postal and telegraphic service and a +telephone line connects all government stations.</p> + +<p><i>Government and Finance.</i>—Basutoland is a crown colony, of +which the high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In +him resides the legislative power, exercised by proclamation. +The Territory is administered, under the direction of the +governor, by a resident commissioner, who is also the chief +judicial officer. He is aided by a government secretary and by +assistant commissioners. Under the British officials the country +is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom is a paramount +chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting +natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the commissioners, +who try all cases in which any of the parties are +European. A national council (<i>pitso</i>), representative of all the +native tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public +affairs. For administrative purposes the Territory is divided +into the seven districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea, +Mafeteng, Quthing and Qacha’s Nek, each of which is subdivided +into wards presided over by Basuto chiefs.</p> + +<p>Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of £1 per hut; the +sale of licences to trade; customs and post office receipts. +Seven-eighths of the revenue comes from the hut tax and +customs. The average annual revenue for the five years 1901-1905 +was £96,880; the average annual expenditure £69,559. +Basutoland has no public debt.</p> + +<p><i>Education and Social Condition.</i>—Education is given in schools +founded by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Société +des Missions Évangéliques de Paris. A large proportion of the +people can read and write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is +called) and English, and speak Dutch, whilst a considerable +number also receive higher education. Many Basuto at the +public examinations take higher honours than competitors of +European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average +attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in +the schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted +by English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government +grant is made towards the cost of upkeep. A government industrial +school (opened in 1906) is maintained at Maseru, and +the Paris Society has an industrial school at Leloaleng. The +social condition of the people is higher than that of the majority +of South African natives. Many Basuto profess Christianity +and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare +among them and “deliberate murder is almost unknown.”<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +They are, like mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent +spirit, and are given to the free expression of their views, generally +stated with good sense and moderation. These views found +a new medium of publicity in 1904 when an independent native +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page505" id="page505"></a>505</span> +newspaper was started, called <i>Naledi ea Lesotha</i> (Star of Basutoland). +The publication of this paper was followed in 1906 by +the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A +book on national customs, the first work in the vernacular by +a South African native, was published in 1893. The brandy-drinking +habit, which, when the imperial government assumed +control of the administration in 1884, threatened the existence +of the nation, has been very largely checked. A strong beer, +brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Until the beginning of the 19th century Basutoland +appears to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen, +whose rude rock pictures are to be found in several parts of the +Drakensberg. About 1800 the country was occupied by various +tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau, Basuto, Baputi, who then +possessed the greater part of what is now Orange River Colony. +They appear to have recognized the paramount authority of a +family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars +of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these +tribes were largely broken up and their power destroyed. One +tribe, living in the Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism. +<span class="sidenote">Moshesh forms the Basuto nation.</span> +From their chief Machacha mountain takes its name. +At this period a young man named Moshesh (born +about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and +already noted as hunter and warrior, gathered round +him the remnants of several broken clans, out of which he +welded the existing Basuto nation. He established himself in +1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he +successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and thereafter +became second only to that chief among the natives north +of the Orange River. In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries +of the Société des Missions Evangéliques of Paris to settle in his +country, and from that day until his death proved their firm +friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837, large parties of emigrant +Boers settled north of the Orange, and before long disputes arose +between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part of the land +on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired +an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and +raiders, and the emigrant Boers found them extremely troublesome +neighbours. At the same time, if the Basuto were eager +for cattle, the Boers were eager for land; and their encroachments +on the territories of the Basuto led to a proclamation in +1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of Cape Colony, +forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a +treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already +arranged with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span>), +creating Basutoland a native state under British protection.</p> + +<p>To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added interminable +disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes, +which continued unabated after the proclamation of British +sovereignty over the Orange river regions by Sir Harry Smith in +1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was unwillingly induced by Sir +Harry to surrender his claims to part of the territory recognized +as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued to intervene +in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H.D. Warden led +against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers, +farmers and a native contingent. This commando was defeated +at Viervoet, near Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter +raided and plundered the natives opposed to them and the farmers +who had helped the British. Attempts were made to come to +terms with Moshesh and the justice of many of his complaints was +admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and in 1852 +General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith +as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with +the tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops +against Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success, +but Moshesh, with that peculiar statecraft for which he was +famous, saw that he could not hope permanently to hold out +against the British troops, and followed up his successful skirmishes +with General Cathcart by writing him a letter, in which +he said: “As the object for which you have come is to have a +compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you +have taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised; +I will try all I can to keep my people in order in the future.” +General Cathcart accepted the offer of Moshesh and peace was +proclaimed, the Basuto power being unbroken. Fourteen months +later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced sovereignty +over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh found +himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State. +Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the +mediation of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1865 +a fresh feud occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and +the Basuto. The latter applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the +Cape for protection, but he declined to interfere. The Boers +proved more successful than they had been in the past, and +occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They also annexed +a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally terminated +the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave up +the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a +subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the +Boers was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having +been killed, Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British +authorities, saying: “Let me and my people rest and live under +the large folds of the flag of England before I am no more.” In +response to this request, the British authorities decided to take +over Basutoland, and a proclamation of annexation was issued on +the 12th of March 1868. At the same time the Boer commandoes +were requested to leave the country. The Free State strongly +<span class="sidenote">Annexation to Great Britain.</span> +resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but +much negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was +concluded (1869) between the Free State and the high +commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary +between the Free State and Basutoland, whereby the fertile strip of +country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered +Territory, was finally transferred to the Free State, and the +remainder of Basutoland was recognized as a portion of the +British dominions.</p> + +<p>Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skilfully +and well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances +among the Kaffirs of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts +which placed him on a level with Europeans, and his life-work has +left a permanent mark on South African history. In diplomacy +he proved fully the equal of all—white or black—with whom he +had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination of vigour +and moderation over the nation which he had created.</p> + +<p>In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at +that time being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto +warriors did not remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879 +Moirosi, a chief residing in the southern portion of Basutoland, +openly repudiated colonial rule. An expedition was despatched +from Cape Colony and severe fighting followed. Moirosi’s +stronghold was captured and the chief himself was killed. +Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the Basuto +themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi’s territory, +which had been decided on as one of the results of the war. In +1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to +Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act +<span class="sidenote">The “gun” war.</span> +provided for the disarmament of natives, and had +already been put in force successfully among some +of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern frontier. Its +execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely difficult +task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare +was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until +1881, when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir +Hercules Robinson (afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for. +Peace in Basutoland was not announced until the end of 1882. +In the following year a form of self-government was established, +but was once more followed by internal strife among the petty +chieftains.</p> + +<p>The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape government +had by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto +and to Cape Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no +opposition to the appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the +imperial government to take them over, and, moreover, Cape +Colony undertook to pay towards the cost of administration an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page506" id="page506"></a>506</span> +annual contribution of £18,000. Consequently, in 1884, Basutoland +ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a +British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered +with as little as possible and the authority of the chiefs—all +members of the Moshesh family—was maintained. Moshesh had +been succeeded as paramount chief by his son, Letsie, and he in +turn was succeeded in 1891 by Lerothodi (<i>c.</i> 1837-1905). These +chieftains acted in concert with the British representative in the +country, to whom was given the title of resident commissioner. +The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke, to whose tact and +ability the country owed much. The period of warfare over, the +Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural +pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary +influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted +to the customs union, which already existed between Orange +Free State, Cape Colony and British Bechuanaland. When +Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner visited Basutoland in 1898, on his +way to Bloemfontein, he was received by 15,000 mounted +Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at Maseru, +and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent +character of Queen Victoria’s rule and protection. On the outbreak +of the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting +held in the presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further +protestation of their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained +passive throughout the War and the neutrality of the country was +respected by both armies. One chief alone sought to take advantage +of the situation by disloyal action, and his offence was met +<span class="sidenote">A crown colony.</span> +by a year’s imprisonment. The conversion of Basutoland +into a crown colony contributed alike to the prosperity +of the Basuto, the security of the property of neighbouring +colonists and a peaceful condition among the natives of +South Africa generally. In pursuance of the policy of encouraging +the self-governing powers of the Basuto, a national council +was instituted and held its first sitting in July 1903. In August +1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early life he had +distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in 1880 he +took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government. +Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authorities, +being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless +and masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though +on occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor +cruel. On the 19th of September following Lerothodi’s death, +the national council, with the concurrence of the imperial government, +elected his son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion +in October 1905 of a railway putting Maseru in connexion with +the South African railway system proved a great boon to the +community. During the rebellion of the natives in Natal and +Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly quiet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>The Basutos</i> (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard +history, and “Basutoland and the Basutos” in <i>Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst.</i> +1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901; +E. Jacottet, “Mœurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts,” in +<i>Bull. Soc. neuchâteloise Géog.</i>, vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G.M. Theal, +<i>Basutoland Records</i> (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casalis, <i>Les Bassutos</i> +(Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs, +the result of twenty-three years’ residence in the country; Minnie +Martin, <i>Basutoland: its Legends and Customs</i> (London, 1903); Mrs +F.A. Barkly, <i>Among Boers and Basutos</i> (new ed., London, 1897), a +record, chiefly, of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C.W. Mackintosh, +<i>Coillard of the Zambesi</i> (London, 1907). For geology consult E. +Cohen, “Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Süd-Afrika,” +<i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i>, 1874, and <i>N. Jahrb. Beil.</i>, Bd. v., 1887; D. +Draper, “Notes on the Geology of South-eastern Africa,” <i>Quart. +Journ. Geol. Soc.</i>, vol. l., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. <i>The Geology +of South Africa</i> (London, 1905). For current information see the +annual report on Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many +books dealing with South Africa generally have chapters relating to +Basutoland, <i>e.g.</i> A.P. Hillier, <i>South African Studies</i> (London, 1900); +James Bryce, <i>Impressions of South Africa</i> (3rd ed., London, 1899). +Consult also Theal’s <i>History of South Africa</i> (1908-9 ed.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Report by resident-commissioner H.C. Sloley, for 1902-1903.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAT,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span><a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a name for any member of the zoological order Chiroptera +(<i>q.v.</i>). Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight, +with slight powers of progression on the ground; the patagium +or “flying-membrane” of some squirrels and of <i>Galeopithecus</i> +(<i>q.v.</i>) probably indicates the way in which the modification was +effected. They are distributed throughout the world, but are +most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the +temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur. +There is great variation in size; the Malay “flying-fox” +(<i>Pteropus edulis</i>) measures about a foot in the head and body, +and has a wing-spread of 5 ft.; while in the smaller forms the +head and body may be only about 2 in., and the wing-spread +no more than a foot. The coloration is generally sombre, but +to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are brownish yellow +or russet on the under surface; two South American species are +white; Blainville’s chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and the +Indian painted bat (<i>Cerivoula picta</i>) with its deep orange dress, +spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded +observers of a large butterfly. In habits bats are social, +nocturnal and crepuscular; the insect-eating species feed on the +wing, in winter in the temperate regions they migrate to a +warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the British bats. The +sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes are +exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of perception, +and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-waves. +Most bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical “flying +foxes” or fox-bats of the Old World live on fruit; some are +blood-suckers, and two feed on small fish. Twelve species are +British, among which are the pipistrelle (<i>Pipistrellus pygmaeus</i>, +or <i>P. pipistrellus</i>), the long-eared bat (<i>Plecotus auritus</i>), the +noctule (<i>Pipistrellus</i> [<i>Pterygistes</i>] <i>noctulus</i>) the greater and +lesser horseshoe bats (<i>Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum</i> and <i>R. +hipposiderus</i>), &c. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Flying-fox</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vampire</a></span>.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> M. E. <i>bakke</i>, the change to “bat” having apparently been +influenced by Lat. <i>batta</i>, <i>blatta</i>, moth. The word is thus distinct +from the other common term “bat,” the implement for striking, +which is probably connected with Fr. <i>battre</i>, though a Celtic or +simply onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATAC,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903) +19,524; subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna +(pop. 4015) was annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and +indigo are grown in the neighbouring country, and the town +has a considerable trade in these and other commodities; it +also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics. Batac was +founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop +Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of +Filipino Independent Catholics.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATALA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of +the Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North-Western +railway, 24 m. from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an +important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton and silk +goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and leather. There are two +mission schools.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATALHA<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of +Leiria, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m. +S. of Leiria. Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the +site of the medieval Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great +Dominican monastery of Santa Maria da Victoria (“St Mary of +the Victory”), also known as Batalha. Both town and monastery +owe their names to the battle fought on the plain between +Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I. of Portugal +defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the independence +of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown limestone, +resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and +beauty it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which +Gothic and Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-plan +may be roughly described as a parallelogram, measuring +about 500 ft. from north to south, and 445 from east to west; +with the circular annexe of the royal mausoleum on the east, +and the Founder’s chapel at the south-western corner. In the +centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the refectory, +now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the +east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso +V. and John III., form the northern division of the parallelogram; +its southern division is the Gothic church. The Founder’s +chapel contains the tomb of John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of +Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with the tomb of Prince Henry +the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal mausoleum, where +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page507" id="page507"></a>507</span> +several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable for the +intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The +monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons +were procured from England by Queen Philippa, and the work +was entrusted to A. Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor +Houguet, an Irishman. Only the royal cloister, church and +Founder’s chapel were included in the original design; and all +three show signs of English influence. Various additions were +made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and ending +with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted +by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was +sacked by the French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared +a national monument in 1840. Thenceforward it was gradually +restored.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATANGAS,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> a town, port of entry, and the capital of the +province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the +Batangas river, about 1 m. from its mouth on the E. coast of +the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop. +(1903) 33,131. The United States government has established +a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public +buildings and private residences. It is the most important port +of a province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of +its inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee +of excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle. +The horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton +is produced, and is woven into fabrics by the women. The +language is Tagalog.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATARNAY, IMBERT DE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (? 1438-1523), French statesman, +was born of an old but obscure family in Dauphiné, about the +year 1438. In consequence of a chance circumstance he entered +into relations with the dauphin Louis, at that time (1455) in +arms against the king his father; he attached himself to the +prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy. From +the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with +favours: he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Montchenu, +lady of Le Bouchage; besides making him captain of +Mont Saint Michel and giving him valuable estates, with, later, +the titles of counsellor and chamberlain to the king. In 1469 +Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of Guienne’s +intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As lieutenant-general +in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside +against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel +severity a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the +interview between Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at +Picquigny, and was afterwards employed on negotiations with +the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with the recommendations +of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le Bouchage +in his confidential service. During the differences that arose in +1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of +Orleans, Brittany and Alençon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the +inhabitants of Orleans faithful to the king. He proved his skill +in the negotiations concerning the marquisate of Saluzzo and +the town of Genoa. During the Naples expedition he was in +charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in 1495. He +treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering +Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to +Castile to claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took +part in the expedition against the Genoese republic in 1507. +Francis I. employed him to negotiate the proposed marriage of +Charles of Austria with Renée of France, daughter of Louis XII., +and appointed him governor to the dauphin Francis in 1518. +He died on the 12th of May 1523.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also B. de Mandrot’s <i>Ymbert de Batarnay</i> (Paris, 1886).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East +Indies, bounded E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana, +Preanger and Bantam, and N. by the Java Sea. It also comprises +a number of small islands in the Java Sea, including the +Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq. m. The +population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans, +82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The +natives belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain +a large admixture of Malays. The northern half of the province +is flat, and even marshy along the coast, and consists of a broad +band of alluvium formed by the series of parallel rivers descending +from the south. The southern half on the other hand is +covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are situated +along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the +volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Gede, and the Megamendung. +The soil is fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the lowlands +the highlands are especially suitable for the cultivation +of coffee, tea, tobacco, cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut +plantations are also found in the plains, and market-gardening +is practised in the neighbourhood of the towns. Sugar was +formerly cultivated. The government of the residency of +Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in having no +native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The divisions +of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings, Tangerang, +Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly governed +by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As +early as the second half of the 17th century the Dutch East +India Company began the practice of selling portions of the land +to private persons, and of granting other portions as the reward +of good services. A large strip of hill-country, almost corresponding +to the present southern or Buitenzorg division of the +residency, was appropriated by the governor-general in 1745 +and attached to that office. In 1808, however, Marshal Daendels +disposed of this property to various purchasers, including the +Dutch government, and thus the whole of the residency gradually +passed into private hands. Hence the administration of the +residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal +towns are Batavia (<i>q.v.</i>), which is the capital of the residency, +as well as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East +Indies, Meester Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg +(<i>q.v.</i>). Tangerang and Bekasi are important centres of trade. +The Buitenzorg hill-country is much visited on account of its +beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is a health resort +6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a city and seaport on the north coast of the island +of Java, and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East. +The population in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including +9423 Europeans, 26,433 Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other +Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on both sides of the river +Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the head of a capacious +bay. The streets are for the most part straight and regular, +and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In +several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and +protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street +and square is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly +changed from its condition in the 18th century. It was then +surrounded by strong fortifications, and contained a number of +important buildings, such as the town-house (built in 1652 and +restored in 1706), the exchange, the infirmary and orphan +asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts were +long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese +live here, and the great European houses have either fallen into +decay or been converted into magazines and warehouses. The +European inhabitants live principally in the new town, which +was gradually formed by the integration of Weltevreden (<i>Well-content</i>), +Molenvliet (<i>Mill-stream</i>), Rijswijk (<i>Rice-town</i>), Noordwijk +(<i>North-town</i>), Koningsplein (<i>King’s square</i>), and other +suburban villages or stations. The situation of this modern part +is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements +has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and +climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a +single storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each +other by rows of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings +connected with the civil and military organisation of the government. +The governor-general’s palace and the government buildings +are the most important of these; in the district of Weltevreden +are also the barracks, and the artillery school, as well as +the military and civil hospital, and not far off is the Frederik-Hendrik +citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester +Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page508" id="page508"></a>508</span> +Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of +the wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by +lesser merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan +asylum in the district of Parapatna. Batavia has various educational +and scientific institutions of note. In 1851 the government +founded a medical school for Javanese, and in 1860 the +“Gymnasium William III.” in which a comprehensive education is +bestowed. A society of arts and sciences (which possesses an +excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal physical +society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry and +agriculture in 1853. In addition to the <i>Transactions</i> of these +societies—many of which contain valuable contributions to their +respective departments in their relation to the East Indies—a +considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia. +Among miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned +the public hall known as the <i>Harmonie</i>, the theatre, club-house +and several fine hotels.</p> + +<p>The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being +a comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portuguese +and Malays. Here are found members of the different +Indian nations, originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally +engaged in navigation, but also trade in gold and precious +stones; Javanese, who are cultivators; and Malays, chiefly +boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism. The +Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long +greatly oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they +were massacred to the number of 12,000.</p> + +<p>Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its +mouth, but grows very shallow towards the shore. The construction +of the new harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the +old one, was therefore of the first importance. The works, +begun in 1877 and completed in 1886, connect the town with +Tanjong (“cape”) Priok by a canal, and include an outer port +formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at +entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner +port has 3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573 +ft. and depth 24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has +railway and roadway connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong +is navigable 2 m. inland for vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the +entrance is narrow, and requires continual attention to keep it +open.</p> + +<p>The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archipelago, +and to the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago, +coffee, sugar, salt, oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java +cloths, brass wares, &c., and European, Indian and Chinese +goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands is also collected +at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and +Europe—namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other +drugs; edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, +tortoise-shell, and dyeing woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from +Banka; spices from the Moluccas; fine cloths from Celebes and +Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal are imported +opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk +piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller +articles for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing +from Batavia to countries beyond the archipelago had increased +from 879,000 tons in 1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end +of the century. The old and new towns are connected by steam +tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway passes the new +town, thus connecting it with the main railway which crosses +the island from west to east.</p> + +<p>Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the +distillation of arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese, +the burning of lime and bricks, and the making of pottery. The +principal establishment for monetary transactions is the Java +Bank, established in 1828 with a capital of £500,000.</p> + +<p>Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter +Both, who in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had +been built on the ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda +Calappa), and to his successor, Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619 +founded in its stead the present city, which soon acquired a +flourishing trade and increased in importance. In 1699 Batavia +was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were +choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they +overflowed the surrounding country and made it a swamp, by +which the climate was so affected that the city became notorious +for its unhealthiness, and was in great danger of being altogether +abandoned. In the twenty-two years from 1730 to 1752, +1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded. General +Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the +ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the +nucleus of a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the +Europeans had left the old town. In 1811 a British armament +was sent against the Dutch settlements in Java, which had been +incorporated by France, and to this force Batavia surrendered +on the 8th of August. It was restored, however, to the Dutch +by the treaty of 1814.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATAVIA,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a village and the county-seat of Genesee county, +New York, U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the +Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890) 7221; (1900) 9180, of whom +1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613. Batavia is served by +the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and the +Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State +School for the Blind, and of St Joseph’s Academy (Roman +Catholic), and has a historical museum, housed in the Old Holland +Land Office (1804), containing a large collection of relics of the +early days of New York, and a memorial library erected in 1889 +in memory of a son by Mary E. Richmond, the widow of Dean +Richmond; the building contained in 1908 more than 14,000 +volumes. The public schools are excellent; in them in 1898 +Superintendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of +individual instruction now known as the “Batavia scheme,” +under which in rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides +the class teacher, an “individual” teacher who helps backward +children in their studies. Among Batavia’s manufactures are +harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other agricultural implements, +firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods, paper-boxes and inside +woodwork. In 1905 the city’s factory products were valued at +$3,589,406, an increase of 39.5% over their value in 1900. +Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826), +the engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known +as the “Holland Purchase,” of which Batavia was a part. The +village was incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan, +whose supposed murder (1826) by members of the Masonic order +led to the organization of the Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was +the home during his last years of Dean Richmond (1804-1866), a +capitalist, a successful shipper and wholesaler of farm produce, +vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of the New +York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic +party in New York state.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See O. Turner, <i>History of the Holland Purchase</i> (Buffalo, 1850).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1812-1875), American +actor and manager, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th +of December 1812. He was intended for an engineer, but in 1832 +became an actor, playing with Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles +Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he was manager of the St Louis +theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to New York. In 1866 +he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871 returned to +London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged Henry +Irving, presenting him first in <i>The Bells</i>, with great success. +He died on the 22nd of March 1875.</p> + +<p>His wife, <span class="sc">Sidney Frances</span> (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph +Cowell, an English actor who had settled in America, was also an +actress and the author of several popular plays, in one of which, +<i>Self</i> (1857), she and her husband made a great success. After +her husband’s death Mrs Bateman continued to manage the Lyceum +till 1875. She later took the Sadler’s Wells theatre, which she +managed until her death on the 13th of January 1881. She was +the first to bring to England an entire American company with an +American play, Joaquin Miller’s <i>The Danites</i>.</p> + +<p>Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four +daughters being educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate +Josephine (b. 1842), and Ellen (b. 1845), known as the “Bateman +children,” began their theatrical career at an early age. In 1862 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page509" id="page509"></a>509</span> +Kate played in New York as Juliet and Lady Macbeth, and in +1863 had a great success in London as Leah in Augustin Daly’s +adaptation of Mosenthal’s <i>Deborah</i>. In 1866 she married George +Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady +Macbeth with Henry Irving, and in 1875 in the title-part of +Tennyson’s <i>Queen Mary</i>. When her mother opened the Sadler’s +Wells theatre in 1879 Miss Bateman appeared as Helen Macgregor +in <i>Rob Roy</i>, and in 1881 as Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones’ +<i>His Wife</i>. Her daughter, Sidney Crowe (b. 1871), also became +an actress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a younger sister of Kate, +born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a child, and first +appeared in London in the title-part of her mother’s play, +<i>Fanchette</i>, in 1871. She created a number of important parts +during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She +married Edward Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel +(b. 1854), well known on the London stage.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATEMENT LIGHTS,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> in architecture the lights in the upper +part of a perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of +those below.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATES, HARRY<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at +Stevenage, Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career +as a carver’s assistant, and before beginning the regular study of +plastic art he passed through a long apprenticeship in +architectural decoration. In 1879 he came to London and entered the +Lambeth School of Art, studying under Jules Dalou and Rodin, +and winning a silver medal in the national competition at South +Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal Academy +schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling +scholarship of £200 with his relief of “Socrates teaching the +People in the Agora,” which showed grace of line and harmony of +composition. He then went to Paris and studied under Rodin. +A head and three small bronze panels (the “Odyssey,”) executed +by Bates in Paris, were exhibited at the Royal Academy, and +selected for purchase by the Chantrey trustees; but the selection +had to be cancelled because they had not been modelled +in England. His “Aeneas” (1885), “Homer” (1886), three +“Psyche” panels and “Rhodope” (1887) all showed marked +advance in form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of +his vigorously designed “Hounds in Leash,” Bates was elected +A.R.A. This and his “Pandora,” in marble and ivory, which +was bought in the same year for the Chantrey Bequest, are now +in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of Harry Bates are good +pieces of realism—strong, yet delicate in technique, and excellent +in character. His statues have a picturesqueness in which the +refinement of the sculptor is always felt. Among the chief of +these are the fanciful “Maharaja of Mysore,” somewhat overladen +with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord +Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a frieze +of figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria +for Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor’s +delicate fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical +presentment of “Love and Life”—a winged male figure in bronze, with +a female figure in ivory being crowned by the male. Bates died +in London on the 30th of January 1899, his premature death +robbing English plastic art of its most promising representative +at the time. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sculpture</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATES, HENRY WALTER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1825-1892), English naturalist +and explorer, was born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825. +His father, a manufacturing hosier, intended him for business, +and for a time the son yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as +he could into the neighbouring country to gratify his love of +botany and entomology. In 1844 he met a congenial spirit in +Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result was discussion and execution +of a plan to explore some then little-known region of the +globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen, and in +April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Pará. They had +little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of +duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed +to collect independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the +upper waters of the Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up +the great river for 1400 m. He remained in the country eleven +years, during which time he collected no fewer than 8000 species +of insects new to science. His long residence in the tropics, with +the privations which it entailed, undermined his health. Nor had +the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from +financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he had the good +fortune to be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal +Geographical Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the +society, and the advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom +he was alike Nestor and Mentor, he retained till his death on the +16th of February 1892. Bates is best known as the auther of one +of the most delightful books of travel in the English language, +<i>The Naturalist on the Amazons</i> (1863), the writing of which, as the +correspondence between the two has shown, was due to Charles +Darwin’s persistent urgency. “Bates,” wrote Darwin to Sir +Charles Lyell, “is second only to Humboldt in describing a +tropical forest.” But his most memorable contribution to +biological science, and more especially to that branch of it which +deals with the agencies of modification of organisms, was his paper +on the “Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley,” read before the +Linnaean Society in 1861. He therein, as Darwin testified, clearly +stated and solved the problem of “mimicry,” or the superficial +resemblances between totally different species and the likeness +between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its +foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates’s other contributions +to the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive, +but he edited for several years a periodical of <i>Illustrated Travels</i>. +A man of varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to +entomology, notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these +he left an extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for +science, was purchased intact by René Oberthur of Rennes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATES, JOHN<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span>. A famous case in English constitutional +history, tried before the court of exchequer in November 1606, +arose out of the refusal of a merchant of the Levant Company, +John Bates, to pay an extra duty of 5s. per cwt. on imported +currants levied by the sole authority of the crown in addition to +the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and Poundage, on +the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the +sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four +barons of the exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to +establish a precedent which, in view of the rapidly increasing +foreign trade, would have made the king independent of +parliament. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming and Baron Clark +are preserved. The first declares that “the king’s power is +double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and +ends. That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular +subjects, for the execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary +courts, and by the civilians is nominated <i>jus privatum</i>, and with +us common law; and these laws cannot be changed without +parliament.... The absolute power of the king is not that +which is converted or executed to private uses to the benefit of +particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the general +benefit of the people and is <i>salus populi</i>; and this power is not +guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is +most properly named policy or government; and as the constitution +of this body varieth with the time, so varieth this +absolute law, according to the wisdom of the king, for the +common good; and these being general rules, and true as they +are, all things done within these rules are lawful. The matter in +question is material matter of state, and ought to be ruled by +the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done well to +execute his extraordinary power. All customs (<i>i.e.</i> duties levied +at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and +issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all +commerce and affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all +acceptance and admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and +treaties whatsoever are made by the absolute power of the king; +and he who hath power of causes hath power also of effects.” +Baron Clark, in his judgment, concurred, declaring that the +seaports were the king’s ports, and that, since foreign merchants +were admitted to them only by leave of the crown, the crown +possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under which they +should be admitted, including the imposition of a money payment. +Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page510" id="page510"></a>510</span> +the king’s right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of +1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to constitutional +liberty. “The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4,” +he said, “which hath been so much urged, that no new imposition +shall be imposed upon wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the +custom and subsidy granted to the king—this extends only to +the king himself and shall not bind his successors, for it is a +principal part of the crown of England, which the king cannot +diminish.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>State Trials</i> (ed. 1779), xi. pp. 30-32; excerpts in G.W. +Prothero, <i>Statutes and Constitutional Documents</i> (Clarendon Press, +1894); G.B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, <i>Select Documents of +Eng. Const. Hist.</i> (New York, 1901); cf. T.P. Taswell-Langmead, +<i>Eng. Const. Hist.</i> (London, 1905), p. 393.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATES, JOSHUA<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1788-1864), American financier, was born +in Weymouth, Massachusetts, on the 10th of October 1788, of an +old Massachusetts family prominent in colonial affairs. After +several winters’ schooling in his native town, he entered the +counting-house of William Gray & Son in Boston. In 1809 he +began business on his own account, but failed during the War +of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then the +largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was +sent to London in charge of their European business. There he +came into relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a +partnership with John, a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years +later both partners were admitted to the firm of Baring Brothers +& Company, of which Bates eventually became senior partner, +occupying in consequence an influential position in the British +financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare impartiality +and justice as umpire of the international commission appointed +to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855 +he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library +in Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be +applied to the purchase of books. Upon his death the “upper +hall,” or main reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building +erected in 1858 by the order of the library trustees, was named +Bates Hall; and upon the opening of the new building in 1895 +this name was transferred to its principal reading-room, one of +the finest library halls in the world. During the Civil War +Bates’s sympathies were strongly with the Union, and besides +aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various +ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for +the Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September +1864.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Memorial of Joshua Bates</i> (Boston, 1865).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATES, WILLIAM<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (1625-1699), English nonconformist +divine, was born in London in November 1625. He was admitted +to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and removed thence to King’s +College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he held the rich living +of St Dunstan’s-in-the-West, London. He was one of the commissioners +at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the +public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions +to the Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was +appointed chaplain to Charles II., and was offered the deanery +of Lichfield and Coventry, but he came out in 1662 as one of the +2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of an amiable character, and +enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper Bridgeman, the lord-chancellor +Finch, the earl of Nottingham and Archbishop +Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several +efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops +were uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on +their accession in behalf of the dissenters. After some years of +pastoral service at Hackney he died there on the 14th of July +1699. Bates published <i>Select Lives of Illustrious and Pious +Persons</i> in Latin; and after his death all his works, except this, +were printed in 1 vol. fol.; again in 1723; and in 4 vols. 8vo +in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include <i>Considerations +on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul</i> +(1676), <i>Four Last Things</i> (1691), <i>Spiritual Perfection</i> (1699).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATESON<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Batson</span> or <span class="sc">Betson</span>), <b>THOMAS,</b> an English writer +of madrigals in the early 17th century. He is said to have been +organist of Chester cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have +been the first musical graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He +is known to have written church music, but his fame rests on his +madrigals, which give him an important place among Elizabethan +composers. He published a set of madrigals in 1604 and a second +set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted in recent +years. He died in 1630.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATH, THOMAS THYNNE,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Marquess of</span> (1734-1796), +English politician, was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd +Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751), and the great-grandnephew +of Thomas Thynne (<i>c.</i> 1640-1714), the friend of Bishop Ken, +who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in +1682. His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John +Carteret, 1st Earl Granville, and a descendant of the family of +Granville who held the earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The +Thynnes are descended from Sir John Thynne, the builder of +Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in Wiltshire. Sir John, +owed his wealth and position to the favour of his master, the +protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of +the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance +after the princess became queen. He died in April 1580. +Another famous member of this family was Thomas Thynne +(1648-1682), called on account of his wealth “Tom of Ten +Thousand.” He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in <i>Absalom +and Achitophel</i>, and was murdered in London by some Swedes +in February 1682.</p> + +<p>Born on the 13th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded, +his father as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was +lord-lieutenant of Ireland for a short time during 1765, although +he never visited that country. Having, however, become +prominent in English politics he was appointed secretary of +state for the northern department in January 1768; he acted +with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John +Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked +and libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the +House of Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred, +from the northern to the southern department, but he resigned +in December 1770 in the midst of the dispute with Spain over +the possession of the Falkland Islands. In November 1775 +Weymouth returned to his former office of secretary for the +southern department, undertaking in addition the duties +attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779, +but he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In +1789 he was created marquess of Bath, and he died on the 19th +of November 1796. Weymouth was a man of considerable +ability especially as a speaker, but according to more modern +standards his habits were very coarse, resembling those of his +friend and frequent companion, Charles James Fox. Horace +Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his drunkenness, +and in early life at least “his great fortune he had damaged by +such profuse play, that his house was often full of bailiffs.” He +married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck, +2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten +daughters. His eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to +his titles, while the two younger ones, George (1770-1838) and +John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn to the barony of Carteret +of Hawnes, which came to them from their uncle, Henry +Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth’s great-grandson, +John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author +of <i>Observations on Bulgarian affairs</i> (1880), was succeeded as +5th marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See B. Botfield, <i>Stemmata Botevilliana</i> (1858).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1684-1764), +generally known by the surname of <span class="sc">Pulteney</span>, English politician, +descended from an ancient family of Leicestershire, was the son +of William Pulteney by his first wife, Mary Floyd, and was born +in April 1684. The boy was sent to Westminster school, and +from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, matriculating the +31st of October 1700. At these institutions he acquired his deep +classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the usual tour +on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by +Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691 +to February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at +his death on the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page511" id="page511"></a>511</span> +£500 a year and £40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him +without a break until 1734. Throughout the reign of Queen Anne +William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of +the Whigs, and on the prosecution of Sacheverell he exerted +himself with great zeal against that violent divine. When the +victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to the Tower +in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of +Commons and with the leading Whigs Visited him in his prison-chamber. +He held the post of secretary of war from 1714 to +1717 in the first ministry of George I., and when the committee +of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was formed in April 1715 the +list included the flame of William Pulteney. Two years later +(6th of July 1716), he became one of the privy council. When +Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of lord-lieutenant +of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they +were followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the +South Sea Company restored Walpole to the highest position, +but all that he offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer +was rejected, but in May 1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the +lucrative but insignificant post of cofferer of the household. In +this obscure position he was content for some time to await the +future; but when he found himself neglected he opposed the +proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil list, and +in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of +his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained +in opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in +1730 to conciliate him by the offer of Townshend’s place and of +a peerage, all his overtures were spurned. Pulteney’s resentment +was not confined to his speeches in parliament. With +Bolingbroke he set on foot in December 1726 the well-known +periodical called the <i>Craftsman</i>, and in its pages the minister +was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey +published an attack on the <i>Craftsman</i>, and Pulteney, either +openly or behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the +attack. Whether the question at issue was the civil list, the +excise, the income of the prince of Wales, or the state of domestic +affairs Pulteney was ready with a pamphlet, and the minister +or one of his friends came out with a reply. For his “Proper +reply to a late scurrilous libel” (<i>Craftsman</i>, 1731), an answer to +“Sedition and defamation displayed,” he was challenged to a +duel by Lord Hervey; for another, “An answer to one part of +an infamous libel entitled remarks on the <i>Craftsman’s</i> indication +of his two honourable patrons,” he was in July 1731 struck off +the roll of privy councillors and dismissed from the commission +of the peace in several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior +to Bolingbroke alone among the antagonists of Walpole, but in +parliament, from which St John was excluded, he excelled all his +comrades. When the sinking fund was appropriated in 1733 +his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when the excise +scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its lowest +depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory. +Through Walpole’s prudent withdrawal of the latter measure +the fall, of his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to +France on the suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposition +was weakened by the dissensions of the leaders.</p> + +<p>From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the +peerage Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this +election the minister’s assailants made little progress in their +attack, but in 1738 the troubles with Spain supplied them with +the opportunity which they desired. Walpole long argued for +peace, but he was feebly supported in his own cabinet, and the +frenzy of the people for War knew no bounds. In an evil moment +for his own reputation he consented to remain in office and to +gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall +was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new +parliament was summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the +divisions on the election petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to +pieces. The task of forming the new administration was after +some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who weakly offered the post +of first lord of the treasury to that harmless politician the earl +of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in the cabinet +and a peerage thinking that by this action he would preserve +his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain +his supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke +out into open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation +to the Upper House Pulteney’s influence dwindled to nothing. +Horace Walpole asserts that when Pulteney wished to recall his +desire for a peerage it was forced upon him through the ex-minister’s +advice by the king, and another chronicler of the times +records that when victor and vanquished met in the House of +Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl of Bath, the +remark was made by the exulting Orford: “Here we are, my +lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England.” On the +14th of July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of +Hedon, Co. York, Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset, +and earl of Bath. On the 20th of February he had been restored +to his rank in the privy council. At Wilmington’s death in 1743 +he made application to the king for the post of first lord of the +treasury, only to find that it had been conferred on Henry +Pelham. For two days, 10th-12th February 1746, he was at the +head of a ministry, but in “48 hours, three quarters, seven +minutes, and eleven seconds” it collapsed. An occasional +pamphlet and an infrequent speech were afterwards the sole +fruits of Lord Bath’s talents. His praises whilst in retirement +have been sung by two bishops, Zachary Pearce and Thomas +Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and was buried on +the 17th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel, Westminster +Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria, +daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isleworth, commissary-general +to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the +day (<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on +the 14th of September 1758, and their only son William died +unmarried at Madrid on the 12th of February 1763. Pulteney’s +vast fortune came in 1767 to William Johnstone of Dumfries +(third son of Sir James Johnstone), who had married Frances, +daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel Pulteney, a bitter +antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken the name of +Pulteney.</p> + +<p>Pulteney’s eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with +vivacity and with allusions drawn from the literature of his own +country and of Rome. Of business he was never fond, and the +loss in 1734 of his trusted friend John Merrill, who had supplied +the qualities which he lacked, was feelingly lamented by him in a +letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a passion for money. +Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of practical +statesmanship.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Wm. Coxe’s <i>Memoirs</i> of Sir Robert Walpole +(1816), and of Henry Pelham (1829); John Morley’s <i>Walpole</i> (1889); +Walter Sichel’s <i>Bolingbroke</i> (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne’s <i>Carteret</i> +(1887); <i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs +of the time.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. P. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATH,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough, +and health resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great +Western, Midland, and Somerset & Dorset railways, 107½ m. W. +by S. of London. Pop. (1901) 49,839. Its terraces and crescents, +built mostly of grey freestone, cover the slopes and heights of +the abrupt hills which rise like an amphitheatre above the +winding valley of the river Avon. The climate is pleasant, and +the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a number +of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an +episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church +of St Peter and St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and +Norman churches, founded in connexion with a 7th-century +convent, which was transferred for a time to a body of secular +canons, and from about 970 until the Dissolution, to Benedictine +monks. The present cruciform building dates from the 15th +century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of late +Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has +been called “The Lantern of the West,” and especially noteworthy +is the great west window, with seven lights, and flanking +turrets on which are carved figures of the angels ascending and +descending on Jacob’s Ladder. Within are the tombs of James +Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick; Richard Nash; +Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broome the poet, and +many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page512" id="page512"></a>512</span> +Flaxman and Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman +building remain. There are many other churches and chapels +in Bath, the oldest being that of St Thomas of Canterbury, and +one of the most interesting St Swithin’s, which contains the tombs +of Christopher Anstey and Madame d’Arblay. Among educational +institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school, founded +by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally established +at Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman Catholic College. +The hospital of St John was founded in the 12th century. +The public buildings include a guild hall, assembly rooms, +Jubilee hall, art gallery and library, museum, literary and +scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous suburb +of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks +and woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough +returns two members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14 +aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3382 acres.</p> + +<p>The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments. +The temperature varies in the different springs from 117° to +120° F, and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1.002. The +principal substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates, +and sodium and magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been +revealed, and the gases contain argon and helium. The waters are +very beneficial in cases of rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica, +diseases of the liver, and cutaneous and scrofulous affections. +The highest archaeological interest, moreover, attaches to the +baths in view of the magnificent Roman remains testifying to +the early recognition of the value of the waters. It may here be +noted that two distinct legends ascribe the foundation of Bath +to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth +this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells. +According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and +made the discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath, +whilst wandering as a swineherd in 863 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This, at least, is +the date inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump +Room in 1699. There is, however, no real evidence of a British +settlement. By the Romans Bath was named <i>Aquae Sulis</i>, the +name indicating the dedication to a British goddess Sul or +Sulis, whom the Romans considered the counterpart of Minerva. +There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for priests, +officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place was +apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident +population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars, +inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian +ware, and others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped +near the later abbey churchyard, and included, besides two +temples, a magnificent bath, discovered when the duke of +Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1755 to form the +Kingston Baths. Successive excavations have rendered accessible a +remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a <i>sudarium</i>, +and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now for +the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The +fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still +supports the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the +Roman foundations having been left untouched. The remains +of the bath and of the temple are among the most striking Roman +antiquities in western Europe.</p> + +<p>Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea, +Batha) was a place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being +crowned there in 973. It was a royal borough governed by a reeve, +with a burg mote in 907. Richard I. granted the first charter in +1189, which allowed the same privileges as Winchester to the +members of the merchant gild. This was confirmed by Henry III. +in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the burgesses of Bath +the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest for the debts +of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings’ bailiffs. +Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341, +1382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a +corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a +common seal having been used since 1249, there was no formal +incorporation of Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835. +Parliamentary representation began in 1297. Various fairs were +granted to Bath, to be held on the 29th of August, the 9th of +August, the 30th of June to the 8th of July (called Cherry Fair), +the 1st of February to the 6th of February, in 1275, 1305, 1325 +and 1545 respectively. Fairs are now held on the 4th of February +and on the Monday after the 9th of December. These fairs were +flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle ages, but +this industry has long departed. Bath “beaver,” however, was +known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his “Wife of +Bath” excel the cloth-weavers “of Ypres and of Gaunt.” The +golden age of Bath began in the 18th century, and is linked with +the work of the two architects Wood (both named John), of Ralph +Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash, master of the ceremonies. +Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the lodging poor, +the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the +architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent +and the North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by +the elder Wood, and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the +booth which did duty as a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash +provided the assembly rooms which figure largely in the pages of +Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens and their contemporaries. +Anstey published his <i>New Bath Guide</i> to ridicule the laws of +taste which “Beau” Nash dictated; but two royal visits, in 1734 and +1738, established Bath as a centre of English fashion. The +weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305 are +still held.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R. Warner, <i>History and Antiquities of Bath</i> (1801); +C.E. Davis, <i>Ancient Landmarks of Bath</i>; <i>The Mineral Baths of Bath</i> (1883); +<i>Excavations of Roman Baths</i> (1895), and <i>The Saxon Cross</i> (1898); +Sir G. Jackson, <i>Archives of Bath</i> (2 vols., 1873); +R.E.M. Peach, <i>Rambles about Bath</i> (1875), <i>Bath Old and New</i> (1888), +<i>Collections of Books belonging to the City</i> (1893), &c.; +H. Scarth, <i>Aquae Solis, or Notices of Roman Bath</i> (1864); +A. Barbeau, <i>Life and Letters at Bath in the 18th Century</i> (from +the French <i>Une Ville d’eaux anglaise au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>) (London, 1904); +A.H. King, <i>Charter of Bath Corporation</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATH,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc +county, Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, +12 m. from its mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890) +8723; (1900) 10,477, of whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910, +census) 9396. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by +steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban electric railway. +The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends along the +W. bank of the river for about 5 m.; the business district is only +a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on higher +ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath +are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for +the aged, and a soldiers’ monument. Bath has a good harbour +and its principal industry is the building of ships, both of wood +and of iron and steel, several vessels of the United States navy +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page513" id="page513"></a>513</span> +have been built here. In 1905 three-fourths of the city’s +wage-earners were employed in this industry. Bath also manufactures +lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a considerable trade in ice, +coal, lumber and iron and steel. First settled about 1660, Bath +was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it was incorporated as +a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of entry, and in 1847 +was chartered as a city.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATH-CHAIR,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used +open or closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels +and drawn or pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a +donkey or small pony it is then mounted on four wheels, with +the usual turning arrangement. James Heath, of Bath, who +flourished rather before the middle of the 18th century, was the +inventor.</p> + +<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:530px; height:484px" src="images/img512.jpg" alt="" /></div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHGATE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire, +Scotland, 19 m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British +railway. Pop. (1901) 7549. The district is rich in limestone, coal, +ironstone, shale and fireclay, all of which are worked. Silver also +was once mined. The manufactures include paraffin, paper, glass, +chemicals, flour and whisky, and freestone is quarried. The burgh +is a considerable centre for agricultural produce. Bathgate +became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a police burgh in 1865. +Although it was not until the development of its mineral wealth +that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place of some +antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce’s +daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scotland, +in 1315.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHOLITE<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="bothus">βοθύς</span>, deep, and <span class="grk" title="litos">λιθός</span>, a stone), in +geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses. +Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks +belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of +granite frequently occur. By their relations to the strata +around them, it is clear that these granites have been forced into +their present positions in a liquid state, and under great pressure. +The bedding planes of stratified rocks are wedged apart and +tongues of granite have been injected into them, while cracks +have been opened up and filled with intrusions in the shape of +igneous veins. Great masses of the strata which the granite has +invaded are often floated off, and are found lying in the heart +of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have been +exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads. +Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their +rounded surfaces, and the frequency with which they form +flattish dome-shaped hills, rising above the older rocks surrounding +them. At one time many geologists held that in +certain situations the granite had arisen from the complete +fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a limited +area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the +structural relations of the two sets of rocks, however, preclude +the acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an +intruder which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradually, +and solidified in its present situation.</p> + +<p>Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two +theories which hold the field, each having a large number of +supporters. One school considers that they are mostly “batholites” +or conical masses rising from great depths and eating up +the strata which lie above and around them. The frequency +of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their rounded shapes +indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the igneous +magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone +pointing to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive +changes induced in the rocks which adjoin the granite, the +abundance of veins, and the unusual modifications of the granite +which occur where it comes in contact with the adjacent strata, +are adduced as evidence that there has been absorption and +digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass. These +views are in favour especially in France; and instances are +cited in which as the margins of the granite are approached +diorites and other rocks make their appearance, which are +ascribed to the effect which admixture with dissolved sedimentary +material has had on the composition of the granite +magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated +with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been +felspathized.</p> + +<p>The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be +“laccolites” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="lakkos">λάκκος</span>, a cistern), or great cake-shaped +injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below +into planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth’s +crust, taking the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape +to the varying flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The +modifications of the granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation +(chemical and physical processes which occasioned diffusion of +certain components towards the cooling surfaces). Absorption +of country rock is held to be unimportant in amount, and insufficient +to account for the great spaces in the schists which +are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory +leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite unanswered, +but consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the +bosses which now appear at the surface are only comparatively +superficial manifestations.</p> + +<p>The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory; +in fact it has been clearly demonstrated in many important +cases. Still it is equally clear that many granites are not merely +passive injections, but have assimilated much foreign rock. +Possibly much depends on the chemical composition of the +respective masses, and on the depths and temperatures at which +the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and of temperature, +which we know to take place at great depths, would stimulate +resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling +would allow time for dissolved foreign substances to diffuse +widely through the magma.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHONIAN SERIES,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in geology. The typical Bathonian +is the Great Oolite series of England, and the name was derived +from the “Bath Oolite,” so extensively mined and quarried +in the vicinity of that city, where the principal strata were first +studied by W. Smith. The term was first used by J. d’Omalius +d’Halloy in 1843 (<i>Precis Geol</i>.) as a synonym for “Dogger”; but +it was limited in 1849 by A. d’Orbigny (<i>Pal. Franc. Jur</i>. i. +p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (<i>Tabl. Synchron</i>.) used the word +“Bathien” = Bajocian + Bathonian (sen. str.). According to +English practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations +in descending order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford +Clay, Great or Bath Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers’ Earth. +(The Fullers’ Earth is sometimes regarded as constituting a +separate stage, the “Fullonian.”) The “Bathonien” of some +French geologists differs from the English Bathonian in that +it includes at the base the zone of the ammonite <i>Parkinsonia +Parkinsoni</i>, which in England is placed at the summit of +the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the +upper part of the “Dogger” (Middle Jurassic) of Germany, +or to the base of the Upper Brown Jura (substage “E” of +Quenstedt).</p> + +<p>Rocks of Bathonian age are well developed in Europe: in +the N.W. and S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically +associated with coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties, +and with certain beds of clay. In the N. and N.E., Russia, +&c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous oolites prevail, some of +the last being exploited for iron. They occur also in the +extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions, Greenland, +Franz Josef Land, &c.; in Africa, Algeria, German East Africa, +Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India, Rajputana +and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.</p> + +<p>The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and “Hauptrogenstein” +of Swabia, as well as the “Eisenkalk” of N.W. +Germany, and “Klaus-Schichten” of the Austrian Alps, are +of Bathonian age.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a general account, see A. de Lapparent, <i>Traité de géologie</i> (5th +ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jurassic</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÁTHORY, SIGISMUND<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Zsigmond</span>), (1572-1613), prince of +Transylvania, was the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania, +and Elizabeth Bocskay, and nephew of the great Stephen +Báthory. He was elected prince in his father’s lifetime, but being +quite young at his father’s death (1581), the government was +entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his majority, and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page514" id="page514"></a>514</span> +following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso Carillo, +departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its best +days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained +as a matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile +influence of the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of +Christian princes against the Turk. The obvious danger of such +a course caused no small anxiety in the principality, and the +diet of Torda even went so far as to demand a fresh coronation +oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to render it, threatened +him with deposition. Ultimately Báthory got the better of his +opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands (1595). +Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an +anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Báthory. He had inherited +the military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished +contemporary Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and +annihilated the army of Sinan Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th). +The turning-point of his career was his separation from his wife, +the archduchess Christina of Austria, in 1599, an event followed +by his own abdication the same year, in order that he might take +orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the throne of +Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the +duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of +Poles and Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was +routed by Michael, voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February +1601 the diet of Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was +driven out by Michael, never to return. He died at Prague in +1613. Báthory’s indisputable genius must have been warped +by a strain of madness. His incalculableness, his savage cruelty +(like most of the princes of his house he was a fanatical Catholic +and persecutor) and his perpetual restlessness point plainly +enough to a disordered mind.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ignaz Acsády, <i>History of the Hungarian State</i> (Hung.) vol. ii., +(Budapest, 1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHOS<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="bathos">βάθος</span>), properly depth, the bottom or lowest +part of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent +“from the sublime to the ridiculous,” from the elevated to the +commonplace in literature or speech, is due to Pope’s satire on +<i>Bathos</i> (<i>Miscellanies</i>, 1727-1728), “the art of sinking in poetry.” +The title was a travesty of Longinus’s essay, <i>On the Sublime</i>, +<span class="grk" title="Peri hupsous">Περὶ ὔψους</span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHS<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is +the immersion of the body in a medium different from the +ordinary one of atmospheric air, which medium is usually +common water in some form. In another sense it includes the +different media that may be used, and the various arrangements +by which they are applied.</p> + +<p><i>Ancient Baths.</i>—Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and +for pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly +every people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the +rivers Nile and Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed +in running water, used both hot and cold baths, and employed +oils and ointments. So also did the Greeks; their earliest and +commonest form of bathing was swimming in rivers, and bathing +in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths were, according +to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians +appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but afterwards +they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated +among the Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at +least the form of it called after them the <i>laconicum</i>. Although +the baths of the Greeks were not so luxurious as those of some +other nations, yet effeminate people were accused among them +of using warm baths in excess; and the bath servants appear to +have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger establishments. +The Persians must have had handsomely equipped +baths, for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath +of Darius.</p> + +<p>But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern +nations, were on a small scale as compared with those which +eventually sprang up among the Romans. In early times the +Romans used after exercise to throw themselves into the Tiber. +Next, when ample supplies of water were brought into the city, +large <i>piscinae</i>, or cold swimming baths, were constructed, the +earliest of which appear to have been the <i>piscina publica</i> (312 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian aqueduct, +the <i>lavacrum</i> of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the Clivus +Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were +built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing +were introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold +baths.</p> + +<p>Public baths (<i>balneae</i>) were first built in Rome after Clodius +brought in the supply of water from Praeneste, After that date +baths began to be common both in Rome and in other Italian +cities; and private baths, which gradually came into use, were +attached to the villas of the wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one +of the first who built public baths at his own expense. After +his time each emperor, as he wished to ingratiate himself with +the people, lavished the revenues of the state in the construction +of enormous buildings, which not only contained suites of bathing +apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even theatres +and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name +of <i>thermae</i>. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +of Nero 65 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, of Titus 81, of Domitian 95, of Commodus 185, +of Caracalla 217, and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of +Constantine. The technical skill displayed by the Romans in +rendering their walls and the sides of reservoirs impervious to +moisture, in conveying and heating water, and in constructing +flues for the conveyance of hot air through the walls, was of the +highest order.</p> + +<p>The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths, +baths of hot air, and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in +the largest baths appear to have been mostly distinct, whereas +in smaller baths one chamber was made to do duty for more +than a single purpose) were the following:—(1) The <i>apodyterium</i> +or <i>spoliatorium</i>, where the bathers undressed; (2) the <i>alipterium</i> +or <i>unctuarium</i>, where oils and ointments were kept (although +the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the +<i>aliptae,</i> anointed the bathers; (3) the <i>frigidarium</i>, or cool room, +<i>cella frigida</i>, in which usually was the cold bath, the <i>piscina</i> or +<i>baptisterium</i>; (4) the <i>tepidarium</i>, a room moderately heated, in +which the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant +for bathing; (5) the <i>calidarium</i> or heating room, over the +<i>hypocaustum</i> or furnace; this in its commonest arrangement +had at one end a warm bath, the <i>alveus</i> or <i>calida lavatio</i>; at the +other end in a sort of alcove was (6) the <i>sudatorium</i> or <i>laconicum</i>, +which usually had a <i>labrum</i> or large vessel containing water, +with which bathers sprinkled themselves to help in rubbing off +the perspiration. In the largest baths the laconicum was probably +a separate chamber, a circular domical room with recesses +in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no +well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded. +In the drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. 1), the +laconicum is represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of +the calidarium. It is known that the temperature of the laconicum +was regulated by drawing up or down a metallic plate or +<i>clypeus</i>. Some think that this clypeus was directly over the +flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was withdrawn, +the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and +apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the +clypeus was drawn up or down only from the aperture in the +roof, and that it regulated the temperature simply by giving +more or less free exit to the hot air. If the laconicum was only +one end of the calidarium, it is difficult to see how that end of +the room was kept so much hotter than the rest of it; on the +other hand, to have had flames actually issuing from the laconicum +must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very +unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were +employed seems to have been the following, but there does not +appear to have been any absolute uniformity of practice then, +any more than in modern Egyptian and Turkish baths. Celsus +recommends the bather first to sweat a little in the tepidarium +with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to pass into +the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to +descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water +poured over him from his head,—first warm, then tepid, and then +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page515" id="page515"></a>515</span> +cold water—the water being poured longer over his head than +on the rest of the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and +lastly to be rubbed and anointed.</p> + +<p>The warmest of the heated rooms, <i>i.e.</i> the calidarium and +laconicum, were heated directly from the hypocaustum, over +which they were built or suspended (<i>suspensura</i>); while from the +hypocaustum tubes of brass, or lead, or pottery carried the hot +air or vapour to the walls of the other rooms. The walls were +usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily circulate.</p> + +<p>The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about +4 in. off, was placed the <i>calidarium</i>, the copper (<i>ahenum</i>) for +boiling water, near which, with the same interval between them, +was the copper for warm water, the <i>tepidarium</i>, and at the +distance of 2 ft. from this was the receptacle for cold water, or +the <i>frigidarium</i>, often a plastered reservoir. A constant communication +was kept up between these vessels, so that as fast as +hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply was obtained +from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but slightly +reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium, +again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an +aqueduct. In this way the heat which was not taken up by the +first boiler passed on to the second, and instead of being wasted, +helped to heat the second—a principle which has only lately been +introduced into modern furnaces. In the case of the large thermae +the water of an aqueduct was brought to the <i>castellum</i> or top of +the building and was allowed to descend into chambers over the +hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in pipes to the +central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be seen in +the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may +be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations. +In the well-known drawing (fig. 1) found in the baths of Titus, the +name of each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small +dome inscribed laconicum directly over the furnace, and having +the clypeus over it, will be observed in the corner of the chamber +named concamerata sudatio. The vessels for water are inscribed, +according to their temperature, with the same names as some of +the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and calidarium.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:481px; height:245px" src="images/img515a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Roman baths.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and +were surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a +lighter shade. There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir +supplying water was across the street in the building on the left +hand of the cut. There were three public entrances—21<i>a</i>, 21<i>b</i>, +21c—to the men’s baths and one to the women’s. The furnaces +(9) heated water, which was conveyed on one side to the larger +baths of the men, on the other to the women’s. Entering from +the street at 21c there was a latrina on the left hand (22). From +this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20) surrounded by +pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some doubt +as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving +the hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room +(17), at one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold +plunge bath (18). Entering out of the apodyterium is the +tepidarium or warming-room (15), which most probably was also +used as the alipterium or anointing-room. From it bathers +passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had at one end +the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the labrum (14). +This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The arrangements +of the women’s baths were similar, but on a smaller scale. +The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus +(6) was in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a +calidarium are well illustrated by the accompanying section +(fig. 3) of a bath discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the +parts is the same as at Pompeii. We here have the calidarium +supported on the pillars of the fornax, the suspensura. The alveus +(3) is at one end, and the labrum (4) at the other. (1) and (2) +are the vessels for water over +the fornax; and the passages +in the roof and walls for the +escape of heated air will be +observed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:452px; height:528px" src="images/img515b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 310px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:257px; height:190px" src="images/img515c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Section of bath discovered +at Tusculum, showing the calidarium (hot room).</td></tr></table> + +<p>A clear idea of the relative +position of the different rooms, +and some slight indication of +their ornamentation, will be +obtained from fig. 4. The +flues under the calidarium +and the labrum (1) may be +observed, as also the opening +in the roof above. (2), (3) +and (4) mark the vessels for water which are placed between the +men’s baths on the left and the women’s on the right.</p> + +<p>The arrangements of the <i>thermae</i> were mainly those of the +balneae on a larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered +from such facts as these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room +has been transmuted into a church of most imposing proportions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page516" id="page516"></a>516</span> +and that the outside walls of the baths of Caracalla extend about a +quarter of a mile on each of the four sides. A visit to the remains +of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian, or of Caracalla impresses the +mind strongly with a sense of the vast scale on which they were +erected, and Ammianus’s designation of them as provinces appears +scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of Caracalla +contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 3200 marble seats for the +use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a +stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the +spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philosophers +and literary men to sit and discourse or read their +productions aloud or for others to discuss the latest news. Near +the porticoes, in the interior open space, rows of trees were +planted. There was a <i>sphaeristerium</i> or place for playing ball, +which was often over the apodyterium; but it must be confessed +that the purposes of many portions of these large edifices have not +been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of smaller baths. +A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an examination +of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5). +A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being +marked by lighter shading.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:456px; height:248px" src="images/img515d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90">  FRIGIDARIUM  TEPIDARIUM  CALIDARIUM</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Section of baths of Pompeii.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:530px; height:459px" src="images/img516a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces +the street, behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have +been separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre, +the visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the +main building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches +the large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio +or large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room +(4) in all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on +opposite sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented +by small circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconicuim, +although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms +(15, 15) have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica. +Most authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and +(16) were the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.</p> + +<p>Returning to the outside, (1) and (18) and the corresponding +places on the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for +philosophers, and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and +(19) have been considered to be servants’ rooms. (22) was the +stadium, with raised seats for the spectators. The space between +this and the large central hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21) +the aqueduct brought water into the castellum or reservoir, which +was on an upper storey. There were upper storeys in most portions of +the building, and in these probably were the libraries and small +theatres.</p> +</div> + +<p>The piscinae were often of immense size—that of Diocletian +being 200 ft. long—and were adorned with beautiful marbles. +The halls were crowded with magnificent columns and were +ornamented with the finest pieces of statuary. The walls, it has +been said, were covered with exquisite mosaics that imitated the +art of the painter in their elegance of design and variety of colour. +The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with the precious green +marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of Phidias +and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into +capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and +polished silver, water issued from silver, and was received on +silver. “To such a pitch of luxury have we reached,” says Seneca, +“that we are dissatisfied if we do not tread on gems in our baths.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:160px; height:341px" src="images/img516b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ring on which are suspended some of +the articles in use in the Alipterium.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades +(<i>smegmata</i>); they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had +to be content with the flour of lentils, an article used at this day +for the same purpose by Orientals. The most important bath +utensil was the strigillus, a curved instrument +made of metal, with which the skin +was scraped and all sordes removed.</p> + +<p>The bath servants assisted in anointing, +in using the strigillus and in various other +menial offices. The poorer classes had to +use their strigils themselves. The various +processes of the aliptae seem to have been +carried on very systematically.</p> + +<p>The hot baths appear to have been open +from 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> till dark. It was only one of +the later emperors that had them lighted +up at night. When the hot baths were +ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths +were available at an earlier hour), a bell +or <i>aes</i> was rung for the information of the +people. Among the Greeks and Romans +the eighth hour, or 1 o’clock, before their +dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing. +The bath was supposed to promote appetite, +and some voluptuaries had one or more +baths after dinner, to enable them to begin +eating again; but such excesses, as Juvenal tells us, occasionally +proved fatal. Some of the most effeminate of the emperors are +said to have bathed seven or eight times in the course of the +day. In early times there was delicacy of feeling about the +sexes bathing together—even a father could not bathe with his +sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and women +often used the same baths. There frequently were separate +baths for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler; +but although respectable matrons would not go to public +baths, promiscuous bathing was common during the Empire.</p> + +<p>The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate +superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public +bath was only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a +farthing. Yet cheap though this was, the emperors used to +ingratiate themselves with the populace, by making the baths +at times gratuitous.</p> + +<p>Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and +wherever they found hot springs or natural stufae, they made +use of them, thus saving the expense of heating, as at the <i>myrteta</i> +of Baiae or the <i>Aquae Sulis</i> of Bath. In the cities there appear +to have been private baths for hire, as well as the public baths; +and every rich citizen had a set of baths attached to his villa, +the fullest account of which is given in the <i>Letters</i> of Pliny, +or in Ausonius’s <i>Account of a Villa on the Moselle</i>, or in Statius’s +<i>De Balneo Etrusco</i>. Although the Romans never wholly gave +up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under Augustus +by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which +later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they +chiefly practised warm bathing (<i>calida lavatio</i>). This is the +most luxurious kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess +is enervating. The women were particularly fond of these baths, +and were accused, at all events in some provincial cities, of +drunkenness in them.</p> + +<p>The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page517" id="page517"></a>517</span> +with modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their +being to a considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians. +The early Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the +sake of cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory +the Great saw no objection to baths being used on Sunday. +About the 5th century many of the large thermae in Rome fell +into decay. The cutting off of the aqueducts by the Huns, +and the gradual decrease of the population, contributed to this. +Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever disused to the extent +that is usually represented. It was certainly kept up in the +East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing, +and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the +Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into +Spain. The Turks, at a later time, carried them high up the +Danube, and the Mahommedans spread or, it may be more +correct to say, revived their use in Persia and in Hindustan. +The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths in Europe, +and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the leprosy +so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the 13th +century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour +baths. We have full accounts of their regulations—how the +Jews were only allowed to visit them once a week, and how there +were separate baths for lepers. In England they were called +hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of the Reformation, spoke +of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium; he gives +a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be found +in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to +inns. They seem after a time to have become less common, +though Montaigne mentions them as being still in Rome in his +day. In England the next revival of baths was at the close of +the 17th century, under the Eastern name of <i>Hummums</i> or the +Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on the principle +of the Turkish baths described below. But there were several +considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the commencement +of the 18th century, when Floyer and others recalled +attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been +overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and +others revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by +others on the continent, until the value of sea-bathing became +fully appreciated. Later in the same century the experiments +of James Currie on the action of complete or of partial baths +on the system in disease attracted attention; and though forgotten +for a while, they bore abundant fruit in more recent +times.</p> + +<p><i>Modern Baths</i>.—It is uncertain how far the Turkish and +Egyptian and even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely +as successors of the Roman baths, because the principle of +vapour baths has been known to many nations in a very early +period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans and Indians were +found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants of +Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the +large vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed, +are probably of independent origin.</p> + +<p>The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate +the practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish +baths. In Lane’s <i>On the Modern Egyptians</i> we read: “The +building consists of several apartments, all of which are paved +with marble, chiefly white. The inner apartments are covered +with domes, which have a number of small glazed apertures +for the admission of light. The bather, on entering, if he has +a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper of the bath. +The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies him +with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally +three or four <i>leewans</i> (raised parts of the floor used as couches) +cased with marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises +from an octagonal basement in the centre. One of the leewans, +which is meant for the higher classes, is furnished with cushions +or mats. In warm weather bathers usually undress in this +room; in winter they undress in an inner room, called the +<i>beytowwal</i> or first chamber, between which and the last apartment +there is a passage often with two or three latrines off it. +This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two +raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his +clothes and another to put round his waist—this reaches to the +knees; a third, if he requires it, is brought him to wind round +his head, leaving the top of it bare; a fourth to put over his +chest; and a fifth to cover his back. When the bather has undressed, +the attendant opens to him the door of the inner and +principal apartment. This in general has four leewans, which +gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hot +water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with +the adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal +already mentioned is one of them. Two small chambers which +adjoin each other, one containing a tank of hot water, the other +containing a trough, over which are two taps, one of hot and one +of cold water, occupy the two other angles; while the fourth +angle of the square is occupied by the chamber which contains +the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather having entered +this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid heat +which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and +by the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble +seats, or lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the +operator then commences his work. The operator first cracks +aloud every joint in the body. He makes the vertebrae of the +back and even of the neck crack. The limbs are twisted with +apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm is ever done. +The operator next kneads the patient’s flesh. After this he rubs +the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. There +are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth +clay. Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed +silver. The next operation is rubbing the bather’s flesh with a +small coarse woollen bag, after which the bather dips himself +in one of the tanks. He is next taken to one of the chambers +in the corner, and the operator lathers the bather with fibres of +the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then washed off with +water, when the bather having finished washing, and enveloped +himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines. +Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping +coffee and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the +feet and kneads the body and limbs. The bather then dresses +and goes out.”</p> + +<p>The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl’s +<i>Russia</i> (1842): “The passage from the door is divided into two +behind the check-taker’s post, one for the male, one for the female +guests. We first enter an open space, in which a set of men are +sitting in a state of nudity on benches, those who have already +bathed dressing, while those who are going to undergo the process +take off their clothes. Round this space or apartment are +the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The bather is ushered +into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour, which is +surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the roof +of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower +benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones. +The first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a +feeling of suffocation. After you have been subjected for some +time to a temperature which may rise to 145° the transpiration +reaches its full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant. +The bath attendants come and flog you with birchen twigs, +cover you with the lather of soap, afterwards rub it off, and then +hold you over a jet of ice-cold water. The shock is great, but is +followed by a pleasant feeling of great comfort and of alleviation +of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In regular establishments +you go after this and lie down on a bed for a time before +issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air, and +instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at +once in the snow.”</p> + +<p>Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become +popular in Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into +German towns about 1825. They had a certain limited amount +of popularity, but did not take firm root. Another class practically +owes its origin to Dr Barter and David Urquhart. It professed +to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality it was +much more of a hot air bath, <i>i.e.</i> more devoid of vapour than +either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page518" id="page518"></a>518</span> +whether in any case the air of the laconicum was free from +vapour. These baths, with their various modifications, have +become extremely popular in Great Britain, in Germany and in +northern Europe, but have, curiously enough, never been used +extensively in France, notwithstanding the familiarity of the +French with Turkish baths in Algiers.</p> + +<p>In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively. +They are often associated with Turkish and electric baths.</p> + +<p>Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms. +It was sometimes a simple bath in cold or in tepid water; but +at least, in the case of the higher orders, it usually included a +hot air or vapour bath, and was followed by affusion of cold or +warm water, and generally by a plunge into the piscina. In like +manner the order varies in which the different processes are gone +through in Turkish baths in modern Europe. Thus in the baths +in Vienna, the process begins by immersion in a large basin of +warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches +at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied +with a short stay in the cooling-room, where they have only a +simple sheet rolled round them. In Copenhagen and in Stockholm +the Oriental baths have been considerably modified by +their association with hydropathic practices.</p> + +<p>This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously misnamed +system known as hydropathy (<i>q.v.</i>). Although cold +baths were in vogue for a time in Rome, warm baths were always +more popular. Floyer, as we have seen, did something to revive +their use in England; but it was nearly a century and a half +afterwards that a Silesian peasant, Priessnitz, introduced, with +wonderful success, a variety of operations with cold water, the +most important of which was the packing the patient in a wet +sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse sudation. +Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing +and its modifications were erected in many places on the continent +and in Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large +share of popularity. The name “hydropathic” is still retained +for these establishments, though hydropathy so-called is no +longer practised within them to any extent.</p> + +<p>But the greatest and most important development of ordinary +baths in modern times was in England, though it has extended +gradually to some parts of the continent. The English had long +used affusion and swimming-baths freely in India. Cold and hot +baths and shower baths have been introduced into private +houses to an extent never known before; and, since 1842, public +swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have been supplied +to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases associated +with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has +increased rapidly in London and in the principal continental +cities. Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German +towns, have become common wherever there are flowing streams. +The better supply of most European cities with water has aided +in this movement. Ample enclosed swimming-baths have been +erected at many seaside places. When required, the water, if +not heated in a boiler, is raised to a sufficient temperature by +the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths used to +be of wood, painted; they are now most frequently of metal, +painted or lined with <span class="correction" title="amended from procelain">porcelain</span> enamel. The swimming-baths +are lined with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and +a good deal of ornamentation and painting of the walls and +ceiling of the apartments, in imitation of the ancients, has been +attempted.</p> + +<p>We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through +successive ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far +has been water, vapour or dry hot air. But baths of more +complex nature, and of the greatest variety, have been in use +from the earliest ages. The best known media are the various +mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of <i>mineral</i> substances, +those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of +<i>arenation</i> or of burying the body in the sand of the sea-shore, +or in heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also +that of applying heated sand to various parts of the body. +Baths of <i>peat</i> earth are of comparatively recent origin. The +peat earth is carefully prepared and pulverized, and then worked +up with water into a pasty consistence, of which the temperature +can be regulated before the patient immerses himself in it.</p> + +<p>There are various terms that may be termed <i>chemical</i>, in which +chlorine or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath, +or where fumes of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.</p> + +<p>Of <i>vegetable</i> baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, in a +state of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety +of aromatic herbs have been used to impregnate water with. +At one time fuci or sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea +of conveying into the system the iodine which they contain; +but by far the most popular of all vegetable baths are those +made with an extract got by distilling certain varieties of pine +leaves.</p> + +<p>The strangeness of the baths of <i>animal</i> substances, that have +been at various times in use, is such that their employment +seems scarcely credible. That baths of milk or of whey might +be not unpopular is not surprising, but baths of blood, in some +cases even of human blood, have been used; and baths of horse +dung were for many ages in high favour, and were even succeeded +for a short time by baths of guano.</p> + +<p><i>Electrical</i> baths are now largely used, a current being passed +through the water; and electrical <i>massage</i>, by the d’Arsonval or +other system, is colloquially termed a “bath.”</p> + +<p>Baths also of <i>compressed air</i>, in which the patient is subjected +to the pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly +employed in some places.</p> + +<p>A <i>sun</i> bath (<i>insolatio</i> or <i>heliosis</i>), exposing the body to the sun, +the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the +Greeks and Romans.</p> + +<p>Some special devices require a few words of explanation.</p> + +<p><i>Douches</i> were used by the ancients, and have always been an +important mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of +the body. They are, in fact, spouts of water, varying in size and +temperature, applied by a hose-pipe with more or less force for +a longer or shorter time against particular parts. A douche +exercises a certain amount of friction, and a continued impulse +on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate the skin and +the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation. The +effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied +for more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of +hot and cold douches, which for some unknown reason has got +the name of <i>Écossaise</i>, is a very potent type of bath from the +strong action and reaction which it produces. The <i>shower</i> bath +may be regarded as a union of an immense number of fine douches +projected on the head and shoulders. It produces a strong effect +on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for giving +circular <i>spray</i> baths, by which water is propelled laterally in +fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is +now common.</p> + +<p>To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and +circulation must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the +patient with the flesh glove, but much more thoroughly by the +bath attendants, if properly instructed (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Massage</a></span>).</p> + +<p><i>Action of Baths on the Human System</i>.—The primary operation +of baths is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces +through the medium of water.</p> + +<p>The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and +cleanliness, to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and +to prevent the pores from being clogged by their own secretions +or by desquamations of cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such +objects are greatly promoted by the action of the alkali of soaps +and by friction; that the use of warm water, owing to its immediate +stimulation of the skin, promotes the separation of sordes, +and that the vapour of water is still more efficient than water +itself.</p> + +<p>It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being +absorbed through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no +water is absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be +worth considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary +circumstances of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system; +although when a portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its +sebaceous secretion, it is possible that a strong solution of salts +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page519" id="page519"></a>519</span> +may be partially absorbed. In the case of medicated baths we +therefore only look (in addition to the action of heat and cold, or +more properly to the abstraction or communication and retention +of heat) to any stimulant action on the skin that the ingredients +of the bath may possess.</p> + +<p>The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin, +and the mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on +the temperature of the fluid. The human system bears changes of +temperature of the air much better than changes of the temperature +of water. While the temperature of the air at 75° may be too +warm for the feelings of many people, a continued bath at that +temperature is felt to be cold and depressing. Again, a bath of +98° to 102° acts far more excitingly than air of the same temperature, +both because, being a better conductor, water brings more +heat to the body and because it suppresses the perspiration which +is greatly augmented by air of that temperature. Further, a +temperature a few degrees below blood heat is that of indifferent +baths, which can be borne longest without natural disturbance of +the system.</p> + +<p><i>Cold baths</i> act by refrigeration, and their effects vary +according to the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the +temperature not being below 50°, are these:—there is a diminution +of the temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues; +there is a certain feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface, +and if the cold is intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness +in the skin. It becomes pale and its capillaries contract. The +further action of a cold bath reaches the central nervous system, +the heart and the lungs, as manifested by the tremor of the limbs +it produces, along with a certain degree of oppression of the chest +and a gasping for air, while the pulse becomes small and sinks. +After a time reaction takes place, and brings redness to the skin +and an increase of temperature.</p> + +<p>The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing +its effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold +baths, anything below 50°, cannot be borne long. Lowering of +the temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9°, but a further +reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is +much more rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather +moves about; because, if the water is still, the layer of it in +immediate contact with the body is warmed to a certain degree.</p> + +<p>A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one +may have—(1) Its depressing operation,—with a loss of heat, +retardation of the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the +same water remains in contact with the skin, and there is continuous +withdrawal of heat without fresh stimulation. This occurs +with full or sitz baths, with partial or complete wrapping up the +body in a wet sheet which remains unchanged, and with frictions +practised without removing the wet sheets. (2) Its exciting +operation,—with quickening of the action of the heart and lungs, +and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of increased +muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer +of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold +water causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full +baths with the water in motion used only for a short time, by +frictions when the wet sheet is removed from the body, by douches, +shower baths, bathing in rivers, &c. The depressing operation +comes on much earlier in very cold water than in warmer; and in +the same way the exciting operation comes on faster with the +colder than with the warmer water. The short duration of the bath +makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its longer +duration increases them; and if the baths be continued too long, +the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very depressing.</p> + +<p><i>Tepid baths,</i> 85° to 95°.—The effects of a bath of this +temperature are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves, +and are so slight that they do not reach the central system. +There is no reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged. +Baths of this kind can be borne for hours with impunity.</p> + +<p><i>Warm baths</i> from 96° to 104°.—In these the action of the heat +on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and +causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased flow +of the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of pulse.</p> + +<p>With a <i>hot bath</i> from 102° up to 110° the central nervous and +circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse +increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is +interrupted by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and +there is profuse perspiration.</p> + +<p><i>Very hot baths.</i>—Everything above 110° feels very hot; +anything above 120° almost scalding. Baths of from 119° to 126° +have caused a rise of 2° to 4½° in the temperature of the blood. +Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great +rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure, +excessive congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration.</p> + +<p>In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the +parts of the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.</p> + +<p><i>Vapour</i> baths produce profuse perspiration and act in +cleansing the skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to +its smaller specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body. +A vapour bath can be borne for a much longer time when the +vapour is not inhaled. Vapour baths can be borne hotter than +water baths, but cannot be continued too long, as vapour, being a +bad conductor, prevents radiation of heat from the body. A +higher heat than 122° is not borne comfortably. The vapour bath +though falling considerably short of the temperature of the hot +air bath, raises the temperature much more.</p> + +<p><i>Hot air</i> baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the +respiration as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bronchial +tubes. The lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air, +are subjected to a temperature above their own. Hot air baths, +say of 135°, produce more profuse perspiration than vapour baths. +If very hot, they raise the temperature of the body by several +degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths, and hot water baths agree +in producing violent perspiration. As perspiration eliminates +water and effete matter from the system, it is obvious that its +regulation must have an important effect on the economy.</p> + +<p>In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may +be said that while the former tend to check perspiration, the +latter favour it.</p> + +<p>The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries +of the surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is +withdrawn their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first +causes a contraction of the capillaries of the surface, which is +followed by their expansion when reaction sets in. A warm bath +elevates the temperature of the body, both by bringing a supply +of heat to it and by preventing the radiation of heat from it. +It can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood to the +surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.</p> + +<p>But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudiciously. +Long continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing to +this action, often caused death by drowning. The effects of +very hot baths are swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting, +congestion of the brain, and, in some instances, apoplexy.</p> + +<p>The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the +heart. It is therefore very evident how cautious those should be, +in the use of hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction +to the circulation. Fat men, and those in whom the heart or +blood-vessels are unsound, should avoid them. Protracted +indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and has been esteemed a +sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though it will not +follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the effects +of protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the +surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion +of the internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue. +Extremely cold baths are always dangerous.</p> + +<p>For the medical use of baths see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Balneotherapeutics</a></span>.</p> + +<p><i>Public Baths.</i>—It was not till 1846 that it was deemed +advisable in England, for the “health, comfort, and welfare” of +the inhabitants of towns and populous districts, to encourage +the establishment therein of baths by the local authority acting +through commissioners. A series of statutes, known collectively +as “The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896,” followed. +By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was declared +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page520" id="page520"></a>520</span> +to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under +the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time +expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which +might be used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an +amending act of 1899, for music or dancing, provided a licence +is obtained. By the Local Government Act 1894, it was provided +that the parish meeting should be the authority having exclusive +power of adopting the Baths and Wash-houses Acts in rural +districts, which should, if adopted, be carried into effect by the +parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if only twenty-five +boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for their +inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number +of authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return +of reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons +in 1899 shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis +applied for power to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48 +applied before 1875 and 62 after 1875. In the year 1907 the +loans sanctioned for the purpose amounted to £53,026. The +revenues of parish councils are so limited that it has not been +possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In the +metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power +of working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of +1899 this power was transferred to the borough councils. There +are 35 parishes in London in which the acts have been adopted, +all of which except 11 have taken action since 1875. These +establishments, according to the return made in 1908, provided +3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum +charge for a second-class cold bath is 1d., for a hot bath 2d. +In 1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom +3,064,998 were bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers +in swimming baths. In 1896-1897 the gross total had been +only 2,000,000. In cases where the proportion between the sexes +has been worked out, it is found that only 18% of the users of +private baths, and 10% of the users of swimming baths, are +females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the +fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming +were provided, and in 1907-1908 the privilege was used by +1,556,542 children. The cost of this public provision in London—water +being supplied by measure—is over £80,000 a year. No +account can be given of the numbers using the ponds and lakes +in the parks and open spaces, but it is computed that on a hot +Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park, London, some of +the bathers starting as early as four o’clock in the morning. +These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of +bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited +to a comparatively small part of the population. People require +to be tempted to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning. +There are still authorities in London responsible for 800,000 +persons who have provided no baths, and those who have +made provision have not always done so in a sufficiently +liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English +great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of the +former.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the +<i>Architecture</i> of Vitruvius, and to Lucian’s <i>Hippias</i>; see art. “Bäder” +in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i> (1896), by A. Mau; “Balneum” +in Daremberg and Saglio, <i>Dict. des antiquités</i> J. Marquardt <i>Das +Privalleben der Römer</i> (1886), pp. 269-297; Backer’s <i>Gallus</i>, and the +article “Balneae” by Rich, in Dr Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Greek +and Roman Antiquities</i> (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hydropathy</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for collecting the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed. There +is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep the +strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel out of +which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHURST, EARLS.<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> <span class="sc">Allen Bathurst</span>, 1st Earl Bathurst +(1684-1775), was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst +(d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d. 1727), daughter of Sir Allen +Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a family which is said +to have settled in Sussex before the Norman Conquest. He was +educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member of +parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until +December 1711, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battlesden, +Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury, +bishop of Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent +of Sir Robert Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was +made a privy councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl +Bathurst, having previously received a pension of £2000 a year +chargeable upon the Irish revenues. He died on the 16th of +September 1775, and was buried in Cirencester church. In July +1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine (d. 1768), daughter +of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and five daughters. +The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the time. +Pope, Swift, Prior, Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends. +He is described in Sterne’s <i>Letters to Eliza</i>; was the subject of a +graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of +Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope +are published in Pope’s <i>Works</i>, vol. viii. (London, 1872).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Henry</span>, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest +surviving son of the 1st earl. Educated at Balliol College, +Oxford, he was called to the bar, and became a K.C. in 1745. +In April 1735 he had been elected member of parliament for +Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to the government +by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general +to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament +in April 1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas +in the following month, and became lord high chancellor in +January 1771, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron +Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by his father’s death in +September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat unwillingly in +July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord North. +In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the +council, and left office with North in March 1782. He died at +Oakley Grove near Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794. +Bathurst was twice married, and left two sons and four daughters. +He was a weak lord chancellor, but appears to have been just +and fair in his distribution of patronage.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Henry</span>, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the +second earl, was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789 +he married Georgiana (d. 1841), daughter of Lord George Henry +Lennox, and was member of parliament for Cirencester from +1783 until he succeeded to the earldom in August 1794. Owing +mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was a lord of the +admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from 1789 +to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793 +to 1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became +master of the mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and +master of the mint during the ministries of the duke of Portland +and Spencer Perceval, only vacating these posts in June 1812 +to become secretary for war and the colonies under the earl of +Liverpool. For two months during the year 1809 he was in +charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war and the +colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves +some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War, +while it was his duty to defend the government concerning its +treatment of Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst’s official position +caused his name to be mentioned frequently during the agitation +for the abolition of slavery, and with regard to this traffic he +seems to have been animated by a humane spirit. He was lord +president of the council in the government of the duke of Wellington +from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of the disabilities +of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the +reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two +daughters, died on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a +knight of the Garter in 1817, and held several lucrative +sinecures.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Henry George</span>, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-1866), +was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to +1834. He died unmarried on the 25th of May 1866, and was +succeeded in the title by his brother, <span class="sc">William Lennox</span>, 5th Earl +Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for Weobley from +1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to 1860, +who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Allen Alexander</span>. 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the +son of Thomas Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl. +He was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he +became Earl Bathurst in February 1878, and died on the 2nd of +August 1892, when his eldest son, <span class="sc">Seymour Henry</span> (b. 1864), +became 7th Earl Bathurst.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page521" id="page521"></a>521</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BATHURST,<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales, +Australia, 144 m. by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great +Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223. It is situated on the south +bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation of 2153 ft., in a +fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue Mountains. +Bathurst has broad streets,, crossing one another at right angles, +with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of +the public buildings, specially the town hall, government buildings, +and Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are noteworthy. +Bathurst is the centre of the chief wheat-growing +district of New South Wales, while gold, copper and silver are +extensively mined in its vicinity. There are railway works, +coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and manufactures +of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town +was founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name +from the 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary of state for the +colonies, and it has been a municipality since 1862.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHVILLITE,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a naturally occurring organic substance. It +is an amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-brown +colour, filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of +Bathville, Scotland. It has a specific gravity of 1.01, and is +insoluble in benzene.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHYBIUS<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="bathis">βαθύς</span>, deep, and <span class="grk" title="bios">βίος</span>, life), a slimy substance +at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of the +ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding +it as an organism which represented the simplest form of life, +Huxley about 1868 named it <i>Bathybius Haeckelii</i>. But investigations +carried out in connexion with the “Challenger” +expedition indicated that it was an artificial product, composed +of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum thrown down from sea-water +by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic character was +abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATHYCLES,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commissioned +by the Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of +Apollo at Amyclae, about 550 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a +detailed description of this monument, which is of the greatest +value to us, showing the character of Ionic art at the time. It +was adorned with scenes from mythology in relief and supporting +figures in the round.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a reconstruction, see Furtwängler, <i>Meisterwerke der griech +Plastik</i>, p. 706.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATLEY,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> a municipal borough in the West Riding of Yorkshire, +England, within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury, +8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North +Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1900) +30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints is mainly +Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the +17th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market +square contains an excellent group of modern buildings, including +the town hall, public library, post office and others. The town is +a centre of the heavy woollen trade, and has extensive manufactures +of army cloths, pilot cloths, druggets, flushings, &c. +The working up of old material as “shoddy” is largely carried on. +There are also iron foundries, manufactures of machinery, and +stone quarries. The town lies on the south-west Yorkshire +coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in the district. +The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen +councillors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATON<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (Fr. <i>bâton, baston</i>, from Late Lat. <i>basto</i>, a stick or +staff), the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of +authority, by a police constable, &c.; in music, the stick with +which the conductor of an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the +fourth part of a bend, frequently broken off short at the ends +so as to be shaped like a rod; in English coats of arms, only as a +mark of illegitimacy, the “baton sinister.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (1708-1787), Italian painter, +was born at Lucca. He was regarded in Italy as a great painter +in the 18th century, and unquestionably did much to rescue the +art from the intense mannerism into which it had fallen during +the preceding century. His paintings, however, are not of the +highest order of merit, though they are generally graceful, well +designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best production is +thought to be his group of “Peace and War.” Batoni painted an +unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for his +portraits.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATON ROUGE,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of +East Baton Rouge parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, +about 70 m. N.W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1900) +11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro descent; (1910 census) +14,897. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railway +and by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company; and +the Texas & Pacific enters Port Alien, just across the river. +The city lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods. +Old houses in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance. +The state capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another +burned in 1862. At Baton Rouge is the State University and +Agricultural and Mechanical College (1860), of which the +Audubon Sugar School, “for the highest scientific training +in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology of sugar +manufacture,” is an important and distinctive feature. The +university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning +and Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and +opened in 1860 under the charge of W.T. Sherman. In 1869 the +institution was removed to Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was +united with the Agricultural and Mechanical College, established +in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New Orleans. The campus of +the university is the former barracks of the Baton Rouge garrison, +occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred to it by the +Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university +in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton +Rouge are a State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums +and schools for the deaf and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans, +and the state penitentiary. The surrounding bluff and alluvial +country is very rich. Sugar and cotton plantations and sub-tropic +fruit orchards occupy the front-lands on the river. The +manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products, and +sugar. The value of the city’s factory products increased from +$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1905 or 92.8%. The city +is governed under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898. +This charter is peculiar in that it gives to the city council the +power to elect various administrative boards—of police, finance, +&c.—from which the legislative council of most cities is separated.</p> + +<p>Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in +the state. As a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands +of the British in 1763, and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo +Galvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana. The town was +incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the state capital, +remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the Confederate +state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans +the seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana +was passed on the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that +met at Baton Rouge. On the and of May 1862 the city was +captured by the forces of the United States under Col. Benjamin +H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither from +Tennessee; on the 12th of May it was formally occupied by +troops from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by +Brig.-Gen. Thomas Williams (1815-1862) against an attack +by Confederate forces under General John C. Breckinridge on +the 5th of August 1862; Gen. Williams, however, was killed +during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned for a +month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest +of the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordance +with the state constitution of 1879. For several years +after 1840 Zachary Taylor made his home on a plantation near +Baton Rouge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATRACHIA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>. The arguments adduced by T.H. Huxley, +in his article on this subject in the ninth edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>, for applying the name <i>Amphibia</i> to those +lung-breathing, pentadactyle vertebrates which had been first +severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by Alexandre Brongniart, +under the name of <i>Batrachia</i>, have not met with universal +acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical +works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has +been discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page522" id="page522"></a>522</span> +on systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Günther and +E.D. Cope, and their lead is followed in the present article. +Bearing in mind that Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia, +was not alluding to the gill-breathing and air-breathing periods +through which most frogs and newts pass in the course of their +existence, but only wished to convey the fact that many of the +constituents of the group resort to both land and water (<i>e.g.</i> +crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be thus +diverted from its original signification, especially when such a +change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by +Brongniart to denote the association which has ever since been +universally adopted either as an order, a sub-class or a class. +Many authors who have devoted special attention to questions +of nomenclature therefore think <i>Reptilia</i> and <i>Batrachia</i> the +correct names of the two great classes into which the Linnaean +<i>Amphibia</i> have been divided, and consider that the latter term +should be reserved for the use of those who, like that great +authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his death +in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as +mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear, +especially to those who bring the living forms only into focus, +that opposition should still be made to Huxley’s primary division +of the vertebrates other than mammals into <i>Sauropsida</i> (birds +and reptiles) and <i>Ichthyopsida</i> (batrachians and fishes), it is +certain that recent discoveries in palaeontology have reduced +the gap between batrachians and reptiles to such a minimum +as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to draw +a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other +hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide +as it was at the time Huxley’s article Amphibia (<i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>, 9th ed.) was written.</p> + +<p>The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians +from the reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the +arrangement of the bones of the palate, where a large parasphenoid +extends forwards as far or nearly as far as the vomers +and widely separates the pterygoids. The bones which bear the +two occipital condyles have given rise to much discussion, and +the definition given by Huxley in the previous edition—“two +occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull either +very incompletely or not at all ossified”—requires revision. +Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital +condyles have been found most developed in some labyrinthodonts +(<b>2</b>) represents a large basi-occipital bearing two knobs +for the articulation with the first vertebra, whilst the skull +of the batrachians of the present day has lost the basi-occipital, +and the condyles are furnished by the exoccipitals. On the +other hand, some reptiles have the occipital condyle divided into +two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by the exoccipitals. +But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a +labyrinthodont (<i>Capitosaurus stantonensis</i>) from the Trias of +Staffordshire has enabled A.S. Woodward (<b>3</b>) to show that, in +that form at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although +they are separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore +very probable that the authors quoted in (<b>2</b>) were mistaken in +their identification of the elements at the base of the foramen +magnum. The fact remains, however, that some if not all of +the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified basi-occipital.</p> + +<p>As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and +the Stegocephalia (<b>4</b>), as the extinct order that includes the +well known labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the +proposal by H.G. Seeley (<b>5</b>) to place the latter with the reptiles +instead of with the batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most +recent classification (<b>6</b>), places some of them among the reptiles, +others being left with the batrachians; whilst H. Credner, +basing his views on the discovery by him of various annectent +forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian +reptiles, has proposed a class, <i>Eotetrapoda</i>, to include these forms, +ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the +reptiles proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia, +notwithstanding their great affinity to the reptiles, ought to +be included in the batrachians as commonly understood, seems +sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of their passing through +a branchiate condition, <i>i.e.</i> undergoing metamorphosis (<b>7</b>). +The outcome of our present knowledge points to the Stegocephalia, +probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian +fishes (<b>8</b>), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians +(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent +connected through the <i>Caudata</i> and the <i>Apoda</i>, on the other +hand the reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhynchocephalians +and the Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on +very suggestive evidence, to lead to the mammals (<b>9</b>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:271px; height:422px" src="images/img522.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Upper view of <i>Archegosaurus +Decheni</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(Outlines after Gredner.)</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>pm</i>, Praemaxilla.</p> +<p><i>n</i>, Nasal.</p> +<p><i>m</i>, Maxilla.</p> +<p><i>l</i>, Lachrymal.</p> +<p><i>pf</i>, Praefrontal.</p> +<p><i>f</i>, Frontal.</p> +<p><i>j</i>, Jugal</p> +<p><i>ptf</i>, Postfrontal.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>p</i>, Parietal.</p> +<p><i>st</i>, Supratemporal.</p> +<p><i>sq</i>, Squamosal.</p> +<p><i>pto</i>, Postorbital.</p> +<p><i>qj</i>, Quadrato-jugal.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Occipital.</p> +<p><i>pt</i>, Post-temporal.</p> +<p><i>q</i>, Quadrate.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four +orders, as carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however, +a change of names: <i>Stegocephalia</i>, for the assemblage of minor +groups that cluster round +the <i>Labyrinthodonta</i> of R. +Owen, which name is restricted +to the forms for +which it was originally intended; +<i>Peromela</i>, <i>Urodela</i>, +<i>Anura</i>, are changed to +<i>Apoda</i>, <i>Caudata</i>, <i>Ecaudata</i>, +for the reason that (unless +obviously misleading, which +is not the case in the +present instance) the first +proposed name should supersede +all others for higher +groups as well as for genera +and species, and the latter +set have the benefit of the +law of priority. In the +first subdivision of the batrachians +into two families by +C. Duméril in 1806 (<i>Zool. +Anal</i>. pp. 90-94) these are +termed “Anoures” and +“Urodeles” in French, +<i>Ecaudati</i> and <i>Caudati</i> in +Latin. When Duméril’s +pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811 +(<i>Ordn. Rept</i>. p. 72), added +the Caecilians, he named +the three groups <i>Apoda</i>, +<i>Ecaudata</i> and <i>Caudata</i>. The +Latin form being the only +one entitled to recognition +in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the last-mentioned +names should be adopted for the three orders into which recent +batrachians are divided.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>I. <span class="sc">Stegocephalia</span> (<b>10</b>).—Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform batrachians, +with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by +postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the +same bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired +dermal bones (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals +and supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes +frequently present, especially on the ventral region, which is further +protected by three large bony plates—interclavicle and clavicles, +the latter in addition to cleithra.</p> + +<p>Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our +knowledge of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only +certain proof of the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that +period resting on the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and +described by O.C. Marsh (<b>11</b>) as <i>Tinopus antiquus</i>. Sundry remains +from Belgium, as to the identification of which doubts are still +entertained, have been regarded by M. Lohest (<b>12</b>) as evidence of +these batrachians in the Devonian. Over 200 species are now distinguished, +from the Carboniferous of Europe and North America, +the Permian of Spitsbergen, Europe, North America and South +Africa, and the Trias of Europe, America, South Africa, India and +Australia. The forms of batrachians with which we are acquainted +show the vertebral column to have been evolved in the course of +time from a notochordal condition with segmented centra similar +to that of early bony ganoid fishes (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Caturus</i>, <i>Eurycormus</i>), to +biconcave centra, and finally to the socket-and-ball condition that +prevails at the present day. However, owing to the evolution of the +vertebral column in various directions, and to the inconstant state +of things in certain annectent groups, it is not possible, it seems, to +apply the vertebral characters to taxonomy with that rigidity which +E.D. Cope and some other recent authors have attempted to enforce. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page523" id="page523"></a>523</span> +This is particularly evident in the case of the Stegocephalians; and +recent batrachians, tailed and tailless, show the mode of articulation +of the vertebrae, whether amphicoelous, opisthocoelous or procoelous, +to be of but secondary systematic importance in dealing with these +lowly vertebrates. The following division of the Stegocephalians +into five sub-orders is therefore open to serious criticism; but it +seems on the whole the most natural to adopt in the light of our +present knowledge.</p> + +<p><b>A. Rhachitomi</b>, (figs. 1, 2), in which the spinal cord rests +on the notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by +three bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called +pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum +proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypocentrum +below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably +answers to the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the +caudal region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian +age, with a more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth. +Families: <span class="sc">Archegosauridae, Eryopidae, Trimerorhachidae, +Dissorhophidae.</span> The last is remarkable for an extraordinary +endo- and exo-skeletal carapace, <i>Dissorhophus</i> being described by +Cope (<b>13</b>) as a “batrachian armadillo.”</p> + +<p><b>B. Embolomeri</b>, with the centra and intercentra equally +developed disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch; +these disks perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord. +This type may be directly derived from the preceding, with which +it appears to be connected by the genus <i>Diplospondylus</i>. +Fam.: <span class="sc">Cricotidae</span>, Permian.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:472px; height:347px" src="images/img523a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of <i>Archegosaurus</i>. +<i>na</i>, Neural arch; <i>ch</i>, chorda; <i>pl</i>, pleurocentrum; <i>ic</i>, intercentrum.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(Outline after Jaekel.)</td></tr></table> + +<p><b>C. Labyrinthodonta</b>, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very +slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the +loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from +that of the <i>Rhachitomi</i>, as shown by the structure of the +vertebral column in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the +Trias (a few Permian), with true labyrinthic dentition. Families: +<span class="sc">Labyrinthodontidae, Anthracosauridae, Dendrerpetidae, Nyraniidae</span>.</p> + +<p><b>D. Microsauria</b>, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord +completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural +arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls. +Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower +Permian. Families: <span class="sc">Urocordylidae, Limnerpetidae, Hylonomidae</span> (fig. 3), +<span class="sc">Microbrachidae, Dolichosomatidae</span>, the latter serpentiform, apodal.</p> + +<p><b>E. Branchiosauria</b>, nearest to the true batrachians; with +persistent non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped, +bony cylinders formed by the neural arch above and a pair of +intercentra below, both these elements taking an equal share in the +formation of a transverse process on each side for the support of the +rib. This plan of structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous +type by suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension +of the neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as +development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater +part by the neural arch (<b>14</b>). Small forms from the Upper Carboniferous +and Permian formations. A single family: <span class="sc">Branchiosauridae</span>.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:317px; height:356px" src="images/img523b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—A, Dorsal vertebra of <i>Hylonomus</i> (side view +and front view). B, Dorsal vertebra of <i>Branchiosaurus</i> +(side view and front view). <i>n</i>, Neural canal; <i>ch</i>, chorda.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80">(After Credner.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>II. <span class="sc">Apoda</span> (<b>15</b>).—No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal +bones distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries. +Male with an intromittent copulatory organ. Degraded, worm-like +batrachians of still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa, +south-eastern Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are +known. No fossils have yet been discovered. It has been attempted +of late to do away with this order altogether and to make the +Caecilians merely a family of the Urodeles. This view has originated +out of the very remarkable superficial resemblance between the +<i>Ichthyophis</i>-larva and the <i>Amphiuma</i>. Cope (<b>16</b>) regarded +the Apoda as the extremes of a line of degeneration from the Salamanders, +with <i>Amphiuma</i> as one of the annectent forms. In the opinion of +P. and F. Sarasin (<b>17</b>), whose great work on the development of +<i>Ichthyophis</i> is one of the most important recent contributions +to our knowledge of the batrachians, <i>Amphiuma</i> is a sort of +neotenic Caecilian, a larval form become sexually mature while retaining +the branchial respiration. If the absence of limbs and the reduction of +the tail were the only characteristic of the group, there would be, +of course, no objection to unite the Caecilians with the Urodeles; but, +to say nothing of the scales, present in many genera of Apodals and +absent in all Caudates, which have been shown by H. Credner to be +identical in structure with those of Stegocephalians, the Caecilian skull +presents features which are not shared by any of the tailed batrachians. +G.M. Winslow (<b>18</b>), who has made a study of the +chondrocranium of <i>Ichthyophis</i>, concludes that its condition could +not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more +primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not +one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability show.</p> + +<p>III. <span class="sc">Caudata</span> (<b>19</b>).—Tailed batrachians, with the frontals distinct +from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of +the forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were +formerly regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the +air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested +larvae descended from the latter. One of the most startling discoveries +of the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms +are devoid of both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin +and the buccal mucose membrane (<b>20</b>). Three blind cave-forms are +known: one terrestrial—<i>Typhlotriton</i>, from North America, and +two perennibranchiate—<i>Proteus</i> in Europe and <i>Typhlomolge</i> +in North America.</p> + +<p>This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families: +<span class="sc">Hylaeobatrachidae, Salamandridae, Amphiumidae, Proteidae, Sirenidae</span>.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe +and the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele +known is <i>Hylaeobatrachus</i> Dollo (<b>21</b>) from the Lower Wealden of +Belgium. At present this order is confined to the northern hemisphere, +with the exception of two <i>Spelerpes</i> from the Andes of Ecuador +and Peru, and a <i>Plethodon</i> from Argentina.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">IV. Ecaudata</span> (<b>22</b>).—Frogs and toads. Four limbs and no tail. +Radius confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus +and calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind +limb. Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal +bones confluent with parietals.</p> + +<p>This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are +fossil, divided into two sub-orders and sixteen families:—</p> + +<p><b>A. Aglossa</b>,—Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium +pharyngeum; no tongue. <span class="sc">Dactylethridae, Pipidae</span>.</p> + +<p><b>B. Phaneroglossa</b>,—Eustachian tubes separated; tongue present. +<span class="sc">Discoglossidae, Pelobatidae, Hemiphractidae, Amphignathodontidae, +Hylidae, Bufonidae, Dendrophryniscidae, Cystignathidae, Dyscophidae, +Genyophrynidae, Engystomatidae, Ceratobatrachidae, Ranidae, +Dendrobatidae</span>.</p> + +<p>The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; <i>Arcifera</i> and +<i>Firmisternia</i>, representing two stages of evolution. The family +characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of +the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws, +or their absence. The <i>Discoglossidae</i> are noteworthy for the presence +of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also +they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded +as, on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct +ribs are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by +W.G. Ridewood (<b>23</b>). The recent addition of a third genus of Aglossa, +<i>Hymenochirus</i> (<b>24</b>) from tropical Africa, combining characters +of <i>Pipa</i> and <i>Xenopus</i>, has removed every doubt as to the real +affinity which connects these genera. <i>Hymenochirus</i> is further +remarkable for the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page524" id="page524"></a>524</span> +column, which is thus the most abbreviated among all the +vertebrata.</p> + +<p>Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and +their distribution is a world-wide one, with the exception of many +islands. Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special +lizard-fauna, has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian +<i>Hyla aurea</i> has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses +only one species (<i>Liopelma hochstetteri</i>), which appears to be rare +and restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern +Asia, Africa and South America are particularly rich in species.</p> + +<p>According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced +about as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable +batrachian of this order, referred by its describer to <i>Palaeobatrachus</i>, +a determination which is only provisional, has been discovered in +the Kimmeridgian of the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (<b>25</b>), in +a therefore somewhat older formation than the Wealden Caudata +<i>Hylaeobatrachus</i>.</p> + +<p>Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene of +Wyoming, fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from +the Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These +forms differ very little from those that live at the present day in the +same part of the world, and some of the genera (<i>Discoglossus, Bufo, +Oxyglossus, Rana</i>) are even identical. <i>Palaeobatrachus</i> (<b>26</b>), of which +a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form +and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Germany, +Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the <i>Pelobatidae</i>; +this genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa, +but the absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an +association.</p> + +<p>Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge of the +development and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some +forms dispensing with or hurrying through the metamorphoses +and hopping out of the egg in the perfect condition (<b>27</b>).</p> + +<p><i>Skeleton</i>.—In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephalia, +we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the vertebrae, +and these modifications have been used for their classification. +All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of at least two +pieces, the suture between which persists throughout life. In this +they differ from the three orders which have living representatives. +Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of salamanders are +continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of fact, these +vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should correspond +with the centrum being formed, as a study of the development has +shown (H. Gadow, <b>14</b>), by the meeting and subsequent complete +co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of elements +(tail-vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of dorsal elements. +In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk are formed on two +different plans. In some the notochord remains for a long time +exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence of +cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becoming +invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane; it can be +easily stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the +point of metamorphosing. This has been termed the <i>epichordal</i> +type. In others, which represent the <i>perichordal</i> type, the greater +share of the formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired) +dorsal cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypochordal +cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected +with it by calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely surrounded +by a thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed +limbs. This mode of formation of both the arch and the greater +part or whole of the so-called centrum from the same cartilage +explains why there is never a neuro-central suture in these batrachians.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:523px; height:198px" src="images/img524a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—The first two vertebrae of <i>Necturus</i>. <i>Vt</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Atlas; <i>Vt</i><span class="sp">2</span>, second vertebrae; <i>a</i>, intercondyloid process of the atlas; <i>b</i>, the articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the second +vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal; B, ventral; C, lateral view.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above, +which send out the transverse processes of diapophyses, there appears +between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the +articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached +either to the vertebra anterior (precoelous type) or posterior (opisthocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent, intervertebral, +ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens of +<i>Pelobatidae</i>.</p> + +<p>In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between +the vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated +into a cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end +of the vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous +and opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossification, +and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the +use of these terms.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:275px; height:436px" src="images/img524b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:168px; height:368px" src="images/img524c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—<i>Necturus</i>. Posterior (A) +and ventral (B) views of the sacral +vertebrae (<i>S.V.</i>); <i>S.R.</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>S.R.</i><span class="sp">2</span>, sacral +ribs; <i>Il</i>, ilium; <i>Is</i>, ischium.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.-Vertebral +column of <i>Hymenochtrus</i> +(ventral view).</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and +in some of the Caudata; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) vertebrae +in the higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the +great majority of the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex) +vertebrae.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:324px; height:287px" src="images/img524d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Chondrocranium of <i>Rana esculenta</i>—ventral +aspect.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90"> +<p><i>rp</i>, The rhinal process.</p> +<p><i>pnl</i>, The praenasal processes.</p> +<p><i>an</i>, The alinasal processes, shown by the + removal of part of the floor of the + left nasal chamber.</p> +<p><i>AO.</i>, The antorbital process.</p> +<p><i>pd</i>, The pedicle of the suspensorium + continued into <i>cv</i>, the ventral crus + of the suspensorium.</p> +<p><i>cd</i>, Its dorsal crus.</p> +<p><i>tt</i>, The tegmen tympani.</p> +<p><i>SE</i>, The sphen-ethmoid.</p> +<p><i>EO.</i>, The exoccipitals.</p> +<p><i>Qu.J.</i>, The quadratojugal.</p> +<p><i>II. V. VI.</i> Foramina by which the optic, + trigeminal and abortio dura, and abducens + nerves leave the skull.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have transverse +processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some +of which, in the Caudata, +are divided into +a dorsal and a ventral +portion. Ribs are +present in the lower +Ecaudata (<i>Discoglossidae</i> +and larval +Aglossa), but they are +never connected with a +sternum. It is in fact +doubtful whether the +so-called sternum of +batrachians, in most +cases a mere plate of +cartilage, has been correctly +identified as such. +When limbs are present, +one vertebra, rarely two +(fig. 5) or three, are +distinguished as sacral, +giving attachment to +the ilia. In the Ecaudata, +the form of the +transverse processes of +the sacral vertebra +varies very considerably, +and has afforded +important characters to +the systematist. In +accordance with the +saltatorial habits of the +members of this order, +the vertebrae, which +number from 40 to 60 +in the Caudata, to upwards +of 200 in the +Apoda, have become +reduced to 10 as the +normal number, viz., +eight praecaudal, one sacral and an elongate coccyx or urostyle, +formed by coalescence of at least two vertebrae. In some genera +this coccyx is fused with the ninth vertebra, and contributes to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page525" id="page525"></a>525</span> +sacrum, whilst in a few others the number of segments is still +further reduced by the co-ossification of one or two vertebrae +preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral and by the fusion +of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction being found in +the genus <i>Hymenochirus</i>, the vertebral column of which is figured +here (fig 6.)</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:384px; height:405px" src="images/img525a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—The skull of <i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i> A, Dorsal; B, +ventral; C, lateral view. The letters have the same signification as +below.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia +have retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the +Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed +post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged +backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected +with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This supposition +is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of +Autun, determined as <i>Actinodon frossardi</i>, acquired in 1902 by the +British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called “epiotic +cornu” of the microsaurians, <i>Ceraterpeton</i> and <i>Scincosaurus</i>, to have +the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a +suggestion made by C.W. Andrews (<b>28</b>). As in fishes also, the +sensory canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls +of many labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals +have been utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various +elements of the cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The +pineal foramen, in the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it +is absent in the other orders. Although not strictly forming part +of the skull, allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic +plates which has been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and +which is only found elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well +as in many reptiles and birds.</p> + +<p>In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the +bones of the skull are reduced in number and the “primordial +skull,” or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent +unossified, even in the adult. Huxley’s figures of the skull of a +caccilian (<i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i>), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate +urodele (<i>Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis</i>), fig. 9, and of +a frog (<i>Rana esculenta</i>), fig. 10, are here given for comparison.</p> + +<p>The skull, in the <i>Apoda</i>, is remarkably solid and compact, and it +possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked 1 in the figure) +which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The +squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frontals and +parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; the orbit is sometimes +roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second +row of mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of +a splenial element, such as exists in <i>Siren</i> among the Caudata and +apparently in the labyrinthodonts.</p> + +<p>In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the +parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into +one, and in a few forms (Aglossa, some <i>Pelobalidae</i>) the paired condition +of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones +are present in the <i>Salamandridae</i> and <i>Amphiumidae</i>, but absent (or +fused with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata. +In most of the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they +remain distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single, +or absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata +the symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones, +forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial +bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the <i>Hylidae</i> and <i>Bufonidae</i>, +almost indistinguishable in the <i>Pelobatidae</i> and <i>Discoglossidae</i>, whilst +in the Aglossa they do not exist any more than in the other orders +of batrachians.</p> + +<p>No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-occipital.</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:454px; height:994px" src="images/img525b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="f90" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of +<i>Necturus maculosus</i>. In the dorsal view, the bones are removed from +the left half of the skull, in the ventral view, the parasphenoid, +palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The letters have, +for the most part, the same signification as before.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p>VII.<i>p</i>, Posterior division of the seventh nerve.</p> +<p>VII. Chorda tympani</p> +<p>V<span class="sp">1</span>, V<span class="sp">2</span>, V<span class="sp">3</span>, First, second and third + divisions of the trigeminal.</p> +<p><i>s.s.l</i>, Stapedio-suspensorial ligament.</p> +<p><i>h.s.l</i>, Hyo-suspensorial ligament.</p> +<p><i>m.h.l</i>, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>a</i>, Ascending process of the suspensorium.</p> +<p><i>p</i>, Pterygo-palatine process.</p> +<p><i>o</i>, Otic process.</p> +<p><i>Na</i>, Posterior nares.</p> +<p><i>Mck</i>, Meckel’s cartilage.</p> +<p><i>Gl</i> (fig. 10), The position of the glottis.</p> +<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>Bb</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Basilbranchials.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms +of the three orders, and throughout life in the <i>Sirenidae</i>, the perennibranchiate +<i>Proteidae</i> have only three (see fig. 11). In the adult +Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse, curved +or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected from +the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by F. Gaupp (<b>29</b>) and by +W.G. Ridewood (<b>30</b>), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a +cartilaginous continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia +disappear without a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12) +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page526" id="page526"></a>526</span> +consists of a plate of cartilage with two slender cornua, three processes +on each side, and two long bony rods behind, termed the thyro-hyals, which +embrace the larynx. In the Aglossa, which are remarkable for the +large size and complexity of the larynx, the thyro-hyal bones +are incorporated into the laryngeal apparatus, whilst the recently +discovered <i>Hymenochirus</i> is further remarkable for the large +size and ossification of the hyoidean cornua (ceratohyals), a feature +which, though not uncommon among the salamanders, is unique +among the Ecaudata (<b>31</b>).</p> + +<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:329px; height:979px" src="images/img526a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10—Dorsal, ventral, lateral, and posterior +views of the skull of <i>Rana esculenta</i>. +The letters have the same signification throughout.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>Pmx</i>, Premaxilla.</p> +<p><i>Mx</i>, Maxilla.</p> +<p><i>Vo</i>, Vomer.</p> +<p><i>Na</i>, Nasal.</p> +<p><i>S.e</i>, Sphen-ethmoid.</p> +<p><i>Fr</i>, Frontal.</p> +<p><i>Pa</i>, Parietal.</p> +<p><i>E.O</i>, Exoccipital.</p> +<p><i>Ep</i>, Epiotic process.</p> +<p><i>Pr.O</i>, Pro-otic.</p> +<p><i>t.t</i>, Tegmentympani.</p> +<p><i>Sq</i>, Squamosal.</p> +<p><i>Q.J</i>, Quadrato-jugal.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"> +<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">1</span>, Pterygoid, anterior process.</p> +<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Internal process.</p> +<p><i>Pt</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Posterior or external process.</p> +<p><i>Ca</i>, Columella auris.</p> +<p><i>St</i>, Stapes.</p> +<p><i>Hy</i>, Hyoidean cornu.</p> +<p><i>P.S</i>, Parasphenoid.</p> +<p><i>An</i>, Angulate.</p> +<p><i>D</i>, Dentale.</p> +<p><i>V</i>, Foramen of exit of the trigeminal.</p> +<p><i>H</i>, Of the optic.</p> +<p><i>X</i>, Of the pneumogastric and glosso-pharyngeal nerves.</p> +<p><i>V</i><span class="sp">1</span>. Foramen by which the orbito-nasal or first division of + the fifth passes to the nasal cavity.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The pectoral girdle of the Stegocephalia is, of course, only known +from the ossified elements, the identification of which has given +rise to some diversity of opinion. But C. Gegenbaur’s (<b>32</b>) interpretation +may be regarded as final. He has shown that, as in the Crossopterygian +and Chondrostean ganoid fishes, there are two clavicular elements +on each side; the lower corresponds to the clavicle of reptiles +and higher vertebrates, whilst the upper corresponds to +the clavicle of teleostean fishes, and has been named by him +“cleithrum.” As stated above, there is strong evidence in favour of +the view that some forms at least possessed in addition a +“supracleithrum,” corresponding to the supra-clavicle of bony +fishes. The element often termed “coracoid” in these fossils +would be the scapula. The clavicles rest on a large discoidal, +rhomboidal, or T-shaped median bone, which clearly corresponds to +the interclavicle of reptiles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:291px; height:347px" src="images/img526b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Hyoid and branchial apparatus of <i>Necturus maculosus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>Hh</i>, Hypo-hyal.</p> +<p><i>Ch</i>, Cerato-hyal.</p> +<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">1</span>, First basibranchial.</p> +<p><i>Bb</i><span class="sp">2</span>, Ossified second basibranchial.</p> +<p><i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">1</span>, <i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>Ep.b</i><span class="sp">3</span>, + First, second and third epibranchials.</p> +<p><i>Gl</i>, Glottis.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>The pectoral girdle of the living types of +batrachians is distinguishable into a +scapular, a coracoidal, and a praecoracoidal +region. In most of the Caudata the scapular +region alone ossifies, but in the Ecaudata +the coracoid is bony and a clavicle is frequently +developed over the praecoracoid cartilage. +In these batrachians the pectoral +arch falls into two distinct types—the +<i>arciferous</i>, in which the +precoracoid (+ clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated from +each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the +epicoracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the +<i>firmisternal</i>, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on the +median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less +fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads +and the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the +true frogs (<i>Ranidae</i>), although when quite young these batrachians +present a condition similar to that which persists throughout life +in their lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of +the precoracoids, sometimes supported by a bony style, +is the so-called Omosternum; a large one behind the cora-coids, +also sometimes provided with a bony style, has +been called the sternum. But these names will probably +have to be changed when the homologies of +these parts are better understood.</p> + +<p>The pelvic arch of some of the Stegocephalia contained +a well ossified pubic element, whilst in all other +batrachians only the ilium, or the ilium and the ischium +are ossified. In the Ecaudata the ilium is greatly +elongated and the pubis and ischium are flattened, discoidal, +and closely applied to their fellows by their inner +surfaces; the pelvic girdle looks like a pair of tongs.</p> + +<p>The long bones of the limbs consist of an axis of +cartilage; the extremities of the cartilages frequently +undergo calcification and +are thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and +ulna coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilaginous +in many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight +elements when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is +reduced in those forms which have only two or three digits. Except +in some of the Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits +in the manus, but the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudiment +of pollex; in the Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which +has been suppressed, as atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes +place on the outer side of the manus, as it does on the pes in those +forms in which the toes are reduced to four. The usual number of +phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the +Ecaudata. In the foot the digits usually number five, and the phalanges +2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and +Ecaudata. There are occasionally intercalary ossifications between +the two distal phalanges (<b>33</b>). There are usually nine tarsal elements +in the Caudata; this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which +the two bones of the proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much +elongated and form an additional segment to the greatly lengthened +hind-limb, a sort of <i>crus secundarium</i>. In the Ecaudata also, the +tibia and fibula coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones +on the inner side of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a +rudimentary digit or “prehallux.”</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:165px; height:213px" src="images/img526c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Ventral view of the hyoid of <i>Rana esculenta</i>. + <i>a</i>, Anterior; + <i>b</i>, lateral; + <i>c</i>, posterior processes; + <i>d</i>, thyro-hyals.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Integument.</i>—In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if +small scales are present, as in many of the +Apoda, they are concealed in the skin. The +extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand, +were mostly protected, on the ventral surface +at least, by an armour of overlapping +round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often +very similar to those of Crossopterygian or +ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in transverse +oblique lines converging forwards on +the middle line of the belly. Sometimes +these scales assumed the importance of +scutes and formed a carapace, as in the +“batrachian armadillo” discovered by E.D. +Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the +back studded with stellate bony deposits +(<i>Phyllomedusa, Nototrema</i>), whilst two genera +are remarkable for possessing a bony dorsal +shield, free from the vertebrae (<i>Ceratorphrys</i>) +or ankylosed to them (<i>Brachycephalus</i>). +None of the Stegocephalia appears to have +been provided with claws, but some living +batrachians (<i>Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus</i>) have the tips +of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny sheath.</p> + +<p>The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable +for the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may +be two kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more +or less acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against +the attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page527" id="page527"></a>527</span> +published on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (<b>34</b>), which is utilized by the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows. Some of the poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication of structure and are remarkable for their large size, such as the +so-called “parotoid” glands on the back of the +head in toads and salamanders.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 220px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:159px; height:804px" src="images/img527.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Ventral view of the head and trunk of +<i>Ichthyophis glutinosus</i>.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"> +<p><i>Mn</i>, Mandible.</p> +<p><i>Hy</i>, Hyoid.</p> +<p><i>Br</i><span class="sp">1</span> <i>Br</i><span class="sp">2</span>, <i>Br</i><span class="sp">3</span>, Branchial arches.</p> +<p><i>Gl</i>, Glottis.</p> +<p><i>Tr</i>, Trachea.</p> +<p><i>Ivc</i>, Inferior vena cava.</p> +<p><i>V</i>, Ventricle.</p> +<p><i>Au</i>, Auricles.</p> +<p><i>Rsvc, Lsvc</i>, right and left superior cavae.</p> +<p><i>Ta</i>, Truncus arteriosus.</p> +<p><i>Ao</i>, Left aortic arch.</p> +<p><i>P.A.</i> Right pulmonary artery. The pericardium (lightly shaded) extends as far +as the bifurcation of the synangium.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p>In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in +a few of the Ecaudata (<i>Xenopus</i>, for instance), +the epidermis becomes modified in relation +with the termination of sensory nerves, and +gives rise to organs of the same nature as +those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition +to diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis), +the skin contains granular pigment stored up +in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the +cutis, which are highly mobile and send out +branches which, by contraction and expansion, +may rapidly alter the coloration, most +batrachians being in this respect quite comparable +to the famous chameleons. Besides +white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes +black, brown, yellow and red. The green +and blue, so frequent in frogs and newts, +are merely subjective colours, due to interference. +On the mechanism of the change of +colour, cf. W. Biedermann (<b>35</b>).</p> + +<p>One of the interesting recent discoveries is +that of the “hairy” frog (<i>Trichobatrachus</i>), in +which the sides of the body and limbs are +covered with long villosities, the function of +which is still unknown (<b>36</b>).</p> + +<p>The nuptial horny asperities with which +the males of many batrachians are provided, +for the purpose of clinging to the females, will +be noticed below, under the heading <i>Pairing +and Oviposition</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Dentition</i>.—In the Microsauria and Branchiosauria +among the Stegocephalia, as in the +other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly +curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly +folded walls. But in the Labyrinthodonta, +grooves are more or less marked along the +teeth and give rise to folds of the wall which, +extending inwards and ramifying, produce the +complicated structure, exhibited by transverse +sections, whence these batrachians derive +their name; a somewhat similar complexity +of structure is known in some holoptychian +(dendrodont) Crossopterygian fishes. +In the remarkable salamander <i>Autodax</i>, the +teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged, +lancet shaped. The teeth are not implanted +in sockets, but become ankylosed with the +bones that bear them, and are replaced by +others developed at their bases. Teeth are +present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia +and Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, <i>Siren</i> +alone presenting plates of horn upon the +gingival surfaces of the premaxillae and of +the dentary elements of the mandible. But +they are nearly always absent in the lower +jaw of the Ecaudata (exceptions in <i>Hemiphractus, +Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Ceratobatrachus</i>, +the male of <i>Dimorphognathus</i>), many +of which (toads, for instance) are entirely +edentulous.</p> + +<p>There is great variety in the distribution +of the teeth on the palate. They may occur +simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines, +the pterygoids and the parasphenoid in +some of the Stegocephalia (<i>Dawsonia, Seeleya, +Acanthostoma</i>), on the vomers, palatines and +parasphenoid in many salamandrids (<i>Plethodontinae</i> +and <i>Desmognathinae</i>), on the vomers, +pterygoids and parasphenoid (some <i>Pelobates</i>), +on the vomers and parasphenoid (<i>Triprion, +Amphodus</i>), whilst in the majority or other +batrachians they are confined to the vomers +and palatines or to the vomers alone (<b>37</b>).</p> + +<p>As regards the alimentary organs, it will +suffice to state, in this very brief sketch, that +all batrachians being carnivorous in their +perfect condition, the intestine is never very +long and its convolutions are few and simple. +But the larvae of the Ecaudata are mainly +herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly +extremely elongate and coiled up like the spring +of a watch. The gullet is short, except in the Apoda. +The tongue is rudimentary in the perennibranchiatea Caudata, +well developed, and often protrusile, in the <i>Salamandridae</i> +and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the Aglossa.</p> + +<p>The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the most important +addition made to our knowledge in recent years being found in the +contributions of F. Hochstetter (<b>38</b>) and of G.B. Howes (<b>39</b>), dealing +with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in salamanders and some of +the Ecaudata. The heart is situated quite forward, in the gular or +pectoral region, even in those tailed batrachians which have a +serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda (fig. 13) it is moved back to a +distance which is comparable to that it occupies in most of the snakes.</p> + +<p><i>The Respiratory Organs</i>.—The larynx, which is rudimentary in most of +the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the Ecaudata, and +becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with which many of the +frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long simple tubes in some of +the perennibranchiate Caudata; they generally shorten or become cellular +in the salamandrids, and attain their highest development in the +Ecaudata, especially in such forms as the burrowing <i>Pelobates</i>. +Although the lungs are present in such forms as preserve the gills +throughout life, it is highly remarkable that quite a number of +abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly to the subfamilies +<i>Desmognathinae</i> and <i>Plethodontinae</i>, are devoid of lungs and breathe +entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal mucose membrane (<b>20</b>). +Some of the <i>Salamandrinae</i> show the intermediate conditions which have +led to the suppression of the trachea and lungs. In the Apoda, as in +many serpentiform reptiles, one of the lungs, either the right or the +left, is much less developed than the other, often very short.</p> + +<p><i>Urino-genital Organs</i>.—The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are +attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate +vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately +connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted tubes +which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior aperture is +situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the lung; their +walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the ova as they +descend. In most male batrachians the testes are drained by transverse +canals which open into a longitudinal duct, which also receives the +canals of the kidneys, so that this common duct conveys both sperma and +urine. In some of the discogloesid frogs, however, the seminal duct is +quite independent of the kidney, which has its own canal, or true +ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have remnants of oviducts, or Müllerian +ducts, most developed in <i>Bufo</i>, which genus is also remarkable as +possessing a problematic organ, Bidder’s organ, situated between the +testis and the adipose or fat-bodies that surmount it. This has been +regarded by some anatomists as a rudimentary ovary. Female salamandrids +are provided with a <i>receptaculum seminis</i>. Copulatory organs are +absent, except in the Apoda, in which a portion of the cloaca can be +everted and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder is always large.</p> + +<p>The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on the part +not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of systematic workers +(<b>40</b>). This is due to the great amount of difference in structure and +size between these elements in the various genera, and also to the fact +that otherwise closely allied species may differ very considerably in +this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids between certain species of +<i>Rana</i> has been attributed principally to these differences. The +spermatozoa of <i>Discoglossus</i> are remarkable for their great size, +measuring three millimetres in length.</p> + +<p><i>Pairing and Oviposition</i>—Batrachians may be divided into four +categories under this head:—(1) no amplexation; (2) amplexation without +internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal fecundation; (4) +copulation proper. The first category embraces many aquatic newts, the +second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest of the Caudata, and +the fourth the Apoda.</p> + +<p>In the typical newts (<i>Molge</i>) of Europe, the males are adorned during +the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other ornamental +dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they engage in a lengthy +courtship accompanied by lively evolutions around the females, near +which they deposit their spermatozoa in bundles on a gelatinous mass, +the spermatophore, probably secreted by the cloacal gland. This +arrangement facilitates the internal fecundation of the female without +copulation, the female absorbs the spermatozoa by squeezing them out of +the spermatophore between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many +salamanders, whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing +the female about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males +of such forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual +characters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of +fecundation by means of a spermatophore is resorted to, although it may +happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct from +the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs in the +oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the salamanders being +viviparous.</p> + +<p>In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known +viviparous toad), the male clings to the female round the breast, at the +arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days, the +deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by several +seminal emissions.</p> + +<p>The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians +in which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an +intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous.</p> + +<p>In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page528" id="page528"></a>528</span> +of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata), +rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), according +to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and +are often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off +after the pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like +patches on the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend +over the inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin; +the use of them on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are +sometimes also present, without apparent function, on various parts +of the foot, as in <i>Discoglossus, Bombinator,</i> and <i>Pelodytes</i>. In some +species of the South American frogs of the genus <i>Leptodactylus</i> the +breast and hands are armed with very large spines, which inflict +deep wounds on the female held in embrace.</p> + +<p>In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils +of water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with +her hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the +lower Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the +Caudata and Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are +twined round aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in +other Ecaudata they form large masses which either float on the +surface of the water or sink to the bottom.</p> + +<p>A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the +young have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis. +Viviparous parturition is known among the Caudata (<i>Salamandra, +Spelerpes fuscus</i>), and the Apoda (<i>Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes +compressicauda</i>); also in a little toad (<i>Pseudophryne vivipara</i>) recently +discovered in German East Africa (<b>41</b>).</p> + +<p><i>Development and Metamorphosis.</i>—In a great number of batrachians, +including most of the European species, the egg is small +and the food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external +appendage of the embryo. But in a few European and North +American species, and in a great many inhabitants of the tropics, +the egg is large and a considerable portion of it persists for a long +time as a yolk-sac. Although the segmentation is always complete, +it is very irregular in these types, some of which make a distinct +approach to the meroblastic egg.</p> + +<p>With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole +development takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother, +batrachians undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through +a free-swimming, gill-breathing period of considerable duration, +during which their appearance, structure, and often their <i>régime</i>, +are essentially different from those of the mature form. Even the +fossil Stegocephalia underwent metamorphosis, as we know from +various larval remains first described as <i>Branchiosaurus</i>. They are +less marked or more gradual in the Apoda and Caudata than in +Ecaudata, in which the stage known as tadpole is very unlike the +frog or toad into which it rather suddenly passes (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tadpole</a></span>). +In the Caudata, external gills (three on each side) persist until the +close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the Apoda and Ecaudata +they exist only during the earlier periods, being afterwards replaced +by internal gills.</p> + +<p>Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the +world in the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the +Alps (<i>Salamandra atra</i>), the cave salamander (<i>Spelerpes fuscus</i>), the +caecinan <i>Typhlonectes</i>, and a number of frogs, such as <i>Pipa, Rhinoderma, +Hylodes,</i> some <i>Nototrema, Rana opisthodon,</i> &c. A fairly +complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remarkable +instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found +in the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (<b>42</b>), and by G. +Brandes and W. Schoenichen (<b>43</b>). It will suffice to indicate here +in a synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years +ago, when our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was +far less advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection +which are resorted to:—</p> + +<p>1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>A. In enclosures in the water.—<i>Hylafaber</i>.</p> + <p>B. In nests in holes near the water.—<i>Rhacophorus, Leptodactylus</i>.</p> + <p>C. In nests overhanging the water.—<i>Rhacophorus, Chiromantis, + Phyllpmedusa</i>.</p> + <p>D. On trees or in moss away from the water.—<i>Rana opisthodon, + Hylodes, Hylelia platycephala</i>.</p> + <p>E. In a gelatinous bag in the water.—<i>Phrynixalus, Salamandrella</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. Direct nursing by the parents.</p> + +<div class="list"> + <p>A Tadpoles transported from one place to another.—<i>Dendrebates, + Phyllobates, Sooglossus</i>.</p> + <p>B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round + or “sit” on them.—<i>Mantophryne, Desmognathus, + Autodax, Plethodon, Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma, + Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops</i>.</p> + <p>C. Eggs carried by the parents.</p> +</div> + +<div class="list1"> + <p>(a) Round the legs, by the male.—<i>Alytes</i>.</p> + <p>(b) On the back, by the female.</p> +</div> +<div class="list2"> + <p>(1) Exposed.—<i>Hyla goeldii, H. evansii, Ceratohyla</i>.</p> + <p>(2) In cell-like pouches.—<i>Pipa</i>.</p> + <p>(3) In a common pouch.—<i>Nototrema, Amphignathodon</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="list1"> + <p>(c) On the belly.</p> +</div> +<div class="list2"> + <p>(1) Exposed, by the female.—<i>Rhacophorus reticulatus</i>.</p> + <p>(2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the + male.—<i>Rhinoderma</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="list1"> + <p>(d) In the mouth, by the female.—<i>Hylambates brevirostris</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Geographical Distribution.</i>—If a division of the world according +to its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very +considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups +of reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great +realms:—(1) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa +north of the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central +America (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia +(Ethiopian and Indian region); (3) South America (neotropical +region); and (4) Australia (Australian region). The first would be +characterized by the Caudata, which are almost confined to it +(although a few species penetrate into the Indian and neotropical +regions), the <i>Discoglossidae</i>, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus +in California, and the numerous <i>Pelobatidae</i>; the second by the +presence of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the +absence of <i>Hylidae</i>; the third by the presence of Apoda, the prevalence +of arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of <i>Ranidae</i>, the +fourth by the prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of +<i>Ranidae</i>, as well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda. +Madagascar might almost stand as a fifth division of the world, +characterized by the total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous +Ecaudata. But the close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that +of the Ethiopian and Indian regions speaks against attaching too +great importance to these negative features. It may be noted here +that no two parts of the world differ so considerably in their Ecaudata +as do Madagascar and Australia, the former having only +Firmisternia, the latter only Arcifera. Although there is much +similarity between the Apoda of Africa and of South America, one +genus being even common to both parts of the world, the frogs are +extremely different, apart from the numerous representatives of +the widely distributed genus <i>Bufo</i>. It may be said that, on the whole, +the distribution of the batrachians agrees to some extent with that +of fresh-water fishes, except for the much less marked affinity +between South America and Africa, although even among the former +we have the striking example of the distribution of the very natural +group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by <i>Pipa</i> in South +America and by <i>Xenopus</i> and <i>Hymenochirus</i> in Africa.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—(<b>1</b>) On the use of the names <i>Batrachia</i> and +<i>Amphibia</i>, cf. E.D. Cope, <i>Geol. Mag.</i> (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur, +<i>Science</i> (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B.G. Wilder, t.c. p. 295; T Gill, +t.c. p. 446; O.P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, <i>Science</i> (2), xx., 1900, +p. 730; L. Steineger, op. cit. xx., 1904, p. 924. (<b>2</b>) E. Fraas, “Die +Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias,” <i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxxvi., +1889, p. 1. (<b>3</b>) <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1904, ii. p. 170. (<b>4</b>) E.D. Cope, +“Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America,” <i>Proc. Ac. +Philad.</i>, 1868, p. 208. (<b>5</b>) “Researches on the Structure, Organization +and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> +clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (<b>6</b>) <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>, viii. (1901). +(<b>7</b>) “Die Urvierfüssler (Eotetrapoda) des sächsischen +Rotliegenden,” <i>Allgem. verständl. naturh. Abh.</i>, Berlin, 1891, No. 15; +“Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus,” +<i>Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges.</i>, 1886, p. 576. (<b>8</b>) C. Emery, “Über die +Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium,” <i>Zool. +Anz.</i> x., 1887, p. 185; E.D. Cope, “On the Phylogeny of the +Vertebrata,” <i>Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i> xxx., 1892, p. 280; H.B. +Pollard, “On the Anatomy and Phylogenetic Position of <i>Polypterus</i>,” +<i>Zool. Jahrb. Anat.</i> v., 1892, p. 414; G. Baur, “The Stegocephali: +a Phylogenetic Study,” <i>Anat. Anz.</i> xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, “Sur +le phylogénie des dipneustes,” <i>Mém. soc. belge géol.</i> ix., 1895, +p. 79; T. Gill, “On the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in +Terrestrial Vertebrates,” <i>Rep. Brit. Ass.</i>, 1897, p. 697. +(<b>9</b>) E.D. Cope, “The Origin of the Mammalia,” <i>Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.</i> +xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf. Discussion on Origin of Mammals, <i>Proc. +Intern. Congr. Zool.</i>, Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, “The Origin +of the <i>Mammalia</i>,” <i>Z. f. Morphol.</i> iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom, +<i>Rep. Brit. Ass.</i>, 1905, p. 437. (<b>10</b>) A. Fritsch, <i>Fauna der Gaskohle und +der Kalksleine der Permformation Böhmens</i>, vols. i. and ii (Prague, +1879-1885, 4to); H. Credner, “Die Stegocephalen aus dem Rotliegenden +des Plauenschen Grundes bei Dresden,” <i>Zeitschr. deutsch. +geol. Ges.</i>, 1881-1894; J.W. Dawson, “On the Results of Recent +Explorations of Erect Trees containing Animal Remains in the Coal +Formation of Nova Scotia,” <i>Phil. Trans.</i> clxxiii., 1882, p. 621; +H.B. Geinitz and J.V. Deichmüller, “Die Saurier der unteren +Dyas von Sachsen,” <i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxix., 1882, p. 1; A. Gaudry, <i>Les +Enchaînements du monde animal dans les temps géologiques, fossiles +primaires</i> (Paris, 1883, 8vo), p. 251; E.D. Cope, “The Batrachia +of the Permian Period of North America,” <i>Amer. Nat.</i> xviii., 1884, +p. 26; E. Fraas, “Die Labyrinthodonten der schwäbischen Trias,” +<i>Palaeontogr.</i> xxxvi., 1889, p. 1; L.v. Ammon, <i>Die permischen +Amphibien der Rheinpfalz</i> (Munich, 1889-1891, 4to); R. Lydekker, +<i>Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum</i>, +part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E. Fraas, <i>Die schwäbischen Trias-Saurier +nach dem Material der k. Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart +zusammengestellt</i> (Stuttgart, 1896, 4to); O. Jaekel, “Die Organization +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page529" id="page529"></a>529</span> +von <i>Archegosaurus</i>,” <i>Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges</i>. xlviii., 1896, +p. 505; F. Broili, “Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis von <i>Eryops megacephalus</i>,” +<i>Palaeontogr</i>. xlvi., 1899, p. 61. (<b>11</b>) “Amphibian Footprints +from the Devonian,” <i>Amer. Journ. Sci</i>. ii., 1896, p. 374. +(<b>12</b>) “Découverte du plus ancien amphibien connu ... dans le +famennien supérieur de Modave,” <i>Bull. soc. beige géol</i>. xv., 1888, +p. cxx, (<b>13</b>) “A Batrachian Armadillo,” <i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxix., 1895, +p. 998. (<b>14</b>) C. Gegenbaur, <i>Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden +Anatomie der Wirbelsaule bei Amphibien und Reptilien</i> (Leipzig, 1862, +4to); H. Gadow, “On the Evolution of the Vertebral Column of +Amphibia and Amniota,” <i>Phil. Trans</i>. clxxxvii. (B), 1896, p. 1. +(<b>15</b>) R. Wiedersheim, <i>Die Anatomie der Gymnophionen</i> (Jena, 1879, +4to); W. Peters, “Über die Einteilung der Caecilien,” <i>Mon. +Berl. Ac</i>., 1879, p. 924; G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue of Batrachia +Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the +British Museum</i> (London, 1882, 8vo), and “A Synopsis of the Genera +and Species of Apodal Batrachians,” <i>P. Z. S</i>., 1895, p. 401. (<b>16</b>) “On +the Structure and Affinities of the <i>Amphiumidae</i>” <i>Proc. Amer. +Philos. Soc.</i> xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (<b>17</b>) <i>Ergebnisse naturwissenschaftlicher +Forschungen auf Ceylon</i>, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 4to), +(<b>18</b>) “The Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida,” <i>Stud. Biol. Lab. +Tufts Coll</i>. No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (<b>19</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue, &c.</i>, +1882. (<b>20</b>) H.H. Wilder, “Lungenlose Salamandriden,” <i>Anat. +Anz</i>. ix., 1894, p. 216; L. Camerano, “Ricerche anatomofisiologiche +intorno ai Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni,” <i>Atti Acc. Torin</i>. +xxix., 1894, p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H.H. Wilder, “Lungless +Salamanders,” <i>Anat. Anz</i>. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg, +“Notes on Tailed Batrachians without Lungs,” <i>Zool. Anz</i>. xix., 1896, +p. 33. (<b>21</b>) “Note sur le batracien de Bernissart,” <i>Bull. mus. belg</i>. +iii., 1884, p. 85. (<b>22</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Catalogue of Batrachia +Salientia s. Ecaudata in the Collection of the British Museum</i> (London, +1882, 8vo). (<b>23</b>) “On the Development of the Vertebral Column in +<i>Pipa</i> and <i>Xenopus</i>,” <i>Anat. Anz</i>. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (<b>24</b>) G.A. +Boulenger, “On <i>Hymenochirus</i>, a New Type of Aglossal Batrachians,” +<i>Ann. and Mag. N. H.</i> (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (<b>25</b>) L.M. +Vidal, <i>Mem. Ac. Barcelona</i> (3), iv., 1902, No. 18, pl. iv. (<b>26</b>) W. +Wolterstorff, “Über fossile Frösche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus,” +<i>Jahresb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb</i>., 1885 and 1886. (<b>27</b>) W. Peters, “Über +die Entwickelung eines Batrachiers. <i>Hylodes martinicensis</i>, ohne +Metamorphose,” <i>Mon. Berl. Ac</i>., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, “Die +Tierwelt im holländischen Guiana,” <i>Das Ausland</i>, 1885, p. 358; +G.A. Boulenger, “Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands,” +<i>Trans. Zool. Soc</i>. xii., 1886, p. 51; H. v. Ihering, “On the Oviposition +of <i>Phyllomedusa iheringii</i>,” <i>Ann. and Mag. N.H</i>. (5), xvii., 1886, +p. 461; H.H. Smith, “On Oviposition and Nursing in the +Batrachian genus <i>Dendrobates</i>,” <i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxi., 1887, p. 307; +G.B. Howes, “Notes on the Gular Brood-pouch of <i>Rhinoderma +darwini</i>,” <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 231; W.J. Holland, “Arboreal Tadpoles,” +<i>Amer. Nat</i>. xxiii., 1889, p. 383; E.A. Goeldi, “Contribution +to the Knowledge of the Breeding Habits of some Tree-frogs of the +Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,” <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1895. p. 89; +G.A. Boulenger, “On the Nursing Habits of two South American +Frogs,” <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, “Ein neuer Fall von +Brutpflege bei Fröschen,” <i>Zool. Jahrb. Syst</i>. xi., 1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda, +“Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of <i>Rhacophorus +schlegelii</i>,” <i>Annot. Zool. Japan</i>, i., 1898, p. 113; G. Brandes, “Larven +zweier Nototrema-Arten,” <i>Verh. deutsch. zool. Ges</i>., 1899, p. 288; +L. v. Méhely, “Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden von +Neu-Guinea,” <i>Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest</i>, xxiv., 1901, p. 216; +G.A. Boulenger, “<i>Ceratohyla bubalus</i> carrying eggs on its back,” +<i>P.Z.S</i>., 1903, ii. p. 115; <i>Idem</i>. “Description of a new Tree-frog +of the genus <i>Hyla</i>, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back,” +<i>op. cit</i>., 1904, ii. p. 106; H.S. Ferguson, “Travancore Batrachians,” +<i>J. Bombay N.H. Soc</i>. xv., 1904, p. 499. (<b>28</b>) <i>Geol. Mag</i>. iv., ii., +1895, p. 83. (<b>29</b>) “Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura,” <i>Morph. +Arb</i>. iii., 1894, p. 399. (<b>30</b>) “On the Structure and Development +of the Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog,” <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1897, +p. 577. (<b>31</b>) W.G. Ridewood, “On the Hyobrachial Skeleton +and Larynx of <i>Hymenochirus</i>,” <i>J. Linn. Soc</i>. xxviii., 1899, p. 454. +(<b>32</b>) <i>Morphol. Jahrb</i>. xxiii., 1895, p. 1. (<b>33</b>) G.B. Howes and A.M. +Davies, <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 495. (<b>34</b>) G.A. Boulenger, “The Poisonous +Secretion of Batrachians,” <i>Nat. Science</i>, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon, +<i>Venins multiples et toxicité humorale chez les batraciens</i> (Paris, 1897, +8vo). (<b>35</b>) <i>Arch. Ges. Physiol</i>. li., 1892, p. 455. (<b>36</b>) G.A. Boulenger, +<i>P.Z.S</i>., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow, <i>Anat. Anz</i>. +xviii., 1900, p. 588. (<b>37</b>) G.A. Boulenger, “On the Presence of +Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on the +Localization of Teeth on the Palate,” <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1890, p. 664. (<b>38</b>) +<i>Morphol. Jahrb</i>. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (<b>39</b>) <i>P.Z.S</i>., 1888, p. 122. +(<b>40</b>) G.A. Boulenger, <i>Tailless Batrachians of Europe</i> (1897), p. 75. +(<b>41</b>) G. Tornier, “Pseudophryne vivipara, ein lebendig gebärender +Frosch,” <i>Sitzb. Ak. Ber</i>. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (<b>42</b>) “Unusual +Modes of Breeding and Development among <i>Anura</i>,” <i>Amer. Nat</i>. +xxxiv., 1900, p. 405. (<b>43</b>) “Brutpflege der schwanzlosen +Batrachier,” <i>Abh. Nat. Ges</i>. Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. A. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATRACHOMYOMACHIA<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Batrachos">βάτραχος</span>, “frog,” <span class="grk" title="mus">μῦς</span>, +“mouse,” and <span class="grk" title="machae">μάχη</span>, “battle”), the “Battle of Frogs and +Mice,” a comic epic or parody on the <i>Iliad</i>, definitely attributed +to Homer by the Romans, but according to Plutarch (<i>De +Herodoti Malignitate</i>, 43) the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus, +the brother (or son) of Artemisia, queen of Caria and ally of +Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign it to an anonymous +poet of the time of Alexander the Great.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edition by A. Ludwich (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTA,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived +from the Canarese <i>bhatta</i> (rice in the husk), meaning a special +allowance made to officers, soldiers, or other public servants in +the field.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTAGLIA,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of +Padua, 11 m. S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1901) 4456. +It lies at the edge of the volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted +for its warm saline springs and natural vapour grotto. A fine +palace was erected in the Palladian style in the 17th century by +Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estense, then owner of the +springs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTAKHIN,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> African “Arabs” of Semitic stock. They +occupy the banks of the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was +against them that General Gordon fought most of his battles +near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed Gordon’s troops +on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the close +investment of Khartum. In the 18th century James Bruce +described them as “a thieving, pilfering lot.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTALION,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> a unit of military organization consisting of four +or more companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every +army, and is derived through Fr. from It. <i>battaglione</i>, Med. Lat. +<i>battalia</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Battle</a></span>). “Battalion” in the 16th and 17th centuries +implied a unit of infantry forming part of the line of battle, +but at first meant an unusually large <i>battalia</i> or a single large +body of men formed of several <i>battalias</i>. In the British regular +service the infantry battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel, +who is assisted by an adjutant, and consists at war strength of +about 1000 bayonets in eight companies. Engineers, train, +certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely cavalry are also +organized in battalions in some countries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTAMBANG,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Battambong</span> (locally <i>Phralabong</i>), the +chief town of the north-western division of Cambodia, formerly +capital of Monton Kmer, <i>i.e.</i> “The Cambodian Division,” one of +the eastern provinces of Siam, now included in the French +protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103° 6′ E., 13° 6′ N., +in the midst of a fertile plain and on the river Sang Ke, which +flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Talé Sap, the great +lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo houses of +no importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some historical +interest. Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese settlers, +chiefly overland with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by +water with Saigon. The population is about 5000, two-thirds +Cambodian and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The +language is Cambodian.</p> + +<p>Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran +the kingdom of Cambodia towards the end of the 18th century, +and was recognized by the French as belonging to Siam when +the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted by treaty in 1867-1872. +In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to maintain no +armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement was +annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was +definitely admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence. +Under a further treaty in March 1907 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Siam</a></span>), the district of +Battambang was finally ceded to the French.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTANNI,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bhitani</span>, a small tribe on the Waziri border of +the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis +hold the hills on the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera +Ismail Khan district, from the Gabar mountain on the north to +the Gomal valley on the south. They are only 3000 fighting +men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals of the +Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no +raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris +without passing through Battanni territory. A small British +expedition against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd +in 1880. Under the excitement caused by the preaching of a +fanatical mullah the Mahsud Waziris had attacked the town of +Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply information as to their +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page530" id="page530"></a>530</span> +movements, and gave them a passage through their lands. The +British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi defile in face +of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTAS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (Dutch <i>Battaks</i>), the inhabitants of the formerly +independent Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra, +now for the most part subjugated to the Dutch government. +The still independent area extends from 98°-99° 35′ E., and +2°-3° 25′ S. North-east of Toba Lake dwell the Timor Battas, +and west of it the Pakpak, but on its north (in the mountains +which border on the east coast residency) the Karo Battas form +a special group, which, by its dialects and ethnological character, +appears to be allied to the Gajus and Allas occupying the interior +of Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful. It is not known +whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu period. +Their language contains words of Sanskrit origin and others +referable to Javanese, Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain +has been doubtless much curtailed, and their absorption into the +Achin and Malay population seems to have been long going on. +The Battas are undoubtedly of Malayan stock, and by most +authorities are affiliated to that Indonesian pre-Malayan race +which peopled the Indian Archipelago, expelling the aboriginal +negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to the civilized +Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite different +from the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft. +4 in.; of the women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather +thickset, with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The +colour of the skin ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint, +the darkness apparently quite independent of climatic influences +or distinction of race. The skull is rather oval than round. In +marked contrast to the Malay type are the large, black, long-shaped +eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark brown eyebrows. The +cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than among the +Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and +eat any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are +remarkable as a people who in many ways are cultured and +possess a written language of their own, and yet are cannibals. +The more civilized of them around Lake Toba are good agriculturists +and stock-breeders, and understand iron-smelting. +They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and krisses which are +often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and build picturesque +chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an organized +government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a +written civil and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal +system, the letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at crossroads. +Yet in spite of this comparative culture the Battas have +long been notorious for the most revolting forms of cannibalism. +(See <i>Memoirs of the Life, &c., of Sir T.S. Raffles</i>, 1830.)</p> + +<p>The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archipelago +who are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly +confined to a belief in evil spirits; but they recognize three +gods, a Creator, a Preserver and a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive +of Hindu influence.</p> + +<p>Up to the publication of Dr H.N. van der Tuuk’s essay, <i>Over +schrift en uitspraak der Tobasche taal</i> (1855), our knowledge +of the Batta language was confined to lists of words more or less complete, +chiefly to be found in W. Marsden’s <i>Miscellaneous Works</i>, +in F.W. Junghuhn’s <i>Battalander</i>, and in the <i>Tijdschrift +van het Bataviaasch Genootschap</i>, vol. iii. (1855). By his +exhaustive works (<i>Bataksch Leesboek</i>, in 4 vols., 1861-1862; +<i>Bataksch-nederduitsch Woordenboek</i>, 1861; <i>Tobasche Spraakkunst,</i> 1864-1867) +van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most accessible of +the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him, it is +nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber +(<i>Die Battas in ihrem Verhältnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra</i>, +1874) endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay +proper. Like most languages spoken by less civilized tribes, +Batta is poor in general terms, but abounds in terms for special +objects. The number of dialects is three, viz. the Toba, the +Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the first and second have +again two subdivisions each. The Battas further possess six +peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the <i>hata andung</i>, +or language of the wakes, and the <i>hata poda</i> or the soothsayer’s language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is very general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang +and Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language +is written on bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the +lines being arranged from left to right. The literature consists +chiefly in books on witchcraft, in stories, riddles, incantations, +&c., and is mostly in prose, occasionally varied by verse.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also “Reisen nach dem Toba See,” <i>Petermanns Mitteil</i>. (1883); +Modigliani, <i>Fra i Batacchi indipendenti</i> (Rome, 1892); Neumann, +“Het Pane- en Bilastroomgebied,” <i>Tydschr. Aardr. Gen.</i>, 1885-1887; Van Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895); Wing Easton in the +<i>Jaarboek voor het Mynwezen</i>, 1894; Niemann in the <i>Encyclopaedia van Nederlandsch-Indie</i>, under the heading <i>Bataks,</i> with very detailed +bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, <i>Besuch bei den Kannibalen +Sumatras</i> (Würzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, <i>21 Jahre in Indien, +Java, Sumatra</i> (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G.P. Rouffaer, <i>Die Batik-Kunst in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte</i> (Haarlem, 1899).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mr C.A. van Ophuijsen has published (in <i>Bijd. tot Land-, Taalen +Volken-Kunde</i>, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry. +He describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which +the name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with +which it has greatest phonetic similarity.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTEL,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Battels</span> (of uncertain origin, possibly connected +with “battle,” a northern English word meaning to feed, or +“batten”), a word used at Oxford University for the food +ordered by members of the college as distinct from the usual +“commons”; and hence college accounts for board and provisions +supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally, the +whole of a man’s college accounts. “Batteler,” now a resident +in a college, was originally a rank of students between commoners +and servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with +“commons,” but only such provisions as they ordered for +themselves.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> (<i>floruit</i> 1626-1667), British sailor, +son of Andrew Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as +taking out letters of marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the +post of surveyor to the navy, probably by purchase. In March +1642 he was appointed second-in-command under the earl of +Warwick, the parliamentary admiral who took the fleet out of +the king’s hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten’s squadron which +bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there. +He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing +his fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up +to the end of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan +of the parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten +continued to patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in +bringing into Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and +merchantmen, which had refused the customary salute to the +flag, was approved by parliament. When the Second Civil War +began he was distrusted by the Independents and removed from +his command, though he confessed his continued willingness to +serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against the +parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May +1648, Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince, +but being suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously +in Holland and returned to England. He lived in retirement +during the Commonwealth period. At the Restoration Sir +William Batten became once more surveyor of the navy. In this +office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys, whose diary +frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys against +him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to +show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the +standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester, +and in 1663 he was made master of the Trinity House. He died +in 1667.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will +be found in Penn’s <i>Life of Sir W. Penn</i>, and in Pepys’ <i>Diary</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTEN,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (1) A term (a form of “baton”) used in joinery +(<i>q.v.</i>) for a board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used +for various purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together laths +and other wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip +of wood nailed to a mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a tarpaulin +over a hatchway, in rough weather, to keep out water. +(2) A verb (the root is found in words of several Teutonic languages +meaning profit or improvement, and also in the English “better” +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page531" id="page531"></a>531</span> +and “boot”) meaning to improve in condition, especially in the +case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously; the word is +used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTENBERG,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> the name of a family of German counts which +died out about 1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near +Battenberg, a small place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. +The title was revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-1888), +a younger son of Louis II., grand-duke of Hesse, contracted +a morganatic marriage with a Polish lady, Countess Julia Theresa +von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then created countess of +Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in 1858, the countess +and her children were allowed to style themselves princes and +princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of <i>Durchlaucht</i> or +Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander +(b. 1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-duke +of Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The +second son, Alexander Joseph (<i>q.v.</i>), was prince of Bulgaria from +1879 to 1886. The third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858, +and married on the 23rd of July 1885 Beatrice, youngest +daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He died at sea on the +20th of January 1896 when returning from active service with the +British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three sons and a +daughter, Victoria Eugénie, who was married in 1906 to Alphonso +XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in +1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of +Montenegro, and is the author of <i>Die volkswirtschaftliche +Entwickelung Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegenwart</i> (Leipzig, +1891). The only daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie +Caroline, born in 1852, was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest, +prince and count of Erbach-Schönberg.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTER,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> an architectural term of unknown origin, used of +the face of a wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular. +It is most commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower +courses of which are laid at right angles to the batter, so as to +resist the thrust of the earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is +often adopted in the lowest or basement porticos of a great +building. From a historical point of view it is the most ancient +system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea all the +temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be thicker +at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side which +was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes +the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter +as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by +Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the +principle, which was followed in some of the castles of the middle +ages throughout Europe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTERING RAM<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Lat. <i>aries</i>, ram), a military engine used +before the invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of +besieged fortresses. It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber, +armed at the extremity with iron fashioned something like the +head of a ram. In its simplest form the beam was carried in the +hands of the soldiers, who assailed the walls with it by main force. +The improved ram was composed of a longer beam, in some cases +extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and suspended, +either by the middle or from two points, from another beam laid +across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as +having been used at the siege of Jerusalem (<i>B.J.</i> iii. 7. 19). The +ram was shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse +(<i>vinea</i>) or other overhead protection. It was often mounted on +wheels, which greatly facilitated its operations. A hundred +soldiers at a time, and sometimes even a greater number, were +employed to work it, and the parties were relieved in constant +succession. No wall could resist the continued application of the +ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to destroy it by +various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head of the +ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to +seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical +position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress. +Sometimes the besieged ran countermines under the ram penthouse; +this if successful would cause the whole engine to fall into +the excavation. In medieval warfare the low penthouse, called +<i>cat</i>, was generally employed with some form of ram.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTERSEA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> a south-western metropolitan borough of +London, England, bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth, +and S.E., S., and W. by Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,907. +The principal thoroughfares are Wandsworth Road and Battersea +Park and York Roads from east to west, connected north and +south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and Battersea bridges +over the Thames. The two first of these three are handsome +suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a +wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after +standing a little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly +consisting of artisans’ houses, and there are several large factories +by the river. The parish church of St Mary, Church Road (1776), +preserves from an earlier building stained glass and monuments, +including one to Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751), +and his second wife, who had a mansion close by. Of this a portion +remains on the riverside, containing a room associated with Pope, +who is said to have worked here upon the “Essay on Man.” +Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie +partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation +ground is Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert +and Victoria Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and +subtropical garden, and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It +was constructed with difficulty by embanking the river and +raising the level of the formerly marshy ground, and was opened +in 1858. Among institutions are the Battersea Polytechnic, the +Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded in 1788, and Church +of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea is in the +parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the +whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division. +The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54 +councillors. Area, 2160.3 acres.</p> + +<p>An early form of the name is <i>Patricsey</i> or Peter’s Island; the +manor at the time of the Domesday survey, and until the suppression +of the monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter, +Westminster. It next passed to the crown, and subsequently to +the family of St John and to the earls Spencer. York Road +recalls the existence of a palace of the archbishops of York, +occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of Edward IV. +and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were formerly +a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory. +The art of enamelling was introduced, <i>c.</i> 1750, at works in Battersea, +examples from which are highly valued.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTERY<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Fr. <i>batterie</i>, from <i>battre</i>, to beat), the action of +beating, especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assault</a></span>). The term is applied to the apparatus used in battering, +hence its use in military organization for the unit of mobile +artillery of all kinds. This consists of from four to eight guns +with their <i>personnel</i>, wagons and train. In the British service +the term is applied to field, horse, field-howitzer, heavy and +mountain artillery units. “Battery” is also used to imply a +mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the military +history of the 18th and early 19th centuries. In siegecraft, a +battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars, +constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule +by a parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to +permanent or semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of +the defence. In all these senses the presence of artillery is implied +in the use of the word (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Artillery</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fortification and +Siegecraft</a></span>). The word is also used for the “pitcher” and +“catcher” in baseball; for a collection of utensils, primarily +of hammered copper or brass, especially in the French term +<i>batterie de cuisine</i>; and for the instruments of percussion in an +orchestra.</p> + +<p><i>Electric Battery</i>—This term was applied by the old electricians +to a collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for +generating electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a +number of such devices joined up together. There are two main +classes of electric battery. In <i>primary</i> batteries, composed of a +number of galvanic or voltaic “cells,” “couples” or “elements,” +on the completion of the interactions between the substances on +which the production of electricity depends, the activity of the +cells comes to an end, and can only be restored with the aid of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page532" id="page532"></a>532</span> +a fresh supply of those substances; in <i>secondary</i> batteries, also +called storage batteries or accumulators (<i>q.v.</i>), the substances +after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought back to a condition +in which they will again yield an electric current, by means +of an electric current passed through them in the reverse direction. +The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by +Alessandro Volta. In one form, the “voltaic pile,” he placed a +series of pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other, +separating each pair from the one above it by a piece of cloth +moistened with a solution of common salt. In another form, the +“couronne de tasses,” he took a number of vessels or cells containing +brine or dilute acid, and placed in each a zinc plate and a +copper plate; these plates were not allowed to touch each other +within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the +copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements +an electric current passes through a wire which is connected to +the terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction +of this current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it +is from zinc to copper. The plate to which the current flows +within the cell is the <i>negative plate</i>, and that from which it flows +the <i>positive plate</i>; but the point on the negative plate at which +the current enters the external wire is the <i>positive pole</i>, and the +point on the positive plate at which it leaves the external circuit +the <i>negative pole</i>. During the time that the external connexion is +maintained between the two poles and the current passes in +the wire, the zinc or positive plates are gradually dissolved, and +hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the copper or negative +plates; but when the external connexion is broken this action +ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly pure, +probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however, +only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion +continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is +not closed, thus entailing waste of material. This “local action” +is explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc +plate form miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus +causing its corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improvement +in the voltaic cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon +in 1830, that the evil was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc +plates was amalgamated, by being rubbed with mercury under +dilute sulphuric acid. Another disadvantage of the simple cell +composed of copper and zinc in dilute acid is that the current it +yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen formed by the operation +of the cell does not all escape, but some adheres as a film to the +negative plate, and the result is the establishment of a counter +or reverse electromotive force which opposes the main current +flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force. This phenomenon +is known as “polarization,” and various remedies have +been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of +primary batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple +copper-zinc couple excited by dilute sulphuric acid by +substituting for the copper thin leaves of platinum or platinized +silver, whereby the elimination of the hydrogen is facilitated; +and attempts have also been made to keep the plates free from +the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually adopted, +however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to +introduce into the cell some “depolarizer” which will destroy +it as it is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrolysis</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by +J.F. Daniell in 1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric +acid (or in a solution of zinc sulphate), and the copper in a +saturated solution of copper sulphate, the two liquids being +separated by a porous partition. The hydrogen formed by the +action of the cell replaces copper in the copper sulphate, and the +displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being deposited on the +copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive force is +about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of +forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed +by Lord Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-percha +covered wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel +and covered with crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet +sawdust is sprinkled, and then mere sawdust, moistened with +solution of zinc sulphate, upon which is placed the zinc plate. +The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand is substituted for +sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes the place +of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the +diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity +alone is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids. +The cell of J.H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as +a type of this class. The zinc is formed into a ring which fits +the upper part of a glass beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution. +At the bottom of the beaker is placed a smaller beaker, in which +stands a ring of copper with an insulated connecting wire. The +mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid with a hole in the centre, +through which passes the long tapering neck of a glass balloon +filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow end of this +neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate slowly +runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate it +collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin’s +tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered +at the bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is +enveloped in a piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape, +the whole resting on little pieces of wood placed on the bottom +of the leaden tray. Copper sulphate is fed in at the edge of the +tray and zinc sulphate is poured upon the parchment. A +battery is formed by arranging the trays in a stack one above +the other.</p> + +<p>Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen +is got rid of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W.R. +Grove in 1839 employed nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his +cell consisting of a zinc positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid, +separated by a porous diaphragm of unglazed earthenware from +a platinum negative immersed in concentrated nitric acid. Its +electromotive force is nearly two volts, but it has the objection of +giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R.W. von Bunsen modified +Grove’s cell by replacing the platinum with the much cheaper +material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a depolarizer, +and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful +as, and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its +two-fluid form the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot +containing amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a +carbon plate surrounded with sulphuric acid and a solution of +potassium or sodium bichromate or of chromic acid. But it is +commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous pot being dispensed +with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the chromic +acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit +is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which +either the zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the +solution when the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution +the sodium salt is preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid +to either. In the cell devised by Georges Leclanché in 1868 a +solid depolarizer is employed, in the shape of manganese dioxide +packed with fragments of carbon into a porous pot round a +carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive plate, and the +exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes no +porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granulated +carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the +carbon plate. The electromotive force is about one and a half +volt. The cell is widely used for such purposes as ringing electric +bells, where current is required intermittently, and for such +service it will remain effective for months or years, only needing +water to be added to the outer jar occasionally to replace loss by +evaporation. On a closed circuit the current rapidly falls off, +because the manganese dioxide is unable to oxidize all the +hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers after polarization. +The so-called “dry cells,” which came into considerable use +towards the end of the 19th century, are essentially Leclanché +cells in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as +a paste formed with some absorbent material or gelatinized. +Black oxide of copper is another solid depolarizer, employed in +the Lalande cell. In the Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide +is suspended in a light copper frame. The exciting solution +consists of one part of caustic soda dissolved in three parts by +weight of water, and to prevent it from being acted on by the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page533" id="page533"></a>533</span> +carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a layer of petroleum +oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by the action +of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen +from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about +one volt initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a +volt can be relied on.</p> + +<p>Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity +for laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working +telegraphs, bells, &c.; but as a source of the heavy currents +required for electric lighting and traction they are far too +expensive in operation, apart from other considerations, to +compete with dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or +water power. Certain forms, known as “standard cells,” are +also used in electrical measurements as standards of electromotive +force (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Potentiometer</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.R. Cooper, <i>Primary Batteries</i> (London, 1901); Park +Benjamin, <i>The Voltaic Cell</i> (New York, 1893); W.E. Ayrton, <i>Practical +Electricity</i> (London, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTEUX, CHARLES<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> (1713-1780), French philosopher and +writer on aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and +studied theology at Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after +teaching in the colleges of Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed +to the chair of Greek and Roman philosophy in the Collège de +France. In 1746 he published his treatise <i>Les Beaux-Arts réduits +à un même principe</i>, an attempt to find a unity among the various +theories of beauty and taste, and his views were widely accepted. +The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his translation of +Horace (1750), led to his becoming a member of the Académie +des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His +<i>Cours de belles lettres</i> (1765) was afterwards included with some +minor writings in the large treatise, <i>Principes de la liltérature</i> +(1774). The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps, +somewhat pedantic. His philosophical writings were <i>La Morale +d’Épicure tirée de ses propres écrits</i> (1758), and the <i>Histoire des +causes premières</i> (1769). In consequence of the freedom with +which in this work he attacked the abuse of authority in philosophy, +he lost his professorial chair. His last and most extensive +work was a <i>Cours d’études à l’usage des élèves de l’école militaire</i> +(45 vols.). In the <i>Beaux-Arts</i>, Batteux developed a theory which +is derived from Locke through Voltaire’s sceptical sensualism. +He held that Art consists in the faithful imitation of the beautiful +in nature. Applying this principle to the art of poetry, and +analysing, line by line and even word by word, the works of +great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry consists +in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expression. +This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of +insisting on propriety of expression. His <i>Histoire des causes +premières</i> was among the first attempts at a history of philosophy, +and in his work on Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended +Epicureanism against the general attacks made against it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dacier et Dupuy, “Éloges,” in <i>Mémoires de l’Académie des +Inscriptions</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTHYANY, LOUIS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> <span class="sc">(Lajos), Count</span> (1806-1849), Hungarian +statesman, was born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the +defects of an indifferent education while serving in garrison in +Italy as a lieutenant of hussars, and thenceforward adopted +all the new ideas, economical and political. According to +Széchenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the radical +school, but it was not till after his marriage with the noble-minded +and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began +working earnestly for the national cause. When Széchenyi +drew nearer to the court in 1839-1840, Batthyány became the +leader of the opposition in the Upper House, where his social +rank and resolute character won for him great influence. Despite +his “sardanapalian inclinations,” he associated himself unreservedly +with the extremists, and spent large sums for the +development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely opposed +the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the representative +of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the 15th +of March, and on the 31st of March 1848 became the first +constitutional prime-minister of Hungary. His position became +extremely difficult when Jellachich and the Croats took up +arms. Convinced that the rigid maintenance of the constitution +was the sole panacea, he did his utmost, in his frequent journeys +to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn Jellachich and +establish a strong national government at Pest. Unfortunately, +however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of Magyar +troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty had +been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty, +and his admirable services as Honvéd minister in organizing the +national forces, his authority in Hungary declined before the +rising star of Kossuth. When Jellachich invaded Hungary, +Batthyány resigned with the intention of forming a new ministry +excluding Kossuth, but this had now become impossible. Then +Batthyány attempted to mediate between the two extreme +parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his +peasantry and led them against the Croats. On the 11th of +October he was incapacitated for active service by a fall from +his horse which broke his arm. On his recovery he returned to +Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and was a member of +the deputation from the Hungarian diet to Prince Windischgrätz, +whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few days +later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a +magnate he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a +minister he was responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach, +whither he was taken, he asked that Deák might be his advocate, +but this being refused he wrote his own defence. Sentence of +hanging was finally pronounced upon him at Olmtitz for violating +the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the constitution, and +aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate he +Stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to +death in the night of the 5th of October 1849.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Bertalan Szemere, <i>Batthyány, Kossuth, Gorgei</i> (Ger.), (Hamburg, +1853).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. N. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTICALOA<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span>, the provincial capital of the eastern province +of Ceylon, on the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated +on an island in lat. 7° 44′ N. and long. 81° 52′ E. It is of importance +for its haven and the adjacent salt lagoons. The population +of the town in 1901 was 9969; of the district (2872 sq. m.) +143,161. The old Dutch fort dates from 1682. Batticaloa is +the seat of a government agent and district judge; criminal +sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and cocoanuts +are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading round +the island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for +its “singing fish,” supposed to be shell-fish which give forth +musical notes. The district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men +of the wood. The average annual rainfall is 55½ in.; the average +temperature 80.4° F.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTISHILL, JONATHAN<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1738-1801), one of the best +18th century English composers of church music. Until 1764 +he wrote chiefly for the theatre (incidental songs, pantomime +music, and an opera in collaboration with Michael Arne, the son +of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are chiefly glees, +part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a singer +at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She +retired from her profession when she married; and her death in +1777 so crushed him that he composed no more.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLE<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span>, a market-town in the Rye parliamentary division +of Sussex, England, 54½ m. S.E. by S. from London by the +South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district +(1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated in an undulating well-wooded +district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings. Its name is +derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William the +Norman the crown of England (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Battle Abbey Roll</a></span>). +Before the battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to +build an abbey on the spot if he should prove victorious, and in +1094 the consecration took place with great pomp. The gatehouse, +forming a picturesque termination to the main street of +the town, is Decorated; and there also remain parts of the +foundations of the Norman church, of the Perpendicular cloisters, +and of the Early English refectory. A mansion occupies part of +the site, and incorporates some of the ancient building. The +church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest portions being +transitional Norman.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Chronicles of Battle Abbey</i>. 1066-1176, translated, &c., by +M.A. Lower (London, 1851).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page534" id="page534"></a>534</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLE,<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> a general engagement between the armed forces, +naval or military, of enemies. The word is derived from the +Fr. <i>bataille</i>, and this, like the Ital. <i>battaglia</i>, and Span. +<i>batalla</i>, comes from the popular Lat. <i>battalia</i> for <i>battualia</i>. +Cassiodorus Senator (480-?575) says: <i>Battualia quae vulgo +Batalia dicuntur ... exercitationes militum vel gladiatorum +significant</i> (see Du Cange, <i>Glossarium</i>, s.v. <i>Batalia</i>). The verb +<i>battuere</i>, cognate with “beat,” is a rare word, found in Pliny, used +of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking. Suetonius +(<i>Caligula</i>, 54-32) uses it of fencing, <i>battuebat pugnatoriis armis,</i> <i>i.e.</i> +not with blunted weapons or foils. <i>Battalia</i> or <i>batalia</i> was used +for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to the +body of troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the +use of the word “battalion” (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>A “pitched battle,” loosely used as meaning almost a decisive +engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on +ground previously selected (“pitched” meaning arranged in a +fixed order) and in accordance with the intentions of the commanders +of both sides; the French equivalent is <i>bataille arrangée</i>, +opposed to <i>bataille manœuvrée</i>, which is prearranged but may +come off on any ground. With “battle,” in its usual meaning of +a general engagement of hostile forces, are contrasted “skirmish,”<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +a fight between small bodies (“skirmishing” technically +means fighting by troops in extended or irregular order), and +“action,” a more or less similar engagement between large +bodies of troops. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tactics</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategy</a></span>.)</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is the same word as “scrimmage,” and is derived from the +Anglo-French <i>eskrimir</i>, modern <i>escrimer</i>, properly to fight behind +cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German +<i>scirman</i>, to fight behind a shield, <i>scirm</i>. Modern German <i>Schirm</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLE ABBEY ROLL<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>. This is popularly supposed to have +been a list of William the Conqueror’s companions preserved at +Battle Abbey, on the site of his great victory over Harold. It is +known to us only from 16th century versions of it published by +Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all more or less imperfect and +corrupt. Holinshed’s is much the fullest, but of its 629 names +several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and Duchesne, +though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither +of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had +no right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after +him, held them to have been interpolated at various times by the +monks, “not without their own advantage.” Modern writers +have gone further, Sir Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as “a +disgusting forgery,” and E.A. Freeman dismissing it as “a +transparent fiction.” An attempt to vindicate the roll was made +by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose <i>Battle Abbey Roll</i> +(3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.</p> + +<p>It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite +misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family +surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which +families had “come over with the Conqueror,” and to have been +compiled about the 14th century. The compiler appears to have +been influenced by the French sound of names, and to have +included many families of later settlement, such as that of +Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till two +centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be +unheard of before and after the 16th century, but other lists were +current at least as early as the 15th century, as the duchess of +Cleveland has shown. In 1866 a list of the Conqueror’s followers, +compiled from Domesday and other authentic records, was set up +in Dives church by M. Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the +duchess’ work. Its contents are naturally sufficient to show +that the Battle Roll is worthless.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Leland, <i>Collectanea</i>; Holinshed, <i>Chronicles of England</i>; +Duchesne, <i>Historia Norm. Scriptores</i>; Brydges, <i>Censura Literaria</i>; +Thierry, <i>Conquête de l’Angleterre</i>, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, <i>The Roll of +Battle Abbey</i> (annotated, 1848); Planché, <i>The Conqueror and His +Companions</i> (1874); duchess of Cleveland, <i>The Battle Abbey Roll</i> +(1889); Round, “The Companions of the Conqueror” (<i>Monthly +Review</i>, 1901, iii. pp. 91-111).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLE CREEK,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A., +at the confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about +48 m. S. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563, +of whom 1844 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is +served by the Michigan Central and the Grand Trunk railways, +and by interurban electric lines. Here are the hospital and +laboratories of the American Medical Missionary College (of +Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium, established in 1866, +which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did much to make +Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods, and +in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal +buildings, besides the hospital and the sanitarium, are several +fine churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the +Post theatre. The city is a trading centre for the rich agricultural +and fruit-growing district by which it is surrounded, has +good water-power, and is an important manufacturing centre, its +chief manufactured products being cereal health foods, for which +it has a wide reputation, and the manufacture of which grew out +of the dietetic experiments made in the laboratories of the +sanitarium; and threshing machines and other agricultural +implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers, engines and +pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk +railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle +Creek was valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over +that for 1900; and of the total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value +of food preparations, which was 8.5% of the value of food +preparations manufactured in the United States, Battle Creek +thus ranking first among American cities in this industry. The +water-works are owned and operated by the municipality, the +water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure +resort about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been +named from hostilities here between some surveyors and +Indians, was settled in 1831, incorporated as a village in 1850, +and chartered as a city in 1859, the charter of that year being +revised in 1900.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> a game played by two +persons with small rackets, called battledores, made of parchment +or rows of gut stretched across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks, +made of a base of some light material, like cork, with trimmed +feathers fixed round the top. The object of the players is to bat +the shuttlecock from one to the other as many times as possible +without allowing it to fall to the ground. There are Greek +drawings extant representing a game almost identical with +battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China, +Japan, India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has +been played by children for centuries. A further development is +Badminton.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTLEMENT<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (probably from a lost Fr. form <i>bastillement</i>, cf. +mod. Fr. <i>bastille</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>bastilia</i>, towers, which is derived +from Ital. <i>bastire</i>, to build, cf. Fr. <i>bâtir</i>; the English word was, +however, early connected with “battle”), a term given to a +parapet of a wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals +to allow the discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out +portions are known as “crenels”; the solid widths between the +“crenels” are called “merlons.” The earliest example in the +palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes in Egypt is of the inverted +form, and is said to have been derived from Syrian fortresses. +Through Assyria they formed the termination of all the walls +surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and +elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and +they are suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of +Pompeii, additional protection was given by small internal +buttresses or spur walls against which the defender might place +himself so as to be protected completely on one side. In the +battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about one-third +of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition pierced +with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian battlements, +where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in a +peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a +more decorative and varied character, and were retained from +the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as +for a crowning feature to their walls. They may be regarded +therefore in the same light as the cresting found in the Spanish +renaissance. The same retention of the battlement as a purely +decorative feature is found throughout the Decorated and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page535" id="page535"></a>535</span> +Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets but +on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and +on screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the +elaborate panelling of the merlons and that portion of the +parapet walls rising above the cornice, by the introduction of +quatrefoils and other conventional forms filled with foliage and +shields.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTUE<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>battre</i>, to beat), the beating of game from +cover under the sportsmen’s fire; by analogy the word is used +to describe any slaughter of defenceless crowds.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATTUS,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene +in Libya (about 630 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The Greeks who accompanied him +were, like himself, natives of Thera, and descended partly from +the race of the Minyae. Various accounts are given both of the +founding of Cyrene and of the origin of the founder’s name. +According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv. 150-156), Battus, +having an impediment in his speech, consulted the oracle at +Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to +the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their +aged king Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in +Thera; Battus, leader of one party, was banished, and, on +applying to the oracle, was recommended to take out a colony to +“the continent” (Schol. Pindar, <i>Pyth.</i> iv. 10). In any case +the foundation is attributed to the direct instructions of +Apollo. The name was connected by some with <span class="grk" title="battarizo">βατταρίζω</span>, +(“stammer”), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the +Libyan word for “king,” that Battus was not called by the name +until after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed +him as “Battus” by anticipation. This, however, would imply +on the part of the oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not +shared by the rest of Greece (Herod. <i>l.c</i>.), and it is noteworthy +that the name occurs in Arcadian and Messenian legends. +Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar (<i>Pyth.</i> v. 116), +no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony Aristoteles, +while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was +worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating +with four named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (<i>q.v</i>.) till the fall of +the dynasty about 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See R.W. Macan’s <i>Herodotus IV.-VI.</i> (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq. +and notes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATU,<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Rock Islands</span> (Dutch <i>Batoe</i>), a group of three +greater and forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies, +W. of Sumatra, between 0° 10′ N. to 0° 45′ S. and 97° 50′-98° 35′ E., +belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of +Padang (Sumatra). They are separated by the strait of Sibirut +from the Mentawi group. The three chief islands, from N. to S., +are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala. The total land area of the +group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally low, and covered +with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous. There +is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives, +about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock, +akin to those of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about +twenty of the smaller islands are inhabited.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATUM,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government +of and 90 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E. +shore of the Black Sea, in 41° 39′ N. and 41° 38′ E. Pop. (1875) +2000; (1900) 28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by +the sand carried into it by several small rivers. The town is +protected by strong forts, and the anchorage has been greatly +improved by artificial works. Batum possesses a cathedral, +finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with sub-tropical +vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange trees, +magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the +same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall +(90 in.) is higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very +unequally distributed (23 in. in August and September, sometimes +16 in. in a couple of days), and the place is still most unhealthy. +The town is connected by rail with the main Transcaucasian +railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port for the export of naphtha +and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part through pipes +laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars; +other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons, +liquorice, maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5½ +millions sterling annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and +machinery, amount to less than half that total. Known as +Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the middle ages, and as Bathumi +since the beginning of the 17th century, Batum belonged to the +Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878, when it was +transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was +in the hands of the revolutionists, and a “reign of terror” +lasted for several weeks.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATWA,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous +country around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the +Belgian Congo. They were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge +and Hermann von Wissmann, and have been identified with Sir +H.M. Stanley’s Vouatouas. They are typical of the negrito +family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs +perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high. +Their complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their +Bantu-Negroid neighbours. They have short woolly hair and +no beard. They are feared rather than despised by the Baluba +and Bakuba tribes, among whom they live. They are nomads, +cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a small type of +hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for which +are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts +of a bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding +through the jungle growth “like grasshoppers” and fearlessly +attacking elephants and buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their +only occupation apart from hunting is the preparation of palm-wine +which they barter for grain with the Baluba. They are +monogamous and display much family affection. See further +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pygmy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Akka</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wochua</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bambute</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. de Quatrefages, <i>The Pygmies</i> (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H.H. +Johnston, <i>Uganda Protectorate</i> (1902); Hermann von Wissmann, +<i>My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa</i> (London, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BATYPHONE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (Ger. and Fr. <i>Batyphon</i>), a contrabass clarinet +which was the outcome of F.W. Wieprecht’s endeavour to +obtain a contrabass for the reed instruments. The batyphone +was made to a scale twice the size of the clarinet in C, the divisions +of the chromatic scale being arranged according to acoustic +principles. For convenience in stopping holes too far apart to +be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used. The +instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet +mouthpiece of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical +brass crook with the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell. +The pitch was two octaves below the clarinet in C, the compass +being the same, and thus corresponding to the modern bass tuba. +The tone was pleasant and full, but not powerful enough for the +contrabass register in a military band. The batyphone had +besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played with facility +only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The batyphone +was invented and patented in 1839 by F.W. Wieprecht, +director general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra, +the court instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the +instrument was found to be of little use, and was superseded by +the bass tuba. A similar attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe +Sax, and met with a similar fate.</p> + +<p>A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of +the Snoeck collection which was acquired for Berlin’s collection +of ancient musical instruments at the Technische Hochschule +für Musik. The description of the batyphone given above +is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on instrumentation by +Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto Lessmann +(Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C.R. Day, in <i>Descriptive +Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military +Exhibition, London, 1890</i> (London, 1891), p. 124.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUAN<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Baun</span>), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, +Philippine Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m. +S. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the +town with Manila was under construction in 1908. Bauan has +a fine church and is known as a market for “sinamay” or hemp +cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed and woven +by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans, +bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page536" id="page536"></a>536</span> +excellent fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the +Manila market. The surrounding country is fertile and grows +cacao, indigo, oranges, sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language +is Tagalog.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUBLE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (probably a blend of two different words, an old +French <i>baubel</i>, a child’s plaything, and an old English <i>babyll</i>, +something swinging to and fro), a word applied to a stick with +a weight attached, used in weighing, to a child’s toy, and especially +to the mock symbol of office carried by a court jester, a baton +terminating in a figure of Folly with cap and bells, and sometimes +having a bladder fastened to the other end; hence a term +for any triviality or childish folly.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUCHI,<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> a province in the highlands of the British protectorate +of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between +11° 15′ and 9° 15′ N. and 11° 15′ and 8° 30′ E. Bauchi is bounded +N. by the provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by +Bornu, S. by Yola and Muri, and W. by the provinces of Zaria +and Nassarawa. The province has an area of about 21,000 sq. m. +The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in its north-eastern +corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The province +is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain +ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the +country is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters +occur.</p> + +<p>Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or +Kibyen country, having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft., +and the Sura country, also reaching to elevations of from 3000 +to 5000 ft. Both these extensive plateaus are situated in the +south-west portion of the province. Their soil is fertile, they +possess an abundance of pure water, the air is keen and bracing, +and the climate is described as resembling in many respects that +of the Transvaal. They form the principal watershed not only +of the province of Bauchi, but of the protectorate of Northern +Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to the Benue, +rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau streams +flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the +Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the +volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the +extinct craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate +and healthy. In the winter months of November and December +the thermometer frequently falls to freezing-point, and in the +hottest months the maximum on the Kibyen plateau has been +found to be rarely over 85°.</p> + +<p>The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and +is of a very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and +there are some Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of +the people are pagan tribes in a very low state of civilization. +Sixty-four tribes sufficiently differentiated from each other to +speak different languages have been reported upon. Hausa is +the <i>lingua franca</i> of the whole. The pagan population has been +classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and Plains pagans, +Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the +plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of +the 19th century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans +were partly conquered, but many remained independent or have +since succeeded in asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans +are confined to the healthy plateaus of the south-west corner of +the province. They are independent and there is considerable +variety in the characteristics of the different tribes. The better +types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally industrious. They +are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and friendly +to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be +turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are +cannibals. They all go practically naked. They are essentially +horsemen, and have a cruel habit of gashing the backs of their +ponies that they may get a good seat in the blood. They are +armed with bows and arrows, but depend almost entirely in +battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.</p> + +<p>The native name “Bauchi,” which is of great antiquity, +Signifies the “Land of Slaves,” and from the earliest times the +uplands which now form the principal portion of the province +been the hunting ground of the slave raider, while the hill +fastnesses have offered defensible refuge to the population. So +entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that as late as 1905, +after the slave-trade had been abolished for three years, it was +found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food +difficult to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling +themselves as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily +sold by their parents at a price varying from the equivalent of +one shilling to one and sixpence.</p> + +<p>The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the +beginning of the 19th century, and furnished them with a valuable +slave preserve. But the more civilized portion had already, +under enlightened native rulers, attained to a certain degree of +prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was partly adopted by +the upper classes in the 18th century, if not earlier, and the son +of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted +the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula. +The name of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba +(Jacob). His father’s name was Daouad (David), and his grandfather +was Abdullah, all names which indicate Arab or Mahommedan +influence. The town of Bauchi and capital of the province +was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the emirate +remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year, +in consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant +misrule of the emir, a British expedition was sent against the +capital, which submitted without fighting. The emir was deposed, +and the country was brought under British control. A new emir +was appointed, but he died within a few months. The slave-trade +was immediately abolished, and the slave-market which was held +at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was closed. The Kano-Sokoto +campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary withdrawal of +the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little progress +was made until the following year. In 1904 the province +was organized for administration on the same system as the rest +of Northern Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of +allegiance to the British crown. The province has been subdivided +into thirteen administrative districts, which again have +been grouped into their principal divisions, with their respective +British headquarters at Bauchi, Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula +portion of this province, held like the other Hausa states under +a feudal system of large landowners or fief-holders, has been +organized and assessed for taxation on the system accepted by +the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations are +working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs +are in process of construction, and the province is being gradually +opened to trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to +the north of the Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention +of the Niger Company.</p> + +<p>Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European +point of view because, with free communication from the Benue +assured, it is probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus, +which are the healthiest known in the protectorate, a sanatorium +and station for a large civil population might be established under +conditions in which Europeans could live free from the evil +effects of a West African climate.</p> + +<p>The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division +of the Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the +emirs of Bauchi. It forms a rich and important district, and its +chiefs held themselves in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility +to the British. It was at Burmi in this district that the last +stand was made by the religious following of the defeated sultan +of Sokoto, and here the sultan was finally overthrown and killed +in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly accepted British rule.</p> +<div class="author">(F. L. L.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1821-1867), French poet, +was born in Paris on the 9th of April 1821. His father, who was +a civil servant in good position and an amateur artist, died in +1827, and in the following year his mother married a lieutenant-colonel +named Aupick, who was afterwards ambassador of France +at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons and at the +Collège Louis-le Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839 +he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next +two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page537" id="page537"></a>537</span> +guardians, in 1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he +returned to Paris, after less than a year’s absence, he was of age; +but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his +small patrimony, and his family obtained a decree to place his +property in trust. His <i>salons</i> of 1845 and 1846 attracted +immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded +many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took +part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years interested +himself in republican politics but his permanent convictions +were aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow +and fastidious worker, and it was not until 1857 that he produced +his first and famous volume of poems, <i>Fleurs du mal</i>. Some of +these had already appeared in the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> when +they were published by Baudelaire’s friend Auguste Poulet +Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alençon. The +consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by a +limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse +selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word +for unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo, +writing to the poet, said, “Vous dotez le ciel de l’art d’un rayon +macabre, vous créez un frisson nouveau.” Baudelaire, the +publisher, and the printer were successfully prosecuted for +offending against public morals. The obnoxious pieces were +suppressed, but printed later as <i>Les Épaves</i> (Brussels, 1866). +Another edition of the <i>Fleurs du mal</i>, without these poems, but +with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.</p> + +<p>Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found +some of his favourite reading in the English “Satanic” romances, +such as Lewis’s <i>Monk</i>. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted +with the works of Edgar Allan Poe, in which he discovered +romances and poems which had, he said, long existed in his own +brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till 1865 he +was largely occupied with his version of Poe’s works, producing +masterpieces of the art of translation in <i>Histoires extraordinaires</i> +(1852), <i>Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires</i> (1857), <i>Adventures +d’Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka</i>, and <i>Histoires grotesques et sérieuses</i> +(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his <i>Œuvres +complètes</i> (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties +grew upon him. He was involved in the failure of Poulet +Malassis in 1861, and in 1864 he left Paris for Belgium, partly in +the vain hope of disposing of his copyrights. He had for many +years a <i>liaison</i> with a coloured woman, whom he helped to the +end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He had recourse to +opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Paralysis +followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in <i>maisons +de santé</i> in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 31st of +August 1867.</p> + +<p>His other works include:—<i>Petits Poèmes en prose</i>; a series of +art criticisms published in the <i>Pays, Exposition universelle</i>; +studies on Gustave Flaubert (in <i>L’artiste</i>, 18th of October 1857); +on Théophile Gautier (<i>Revue contemporaine</i>, September 1858); +valuable notices contributed to Eugène Crépet’s <i>Poètes français</i>; +<i>Les Paradis artificiels opium et haschisch</i> (1860); <i>Richard Wagner +et Tannhäuser à Paris</i> (1861); <i>Un Dernier Chapitre de l’histoire des +œuvres de Balzac</i> (1880), originally an article entitled “Comment +on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie,” in which his criticism +is turned against his friends H. de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, +and Gérard de Nerval.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—An edition of his <i>Lettres</i> (1841-1866) was issued +by the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> +were edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a +preface by Théophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vindication +of his character from the attacks made upon it in his <i>Charles +Baudelaire, sa vie, son œuvre</i> (1869). He left some material of more +private interest in a MS. entitled <i>Baudelaire</i>. See <i>Charles Baudelaire, +souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie</i> (1872), by Charles Cousin +and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; <i>Charles Baudelaire, œuvres posthumes +et correspondances inédites</i> (1887), containing a journal entitled +<i>Mon cœur mis à nu</i>, and a biographical study by Eugène Crépet; +also <i>Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire</i> (1896), a collection of pieces +unpublished or prohibited during the author’s lifetime, edited by +S. Mallarmé and others, with a study of the text of the <i>Fleurs du +mal</i> by Prince A. Ourousof; Féli Gautier, <i>Charles Baudelaire</i> (Brussels, +1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la +Fitzelière and C. Decaux, <i>Charles Baudelaire</i> (1868) in the series of +<i>Essais de bibliographie contemporaine</i>; essays by Paul Bourget, +<i>Essais de psychologie conlemporaine</i> (1883), and Maurice Spronck, +<i>Les Artistes littéraires</i> (1889). Among English translations from +Baudelaire are <i>Poems in Prose</i>, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection +for the <i>Canterbury Poets</i> (1904), by F.P. Sturm.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUDIER, MICHEL<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1589-1645), French historian, was +born in Languedoc. During the reign of Louis XIII. he was +historiographer to the Court of France. He contributed to +French history by writing <i>Histoire de la guerre de Flandre 1559-1609</i> +(Paris, 1615); <i>Histoire de l’administration du cardinal +d’Amboise, grand ministre d’état en France</i> (Paris, 1634), a +defence of the cardinal; and <i>Histoire de l’administration de +l’abbé Suger</i> (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial interest in the +Turks he wrote <i>Inventaire général de l’histoire des Turcs</i> (Paris, +1619); <i>Histoire générale de la religion des Turcs avec la vie de +leur prophète Mahomet</i> (Paris, 1626); and <i>Histoire générale du +sérail et de la cour du grand Turc</i> (Paris, 1626; English trans. by +E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of +a Jesuit who had returned from China, Baudier wrote <i>Histoire +de la cour du roi de Chine</i> (Paris, 1626; English trans. in vol. viii. +of the <i>Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> of A. and J. Churchill, +London, 1707-1747). He also wrote <i>Vie du cardinal Ximénès</i> +(Paris, 1635), which was again published with a notice of the +author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious romance +entitled <i>Histoire de l’incomparable administration de Romieu, grand +ministre d’état de Raymond Bérenger, comte de Provence</i> (Paris, 1635).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Lelong, <i>Bibliothèque historique de la France</i> (Paris, 1768-1778); +L. Moréri, <i>Le Grand Dictionnaire historique</i> (Amsterdam, +1740).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LÉON<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1821-1892), French +economist, was born in Paris on the 28th of November 1821. +His father, Jacques Joseph (1774-1832), was a distinguished +writer on forestry, and was for many years in the service of the +French government, eventually becoming the head of that +branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of the +state forests. Henri was educated at the Collège Bourbon, +where he had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed +assistant lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the +Collège de France. In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of +economic history, Baudrillart was appointed to fill it. His first +work was an <i>Éloge de Turgot</i> (1846), which at once +won him notice among the economists. In 1853 he published an +erudite work on <i>Jean Bodin et son temps</i>; then in 1857 a <i>Manuel +d’économie politique</i>; in 1860, <i>Des rapports de la morale et +de l’économie politique</i>; in 1865, <i>La Liberté du travail</i>; and from +1878 to 1880, <i>L’Histoire du luxe ... depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à +nos jours</i>, in four volumes. At the instance of the Académie des +Sciences Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of +the farming classes of France, and published the results in four +volumes (1885, <i>et seq</i>.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the +<i>Journal des économistes</i>, and contributed many articles to the +<i>Journal des débats</i> and to the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. His +writings are distinguished by their style, as well as by their +profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the Académie +des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was +appointed inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he +succeeded J. Garnier as professor of political economy at the +École des Ponts et Chaussées. Baudrillart was made an officer +of the Legion of Honour in 1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of +January 1892.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUDRY,<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balderich</span>, <b>OF BOURGUEIL</b> (1046 or 1047-1130), +archbishop of Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-sur-Loire, +where he passed his early days. Educated at Meung +and at Angers, he entered the Benedictine abbey of Bourgueil, +and in 1079 became abbot of this place, but his time was devoted +to literary pursuits rather than to his official duties. Having +failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in 1097, he became +archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his pallium in +1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an +archbishopric during the 10th century by Nomenoé, king of +Brittany, but this step had been objected to by the archbishops +of Tours. Consequently the position of the see was somewhat +ambiguous, and Baudry is referred to both as archbishop and as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page538" id="page538"></a>538</span> +bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven earnestly to do +something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants of +Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon +abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council, +and in 1119 the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit +of two years’ duration to England. Returning to France he +neglected the affairs of his diocese, and passed his time mainly +at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died on the 5th or +7th of January 1130.</p> + +<p>Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent +quality. The most important of these, from the historical point +of view, have been published in the <i>Historiae Francorum Scriptores</i>, +tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry’s +prose works are more important. The best known of these is his +<i>Historiae Hierosolymitance</i>, a history of the first crusade from +1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, the material for +which was mainly drawn from the anonymous <i>Gesta Francorum</i>, +but some valuable information has been added by Baudry. +It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by +Ordericus Vitalis for his <i>Historiae ecclesiasticae</i>; by William, +archbishop of Tyre, for his <i>Belli sacri historia</i>; and by Vincent +of Beauvais for his <i>Speculum historiale</i>. The best edition is that +by C. Thurot, which appears in the <i>Recueil des historiens des +croisades</i>, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887), Other works probably by +Baudry are <i>Epistola ad Fiscannenses monachos</i>, a description of +the monastery of Fécamp; <i>Vita Roberti de Arbrissello; Vita +S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio capitis +Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relatio de scuto +et gladio</i>, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and <i>Vita +S. Samsonis Dolensis episcopi</i>. Other writings which on very +doubtful authority have been attributed to Baudry are <i>Acta +S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De visitatione infirmorum; +Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. Maclovii, Alectensis +episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium</i>; and +<i>Confirmatio bonorum monasterii S. Florentii</i>. Many of these are +published by J.P. Migne in the <i>Patrologia Latina</i>, tomes 160, +162 and 166 (Paris 1844).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869); +H. von Sybel, <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges</i> (Leipzig, 1881); +A. Thurot, “Études critiques sur les historiens de la première +croisade; Baudri de Bourgueil” in the <i>Revue historique</i> (Paris, +1876).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMÉ<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (1828-1886), French +painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vendée). He studied +under Drolling, a sound but second-rate artist, and carried off +the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of “Zenobia found on +the banks of the Araxes.” His talent from the first revealed +itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and grace, but +somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence in +Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with +the mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works +he exhibited in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for +the Luxembourg: “The Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin” and +“The Child.” His “Leda,” “St John the Baptist,” and a +“Portrait of Beulé,” exhibited at the same time, took a first +prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry commonly +selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most +noteworthy being “The Pearl and the Wave.” Once only did +he attempt an historical picture, “Charlotte Corday after the +murder of Marat” (1861), and returned by preference to the +former class of subjects or to painting portraits of illustrious men +of his day—Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond About. The +works that crowned Baudry’s reputation were his mural decorations, +which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for +colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de +Cassation, at the château of Chantilly, and some private residences—the +hôtel Fould and hôtel Paiva—but, above all, in the +decorations of the <i>foyer</i> of the Paris opera house. These, more +than thirty paintings in all, and among them compositions +figurative of dancing and music, occupied the painter, for ten +years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of the +Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of +his colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating +with his brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to +him in Paris (1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-Yonne +(1897) is by Gérôme.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Delaborde, <i>Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de Baudry</i> (1886); +Ch. Ephrussi, <i>Baudry, sa vie et son œuvre</i> (1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUER, BRUNO<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1809-1882), German theologian and historian, +was born on the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a +porcelain factory, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied +at Berlin, where he attached himself to the “Right” of the +Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach +in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred +to Bonn. In 1838 he published his <i>Kritische Darstellung der +Religion des Alten Testaments</i> (2 vols.), which shows that at that +date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon afterwards +his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the +Fourth Gospel, <i>Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes</i> +(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, <i>Kritik der evangelischen +Geschichte der Synoptiker</i> (1841), as well as in his <i>Herr Hengstenberg, +kritische Briefe über den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des +Evangeliums</i>, he announced his complete rejection of his earlier +orthodoxy. In 1842 the government revoked his license and he +retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Henceforward +he took a deep interest in modern history and politics, as +well as in theology, and published <i>Geschichte der Politik, Kultur +und Aufklärung des 18ten Jahrhunderts</i> (4 vols. 1843-1845), +Geschichte der französischen Revolution (3 vols. 1847), and +<i>Disraelis romantischer und Bismarcks socialistischer Imperialismus</i> +(1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the gospels and a +history of their origin, <i>Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres +Ursprungs</i> (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the Apostles, +<i>Apostelgeschichte</i> (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline epistles, +<i>Kritik der paulinischen Briefe</i> (1850-1852). He died at Rixdorf +on the 13th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament +was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his <i>Life of +Jesus</i> had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious +products of the mythic instinct in the early Christian communities. +Bauer ridiculed Strauss’s notion that a community +could produce a connected narrative. His own contention, +embodying a theory of C.G. Wilke (<i>Der Urevangelist</i>, 1838), was +that the original narrative was the Gospel of Mark; that this was +composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after this the other +narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however, +“regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the +creator of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction +and Christianity the invention of a single original evangelist” +(Pfleiderer). On the same principle the four principal Pauline +epistles were regarded as forgeries of the 2nd century. He argued +further for the preponderance of the Graeco-Roman element, as +opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian writings. The writer of +Mark’s gospel was “an Italian, at home both in Rome and +Alexandria”; that of Matthew’s gospel “a Roman, nourished +by the spirit of Seneca”; the Pauline epistles were written in +the West in antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on. +Christianity is essentially “Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish +garb.” This line of criticism has found few supporters, mostly +in the Netherlands. It certainly had its value in emphasizing the +importance of studying the influence of environment in the +formation of the Christian Scriptures. Bauer was a man of restless, +impetuous activity and independent, if ill-balanced, judgment, +one who, as he himself perceived, was more in place as a +free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came in the +end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not +afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the +Jewish question (<i>Die Judenfrage</i>, 1843).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the +<i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>. See generally Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>; +and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, <i>Development of Theology</i>, p. 226; +Carl Schwarz, <i>Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</i>, pp. 142 ff.; and +F. Lichtenberger, <i>History of German Theology in the 19th Century</i> +(1889), pp. 374-378.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (1802-1890), Austrian dramatist, +was born at Vienna on the 13th of January 1802. Having +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page539" id="page539"></a>539</span> +studied jurisprudence at the university of Vienna, he entered the +government service in a legal capacity, and after holding various +minor offices was transferred in 1843 to a responsible post on the +Lottery Commission. He had already embarked upon politics, +and severely criticized the government in a pamphlet, <i>Pia +Desideria eines österreichischen Schriftstellers</i> (1842); and in +1845 he made a journey to England, after which his political opinions +became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he +quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely +to letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the 9th of August +1890, and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies +and farces, Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German +playwrights of the century; his plots are clever, the situations +witty and natural and the diction elegant. His earliest essays, +the comedies <i>Leichtsinn aus Liebe</i> (1831); <i>Das +Liebes-Protokoll</i> (1831) and <i>Die ewige Liebe</i> (1834); +<i>Bürgerlich und Romantisch</i>, (1835) enjoyed great popularity. +Later he turned his attention to so-called <i>Salonstücke</i> +(drawing-room pieces), notably <i>Aus der Gesellschaft</i> (1866); +<i>Moderne Jugend</i> (1869), and <i>Der Landfrieden</i> (1869), +in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy sallies the +social conditions of the capital in which he lived.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A complete edition of Bauernfeld’s works, <i>Gesammelte Schriften</i>, +appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873); <i>Dramatischer Nachlass</i>, +ed. by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols., +1905). See A. Stern, <i>Bauernfeld, Ein Dichterportrat</i> (1890), +R. von Gottschall, “E. von Bauernfeld” (in <i>Unsere Zeit</i>, 1890), +and E. Horner, <i>Bauernfeld</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUFFREMONT,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> a French family which derives its name +from a village in the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In +consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy the Bauffremonts +established themselves in Burgundy and Franche-Comté. +In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Maríe, a +legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. +Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri, +all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588 +and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre +Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the +Holy Roman Empire, was created a peer of France in 1817, and +duke in 1818. After having served in the army of the princes he +returned to France under the Empire, and had been made a +count by Napoleon.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUHIN, GASPARD<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anatomist, +was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-1582), +who had to leave his native country on becoming a +convert to Protestantism. He was born at Basel on the 17th of +January 1560, and devoting himself to medicine, he pursued his +studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated schools +in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to +the degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and +anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship +in that university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and +botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of +the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of +his faculty. He died at Basel on the 5th of December 1624. He +published several works relative to botany, of which the most +valuable was his <i>Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in +Theophrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo +scripserunt opera</i> (1596). Another great work which he planned was +a <i>Theatrum Botanicum</i>, meant to be comprised in twelve parts +folio, of which he finished three; only one, however, was published +(1658). He also gave a copious catalogue of the plants +growing in the environs of Basel, and edited the works of P.A. +Mattioli (1500-1577) with considerable additions. He likewise +wrote on anatomy, his principal work on this subject being +<i>Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum</i> (1592).</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Jean Gaspard Bauhin</span> (1606-1685), was professor +of botany at Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, <span class="sc">Jean +Bauhin</span> (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tübingen under +Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner, +began to practise medicine at Basel, where he was elected professor +of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he was invited to +become physician to the duke of Württemberg at Montbéliard, +where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted himself +chiefly to botany. His great work, <i>Historia plantarum nova et +absolutissima</i>, a compilation of all that was then known about +botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at +Yverdon in 1650-1651, the <i>Prodromus</i> having appeared at the same +place in 1619. He also wrote a book <i>De aquis medicatis</i> (1605).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAULK,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Balk</span> (a word common to Teutonic languages, +meaning a ridge, partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughed +between furrows or ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip +of land used as a boundary in the “open-field” system of +agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched +comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short +of an obstacle, of the “baulk-line” in billiards, or of the deceptive +motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original +meaning, <i>i.e.</i> “beam,” comes the use of the word for the cross +or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one +or one and a half foot square section (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Joinery</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUMBACH, RUDOLF<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1840-1905), German poet, was born +at Kranichfeld on the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September +1840, the son of a local medical practitioner, and received his +early schooling at the gymnasium of Meiningen, to which place +his father had removed. After studying natural science in +various universities, he engaged in private tuition, both +independently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, Brünn, +Görz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular +taste with an Alpine legend, <i>Zlatorog</i> (1877), and songs of a +journeyman apprentice, <i>Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen</i> (1878), +both of which have run into many editions. Their success +decided him to embark upon a literary career. In 1885 he +returned to Meiningen, where he received the title of <i>Hofrat</i>, +and was appointed ducal librarian. His death occurred on the +14th of September 1905.</p> + +<p>Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and +wrote, in imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel, +many excellent drinking songs, among which <i>Die Lindenwirtin</i> +has endeared him to the German student world. But his real +strength lay in narrative verse, especially when he had the +opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native Thuringia. +Special mention may be made of <i>Frau Holde</i> (1881), +<i>Spielmannslieder</i> (1882), <i>Von der Landstrasse</i> (1882), +<i>Thüringer Lieder</i> (1891), and his prose, <i>Sommermärchen</i> (1881).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUMÉ, ANTOINE<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at +Senlis on the 26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to +the chemist Claude Joseph Geoffroy, and in 1752 was admitted +a member of the École de Pharmacie, where in the same year he +was appointed professor of chemistry. The money he made in a +business he carried on in Paris for dealing in chemical products +enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote himself to +applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was obliged +to return to a commercial career. He devised many improvements +in technical processes, <i>e.g.</i> for bleaching silk, dyeing, +gilding, purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the +inventor of the hydrometer associated with his name (often in +this connexion improperly spelt Beaumé). Of the numerous +books and papers he wrote the most important is his <i>Élémens de +pharmacie théorique et pratique</i> (9 editions, 1762-1818). He +became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an +associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the 15th +of October 1804.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (1714-1762), +German philosopher, born at Berlin. He studied at Halle, and +became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frankfort on the +Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple of Leibnitz and +Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been the +first to establish the <i>Theory of the Beautiful</i> as an independent +science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics +(<i>q.v.</i>) from the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out +a definite object for its researches. The very name (<i>Aesthetics</i>), +which Baumgarten was the first to use, indicates the imperfect +and partial nature of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element +so variable as <i>feeling</i> or <i>sensation</i> as the ultimate ground of +judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. It is important +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page540" id="page540"></a>540</span> +to notice that Baumgarten’s first work preceded those of Burke, +Diderot, and P. André, and that Kant had a great admiration +for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the following: +<i>Dispulationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus</i> (1735); +<i>Aesthetics; Metaphysica</i> (1739; 7th ed. 1779); <i>Ethica philosophica</i> +(1751, 2nd ed. 1763); <i>Initia philosophiae practicae +primae</i> (1760). After his death, his pupils published a <i>Philosophia +Generalis</i> (1770) and a <i>Jus Naturae</i> (1765), which he had +left in manuscript.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Meyer, <i>Baumgarten’s Leben</i> (1763); Abbt, <i>Baumgarten’s Leben +und Charakler</i> (1765); H.G. Meyer, <i>Leibnitz und Baumgarten</i> (1874); +J. Schmidt, <i>Leibnitz und Baumgarten</i> (Halle, 1875); and article +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aesthetics</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Siegmund Jacob Baumgarten</span> (1706-1757), +was professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of +Wolff to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (<i>q.v.</i>), +is sometimes called, the father of German rationalism. Baumgarten, +though he did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began +the process which Semler completed. His works include <i>Evangelische +Glaubenslehre</i> (1759); <i>Auszug der Kirchengeschichte</i> +(1743-1762); <i>Primae lineae breviarii anliquitatum Christianarum</i> +(1747); <i>Geschichte der Religionsparteien</i> (1760); <i>Nachricht van +merkwürdigen Buchern</i> (1752-1757); <i>Nachrichten van einer hallischen +Bibliothek</i> (1748-1751).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1812-1889), German Protestant +theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the +25th of March 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), and +became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). A +liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 through a work, +<i>Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus der +Gegenwart</i>, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament +and assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every +kind. At a pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended +evangelical freedom as regards the legal sanctity of Sunday. +This, with other attempts to liberalize religion, brought him into +conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities of Mecklenburg, and in +1858 he was deprived of his professorship. He then travelled +throughout Germany, demanding justice, telling the story of his +life (<i>Christliche Selbstgespräche</i>, 1861), and lecturing on the life +of Jesus (<i>Die Geschichte Jesu. Für das Verständniss der Gegenwart</i>, +1859). In 1865 he helped to found the <i>Deutsche Protestantenverein</i>, +but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions +(1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of the +progressive party. He died on the 21st of July 1889. Other +works: <i>Apostelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche van +Jerusalem bis Rom</i> (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and <i>Doktor Martin +Luther, ein Volksbuch</i> (1883).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>H.H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see +also C. Schwartz, <i>Neueste Theologie</i> (1869); Lichtenberger, <i>Hist. +Germ. Theol.</i>, 1889; Calwer-Zeller, <i>Kirchen-Lexikon</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> +(1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merseburg. +In 1805 he entered the university of Leipzig and studied theology +and philology. After acting as <i>Privatdocent</i> at Leipzig, he was, +in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena, +where he remained to the end of his life, rising gradually to the +head of the theological faculty. He died on the 31st of May +1842. With the exception of Church history, he lectured on all +branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New +Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the +history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate +scholarship and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his +lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of +church doctrine. His published works are many, the most +important being:—<i>Lehrbuch der christtichen Sittenlehre</i> (1826); +<i>Grundzuge der biblischen Theologie</i> (1828); <i>Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte</i> +(1832); <i>Compendium der Dogmengeschichte</i> (1840). +The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was +completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1792-1860), leader of the +Tübingen school of theology, was born at Schmiden, near +Canstatt, on the 21st of June 1792. After receiving an early +training in the theological seminary at Blaubeuren, he went in +1809 to the university of Tübingen. Here he studied for a time +under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New Testament +critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his +career he seems to have been under the influence of the old +Tübingen school. But at the same time the philosophers +Immanuel Fichte and Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide +and deep impression. In 1817 Baur returned to the theological +seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. This move marked a +turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set to work upon +those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had +already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser’s <i>Biblische +Theologie</i> for Bengel’s <i>Archiv für Theologie</i> (ii. 656); its tone +was moderate and conservative. When, a few years after his +appointment at Blaubeuren, he published his first important, +work, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Altertums</i> +(1824-1825), it became evident that he had made a deeper +study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of +Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher. +The learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the +author was called to Tübingen as professor of theology. It is +with Tübingen that his greatest literary achievements are +associated. His earlier publications here treated of mythology +and the history of dogma. <i>Das manichäische Religionssystem</i> +appeared in 1831, <i>Apollonius von Tyana</i> in 1832, <i>Die christliche +Gnosis</i> in 1835, and <i>Über das Christliche im Platonismus oder +Socrates und Christus</i> in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer (<i>Development +of Theology</i>, p. 285) observes, “the choice not less than the treatment +of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of view +and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of +religion.” Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philosophy +for another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. In doing so, he +had adopted completely the Hegelian philosophy of history. +“Without philosophy,” he has said, “history is always for me +dead and dumb.” The change of view is illustrated clearly in +the essay, published in the <i>Tubinger Zeitschrift</i> for 1831, on the +Christ-party in the Corinthian Church, <i>Die Chrislusparlei in +der korinthischen Gemeinde, der Gegensatz des paulinischen und +petrinischen in der älsten Kirche, der Apostel Petrus in Rom</i>, +the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends that +St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party +which wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead +of his universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict +of parties in the post-apostolic age. The theory is further +developed in a later work (1835, the year in which David Strauss’ +<i>Leben Jesu</i> was published), <i>Über die sogenannten Pastoralbriefe</i>. +In this Baur attempts to prove that the false teachers mentioned +in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus are the Gnostics, particularly +the Marcionites, of the second century, and consequently +that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this century +in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate +the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same +manner, publishing his results in 1845 under the title <i>Paulus, der +Apostel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und +seine Lehre</i>. In this he contends that only the Epistles to the +Galatians, Corinthians and Romans are genuinely Pauline, and +that the Paul of Acts is a different person from the Paul of these +genuine Epistles, the author being a Paulinist who, with an eye +to the different parties in the Church, is at pains to represent +Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as far as possible +as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is prepared to +apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the +words of H.S. Nash, “he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the +examination of the New Testament.” Those writings alone he +considers genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians +and Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his <i>Kritische +Untersuchungen über die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss +zu einander, ihren Charakter und Ursprung</i> (1847) he turns his +attention to the Gospels, and here again finds that the authors +were conscious of the conflict of parties; the Gospels reveal +a mediating or conciliatory tendency (<i>Tendenz</i>) on the part of +the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in fact, are adaptations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page541" id="page541"></a>541</span> +or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the +Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The +Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original +Gospel (<i>Urevangelium</i>); the Pauline Luke is later and arose +independently; Mark represents a still later development; +the account in John is idealistic: it “does not possess historical +truth, and cannot and does not really lay claim to it.” Baur’s +whole theory indeed starts with the supposition that Christianity +was gradually developed out of Judaism. Before it could become +a universal religion, it had to struggle with Jewish limitations and +to overcome them. The early Christians were Jewish-Christians, +to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other hand, represented +a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus +there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter, +James and John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle +continued down to the middle of the 2nd century. In short, +the conflict between Petrinism and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz +puts it, the key to the literature of the 1st and 2nd century.</p> + +<p>But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical +critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work, +<i>Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Protestantismus nach den +Prinzipien und Hauptdogmen der beiden Lehrbegriffe</i>, a strong +defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher’s +<i>Glaubenslehre</i>, and a vigorous reply to J. Möhler’s <i>Symbolik</i> +(1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, <i>Die +christliche Lehre van der Versöhnung in ihrer geschichtlichen +Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit</i> (1838), <i>Die christliche +Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschwerdung Gottes in ihrer +geschichtlichen Entwicklung</i> (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the +<i>Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmengeschichte</i> (1847). The value +of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur’s habit of making +the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel’s philosophy, +a procedure “which only served to obscure the truth +and profundity of his conception of history as a true development +of the human mind” (Pfleiderer). Baur, however, soon +came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish +more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is +marked in his <i>Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung</i> (1852), +<i>Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten +Jahrhunderte</i> (1853), and <i>Die christliche Kirche von Anfang des +vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts</i> (1859), works +preparatory to his <i>Kirchengeschichte</i>, in which the change of view is +specially pronounced. The <i>Kirchengeschichte</i> was published in five +volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur himself, +partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard +Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him. +Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as +“a classic for all time.” “Taken as a whole, it is the first +thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Christianity +and the Church on <i>strictly historical</i> lines, <i>i.e</i>. as a natural +development of the religious spirit of our race under the combined +operation of various human causes” (<i>Development of +Theology</i>, p. 288). Baur’s lectures on the history of dogma, +<i>Ausführlichere Vorlesungen über die christliche Dogmengeschichte</i>, +were published later by his son (1865-1868).</p> + +<p>Baur’s views were revolutionary and often extreme; but, +whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic +he rendered a great service to theological science. “One thing +is certain: New Testament study, since his time, has had a +different colour” (H.S. Nash). He has had a number of disciples +or followers, who have in many cases modified his positions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full account of F.C. Baur’s labours, and a complete list of his +writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopadie</i>, +in which his work is divided into three periods: (1) “Philosophy +of Religion,” (2) “Biblical criticism,” (3) “Church History.” +See also H.S. Nash, <i>The History of the Higher Criticism of the New +Testament</i> (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, <i>The Development of +Theology in Germany since Kant</i> (trans., 1890); Carl Schwarz, <i>Zur +Geschichte der neuesten Theologie</i> (Leipzig, 1869); R.W. Mackay, +<i>The Tübingen School and its Antecedents</i> (1863); A.S. Farrar, <i>A +Critical History of Free Thought in reference to the Christian Religion</i> +(Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on “The Tübingen +Historical School,” in <i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i>, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. A. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGÈNE MARIE<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1796-1867), French +philosopher and theologian, was born at Paris. At the École +Normale he came under the influence of Cousin. In 1816 he +adopted the profession of higher teaching, and was soon after +called to the chair of philosophy in the university of Strassburg. +He held this position for many years, and gave a parallel course +of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in the same city. +The reaction against speculative philosophy, which carried +away De Maistre and Lamennais, influenced him also. In 1828 +he took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For +several years he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty +and at the college of Juilly, but in 1840 he set out for Paris as +vicar of the diocese. At Paris he obtained considerable reputation +as an orator, and in 1853 was made professor of moral +theology at the theological faculty. This post he held till his +death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason and faith, +and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise unattainable, +which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. Theology +and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science. +Yet Bautain was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he +exalted faith above reason. He pointed out, following chiefly +the Kantian criticism, that reason can never yield knowledge +of things in themselves. But there exists in addition to reason +another faculty which may be called intelligence, through which +we are put in connexion with spiritual and invisible truth. +This intelligence does not of itself yield a body of truth; it +merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are made +productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts. +This fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the departments +of psychology and morals. The details of this theology +are highly imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a +spirit of the world and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth +to a physical and psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the +animal and vegetable spirits. His theories may well be compared +with the arbitrary mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics. +The most important of his works are:—<i>Philosophie du Christianisme</i> +(1835); <i>Psychologic expérimentale</i> (1839), new edition +entitled <i>Esprit humain et ses facultés</i> (1859); <i>Philosophie +morale</i> (1840); <i>Religion et liberté</i> (1848); <i>La Morale de l’évangile +comparée aux divers systèmes de morale</i> (Strassburg, 1827; +Paris, 1855); <i>De l’éducation publique en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> +siècle</i> (Paris, 1876).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUTZEN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (Wendish <i>Budissin</i>, “town”), a town of Germany, +in the kingdom of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper +Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1905) 29,412. It occupies an +eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 ft. above the level +of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the Dresden-Görlitz-Breslau +main line of railway, and at the junction of lines from +Schandau and Königswartha. The town is surrounded by walls, +and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned +into promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the +left bank of the river. Among its churches the most remarkable +is the cathedral of St Peter, dating from the 15th century, with a +tower 300 ft. in height. It is used by both Protestants and Roman +Catholics, an iron screen separating the parts assigned to each. +There are five other churches, a handsome town hall, an orphan-asylum, +several hospitals, a mechanics’ institute, a famous +grammar school (gymnasium), a normal and several other schools, +and two public libraries. The general trade and manufactures are +considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), linen +and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It +has also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar +factories, &c.</p> + +<p>Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler, +conquered Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under +Otto I., his successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth +and importance, for a good share of which it was indebted to the +pilgrimages which were made to the “arm of St Peter,” preserved +in one of the churches. It suffered greatly during the Hussite +war, and still more during the Thirty Years’ War, in the course of +which it was besieged and captured by the elector of Brandenburg, +John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wallenstein (1633), and, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page542" id="page542"></a>542</span> +in the following year was burned by its commander before being +surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in +1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.</p> + +<p>The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 20th +and 21st of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of +Russians and Prussians (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). +The position chosen by the allies as that in which to +<span class="sidenote">Battle of Bautzen, 1813.</span> +receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from +Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right. +Bautzen itself was held as an advanced post of the left wing +(Russians), the main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near +Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 2½ m. N.E. of Bautzen, was +Kleist’s Prussian corps, with Yorck’s in support. On Kleist’s +right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of Burk) lay Blücher’s corps, and on +Blücher’s right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards +Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay +de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded +in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as +battlegrounds of the Seven Years’ War. The whole line was +covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence +for the left and centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to +attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and +the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and +watercourses. Napoleon’s right and centre approached (on a +broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by +Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was +separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at +Luckau, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and +Klix to strike the allies’ right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon, +after a prolonged reconnaissance, advanced the main army against +Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy’s right to be dealt with by +Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the extreme left of the +allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to move his artillery +and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot’s (XII.) corps, +the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly country +to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald’s (XI.) corps was to +assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the +Spree and attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three +corps were directed by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand’s (IV.) +corps was held back to connect with Ney, who had then reached +Weissig with the head of his column. The Guard and other +general reserves were in rear of Macdonald and Marmont. +Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont +easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the +other bank of the river by about 4 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> A heavy and indecisive +combat took place in the evening between Oudinot and the +Russian left, directed by the tsar in person, in which Oudinot’s +men made a little progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont’s battle +was more serious. The Prussians were not experienced troops, +but were full of ardour and hatred of the French. Kleist made a +most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and Bertrand’s corps +was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but part of +Blücher’s corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not +taken till 7 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> The French attack was much impeded by the +ground and by want of room to deploy between the river and the +enemy. But Napoleon’s object in thus forcing the fighting in the +centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the +French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and +right to sustain the shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were +in possession of the French, and the allied line now stretched from +Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, Blücher and Barclay maintaining +their original positions at Pliskowitz and Gleina. The +night of the 20th-21st was spent by both armies on the battlefield. +Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost fought +out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 21st the decisive point +was to be Barclay’s position. Soon after daybreak fighting was +renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep +until the time appointed for Ney’s attack. To a heavy counter-stroke +against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal +from the ground won on the 20th, the emperor paid no more heed +than to order Macdonald to support the XII corps. For in this +second position of the allies, which was far more formidable than +the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only +by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the corps of +Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total +force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had +been sharply engaged on the 19th, but had spent the 20th in +calculated inaction. Early on the 21st the flank attack opened; +Ney and Lauriston moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and +Victor operated by a wide turning movement against Barclay’s +right rear. The advance was carried out with precision; the +Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now closing upon +the rear of Blücher’s corps at the village of Preititz. Napoleon at +once ordered Soult’s four corps to renew their attacks in order to +prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical +moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at 11 <span class="scs">A.M.</span> +and he reached that place an hour earlier. The respite of an hour +enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was +checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could +come upon the scene. At 1 <span class="scs">P.M.</span>, when Ney resumed his advance, +it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now +made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other troops +in the centre, 80,000 strong and covered by a great mass of +artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied +centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose +Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Blücher, now +almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make +head against Soult, and Ney’s four corps then carried all before +them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney’s +appearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered +a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and +bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off +unharmed, leaving no trophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose +success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a variety of reasons, +and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a <i>coup manqué</i> +strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side +163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses +respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAUXITE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span>, a substance which has been considered to be a +mineral species, having the composition Al<span class="su">2</span>O(OH)<span class="su">4</span> (corresponding +with alumina 73.9, water 26.1%), and thus to be distinct +from the crystallized aluminium hydroxides, diaspore (AlO(OH)) +and gibbsite (= hydrargillite, Al(OH)<span class="su">3</span>). It was first described by +P. Berthier in 1821 as “alumine hydratée de Beaux,” and was +named beauxite by P.A. Dufrénoy in 1847 and bauxite by +E.H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived +from the original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux), +near Arles, dep. Bouches-du-Rhône in the south of France, +where the material has been for many years extensively mined as +an ore of aluminium. It is never found in a crystallized state, +but always as earthy, clay-like or concretionary masses, often +with a pisolitic structure. In colour it varies from white through +yellow and brown to red, depending on the amount and the +degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific gravity +also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known +as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in +northern Carniola) is given as 2.55. The numerous chemical +analyses, which have mostly been made for technical purposes, +show that material known as bauxite varies very widely in +composition, the maximum and minimum percentages of each +constituent being as follows: alumina (Al<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>) 33.2-76.9; +water (H<span class="su">2</span>O) 8.6-31.4; iron oxide (Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span>) 0.1-48.8; silica +(SiO<span class="su">2</span>) 0.3-37.8; titanic acid (TiO<span class="su">2</span>) up to 4. The material is +thus usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand +and hydroxides of iron in variable amounts, the presence of +which may be seen by a microscopical examination. Analyses +of purer material often approximate to diaspore or gibbsite in +composition, and minute crystalline scales of these minerals +have been detected under the microscope.</p> + +<p>Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral, +but rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various +impurities; it is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical +composition and in microscopical structure. Laterite is admittedly +a decomposition-product of igneous or other crystalline +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page543" id="page543"></a>543</span> +rocks, and the same is no doubt also true of bauxite. The +deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron ore inter-bedded +with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met +with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in +Germany. On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in +the south of France (departments Bouches-du-Rhône, Ariège, +Hérault, Var) and the southern United States (Georgia, Alabama, +Arkansas) are often associated with limestones; in this case the +origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to the chemical action of +solutions of aluminium sulphate on the limestones.</p> + +<p>Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium +(<i>q.v.</i>); the material is first purified by chemical processes, after +which the aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace. +Bauxite is also largely used in the manufacture of alum and +other aluminium salts used in dyeing. Its refractory qualities +render it available for the manufacture of fire-bricks and +crucibles.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAVAI,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> a town of northern France in the department of Nord, +15 m. E.S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The +town carries on the manufacture of iron goods and of fertilizers. +Under the name of <i>Bagacum</i> or <i>Bavacum</i> it was the +capital of the Nervii and, under the Romans, an important centre +of roads, the meeting-place of which was marked by a milestone, +destroyed in the 17th century and replaced in the 19th century +by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian +invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered +much during the wars of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAVARIA<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Bayern</i>), a kingdom of southern Germany, +next to Prussia the largest state of the German empire in area +and population. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions. +Bavaria proper, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from +25 to 40 m. W. apart and are separated by the grand-duchies of +Baden and Hesse.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features.</i>—Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by +the Alps, on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of +mountains known as the Böhmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtelgebirge +and the Frankenwald, which separate it from the kingdom +of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the duchies of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha +and Meiningen and the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel. +The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; but +the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an +elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded +by Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country +mainly belongs to the basins of the Danube and the Main; by +far the greater portion being drained by the former river, which, +entering from Swabia as a navigable stream, traverses the entire +breadth of the kingdom, with a winding course of 200 m., and +receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the Isar and the Inn +from the south, and the Naab, the Altmühl and the Wörnitz +from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian +territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river +flowing from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable +till it has passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar +size. The Main traverses the northern regions, or Upper and +Lower Franconia, with a very winding course and greatly +facilitates the trade of the provinces. The district watered by +the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most +part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 ft. +In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous +lakes and in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy +ground. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is +bounded on the E. by the Rhine, which divides it from the grand-duchy +of Baden, on the S. by Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a +lofty range of hills, the Haardtgebirge, which separate it from +Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province.</p> + +<p>The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character +of the region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the +plains adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the +temperature is in the winter months considerably colder than +that of England, and a good deal hotter during summer and +autumn.</p> + +<p><i>Area and Population.</i>—Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion, +contains an area of 26,998 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western, +2288 sq. m., making the whole extent of the kingdom about +29,286 sq. m. The total population, according to the census of +1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a quarter of the inhabitants live +in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg have populations +exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Würzburg, Fürth and Ludwigshafen +between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns +number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient +tribes; Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and +Franks in the centre, Franks towards the west, and, in the +Palatinate, Walloons. Politically, the country is divided into +eight provinces, as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Provinces.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capital.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Pop. of Province<br />in 1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area in<br />sq. m.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Bavaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Munich</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,410,763</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,456</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Bavaria</td> <td class="tcl rb">Landshut</td> <td class="tcr rb">706,345</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,152</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Palatinate</td> <td class="tcl rb">Regensburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">573,476</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,728</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Upper Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bayreuth</td> <td class="tcr rb">637,239</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,702</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Middle Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ansbach</td> <td class="tcr rb">868,072</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,925</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lower Franconia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Würzburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">680,769</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,243</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Swabia</td> <td class="tcl rb">Augsburg</td> <td class="tcr rb">750,880</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,792</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">The Palatinate</td> <td class="tcl rb">Spires</td> <td class="tcr rb">885,280</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,288</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Total</td> <td class="tcr allb">6,512,824</td> <td class="tcr allb">29,286</td></tr> +</table> + +<p><i>Religion.</i>—The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are +Roman Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims +about 29%, while Jews, and a very small number of other sects, +account for the remainder.</p> + +<p>The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the +Upper Palatinate are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in +the Rhine Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle +Franconia, the preponderance is on the side of the Protestants. +The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is altogether free. +The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman +Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or +Protestant. Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads are the +two archbishops of Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six +bishops of Eichstätt, Spires, Würzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg +and Passau, of whom the first three are suffragans of Bamberg. +The “Old Catholic” party, under the bishop of Bonn, has +failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the country. +Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general +consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in +1900 were as follows:—Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants, +1,749,206; Jews, 54,928.</p> + +<p><i>Education.</i>—Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has +recently done much in this connexion. The state has two +Roman Catholic universities, Munich and Würzburg, and a +Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a polytechnic, an +academy of sciences and an academy of art.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture.</i>—Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half +is under cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth +mostly pasture. The level country, including both Lower +Bavaria (extending northwards to the Danube) and the western +and middle parts of Franconia, is productive of rye, oats, wheat, +barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder and fruit and +vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the Lake of +Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its +course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively +grown in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany) +round Nuremberg and in the Palatinate, which also largely +produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes are cultivated in all the +provinces, but especially in the Palatinate and in the Spessart +district, which lies in the north-west within a curve of the Main. +The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, where +pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and +the dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in +large numbers.</p> + +<p>The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of +Bavaria. This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly +and mountainous country, the thinness of the population and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page544" id="page544"></a>544</span> +the necessity of keeping a given extent of ground under wood +for the supply of fuel. More than a third of the forests are +public property and furnish a considerable addition to the +revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces of +Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine. +The forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the +Alps), wild boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being +plentiful. The greater proportion of the land throughout the +kingdom is in the hands of peasant proprietors, the extent of +the separate holdings differing very much in different districts. +The largest peasant property may be about 170 acres, and the +smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals</i>.—The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal, +iron ore, graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in +the districts of Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the +Rhine Palatinate. Salt is obtained on a large scale partly from +brine springs and partly from mines, the principal centres being +Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and Rosenheim. The government +monopoly which had long existed was abolished in 1867 +and free trade was established in salt between the members of +the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines, +chiefly in the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of +copper, manganese and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous +quarries of excellent marble, alabaster, gypsum and building +stone; and the porcelain-clay is among the finest in Europe. +To these may be added emery, steatite, barytes, felspar and +ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent lithographic stone +is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are still worked, +but to an insignificant extent.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures and Trade</i>.—A great stimulus was given to +manufacturing industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which +abolished the last remains of the old restrictions of the gilds, +and gave the whole country the liberty which had been enjoyed +by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief centres of industry +are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Fürth, Erlangen, Aschaffenburg, +Regensburg, Würzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and +Hof in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the +Rhine port of Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware +industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Fürth; the two +first especially for locomotives and automobiles, the last for tinfoil +and metal toys. Aschaffenburg manufactures fancy goods, +Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and Munich has a +great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia are +numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is +largely carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A +considerable quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Böhmerwald. +Brewing forms an important industry, the best-known +breweries being those of Munich, Nuremberg, Erlangen and +Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco, +porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg), plate-glass, +sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The +commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist +chiefly of corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods, +glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat +of the hop-trade is Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports +comprise sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—Trade is served by an excellent railway +system and there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers, +to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by +Ludwigshafen. The high roads of Bavaria, many of which are +military roads laid out at the beginning of the 19th century, +extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377 m. of +railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the +hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private +system of the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigskanal, +which connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending +from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmühl. +There is an extensive network of telegraph and telephone lines. +All belong to the government post office, which forms an administrative +system independent of the imperial German post office.</p> + +<p><i>Constitution and Administration</i>.—By the treaty of Versailles +(23rd November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the 16th +of April 1871, Bavaria was incorporated with the German +empire, reserving, however, certain separate privileges (<i>Sonderrechte</i>) +in respect of the administration of the army, the railways +and the posts, the excise duties on beer, the rights of domicile +and the insurance of real estate. The king is the supreme chief +of the army, and matters requiring adjudication in the adjutant-general’s +court are referred to a special Bavarian court attached +to the supreme imperial military tribunal in Berlin. Bavaria +is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends forty-eight +deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is +mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May +1818, modified by subsequent acts—that of the 9th of March +1828 as affecting the upper house, and those of the 4th of June +1848 and of the 21st of March 1881 as affecting the lower—and +is a limited monarchy, with a legislative body of two houses. +The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelsbach, according +to the rights of primogeniture, females being excluded from +succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist. The +title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive +heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or +incapacity of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested +in the nearest male agnate capable of ascending the throne. +Such a regency began on the 10th of June 1886, at first for King +Louis II., and after the 14th of the same month for King Otto I., +in the person of the prince regent Luitpold. The executive +power resides in the king and the responsibility for the government +of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is Roman +Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.</p> + +<p>The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (<i>Kammer der +Reichsräte</i>) is composed of (1) the princes of the blood royal +(being of full age), (2) the ministers of the crown, (3) the archbishops +of Munich, Freising and Bamberg, (4) the heads of such +noble families as were formerly “immediate” so long as they +retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria, (5) of a Roman +Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of the president +for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of +hereditary counsellors (<i>Reichsräte</i>) appointed by the king, and +(7) of other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The +lower house (<i>Kammer der Abgeordneten</i>) or chamber of representatives, +consists, since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion +of one—reckoned on the census of 1875—to every 31,500 inhabitants. +A general election takes place every six years, and, under +the electoral law of 1906, is direct. Qualifications for the general +body of electors are full age of twenty-five years, Bavarian +citizenship of one year at least, and discharge of all rates and +taxes. Parliament must be assembled every three years, but as +the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly called together +within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or property of +the subject can be passed without the sanction of parliament.</p> + +<p><i>Revenue</i>.—The following is a fairly typical statement of the +budget estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= 1 shilling sterling):—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Receipts.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Mks.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Direct taxes</td> <td class="tcr cl">38,199,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Customs and indirect taxes</td> <td class="tcr">50,900,990</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">State railways</td> <td class="tcr cl">184,551,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Posts and telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr">41,665,100</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Forests and agricultural dues</td> <td class="tcr cl">37,395,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Imperial assignments</td> <td class="tcr">62,571,605</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">415,282,695</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">= £20,764,135</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc pt2" colspan="2">Disbursements.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">Mks.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Civil list</td> <td class="tcr cl">5,402,475</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">State debt</td> <td class="tcr">51,323,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ministry of the Royal house and of Foreign dept.</td> <td class="tcr cl">688,398</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Ministry of Justice</td> <td class="tcr">20,615,299</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Ministry of interior</td> <td class="tcr cl">30,055,338</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Public worship and education</td> <td class="tcr">34,667,673</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl cl">Minister of finance</td> <td class="tcr cl">6,696,780</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Constribution to imperial exchequer</td> <td class="tcr">72,647,090</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">—————</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">222,296,253</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">=========</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcr">= £11,114,813</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p>The public debt amounts to about £95,000,000, of which over +75% was incurred for railways.</p> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the +army of the German empire, with a separate administration, +but in time of war is under the supreme command of the German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page545" id="page545"></a>545</span> +emperor. The regulations applicable to other sections of the +whole imperial army are, however, observed. It consists, on a +peace footing, of three army corps, 1st, 2nd and 3rd Royal +Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of which +are in Munich, Nuremberg and Würzburg respectively. The +Bavarian army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry, +two battalions of rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy, +two Ulan and six Chevauxlegers), a squadron of mounted +infantry (<i>Jäger-zu-pferde</i>), twelve field- and two foot-artillery +regiments, three battalions of engineers, three of army service, +and a balloon section; in all 60,000 men with 10,000 horses. +In time of war the total force is trebled.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. A.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called +Bavaria were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were +subdued by the Romans just before the opening of the Christian +era, when colonies were founded among them and their land was +included in the province of Raetia. During the 5th century it +was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, after being almost +denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, pushing +along the valley of the Danube, settled there between <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 488 +and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the +race and origin of these people, who were certainly a new and +composite social aggregate. Most likely they were descendants +of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or +Swabian race, with possibly a small intermixture of Gothic or +Celtic elements. They were called <i>Baioarii, Baiowarii, Bawarii</i> +or <i>Baiuwarii</i>, words derived most probably from <i>Baja</i> or <i>Baya</i>, +corruptions of <i>Bojer</i>, and given to them because they came from +<i>Bojerland</i> or <i>Bohemia</i>. Another but less probable explanation +derives the name from a combination of the old high German +word <i>uuâra</i>, meaning league, and <i>bai</i>, a Gothic word for both. +The Bavarians are first mentioned in a Frankish document of +520, and twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east +of the Swabians. Their country bore some traces of Roman +influence, and its main boundaries were the Enns, the Danube, +the Lech and the Alps; but its complete settlement was a work +of time.</p> + +<p>The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks, +probably without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555 +to 788 by dukes of the Agilolfing family, who were +possibly of Frankish descent. For a century and a +<span class="sidenote">Frankish influence.</span> +half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of +the Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke +Theodo I., who died in 717, were completely independent of the +feeble Frankish kings. When Charles Martel became the virtual +ruler of the Frankish realm he brought the Bavarians into strict +dependence, and deposed two dukes successively for contumacy. +Pippin the Short was equally successful in maintaining his +authority, and several marriages took place between the family +to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a +similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with +which various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour +to the supposition that they were rather the outcome of family +quarrels than the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the +years 739 and 748 the Bavarian law was committed to writing +and supplementary clauses were afterwards added, all of which +bear evident traces of Frankish influence. Thus, while the +dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the duke must be +chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the Frankish +king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild, +summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation, +calls out the host, administers justice and regulates finance. +There are five noble families, possibly representing a former +division of the people, after whom come the freeborn, and then +the freedmen. The country is divided into <i>gaus</i> or counties, +under their counts, who are assisted by judges responsible for +declaring the law.</p> + +<p>Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times; +but a new era set in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to +the country at the invitation of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He +founded several monasteries, and a similar work was also performed +by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the result +<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span> +that before long the bulk of the people professed +Christianity and relations were established between +Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century witnessed indeed +a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in +Bavaria about 734 of St. Boniface, who organized the Bavarian +church and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising, +Regensburg and Passau.</p> + +<p>Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749, +recognized the supremacy of the Frankish king Pippin the Short +in 757, but soon afterwards refused to furnish a contribution +to the war in Aquitaine. Moreover, during +<span class="sidenote">Frankish conquest.</span> +the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo +gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name, +refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general +acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the +Alpine passes, as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the +Lombard king Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Frankish +kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The +details of this contest are obscure. Tassilo appears to have done +homage in 781, and again in 787, probably owing to the presence +of Frankish armies. But further trouble soon arose, and in 788 +the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a charge of +treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, pardoned +by the king; and he then entered a monastery and +formally renounced his duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country +was ruled by Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till +his death in a battle with the Avars in 799, when its administration +was entrusted to Frankish counts and assimilated with +that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its condition +was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the +intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The +Bavarians offered no resistance to the change which thus abolished +their dukedom; and their incorporation with the Frankish +dominions, due mainly to the unifying influence of the church, +was already so complete that Charlemagne did not find it +necessary to issue more than two capitularies dealing especially +with Bavarian affairs.</p> + +<p>The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up +with that of the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of +817 to the king of the East Franks, Louis the German, +it formed part of the larger territories which were +<span class="sidenote">Union with Carolingian Empire.</span> +confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun, +Louis made Regensburg the centre of his government, +and was active in improving the condition of Bavaria, and providing +for its security by numerous campaigns against the Slavs. +When he divided his possessions in 865 it passed to his eldest son, +Carloman, who had already undertaken its government, and +after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive territories +of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this +incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman, +and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that +Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to +secure his own election as German king in the following year. +Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Frankish kingdom, +passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose reign it was +constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to these +inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the +5th of July 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished +in battle with these formidable enemies. For the defence of +Bavaria the mark of Carinthia had been erected on the south-eastern +frontier, and during the reign of Louis the Child this was +ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, who possessed large +domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in the great +fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied the +remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was +chosen duke of the Bavarians in 911, when Bavaria and Carinthia +were united under his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the +supremacy of the German king Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully +attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by +Conrad’s successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who admitted his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page546" id="page546"></a>546</span> +right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue laws. +A similar conflict took place between Arnulf’s son and successor +<span class="sidenote">Part of the German Kingdom.</span> +Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was +less successful than his father, for in 938 he was driven +from Bavaria, which was given by Otto with reduced +privileges to the late duke’s uncle, Bertold; and a +count palatine in the person of Eberhard’s brother Arnulf was +appointed to watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in +947 Otto conferred the duchy upon his own brother Henry, who +had married Judith, a daughter of Duke Arnulf. Henry was +disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was spent mainly +in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians +ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of +the duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain +adjacent districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his +young son Henry, surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was +implicated in a conspiracy against King Otto II. The reason for +this rising was that the king had granted the duchy of Swabia +to Henry’s enemy, Otto, a grandson of the emperor Otto the +Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark, afterwards +known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The +revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his +escape from prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in +976 when Bavaria was given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the +same time Carinthia was made into a separate duchy, the office +of count palatine was restored, and the church was made +dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored in +985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing +internal order, issuing important laws and taking measures to +reform the monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen +German king as Henry II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his +brother-in-law Henry of Luxemburg; after whose death in 1026 it +passed successively to Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., +and to another member of the family of Luxemburg, as Duke +Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and regent +for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to Otto of +<span class="sidenote">The duchy passes to the Welfs.</span> +Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070, +when the duchy was granted to Count Welf, a member +of an influential Bavarian family. In consequence of +his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with +Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was +followed successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1101, and Henry IX. +in 1120, both of whom exercised considerable influence among +the German princes. Henry was succeeded in 1126 by his son +Henry X., called the Proud, who obtained the duchy of Saxony +in 1137. Alarmed at this prince’s power, King Conrad III. +refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same hands; and, +having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon +Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141, +the king retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the +scene of considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to +Henry II., surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The +struggle for its possession continued until 1156, when King +Frederick I. in his desire to restore peace to Germany persuaded +Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the Lion, a son of Duke +Henry the Proud.</p> + +<p>A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry +being placed under the imperial ban in 1180, the duchy was given +by Frederick I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian +family of Wittelsbach (<i>q.v.</i>), and a descendant of the +<span class="sidenote">Then to the Wittelsbachs.<br />Area of Bavaria.</span> +counts of Scheyern. During the years following the +destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of +Bavaria were continually changing, and for a lengthened period +after 955 this process was one of expansion. To the west the +Lech still divided Bavaria from Swabia, but on three +other sides the opportunities for extension had been +taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area +of considerable dimensions north of the Danube. During the +later years of the rule of the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency +had operated, and the extent of Bavaria had been reduced. The +immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion had been devoted to +his northern rather than his southern duchy, and when the +dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the +district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to +Austria. The increasing importance of the mark of Styria, +erected into a duchy in 1180, and the county of Tirol, had +diminished both the actual and the relative strength of Bavaria, +which was now deprived on almost all sides of opportunities for +expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the great +temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a +general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical +and lay nobles, were additional forces of similar influence.</p> + +<p>When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at +Altenburg in September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the +Böhmerwald, the Inn, the Alps and the Lech; and +the power of the duke was practically confined to his +<span class="sidenote">Rule of the Wittelsbachs.</span> +extensive private domains around Wittelsbach, Kelheim +and Straubing. Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for +three years, and was succeeded in 1183 by his son Louis I., who +took a leading part in German affairs during the earlier years of +the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and was assassinated at +Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called the +Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohenstaufen +caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and +Bavaria to be laid under an interdict. Like his father, Otto +increased the area of his lands by purchases; and he had considerably +strengthened his hold upon the duchy before he died +in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to increase their +power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair measure +of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among +different members of the family which for 250 years made the +<span class="sidenote">Division of the duchy.</span> +history of Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle +of territorial divisions bringing war and weakness in +their train. The first of these divisions was made in +1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke +Otto II., who for two years after their father’s death had ruled +Bavaria jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of +the duchy, afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and +<span class="sidenote">Upper Bavaria.</span> +Henry secured eastern or Lower Bavaria. In the +course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern, +became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was +the uncle and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when +this prince was put to death in Italy in 1268, Louis and his brother +Henry inherited the domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and +elsewhere. He supported Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his +efforts to secure the German throne in 1273, married the new +king’s daughter Mechtild, and aided him in campaigns in +Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis’ death in +1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor +Louis IV., ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations +were never harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in +1310, by which Rudolph received the land east of the Isar +together with the town of Munich, and Louis the district between +the Isar and the Lech. It was not long, however, before this +arrangement led to war between the brothers, the outcome of +which was that in 1317, three years after he had been chosen +German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for +twelve years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But +in 1329 a series of events induced him to conclude the treaty of +Pavia with Rudolph’s sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he +transferred the Palatinate of the Rhine, which had been in the +possession of the Wittelsbach family since 1214, and also a portion +of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was afterwards +called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided +that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines alternately, +and that in the event of either branch of the family becoming +extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.</p> + +<p>Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels +with his brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various +ecclesiastics. When he died in February 1200 Lower +Bavaria was ruled by his three sons, Otto III., Louis +<span class="sidenote">Lower Bavaria.</span> +III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296; +Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II. +and Otto IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page547" id="page547"></a>547</span> +1308, died in 1312, leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria +was governed by these three princes until 1333, when Henry III. +died, followed in 1334 by his cousin Otto; and as both died +without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then passed to Henry II. +Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who died childless +<span class="sidenote">Reunion of the duchy.</span> +in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by +securing Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole +of the duchy under his sway. The consolidation of +Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven years, during +which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the +country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his +possessions, who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its +history, however, was complicated by its connexion with Brandenburg, +Holland and Tirol, all of which had also been left by +the emperor to his sons. All the six brothers exercised some +authority in Bavaria; but three alone left issue, and of these +the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in 1361; +and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son +Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers, +Stephen II. and Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and +Bavaria-Straubing respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375 +his portion of Bavaria was governed jointly by his three sons. +In 1392, when all the lines except those of Stephen and Albert +had died out, an important partition took place, by which the +greater part of the duchy was divided among Stephen’s three +sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded respectively +the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert’s +duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his +son William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who +resigned the bishopric of Liége to take up his new position. +When John died in 1425 this family became extinct, and after +a contest between various claimants Bavaria-Straubing was +divided between the three remaining branches of the family.</p> + +<p>The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a succession +of civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria +as a force in German politics. Neighbouring states +encroached upon its borders, and the nobles ignored +<span class="sidenote">Internal condition 1392.</span> +the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the electoral +vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with +intestine strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not +wholly harmful. The government of the country and the control +of the finances passed mainly into the hands of an assembly +called the <i>Landtag</i> or <i>Landschaft</i>, which had been organized in +1392. The towns, assuming a certain independence, became +strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the citizens of +Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to +the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of representative +institutions and the establishment of a strong civic +spirit. Stephen III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distinguished +rather as a soldier than as a statesman; and his rule +was marked by struggles with various towns, and with his +<span class="sidenote">Intestine troubles.</span> +brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he +was followed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded, +a restless and quarrelsome prince, who before his +accession had played an important part in the affairs of France, +where his sister Isabella was the queen of King Charles VI. +About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel with his +cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal +and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis +the Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick +I. of Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at +the favour shown by his father to an illegitimate son. Aided by +Albert Achilles, afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took +the elder Louis prisoner and compelled him to abdicate in 1443. +When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his father came into the power +of his implacable enemy, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, and died +in prison in 1447. The duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to +Henry, who had succeeded his father Frederick as duke of +Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was almost +entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and +was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about +this time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance. +Louis IX. expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for +the security of traders, and improved both the administration of +justice and the condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded +the university of Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries, +and was successful in a struggle with Albert Achilles of Brandenburg. +On his death in January 1479 he was succeeded by his son +George, also called the Rich; and when George, a faithful +adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died without sons in +December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his duchy.</p> + +<p>Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his +sons Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of +their lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt. +Both brothers were then engaged in warfare with the other +branches of the family and with the citizens of Munich. William, +a loyal servant of the emperor Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an +only son, Adolf, who died five years later; and Ernest, distinguished +for his bodily strength, died in 1438. In 1440 the whole +of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest’s son Albert, who had been +estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate +Agnes Bernauer (<i>q.v.</i>). Albert, whose attempts to reform the +monasteries earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost +elected king of Bohemia in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five +sons, the two elder of whom, John IV. and Sigismund, reigned in +common until the death of John in 1463. The third brother, +Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined his brother +in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became +sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers. +Albert, who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg +to his possessions, and in 1504 became involved in the war which +<span class="sidenote">War over the succession to Bavaria-Landshut.</span> +broke out for the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the +death of George the Rich. Albert’s rival was George’s +son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of Freising, and son +of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the emperor +Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and +count of Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1504, +and the following year an arrangement was made at the diet of +Cologne by which the emperor and Philip’s grandson, Otto Henry, +obtained certain outlying districts, while Albert by securing the +bulk of George’s possessions united Bavaria under his rule. In +1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass undivided +<span class="sidenote">Reigns of Albert the Wise and William IV.</span> +according to the rules of primogeniture, and +endeavoured in other ways also to consolidate Bavaria. +He was partially successful in improving the condition +of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one of the +six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance +of peace. He died in March 1508, and was succeeded by his son, +William IV., whose mother, Kunigunde, was a daughter of the +emperor Frederick III. In spite of the decree of 1506 William was +compelled in 1516, after a violent quarrel, to grant a share in the +government to his brother Louis, an arrangement which lasted +until the death of Louis in 1545.</p> + +<p>William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition +to the Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with +Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened +in 1546, when the emperor Charles V. obtained the help of the duke +during the war of the league of Schmalkalden by promising him +in certain eventualities the succession to the Bohemian throne, +and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count palatine of the +Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to secure +<span class="sidenote">Roman Catholicism in Bavaria.</span> +Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had +made considerable progress in the duchy when the duke +from the pope extensive rights over the +bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to repress +the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the +Jesuits, whom he invited into the duchy in 1541, made the university +of Ingolstadt their headquarters for Germany. William, +whose death occurred in March 1550, was succeeded by his son +Albert IV., who had married a daughter of Ferdinand of Habsburg, +afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his reign Albert +made some concessions to the reformers, who were still strong in +Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the +decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page548" id="page548"></a>548</span> +the Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into +the hands of the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was +effectually arrested in Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of +art. His court at Munich was the resort of artists of all kinds, and +the city was enriched with splendid buildings; while artistic +works were collected from Italy and elsewhere. The expenses of +a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel with the <i>Landschaft</i>, +to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great burden of debt when +he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was Albert’s son, +William V. (called the Pious), who was educated by the Jesuits and +was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the archbishopric +of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity +remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. In +<span class="sidenote">Reign of Maximillian I. and the Thirty Years’ War.</span> +1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I., +and retired into a monastery, where he died in 1626. +Maximilian found the duchy encumbered with debt and +filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule +effected a remarkable change. The finances and the +judicial system were reorganized, a class of civil servants +and a national militia founded, and several small districts +were brought under the duke’s authority. The result was a unity +and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to play an important +part in the Thirty Years’ War; during the earlier years +of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate +and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the +elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In spite of subsequent +reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at the peace of +Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war Bavaria, +especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was +invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty +of Ulm in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes. +After repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at +Ingolstadt in September 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger +than he had found it. The recovery of the Upper Palatinate made +Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the electoral vote made it +influential; and the duchy was able to play a part in European +politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible for the past +four hundred years.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. H.*)</div> + +<p>Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian +I. might add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during +the next two centuries was more dubious. Maximillian’s +son, Ferdinand Maria (1651-1679), who was a +<span class="sidenote">Beginning of modern period.</span> +minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to repair +the wounds caused by the Thirty Years’ War, encouraging +agriculture and industries, and building or restoring +numerous churches and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he +again called a meeting of the diet, which had been suspended +since 1612. His good work, however, was largely undone by his +son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose far-reaching +ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side of +France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He +shared in the defeat at Höchstädt on the 13th of August 1704; +his dominions were temporarily partitioned between Austria +and the elector palatine, and only restored to him, harried and +exhausted, at the peace of Baden in 1714. Untaught by Maximilian +Emmanuel’s experience, his son, Charles Albert (1726-1745), +devoted all his energies to increasing the European +prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor +Charles VI. was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the +Pragmatic Sanction which secured the Habsburg succession to +Maria Theresa, allied himself with France, conquered Upper +Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague and, in 1742, +emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay, however, was +the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and, +though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of +Prussia enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the +20th of January 1745 it was left to his successor to make what +terms he could for the recovery of his dominions. Maximilian +III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the peace of Füssen signed on the +22nd of April 1745, obtained the restitution of his dominions in +return for a formal acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction. +He was a man of enlightenment, did much to encourage agriculture, +industries and the exploitation of the mineral wealth of +the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and +abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death, +without issue, on the 30th of December 1777, the Bavarian line +of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed +to Charles Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of +four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the +<span class="sidenote">Re-union of the Palatinate.</span> +duchies of Jülich and Berg had been added, was thus +reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of +strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she +had so recently had just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria, +which laid claim to a number of lordships—forming one-third of +the whole Bavarian inheritance—as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian, +Austrian, and imperial crowns. These were at once occupied by +Austrian troops, with the secret consent of Charles Theodore +himself, who was without legitimate heirs, and wished to obtain +from the emperor the elevation of his natural children to the +status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the next heir, +Charles, duke of Zweibrücken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the +king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the +peace of Teschen (May 13th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to +Austria, and the succession secured to Charles of Zweibrücken. +For Bavaria itself Charles Theodore did less than nothing. He +felt himself a foreigner among foreigners, and his favourite +scheme, the subject of endless intrigues with the Austrian +cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II.’s League of +Princes (<i>Fürstenbund</i>) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for the +Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the +rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was +abandoned. The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which +Maximilian Joseph had destined for the reform of the educational +system of the country, were used to endow a province of the +knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the purpose of combating the +enemies of the faith. The government was inspired by the +narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt to +withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great +German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the +pope. On the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social +condition of Bavaria remained that of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in +1795 the French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced +to Munich—where they were received with joy by the +long-suppressed Liberals—and laid siege to Ingolstadt. +<span class="sidenote">The revolutionary wars.</span> +Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent +or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a +regency, the members of which signed a convention with Moreau, +by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribution +(September 7th, 1796). Immediately afterwards he was +forced to retire.</p> + +<p>Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in +an evil case. Before the death of Charles Theodore (February +16th, 1799) the Austrians had again occupied the country, +preparatory to renewing the war with France. Maximilian IV. +Joseph (of Zweibrücken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult +inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-powerful +minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (<i>q.v.</i>), were, if +anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian +finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered +and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria; +on the 2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved +in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more +occupied Munich. By the treaty of Lunéville (February 9th, +1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibrücken +and Jülich.</p> + +<p>In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of +the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of +Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French republic; +he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of +<span class="sidenote">French influence.</span> +Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a +separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at +Paris. By the third article of this the First Consul undertook +to see that the compensation promised under the 7th article +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page549" id="page549"></a>549</span> +of the treaty of Lunéville for the territory ceded on the left bank +of the Rhine, should be carried out at the expense of the Empire +in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria (de Martens, <i>Recueil</i>, +vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the territorial rearrangements +consequent on Napoleon’s suppression of the +ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire, +Bavaria received the bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg, Augsburg +and Freisingen, part of that of Passau, the territories of +twelve abbeys, and seventeen cities and villages, the whole +forming a compact territory which more than compensated for +the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Montgelas’ +ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate +power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch +with consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of +France—so long as it lasted—but never permitting Bavaria to +sink, like so many of the states of the confederation of the +Rhine, into a mere French dependency. In the war of 1805, in +accordance with a treaty of alliance signed at Würzburg on the +23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the first time since +Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and by the +treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the principality +of Eichstädt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of +Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Königsegg-Rothenfels, +the lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau +with its territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other +hand Würzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria +to the elector of Salzburg in exchange for Tirol. By the 1st +article of the treaty the emperor acknowledged the assumption +by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The price +which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of +dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with Eugène +Beauharnais.</p> + +<p>For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French +alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself +was an “enlightened” prince of the 18th-century type, whose +tolerant principles had already grievously offended his clerical +subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer in drastic reform +“from above,” and, in 1803, had discussed with the rump of +the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary +changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the 1st of +May 1808 were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean +sweep was made of the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent +local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of +privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law, +universal liability to taxation, abolition of serfdom, security of +person and property, liberty of conscience and of the press. A +representative assembly was created on paper, based on a narrow +franchise and with very limited powers, but was never summoned.</p> + +<p>In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on +the side of France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the +28th of February 1810 ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some +small districts to Württemberg, receiving as compensation +parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and Hausrück and +the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the policy +of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of +Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute +opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change. The +events of 1812 followed; in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to +join the alliance against Napoleon, the demand being passionately +backed by the crown prince Louis and by Marshal Wrede; on +<span class="sidenote">Treaty of Ried.</span> +the 8th of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by +which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Montgelas +announced to the French ambassador that he +had been compelled temporarily to bow before the storm, adding +“Bavaria has need of France.” (For Bavaria’s share in the +war see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria +ceded to Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of +Vienna it was decided that she was to add to these the greater +part of Salzburg and the quarters of the Inn and Hausrück, +receiving as compensation, besides Würzburg and +<span class="sidenote">Relations with Austria.</span> +Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the +Rhine and certain districts of Hesse and of the former +abbacy of Fulda. But with the collapse of France the old +fear and jealousy of Austria had revived in full force, and Bavaria +only agreed to these cessions (treaty of Munich, April 16th, +1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of the powers ignoring +her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that of the +line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the +Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was +thus left open, the tension between the two powers remained +extreme, and war was only averted by the authority of the +Grand Alliance. At the congress of Aix (1818) the question of +the Baden succession was settled in favour of the Hochberg line, +without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty of Munich; +and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four great +powers on the 20th of July 1819, the territorial questions at +issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the +protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement +made at Vienna. A small strip of territory was added, to connect +Bavaria with the Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison +the federal fortress of Mainz.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the 1st of February 1817, Montgelas had been +dismissed; and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional +reform. This implied no breach with the European +policy of the fallen minister. In the new German +<span class="sidenote">Constitution of 1818.</span> +confederation Bavaria had assumed the rôle of defender +of the smaller states against the ambitions of +Austria and Prussia, and Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian +hegemony in South Germany similar to that of Prussia in the +north. It was to obtain popular support for this policy and for +the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince pressed +for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede +it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the +constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist +of two houses; the first comprising the great hereditary landowners, +government officials and nominees of the crown; the +second, elected on a very narrow franchise, representatives +of the small land-owners, the towns and the peasants. By +additional articles the equality of religions was guaranteed +and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which +were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which +had been signed immediately before. The result of the constitutional +experiment hardly justified the royal expectations; +the parliament was hardly opened (February 5th, 1819) before +the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members, culminating +in the demand that the army should swear allegiance to the +constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to Austria +and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures +they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve +of any <i>coup d’état</i>; the parliament, chastened by the consciousness +that its life depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated +its tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a model constitutional +monarch. On the 13th of October 1825, he was +succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened patron of the arts +and sciences, who transferred the university of Landshut to +Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he transformed +into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent. +The earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and +the reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the +revolutions of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was +accentuated by the opposition of the parliament to his expenditure +on building and works of art. In 1837 the Ultramontanes +came into power with Karl von Abel (1788-1859) +as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand; +one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified +or annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and +a rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion of internal +politics. The collapse of this régime was due, not to popular +agitation, but to the resentment of Louis at the clerical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page550" id="page550"></a>550</span> +opposition to the influence of his mistress, Lola Montez. On the +17th of February 1847, Abel was dismissed, for publishing his +<span class="sidenote">Lola Montez.</span> +memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola, +who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg +Ludwig von Maurer (<i>q.v</i>.) took his place. The new +ministry granted the certificate of naturalization; but riots, +in which ultramontane professors of the university took part, +were the result. The professors were deprived, the parliament +dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry dismissed. +Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the +state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-Wallerstein +(1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal +sympathy by appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless +to form a stable government. His cabinet was known as the +“Lolaministerium”; in February 1848, stimulated by the +news from Paris, riots broke out against the countess; on the +11th of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the 20th, +realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in +favour of his son, Maximilian II.</p> + +<p>Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a +proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian +government in the work of German freedom and +unity. To the spirit of this Maximilian was faithful, +<span class="sidenote">Anti-Prussian policy.</span> +accepting the authority of the central government +at Frankfort, and (19th of December) sanctioning the +official promulgation of the laws passed by the German parliament. +But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In +refusing to agree to the offer of the imperial crown to Frederick +William IV., Maximilian had the support of his parliament. +In withholding his assent to the new German constitution, +by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he ran +indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time +the back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which +led to the humiliation of Prussia at Olmütz in 1851, and the +restoration of the old diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was +safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>: <i>History</i>). +The guiding spirit in this anti-Prussian policy, which characterized +Bavarian statesmanship up to the war of 1866, was Ludwig +Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (1811-1880), who became minister +for foreign affairs on the 19th of April 1849. His idea for the +ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power in +Germany was the so-called <i>Trias</i>, <i>i.e.</i> a league of the Rhenish +states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and +Prussia. In internal affairs his ministry was characterized by +a reactionary policy less severe than elsewhere in Germany, +which led none the less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the +parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten’s ministry +on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr +von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of Liberal +tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet +of the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced, +including the separation of the judicial and executive powers +and the drawing up of a new criminal code. In foreign affairs +Schrenk, like his predecessor, aimed at safeguarding the independence +of Bavaria, and supported the idea of superseding +the actual constitution of the Confederation by a supreme +directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German states, +would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria +accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganization +of the Confederation, and one of the last acts of King +Maximilian was to take a conspicuous part in the assembly of +princes summoned to Frankfort in 1863 by the emperor Francis +Joseph (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Germany</a></span>).</p> + +<p>Maximilian was succeeded on the 10th of March 1864 by his +son Louis II., a youth of eighteen. The government was at first +carried on by Schrenk and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon +retired, when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in +order to maintain its position in the Prussian <i>Zollverein</i>, to +become a party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France, +signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein question +(<i>q.v</i>.) Bavaria, under Pfordten’s guidance, consistently opposed +Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick +of Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German +powers. Finally, in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck’s +efforts to secure her neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with +Austria.</p> + +<p>The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation +of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria’s +relation to Prussia and the German question. The +South German Confederation, contemplated by the +<span class="sidenote">Union with German Empire.</span> +6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into +being; and, though Prussia, in order not prematurely to +excite the alarm of France, opposed the suggestion that the +southern states should join the North German Confederation, +the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern states, with the +north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive alliance +with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon’s demand for “compensation” +in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd +of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal +treaty of peace between the two countries. The separatist +ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up; she had no +longer “need of France”; and in the war of 1870-71, the +Bavarian army marched, under the command of the Prussian +crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was +on the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was +offered to King William.</p> + +<p>This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the +signature of a treaty between Bavaria and the North German +Confederation. By this instrument, though Bavaria became an +integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger +measure of sovereign independence than any of the other constituent +states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic service, +military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway +systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers +on the 21st of January 1871, though not without considerable +opposition on the part of the so-called “patriot” party. Their +hostility was increased by the <i>Kulturkampf</i>, due to the promulgation +in 1870 of the dogma of papal infallibility. Munich University, +where Döllinger (<i>q.v</i>.) was professor, became the centre +of the opposition to the new dogma, and the “old Catholics” +(<i>q.v</i>.) were protected by the king and the government. The +federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on +the 6th of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemptorists +in 1873. On the 31st of March 1871, moreover, the bonds +with the rest of the empire had been drawn closer by the +acceptance of a number of laws of the North German Confederation, +of which the most important was the new criminal code, +which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The +opposition of the “patriot” party, however, reinforced by the +strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful, +and it was only the steady support given by the king to successive +Liberal ministries that prevented its finding disastrous +expression in the parliament, where it remained in a greater or +less majority till 1887, and has since, as the “centre,” continued +to form the most compact party in an assembly made up of +“groups.”</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces +was becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared +insane, and, on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive, +Prince Luitpold, was proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the +13th of June, Louis committed suicide. His brother, Otto I., +being also insane, the regency was confirmed to Prince Luitpold.</p> + +<p>Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous +development of Germany; but her “particularism,” founded +on traditional racial and religious antagonism to the Prussians, +was by no means dead, though it exhibited itself in no more +dangerous form than the prohibition, reissued in 1900, to display +any but the Bavarian flag on public buildings on the emperor’s +birthday; a provision which has been since so far modified as +to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side by side.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Monumenta Boica</i> (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900); +G.T. Rudhart, <i>Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns</i> (Hamburg, 1841); A. +Quitzmann, <i>Abstammung, Ursitz, und älteste Geschichte der Bairwaren</i> +(Munich, 1857), and <i>Die älteste Geschichte der Baiern bis 911</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page551" id="page551"></a>551</span> +(Brunswick, 1873); S. Riezler, <i>Geschichte Bayerns</i> (Gotha, 1878-1899); +Ad. Brecher, <i>Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entwickelung des bayrischen +Staatsgebiets,</i> map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, <i>Geschichte +des Gerichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns</i> (Würzburg, +1889); A. Buchner, <i>Geschichte von Baiern</i> (Munich, 1820-1853); +<i>Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns</i>, edited by K. von +Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be +found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the <i>Allgemeine +deutsche Biographie</i> (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Recès de la députation de l’empire ... du 25 févr, 1803</i>, &c., +§ II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G.F. de Martens, <i>Recueil des Traités</i>, &c. +(Gottingue, 1831).</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Text in de Martens’ <i>Recueil</i>, viii. p. 388.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAVENO,<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of +Novara, on the west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of +Arona by rail. Pop. (1901) 2502. It is much frequented as a +resort in spring, summer and autumn, and has many beautiful +villas. To the north-west are the famous red granite quarries, +which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of Milan, +the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria +Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAWBEE<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible conjecture +being that the word is a corruption from the name of +the mint master Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued, +<i>c.</i> 1541), the Scottish name for a halfpenny or other small coin, +and hence used of money generally. A writer in 1573, quoted +in Tytler’s <i>History of Scotland</i>, speaks of “a coin called a +bawbee, ... which is in value English one penny and a +quarter.” The word was sometimes written “babie,” and has +therefore been identified merely with a “baby coin,” but this +etymology is less probable.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, ANDREW<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician, +was born in Aberdeen and educated at King’s College. He +maintained himself by acting as tutor to noblemen’s sons. +From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr Hay of +Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders, +France and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at +Whittingehame, near Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa +he had met John Wilkes, then twenty years of age, and formed +a lasting friendship with him. His chief work, <i>An Inquiry into +the Nature of the Human Soul</i> (editions 1733, 1737 and 1745; +with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in Maclaurin’s +Account of Sir I. Newton’s Philosophical Discoveries, and +dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter. +The one essential property of matter is its inactivity, <i>vis inertiae</i> +(accepted later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is, +therefore, caused by some immaterial force, namely, God. But +the movements of the body are not analogous to the movements +of matter; they are caused by a special immaterial force, the +soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal, and its consciousness +does not depend upon its connexion with the body. +The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of +dreams, which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly +Baxter attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an +attack on Toland’s <i>Letters to Serena</i> (1704), which argued that +motion is essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His +criticism of Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based +on the common misinterpretation of his theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Berkeley</a></span>). +Sir Leslie Stephen speaks of him as a curious example of “the +effects of an exploded metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious +intellect.”</p> + +<p>Beside the <i>Inquiry</i>, Baxter wrote <i>Matho sive Cosmotheoria +Puerilis</i> (an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy +written for his pupils—editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765, +with one dialogue re-written); <i>Evidence of Reason in Proof of +the Immortality of the Soul</i> (published posthumously from MSS. +by Dr Duncan in 1779).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See life in <i>Biographia Britannica</i>; McCosh’s <i>Scottish Philosophy</i>, +pp. 42-49.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, RICHARD<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1615-1691), English puritan divine, +called by Dean Stanley “the chief of English Protestant Schoolmen,” +was born at Rowton, in Shropshire, at the house of his +maternal grandfather, in November (probably the 12th) 1615. +His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his father had reduced +himself to hard straits by loose living. About the time of +Richard’s birth, however, he changed decisively for the better. +The boy’s early education was poor, being mainly in the hands +of the illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the +neighbouring livings at that time. He was better served by +John Owen, master of the free school at Wroxeter, where he +studied from about 1629 to 1632, and made fair progress in +Latin. On Owen’s advice he did not proceed to Oxford (a step +which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle to +read with Richard Wickstead, the council’s chaplain there. +Wickstead neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter’s eager mind +found abundant nourishment in the great library at the castle. +He was persuaded—against his will—to turn his attention to a +court life, and he went to London under the patronage of Sir +Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow that course; but +he very soon returned home with a fixed resolve—confirmed by +the death of his mother—to study divinity. After three months’ +schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and +especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergyman. +About this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and +Walter Cradock, two famous Nonconformists, whose piety and +fervour influenced him considerably. In 1638 he was nominated +to the mastership of the free grammar school, Dudley, in which +place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained and +licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His +success as a preacher was, at this early period, not very great; +but he was soon transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where, +as assistant to a Mr Madstard, he established a reputation for +the vigorous discharge of the duties of his office.</p> + +<p>He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which +time he took a special interest in the controversy relating to +Nonconformity and the Church of England. He soon, on some +points, especially matters of discipline, became alienated from +the Church; and after the requirement of what is called “the +<i>et cetera</i> oath,” he rejected episcopacy in its English form. He +could not, however, be called more than a moderate Nonconformist; +and such he continued to be throughout his life. +Though commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no +exclusive attachment to Presbyterianism, and often manifested +a willingness to accept a modified Episcopalianism. All forms +of church government were regarded by him as subservient to +the true purposes of religion.</p> + +<p>One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect +the reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee +was appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the +complainants were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town +which had become famous for its ignorance and depravity. +This state of matters was so clearly proved that an arrangement +was agreed to on the part of the vicar (Dance), by which he +allowed £60 a year, out of his income £200, to a preacher who +should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to +deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected +as the minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when +he was twenty-six years of age.</p> + +<p>His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions, +for about nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished +a work of reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood +which is as notable as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized +behaviour succeeded to brutality of manners; and, whereas the +professors of religion had been but small exceptions to the mass, +the unreligious people became the exceptions in their turn. +He formed the ministers in the country around him into an +association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their calling, +uniting them together irrespective of their differences as Presbyterians, +Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which +he acted may be judged of from <i>The Reformed Pastor</i>, a book +published in relation to the general ministerial efforts he promoted. +It drives home the sense of clerical responsibility with +extraordinary power. The result of his action is that, to this +day his memory is cherished as that of the true apostle of the +district where he laboured.</p> + +<p>The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected +arose from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war. +Baxter blamed both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier +county, and a man in his position was, while the war continued, +exposed to annoyance and danger in a place like Kidderminster. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page552" id="page552"></a>552</span> +He therefore removed to Gloucester, and afterwards (1643-1645) +settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly both to +the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he +took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley’s regiment, +and continued to hold it till February 1647. During these +stormy years he wrote his <i>Aphorisms of Justification</i>, which on its +appearance in 1649 excited great controversy.</p> + +<p>Baxter’s connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very +characteristic one. He joined it that he might, if possible, +counteract the growth of the sectaries in that field, and maintain +the cause of constitutional government in opposition to the +republican tendencies of the time. He regretted that he had not +previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to become chaplain to +the Ironsides, being confident in his power of persuasion under +the most difficult circumstances. His success in converting the +soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very great, but +he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable +degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well +as by preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical +and political, and shrank no more from urging what he conceived +to be the truth upon the most powerful officers than he did from +instructing the meanest followers of the camp. Cromwell disliked +his loquacity and shunned his society; but Baxter having +to preach before him after he had assumed the Protectorship, +chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and distractions +of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only opposed +him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the +monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter’s +insight into character in his account of what happened under +these circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, “I saw that what +he learned must be from himself.” It is worthy of notice that +this intercourse with Cromwell occurred when Baxter was +summoned to London to assist in settling “the fundamentals of +religion,” and made the memorable declaration, in answer to the +objection that what he had proposed as fundamental “might be +subscribed by a Papist or Socinian,”—“So much the better, and +so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord.” In 1647 +he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and +there, in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his +famous work, <i>The Saints’ Everlasting Rest</i> (1650). On his +recovery he returned to his charge at Kidderminster, where he +also became a prominent political leader, his sensitive conscience +leading him into conflict with almost every one of the contending +parties in state and church. His conduct now, as at all times, +did “credit to his conscientiousness rather than to his wisdom.”</p> + +<p>After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring +about that event, settled in London. He preached there till the +Act of Uniformity took effect in 1662, and was employed in seeking +for such terms of comprehension as would have permitted the +moderate dissenters with whom he acted to have remained in the +Church of England. In this hope he was sadly disappointed. +There was at that time on the part of the rulers of the church no +wish for such comprehension, and their object in the negotiations +that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which their +rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The +chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the +production of Baxter’s <i>Reformed Liturgy</i>, a work of remarkable +excellence, though it was cast aside without consideration. The +same kind of reputation which Baxter had obtained in the country +he secured in the larger and more important circle of the metropolis. +The power of his preaching was universally felt, and his +capacity for business placed him at the head of his party. He +had been made a king’s chaplain, and was offered the bishopric of +Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without virtually +assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and after +his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act +of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was +willing to serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even +prohibited him from preaching in the diocese of Worcester. +Baxter, however, found much consolation in his marriage on the +24th of September 1662 with Margaret Charlton, a woman like-minded +with himself. She died in 1681.</p> + +<p>From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter’s +life was constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or +another. He retired to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of +quiet study, and was dragged thence to prison for keeping a +conventicle. The <i>mittimus</i> was pronounced illegal and irregular, +and Baxter procured a <i>habeas corpus</i> in the court of common +pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London after the +licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The meetinghouse +which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed +against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in +1680, seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his +life; and though he was released that he might die at home, his +books and goods were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three +times to the sessions house, being scarcely able to stand, and +without any apparent cause was made to enter into a bond for +£400 in security for his good behaviour.</p> + +<p>But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George +Jeffreys, in May 1685. He had been committed to the king’s +bench prison on the ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in +his <i>Paraphrase on the New Testament</i>, and was tried before +Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial is well known as among the +most brutal perversions of justice which have occurred in England, +though it must be remembered that no authoritative report of the +trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition is based +is to be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted like +an infuriated madman. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jeffreys, Sir George</a></span>.) Baxter +was sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was +paid, and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It +was even asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be +whipped at the cart’s tail through London. The old man, for he +was now seventy, remained in prison for eighteen months, when +the government, vainly hoping to win his influence to their side, +remitted the fine and released him.</p> + +<p>During the long time of oppression and injury which followed +the ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life +was indeed one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and +languor had greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his +greatest activity as a writer. He was a most voluminous author, +his separate works, it is said, amounting to 168. They are as +learned as they are elaborate, and as varied in their subjects as +they are faithfully composed. Such treatises as the <i>Christian +Directory</i>, the <i>Methodus Theologiae Christianae</i>, and the <i>Catholic +Theology</i>, might each have occupied the principal part of the life +of an ordinary man. His <i>Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret +Baxter</i> records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of +Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been +unknown. His editors have contented themselves with re-publishing +his “Practical Works,” and his ethical, philosophical, +historical and political writings still await a competent editor.</p> + +<p>The remainder of Baxter’s life, from 1687 onwards, was passed +in peace and honour. He continued to preach and to publish +almost to the end. He was surrounded by attached friends, and +reverenced by the religious world. His saintly behaviour, his +great talents, and his wide influence, added to his extended age, +raised him to a position of unequalled reputation. He helped to +bring about the downfall of James II. and complied with the +Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in London on +the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by +churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general +esteem was paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue +was erected to his memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.</p> + +<p>Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power +of persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to +reason—bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as +possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of +fixed belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his +liberality sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a +preacher was deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent +student ever shut himself up with his books. He was singularly +fitted for intellectual debate, but his devotional tendency was +equally strong with his logical aptitude. Some of his writings, +from their metaphysical subtilty, will always puzzle the learned; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page553" id="page553"></a>553</span> +but he could write to the level of the common heart without loss +of dignity or pointedness. His <i>Reasons for the Christian Religion</i> +is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works of its +kind. His <i>Poor Man’s Family Book</i> is a manual that continues +to be worthy of its title. His <i>Saints’ Everlasting Rest</i> will always +command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also +charged with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and +unsought felicity of language that make it a masterpiece of style. +Perhaps no thinker has exerted so great an influence upon +nonconformity as Baxter has done, and that not in one direction +only, but in every form of development, doctrinal, ecclesiastical +and practical. He is the type of a distinct class of the Christian +ministry—that class which aspires after scholarly training, +prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres to rational +methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational +element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of +fanaticism. Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion +was with him all and in all—that by which all besides was +measured, and to whose interests all else was subordinated. Isaac +Barrow said that “his practical writings were never minded, and +his controversial ones seldom confuted,” and John Wilkins, bishop +of Chester, asserted that “if he had lived in the primitive time he +had been one of the fathers of the church.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Our most valuable source is Baxter’s autobiography, +called <i>Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter’s +Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and Times</i> +(published by Matthew Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy +abridged this work (1702). The abridgment forms the first volume +of the account of the ejected ministers, but whoever refers to it +should also acquaint himself with the reply to the accusations which +had been brought against Baxter, and which will be found in the +second volume of Calamy’s Continuation. William Orme’s <i>Life and +Times of Richard Baxter</i> appeared in 2 vols. in 1830; it also forms +the first volume of “Practical Works” (1830, reprinted 1868). +Sir James Stephen’s interesting paper on Baxter, contributed +originally to the <i>Edinburgh Review</i>, is reprinted in the second volume +of his <i>Essays</i>. More recent estimates of Baxter are those given by +John Tulloch in his <i>English Puritanism and its Leaders</i>, and by +Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of the statue to +Baxter at Kidderminster (see <i>Macmillan’s Magazine</i>, xxxii. 385).</p> + +<p>There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon +Square, London.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1827-1875), English economist +and statistician, was born at Doncaster in 1827. He was educated +privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law and +entered his father’s firm of Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he +was connected till his death. Though studiously attentive to +business, he was enabled, as a member of the Statistical and other +learned societies, to accomplish much useful economic work. His +principal economic writings were <i>The Budget and the Income Tax</i> +(1860), <i>Railway Extension and its Results</i> (1866), <i>The National +Income</i> (1868), <i>The Taxation of the United Kingdom</i> (1869), +<i>National Debts of the World</i> (1871), <i>Local Government and +Taxation</i> (1874), and his purely political writings included +<i>The Volunteer Movement</i> (1860), <i>The Redistribution of Seats +and the Counties</i> (1866), <i>History of English Parties and Conservatism</i> +(1870), and <i>The Political Progress of the Working +Classes</i> (1871).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAXTER, WILLIAM<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic +and grammarian, nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born +at Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow +school, at the age of eighteen, he was unable to read, and could +speak no language except Welsh. His progress must have been +remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar about ten +years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter was +a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers’ school, +where he remained till shortly before his death on the 31st of May +1723. He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was +undoubtedly very great. His published works are: <i>De Analogia</i> +(1679), an advanced Latin grammar; <i>Anacreontis Teii Carmina</i>, +including two odes of Sappho (1695; reprinted in 1710, “with +improvements,” which he was accused of having borrowed from +the edition of Joshua Barnes); <i>Horace</i> (1701 and subsequent +editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley); +<i>Glossarium Antiquitatum Britannicarum</i> (1719); and <i>Glossarium +Antiquitatum Romanarum</i> (1826). The last two works were +published by the Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no +farther than the letter A) under the title of <i>Reliquiae Baxterianae</i>, +including an autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed +to a joint translation of Plutarch’s <i>Moralia</i>, and left notes on +Juvenal and Persius.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAY,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a homonymous term of which the principal branches are +as follows, (1) The name of the sweet laurel (<i>Laurus nobilis</i>) or +bay tree (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Laurel</a></span>); this word is derived through the O. Fr. +<i>baie</i>, from Lat. <i>baca</i>, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark +purple berries. The leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to +crown poets, and hence the word is often used figuratively in the +sense of fame and reward. (2) A wide opening or indentation in +a coast line. This may be of the same origin as “bay,” in the +architectural sense, or from a Latin word which is seen in the place +name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish brown, +principally used of the colour in horses; there are various shades, +light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin +<i>badius</i>, which is given by Varro (in <i>Nonnius</i>, pp. 80-82) as one of +the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (<i>q.v</i>.). (4) +The deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression +“at bay,” properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on +the “baying” hounds and defends itself. The origin of the word +is the O. Fr. <i>bayer, abayer</i>, Lat. <i>badare</i>, properly to gape, open wide +the mouth. (5) An architectural term (Fr. <i>travée</i>, Ital. <i>compartimento</i>, +Ger. <i>Abteilung</i>) for any division or compartment of +an arcade, roof, &c. Each space from pillar to pillar in a +cathedral, church or other building is called a “bay” or +“severy.” This word is also to be referred to <i>bayer</i>, to gape.</p> + +<p>A “bay-window” or “bow-window” is a window projecting +outwards and forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows +may be rectangular, polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the +last case being better known as bow-windows. The bay-window +would seem to have been introduced in the 15th century, but the +earliest examples of importance are those which were built during +the reign of Edward IV. (1461-1483), when it was largely employed +in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the feudal castles +of the period. Examples are found in the palace at Eltham, +Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire, +and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later +date is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50 +ft. high. In the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor +of the last bay of the hall was generally raised two or three steps, +and this portion was reserved for the lord of the manor and his +guests, and was known as the dais. The usual position of the bay-window +is at one end of this dais, and occasionally but rarely at +both ends. The sills of the windows are at a lower level than +those in the hall, and, raised on one or two steps, are seats in the +recess. The recess of the bay-window was generally covered with a +ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the window itself subdivided +by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger windows such +as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer than +five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the design. +The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported +by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dais</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hall</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYAMO,<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra +Maestra in Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies +on a plain by the Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated +from sea and from railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily +irregular. The streets are of all widths, and of all degrees of +crookedness, and run in all directions. Bayamo was the third of +the seven cities founded by Diego Velazquez, and was established +in 1513. During much of the 16th century it was one of the most +important agricultural and commercial settlements of the island. +Its inland situation gave it relative security against the pirates +who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of +Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto, +then open to the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manzanillo, +Bayamo drove a thriving contraband trade that made it at +the opening of the 17th century the leading town of Cuba. A +tremendous flood, in 1616, choking the Cauto with trees and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page554" id="page554"></a>554</span> +wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access to the sea; but +through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine traffic with +Curaçao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the 17th +and 18th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine +plantations. It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of +1868-78 it was an insurgent stronghold; near it was fought one +of the most desperate conflicts of the war, and it was nearly +destroyed by the opposing parties. Bayamo was the birthplace +and the home of Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (1819-1874), first +president of the “first” Cuban republic, and was also the +birthplace and home of Tomás Estrada Palma (1835-1908), first +president of the present Cuban republic.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL,<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> (1473-1524), +French soldier, the descendant of a noble family, nearly every +head of which for two centuries past had fallen in battle, was born +at the château Bayard, Dauphiné (near Pontcharra, Isère), about +1473. He served as a page to Charles I., duke of Savoy, until +Charles VIII. of France, attracted by his graceful bearing, placed +him among the royal followers under the seigneur (count) de Ligny +(1487). As a youth he was distinguished for comeliness, affability +of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he accompanied +Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle of +Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly +afterwards, entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy, +he was taken prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by +Lodovico Sforza. In 1502 he was wounded at the assault of +Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a celebrated combat of thirteen +French knights against an equal number of Germans, and his +restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout the +Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that, single-handed, +he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano +against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such +renown that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal +service, but unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself +again at the siege of Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the +king made him captain of a company of horse and foot. At the +siege of Padua he won further distinction, not only by his valour, +but also by his consummate skill. He continued to serve in the +Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in 1512. Here his intrepidity +in first mounting the rampart cost him a severe wound, +which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a neighbouring house, +the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and daughters he protected +from threatened insult. Before his wound was healed, he +hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the +terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of +England routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate, +where Bayard’s father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of +1479), Bayard in trying to rally his countrymen found his escape +cut off. Unwilling to surrender, he rode suddenly up to an +English officer who was resting unarmed, and summoned him to +yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn gave himself up +to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but his +gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the +king released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not +to serve for six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515 +Bayard was made lieutenant-general of Dauphiné; and after +the victory of Marignan, to which his valour largely contributed, +he had the honour of conferring knighthood on his youthful +sovereign. When war again broke out between Francis I. and +Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mézières, which had +been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after +six weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This +stubborn resistance saved central France from invasion, as the +king had not then sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists. +All France rang with the achievement, and Francis gained time +to collect the royal army which drove out the invaders (1521). +The parlement thanked Bayard as the saviour of his country; +the king made him a knight of the order of St Michael, and +commander in his own name of 100 <i>gens d’armes</i>, an honour till +then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at +Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a +pestilence in Dauphiné, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with +Admiral Bonnivet, who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded +in a combat during his retreat, implored Bayard to assume the +command and save the army. He repulsed the foremost pursuers, +but in guarding the rear at the passage of the Sesia was mortally +wounded by an arquebus ball (April 30th, 1524). He died in the +midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the Spanish commander, +and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His +body was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble. +Chivalry, free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in +the character of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most +skilful commanders of the age. He was particularly noted for the +exactitude and completeness of his information of the enemy’s +movements; this he obtained both by careful reconnaissance +and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In the midst of +mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested, and +to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic +heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight, +<i>le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche</i>. His gaiety and kindness +won him, even more frequently, another name bestowed by his +contemporaries, <i>le bon chevalier</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following:—“<i>Le loyal +serviteur</i>” (? Jacques de Maille); <i>La très joyeuse, plaisante, et +récréative histoire ... des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du bon +chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart</i> +(original edition printed at Paris, 1527; the modern editions are very +numerous, those of M.J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in +1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, <i>Les Gestes, ensemble la vie +du preulx chevalier Bayard</i> (Lyons, 1525); Aymar du Rivail, <i>Histoire +des Allobroges</i> (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see <i>Bayard</i> in +<i>Répertoire des sources historiques</i>, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in +particular A. de Terrebasse, <i>Hist. de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de +Bayart</i> (1st ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1828-1898), American diplomatist, +was born in Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of +October 1828. His great-grandfather, Richard Bassett (1745-1815), +governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James Asheton +Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the +United States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent +with Great Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard +Henry Bayard (1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton +Bayard (1799-1880), a well-known constitutional lawyer, all +represented Delaware in the United States Senate. Intending +to go into business, he did not receive a college education; but +in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of his father, and +was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to 1857, when +he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he practised +chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from +Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October 10th to +13th) president <i>pro tempore</i> of the Senate. His abilities made +him a leader of the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on +financial and legal questions gave him a high reputation for +statesmanship. He was a member of the electoral commission of +1877. In the Democratic national conventions of 1872, 1876, +1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination as the party +candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state, 1885-1889, +during the first administration of President Cleveland, +and pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most +important matter with which he was called upon to deal being +the Bering Sea controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain, +1893-1897, his tall dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and +polished, if somewhat deliberate, eloquence made him a man of +mark in all the best circles. He was considered indeed by many +Americans to have become too partial to English ways; and, for +the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavourable to +his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so far +as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on +him. The value of Mr Bayard’s diplomacy was, however, fully +recognized in the United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld +the traditions of a famous line of American ministers. He was +the first representative of the United States in Great Britain to +hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He died in Dedham, +Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Edward Spencer, <i>Public Life and Services of T.F. Bayard</i> +(New York, 1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page555" id="page555"></a>555</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BAYAZID,<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bajazet</span>, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey, +chief town of a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to +the frontiers of Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy +plain to the great cone of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft. +It occupies a site of great antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions +on the neighbouring rocks testify; it stands on the site of the +old Armenian town of Pakovan. It is picturesquely situated in +an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The great trade route +from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the frontier +at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the +town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined +fort or palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by +a Persian architect and considered one of the most beautiful +buildings in Turkey. It contains two churches and a monastery, +the Kasa Kilissa, famous for its antiquity and architectural +grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are on the rock pinnacles +above the town, with some rock chambers, indicating a town +or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has lately +decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul +resides here and the town is a military station. It was captured +during the Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878, +but was then recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian +garrison to a long siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but +a massacre of Christians then took place in the streets. Bayazid +was restored to Turkey by the treaty of Berlin.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYBAY,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte, +Philippine Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The +town proper is situated at the mouth of the Pagbañganan river, +45 m. S.S.W. of Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior +grade of hemp is exported. Other products are rice, corn, copra, +cacao, sugar, cattle and horses. The Cebú dialect of the Visayan +language is spoken.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAY CITY,<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> a city and the county seat of Bay county, +Michigan, U.S.A., on the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its +entrance into Saginaw Bay and about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit. +Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of whom 8483 were foreign-born, +including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743 Germans, 1822 +Poles—the city has a Polish weekly newspaper—and 1075 French-Canadians; +(1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the +Michigan Central, the Père Marquette, the Grand Trunk and +the Detroit & Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The +city extends for several miles along both sides of the river, and +is in a good farming district, with which it is connected by stone +roads. Among the public buildings are the Federal building, +the city hall and the public library. The city has lumber and +fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel, bass, &c. +being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and +foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31% of +the total of the city’s factory products), and various manufactures, +including ships (wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-pipe, +veneer, railroad machinery, cement, alkali and chicory. +A salt basin underlies the city, and, next to the lumber industry, +the salt industry was the first to be developed, but its importance +has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098 out of +$5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable +coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville +(pop. in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury, +S.W. of Bay City, are beet-sugar factories—sugar beets are +extensively grown in the vicinity. Alcohol is made from the +refuse molasses obtained from these beet-sugar factories. The +municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting +plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and Portsmouth +were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay +City, which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered +as a city in 1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119) +and Bay City were consolidated.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYEUX,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of +Caen on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is +situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English Channel. Its +majestic cathedral was built in the 13th century on the site of a +Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave +and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged. +A third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the +florid Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The +chancel, surrounded with radiating chapels, is a fine example +of early Gothic. Underneath it there is a crypt of the 11th +century restored in the 15th century. The oak stalls in the +choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving. The former +bishop’s palace, parts of which are of great age though the +main building is of the 18th century, serves as law-court and +hôtel de ville. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses +and stone mansions in its quiet streets. The museum contains +the celebrated Bayeux tapestry (see below). The town is the seat +of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, an ecclesiastical seminary, a communal college +and a chamber of arts and manufactures. Dyeing, leather-dressing, +lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain for +household and laboratory purposes are carried on.</p> + +<p>Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of <i>Augustodurum</i>, +but afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of +the Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baiocassium. +Its bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th +century. Before the Norman invasion it was governed by +counts. Taken in 890 by the Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was +soon after peopled by the Normans and became a residence of +the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I., built about +960 a castle which survived till the 18th century. During the +quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged +and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent +siege and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years’ +War and the religious wars of the 16th century. Till 1790 it was +the capital of the Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span>. This venerable relic consists of a +band of linen, 231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with +age, on which have been worked with a needle, in worsteds of +eight colours, scenes representing the conquest of England by +the Normans. Of these scenes there are seventy-two, beginning +with Harold’s visit to Bosham on his way to Normandy, and +ending with the flight of the English from the battle of Hastings, +though the actual end of the strip has perished. Along the top +and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of animals, +scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry +and the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest +itself (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embroidery</a></span>; Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the +<i>Toile de St Jean</i>, it was used on certain feast days to decorate +the nave of Bayeux cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of +the Revolution, it was exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon’s desire, +in 1803-1804, and has since been in civil custody at Bayeux, +where it is now exhibited under glass. In the Franco-German +War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.</p> + +<p>“The noblest monument in the world relating to our old +English history,” as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it +has been repeatedly described, discussed and reproduced, both +in France and in England since 1730. The best coloured reproduction +is that by C.A. Stothard in 1818, published in +the sixth volume of <i>Vetusta Monumenta</i>; but in 1871-1872 +the “tapestry” was photographed for the English education +authorities by E. Dossetter.</p> + +<p>Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror’s wife. +F. Pluquet, in his <i>Essai historique sur la ville de Bayeux</i> (Caen, +1829), was the first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the +Conqueror’s half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view, +which is now accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the +bishop’s followers mentioned in Domesday Book are among the +very few named figures on the tapestry. That Odo had it +executed for his cathedral seems tolerably certain, but whether +it was worked by English fingers or not has been disputed, +though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that +view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be “a contemporary +work,” and historically “a primary authority ... +in fact the highest authority on the Norman side.” As some +of its evidence is unique, the question of its authority is important, +and Freeman’s conclusions have been practically +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page556" id="page556"></a>556</span> +confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan questioned, +on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the tapestry, +as the Abbé de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before; +but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore, +and the authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous +relic appears to be the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot +Baudri described in Latin verse a similar work executed for +Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and in earlier days the widow +of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of her husband’s +exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon (991).</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate I.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:425px; height:258px" src="images/img556a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:254px" src="images/img556b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">1. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight handing over the keys on his lance tip.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:263px" src="images/img556c.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:259px" src="images/img556d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:388px; height:247px" src="images/img556e.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:252px" src="images/img556f1.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">3. CORONATION OF HAROLD.</td> +<td class="caption">4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY’S COMET.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:424px; height:258px" src="images/img556f2.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:259px" src="images/img556f3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of G, Bell & Sons.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate II.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:417px; height:254px" src="images/img556f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:249px" src="images/img556g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:253px" src="images/img556h.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:254px" src="images/img556i.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE.</td> +<td class="caption">8. HAROLD’S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM. +THE BURNING OF HASTINGS.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:418px; height:248px" src="images/img556j.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:423px; height:250px" src="images/img556k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:420px; height:253px" src="images/img556l.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:426px; height:251px" src="images/img556m.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN.</td> +<td class="caption">11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption80" colspan="2">(<i>By permission of G. Bell & Sons.</i>)</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.A. Freeman, <i>Norman Conquest</i>, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with summary +of the discussion to date; <i>Archaeologia</i>, vols. xvii.—xix.; Dawson +Turner, <i>Tour in Normandy</i> (1820); C.A. Stothard’s illustrations in +<i>Vetusta Monumenta</i>, vol. vi.; <i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i>, 1837; Bolton +Corney, <i>Researches and Conjectures on the Bayeux Tapestry</i> (1836-1838); +A. de Caumont, “Un mot sur ... la tapisserie de Bayeux,” in <i>Bulletin +monumental de Vinstilut des provinces</i>, vol. viii. (1841); J. Laffetay, +<i>Notice historique et descriptive sur la tapisserie</i> ... (1874); J. +Comte, <i>Tapisserie de Bayeux</i>; F.R. Fowke, <i>The Bayeux Tapestry</i> (ed. +1898); Marignan, <i>Tapisserie de Bayeux</i> (1902); G. Pans, “Tapisserie de +Bayeux,” in <i>Romania</i>, vol. xxxi.; Lanore, “La Tapisserie de Bayeux,” in +<i>Bibliothèque de l’école des chartes</i>, vol. lxiv. (1903); and J.H. +Round, “The Bayeux Tapestry,” in <i>Monthly Review</i>, xvii. (1904).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYEZID I.<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed <span class="sc">Yilderim</span> +or “LIGHTNING,” from the great rapidity of his movements, +succeeded his father Murad I. on the latter’s assassination on the +field of Kossovo, 1389, and signalized his accession by ordering +at once the execution of his brother Yakub, who had distinguished +himself in the battle. His arms were successful both in Europe +and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman sovereign to be styled +“sultan,” which title he induced the titular Abbasid caliph to +confer on him. After routing the chivalry of Christendom at the +battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious career in +Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before +his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him +off by timely concessions which reduced him practically to the +position of Bayezid’s vassal. But his conquests met with a +sudden and overpowering check at the hands of Timur (Tamerlane). +Utterly defeated at Angora by the Mongol invader, +Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity some months +later, in March 1403.</p> + +<p>Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the +prince of Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its +dependencies. Two years before his accession he also married a +daughter of the emperor John Palaeologus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYEZID II.<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of +Mahommed II., whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after +gaining over the janissaries by a large donative, which henceforth +became for centuries the invariable prerogative of that +undisciplined body on the accession of a new sultan. Before he +could establish himself on the throne a long struggle ensued with +his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for refuge to +the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a safe-conduct +granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the price +for keeping him a close prisoner. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aubusson, Pierre d’</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan’s +peace, and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns +of Europe for the possession of so valuable an instrument for +bringing pressure to bear upon the Porte for the purpose of +extracting money or concessions. By common consent the +prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent VIII., who +used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the sultan, +but to prevent the execution of Bayezid’s ambitious designs in +the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for +a more questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the +arrears of the pension due for Jem’s safe-keeping, but, by enlarging +on Charles V.’s intention of setting him up as sultan, to +persuade Bayezid to aid him against the emperor. There +appears, however, to be no truth in the report that Bayezid +succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned. The +prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died +at Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses +in which he had been deliberately encouraged by the pope.</p> + +<p>Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of +his personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive +spirit of his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that +another such sultan would cause Turkey to cease being a menace +to Europe. He abandoned the attack on Rhodes at the first +check, made concessions, for the sake of peace, to Venice and +reduced the tribute due fiom Ragusa. His wars were of the +nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia, +Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing +power in the Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489, +at last roused him to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war +broke out with the republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexation +to Turkey of Lepanto and Modon, Coron and Navarino in +the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the siege of Modon in 1500.</p> + +<p>The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of +Europe was partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the +south he was threatened by the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey, +the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had extended his power +northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he gained a +great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made +which was not again broken till after Bayezid’s death. On the +side of Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502) +had raised to power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs, +danger threatened the sultan, and the latter years of his reign +were troubled by the spread, under the influence of the new +Persian power, of the Shi’ite doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia +Minor. The forces destined to maintain his authority in Asia +had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons, Ahmed, Corcud +and Selim; and the sultan’s declining years were embittered +by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake +of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovernable +pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given +Europe an earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before +Adrianople, where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had +designated Ahmed as his successor, but Selim, though temporarily +defeated, succeeded in winning over the janissaries. +On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to abdicate in +his favour, and died a few days later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Bury in the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. i. chap. iii. and +bibliography p. 700.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAY ISLANDS<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Islas de la Bahía</span>), a small archipelago in +the Caribbean Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country +it forms an administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000, +including 500 Indians. The archipelago consists of Roatan or +Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca, Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Morat, +the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many <i>cays</i> or islets. The Bay +Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and an advantageous +position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9 m. +broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered +with valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs. +Its chief towns are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is +chiefly with New Orleans in plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples +and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long by 5 m. broad; it lies +15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its thickly-wooded +limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively +small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of +Roatan, with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was +discovered in 1502 by Columbus, but the islands were not +colonized until the 17th century, when they were occupied by +British logwood cutters from Belize, and pearlers from the +Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742, but +abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great +Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYLE, PIERRE<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1647-1706), French philosopher and man +of letters, was born on the 18th of November 1647, at le +Carla-le-Comte, near Pamiers (Ariège). Educated by his father, a +Calvinist minister, and at an academy at Puylaurens, he afterwards +entered a Jesuit college at Toulouse, and became a Roman +Catholic a month later (1669). After seventeen months he +resumed his former religion, and, to avoid persecution, fled to +Geneva, where he became acquainted with Cartesianism. For +some years he acted under the name of Bèle as tutor in various +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page557" id="page557"></a>557</span> +Parisian families, but in 1675 he was appointed to the chair +of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681 +the university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately +afterwards Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and +history at Rotterdam. Here in 1682 he published his famous +<i>Pensées diverses sur la comète de 1680</i> and his critique of Maimbourg’s +work on the history of Calvinism. The great reputation +achieved by this critique stirred the envy of Bayle’s colleague, +P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same subject. In 1684 +Bayle began the publication of his <i>Nouvelles de la république +des lettres</i>, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In 1690 +appeared a work entitled <i>Avis important aux refugiés</i>, which +Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity. +After a long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693. +He was not depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was +at the time closely engaged in the preparation of the <i>Historical +and Critical Dictionary</i> (<i>Dictionnaire historique et critique</i>). The +remaining years of Bayle’s life were devoted to miscellaneous +writings, arising in many instances out of criticisms made upon +his <i>Dictionary</i>. He died in exile at Rotterdam on the 28th of +December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour was erected at +Pamiers, “la réparation d’un long oubli.” Bayle’s erudition, +despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to have +been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little. +As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet +one can admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles +his subject. The <i>Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i> (see Louis +P. Betz, <i>P. Bayle und die Nouvelles de la république des lettres</i>, +Zürich, 1896) was the first thorough-going attempt to popularize +literature, and it was eminently successful. The <i>Dictionary</i>, +however, is Bayle’s masterpiece.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.—<i>Historical and Critical Dictionary</i> (1695-1697; 1702, +enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); <i>Les Œuvres +de Bayle</i> (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, <i>Vie de Bayle</i>; +L.A. Feuerbach, <i>Pierre Bayle</i> (1838); Damiron, <i>La Philosophie en +France au XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, “Du génie +critique et de Bayle” (<i>Revue des deux mondes</i>, 1st Dec. 1835); A. Deschamps, +<i>La Génèse du scepticisme érudit chez Bayle</i> (Liége, 1878); +J. Denis, <i>Bayle et Jurieu</i> (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetière, <i>La Critique +littéraire au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (vol. i., 1890), and <i>La Critique de Bayle</i> +(1893); Émile Gigas, <i>Choix de la correspondance inédite de Pierre +Bayle</i> (Paris, 1890, reviewed in <i>Revue critique</i>, 22nd Dec. 1890); +de Budé, <i>Lettres inédites adressées à J.A. Turretini</i> (Paris, 1887); +J.F. Stephen, <i>Horae Sabbaticae</i> (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp. 174-192); +A. Cazes, <i>P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idées</i>, &c. (1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYLO<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (Lat. <i>bajulus</i> or <i>baillivus</i>; cf. Ital. <i>balio</i>, Fr. <i>bailli</i>, +Eng. <i>bailiff</i>), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian +representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally +in the nature of those of a consul-general, but from the 16th +century onwards he had also the rank and functions of a diplomatic +agent of the first class. “Under the name of bayle,” +says A. de Wicquefort, “he performs also the functions of consul +and judge; not only between members of his own nation, but +also between all the other merchants who trade in the Levant +under the flag of St Mark.” (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diplomacy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> (1797-1839), English songwriter +and dramatist, was born at Bath on the 13th of October +1797. He was educated at Winchester and at St Mary Hall, +Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While on a visit +to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write ballads, +and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide +reputation with “I’d be a butterfly,” following this up with +“We met—’twas in a crowd,” “She wore a wreath of roses,” +“Oh, no, we never mention her,” and other light and graceful +songs for which his name is still remembered. He set some of +his songs to music himself; a well-known example is “Gaily +the troubadour.” Bayly also wrote two novels, <i>The Aylmers</i> +and <i>A Legend of Killarney</i>, and numerous plays. His most +successful dramatic piece was <i>Perfection</i>, which was produced +by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chesterfield. +Bayly had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates +were mismanaged and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties +undermined his health. He died on the 22nd of April 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Collected Works</i> (1844) contain a memoir by his wife.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYNES, THOMAS SPENCER<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1823-1887), English editor +and man of letters, the son of a Baptist minister, was born at +Wellington, Somerset, on the 24th of March 1823. He studied +at Edinburgh University, where he was a pupil of Sir William +Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose views on +logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was +embodied in his <i>Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms</i>, +published in 1850, the same year in which he took his London +University degree. This was followed in the next year by a +translation of Arnauld’s <i>Port Royal Logic</i>. In 1850 he had +become editor of the <i>Edinburgh Guardian</i>, but after four years’ +work his health gave way. He spent two years in Somerset and +then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of the +<i>Daily News</i>. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic +metaphysics and English literature at the university of St +Andrews, and in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> was entrusted to him. He conducted +it singly until 1881, when the decline of his health rendered it +necessary to provide him with a coadjutor in the person of +Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however, continued to be +engaged upon the work until his death on the 31st May 1887, +shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare +(<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894, +along with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir +by Prof. Lewis Campbell.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYONET,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle +or fore-end of a rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with +the latter weapons. The origin of the word is disputed, but +there is some authority for the supposition that the name is +derived from the town of Bayonne, where the short dagger called +<i>bayonnette</i> was first made towards the end of the 15th century. +The elder Puységur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his <i>Memoirs</i>, +published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was +commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used +bayonets consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft, +which fitted into the muzzle of the musket—in fact plug-bayonets. +Courts-martial were held on some English soldiers at Tangier +in 1663-1664 for using their daggers on their comrades. As +bayonets were at first called daggers, and as there were few or +no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable conclusion is +that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671 plug-bayonets +were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then +raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment +raised in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers +when raised in 1685. The danger incurred by the use of this +bayonet (which put a stop to all fire) was felt so early that the +younger Puységur saw a ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be +fixed without stopping the fire. The English defeat at Killiecrankie +in 1689 was due (among other things) to the use of the +plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader, +General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention. +A trial with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made +after the battle of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV., +who refused to adopt them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick +(1697) the English and Germans abolished the pike and introduced +these bayonets, and plates of them are given in Surirey +de St Remy’s <i>Mémoires d’Artillerie</i>, published in Paris in that +year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued to +the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet +became, with the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of +infantry. This bayonet remained in the British service until +1805, when Sir John Moore introduced a bayonet fastened to +the musket by a spring clip. The triangular bayonet (so called +from the cross-section of its blade) was used in the British army +until the introduction of the magazine rifle, when it was replaced +by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet. Sword-bayonets—weapons +which could be used as sword or dagger apart from the +rifle—had long been in use by special troops such as engineers +and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to +produce a bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-bayonet +with a saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal +Engineers, but all troops are now supplied with the plain sword-bayonet. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page558" id="page558"></a>558</span> +The bayonet is usually hung in a scabbard on the belt +of the soldier and only fixed during the final stages of a battle; +the reason for this is that the “jump” of the rifle due to the +shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra weight at +the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short +Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached +to the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long +rifles, when the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by +two or three graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the +Russian army troops almost invariably carry the bayonet +(triangular) fixed; the model (1891) of Italian carbine has an +inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle (the new short +model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905, which is +20.5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened along +its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the +point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard +attached to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern +1903) has a blade 1 ft. in length. The length of the rifle and +bayonet together, considered as an <i>arme blanche</i>, varies considerably, +that of the French Lebel pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as +against the 4 ft. 8¾ in. of the British short Lee-Enfield of 1903. +The German rifles (1898) have a length with bayonet of 5 ft. 9¾ in.; +the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.; and the Japanese 5 ft. 5½ in. +In 1908 a new British bayonet was approved, 5 in. longer than +its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the point being modified +to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance head.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYONNE,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an +arrondissement in the department of Basses-Pyrénées, 66 m. +W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779. +Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is situated at the confluence +of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the Nive, about 3 m. +from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three nearly +equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand +Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares +which lie close together at the mouth of that river constitute +the most animated quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies +between the right bank of the Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit, +dominated by a citadel which is one of the finest works of Vauban, +occupies the right bank of the Adour. The last is inhabited +partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the early 16th +century. To the north-west of the town are the Allées Marines, +fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a quarter, +and the Allées Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The cathedral +of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure +of the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. It consists of a choir with +deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church), +a transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were +only completed during the general restoration which took place +in the latter half of the 19th century. A fine cloister of the 13th +century adjoins the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains +glass windows of the 15th and 16th centuries and other rich +decoration. The Vieux-Château, also in Grand Bayonne, dates +from the 12th and 15th centuries and is built upon a portion of +the old Roman fortifications; it is used for military purposes. +The Château Neuf (15th and 16th centuries) serves as barracks +and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a sub-prefect; +it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a +chamber of commerce, a lycée, a school of music, a library, an +art museum with a large collection of the works of the painter +Léon Bonnat, and a branch of the Bank of France. There are +consulates of the chief nations of Europe, of the United States +of America and of several Central and South American republics. +The town also possesses an important military arsenal and +military hospital. The commerce of Bayonne is much more +important than its industries, which include the manufacture +of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer +harbour, the so-called “rade” (roadstead) and the port proper, +and occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is +obstructed by a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the +course of the Nive as far as the Pont Mayou. Above these two +bridges the rivers are accessible only to river navigation. Vessels +drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the port in normal weather. +In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of the imports was +£502,000, of the exports £572,000; for the five years 1896-1900 +the average value of imports was £637,000, of exports £634,000. +Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous +material from the Pyrénées and Landes and zinc ore; leading +imports are the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the +large metallurgical works of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river, +the raw material necessary for the chemical works of the same +town, wine, and the cereals destined for the flour mills of Pau, +Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years of the 20th +century the shipping of the port increased considerably in +tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 vessels, tonnage 277,959; and +cleared 743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels, +tonnage, 336,773; cleared 650, tonnage 335,849.</p> + +<p>In the 3rd century Bayonne (<i>Lapurdum</i>) was a Roman military +post and the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle +ages it belonged to the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings +of England, one of whom, John, granted it full communal rights +in 1216. In 1451 it offered a strenuous opposition to the French, +by whom it was eventually occupied. By this time its maritime +commerce had suffered disaster owing to the silting up of its +port and the deflection of the Adour. New fortifications were +constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in 1523 the +town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it +was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine +de’ Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and +the duke of Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion +the plans were formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a +crime in which Bayonne took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon +met Charles IV., king of Spain, and his son Ferdinand at the +Château de Marrac, near the town, and induced them to renounce +their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell to Napoleon’s +brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was +occupied by the English (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular War</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, <i>Études historiques sur la ville +de Bayonne</i> (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducéré, <i>Bayonne +historique et pittoresque</i> (Bayonne, 1893), <i>Histoire topographigue et +anecdotique des rues de Bayonne</i> (Bayonne, 1894); H. Léon, <i>Histoire +des juifs de Bayonne</i> (Paris, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYONNE,<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A., +occupying the peninsula (about 5½ m. long and about ¾ m. wide) +between New York harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately +adjoining the south boundary of Jersey City, from which it is partly +separated by the Morris Canal. It is separated from Staten +Island only by the narrow strip of water known as the Kill van +Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m. Pop. +(1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-born +(3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910) +55,545. Land area about 4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by +the Central of New Jersey and by the Lehigh Valley railways +(the latter for freight only), and by electric railway lines +to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings +are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city +hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce +of the port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing +centre; among its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined +copper and nickel (not from the ore), refined borax, foundry and +machine-shop products, tubular boilers, electric launches and +electric motors, chemicals (including ammonia and sulphuric +and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire cables and silk +goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was $60,633,761, +an increase of 57.1% over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking third +in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the +principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard, +the enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil +Company, among the largest in the world, being located here; +there are connecting pipe lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania +oil fields, and with New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia and +Washington. Much coal is shipped from the city. Bayonne, +which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen Point, +Pamrapo and Centerville), was settled about 1665-1670 by the +Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a township +in 1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page559" id="page559"></a>559</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BAYOU<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr. +<i>boyau</i>, gut), an “ox-bow” lake left behind by a river that has +abandoned its old channel in the lower stages of its course. +Good examples are found in Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi +valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage river, Missouri. As a river +swings from side to side in a series of curves which widen laterally +where the current is slow and the country more or less level, +there is a tendency in flood times for the water to impinge more +strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the main +channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be +repeated until the base of the “isthmus” is cut through, and the +descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus +left stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs +directly past it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that +deepen the new channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in +the old curve.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAYREUTH,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Baireuth</span>, a town of Bavaria, Germany, +district of Upper Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nuremberg. +Pop. (1900) 29,384. In Richard-Wagner-strasse is +Wagner’s house, with his grave in the garden. Franz Liszt +(1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich +Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His +house was in Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of +comparatively modern date, the city having suffered severely +from the Hussites in 1430 and from a conflagration in 1621. +There should be mentioned the palace of Duke Alexander of +Württemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of King +Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society +Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the <i>Stadt-Pfarrkirche</i>, +dating from 1439, and containing the monuments of the margraves +of Bayreuth, is the most important. Bayreuth is a +railway junction and has an active trade, chiefly in grain and +horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton goods, +leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also +several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a +suburb to the north east noted for its marble works; and about +2 m. to the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in +1715 by the margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens +containing terraces, statues and fountains. Bayreuth was +formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, which +was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom of Prussia. In 1807 it +was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept possession of it +till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.</p> + +<p><i>The Wagner Theatre.</i>—Among the many advantages which +Wagner gained from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of +Bavaria, not the least was the practical support given to his +plan of erecting a theatre for the ideal performance of his own +music-dramas. The first plan of building a new theatre for the +purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because Wagner rightly +felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the Nibelungen +trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small number +of people who wished to hear them were removed from the distractions +of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired +seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached +from any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered +Wagner’s scheme in every way, and in May 1872 the foundation +stone of the Festspielhaus was laid, the event being commemorated +by a notable performance of Beethoven’s Choral +Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the erection +of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000 certificates +of patronage (<i>Patronatscheine</i>), but the bulk of the sum was +raised by founding “Wagner Societies” from St Petersburg +to Cairo, from London to New York; these societies sprang +up with such success that the theatre was opened in the summer +of 1876 with the first complete performance of <i>Der Ring des +Nibelungen</i>. The theatre, which stands on a height a little +under a mile from the town, is built from the plans of Gustav +Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner’s own, an experiment +indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation. +The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such +a manner that every one has an almost equally good view of +the stage, for there are no boxes, and the only galleries are quite +at the back, one, the <i>Fürstenloge</i>, being reserved for distinguished +guests, the other, above it, for the townspeople. Immediately +in front of the foremost row of seats a hood or sloping screen +of wood covers a part of the orchestra, and another hood of +similar shape starts from the front of the stage at a slightly +lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods +through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonderfully +blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point +of the orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view +of the stage as well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of +the orchestra is sent most forcibly in the direction of the stage, +so that the voices are always well supported.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent +school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training +young musicians to take part in the festival performances, which +were at first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artists +from other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon +which most stress has been laid, ever since Wagner’s death in 1883, +has been not so much the musical as the dramatic significance of +the works; it is contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian +adherents that none but they can fully realize the master’s intentions +or hand down his traditions. What is called the “Bayreuth Idea” +is set forth in much detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart +Chamberlain, in his <i>Richard Wagner</i> (1897 and 1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZA,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada; +in the Hoya de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not +far from the small river Gallego, and at the terminus of a railway +from Lorca. Pop. (1900) 12,770. The dome-shaped mountain +of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the town from the north-west. +The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo occupies the traditional +site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic king Reccared +about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There is +a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen +goods and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly +doubled its population in the last quarter of the 10th century. +Sulphurous springs exist in the vicinity.</p> + +<p>Baza is the Roman <i>Basti</i>, the medieval <i>Basta</i> or <i>Bastiana</i>; +and numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval, +have been found in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was +founded in 306. Under Moorish rule (<i>c.</i> 713-1489) it was one of +the three most important cities in the kingdom of Granada, +with an extensive trade, and a population estimated at 50,000. +In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven months, it was +captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile, whose +cannon still adorn the <i>Alameda</i> or public promenade. On the +10th of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a +large Spanish force close to the town.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZAAR<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (Pers. <i>bazar</i>, market), a permanent market or +street of shops, or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under +one roof. The word has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish +and, in special senses, into European languages, and eastward +it has invaded India, where it has been generally adopted. In +southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single shop or stall. +The word seems to have early reached South Europe (probably +through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile +handbook (<i>c.</i> 1340) gives “bazarra” as a Genoese word for +market-place. The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as +<i>pazar</i>. The meaning of the word has been much extended in +English, where it is now equivalent to any sale, for charitable +or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and fancy work.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANÇOIS<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1811-1888), marshal of +France, was born at Versailles on the 13th of February 1811. +He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, with a view to +service in Algeria, and received a commission as sub-lieutenant +in 1833. By his gallantry in action he won the cross of the +Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in 1835. +He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the +Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in +1839. During the succeeding decade he saw continual active +service in Africa, and rose to be a brigadier-general with the +charge of the district of Tlemçen. In the Crimean War he commanded +a brigade, and maintained his reputation in the trenches +before Sevastopol. On the capture of the south side he was +appointed governor of the place, and was promoted general of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page560" id="page560"></a>560</span> +division. He also commanded the French forces in the expedition +to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when in command +of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous part in +the battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign he +received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which +he was already (1855) a commander. He commanded with +great distinction the first division under General (afterwards +marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862, succeeded +him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and +senator of France in the following year. He at first pursued the +war with great vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and +driving President Juarez to the frontier. The marshal’s African +experience as a soldier and as an administrator stood him in +good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros of the Juarez party, +but he was less successful in his relations with Maximilian, with +whose court the French headquarters was in constant strife. +Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine’s policy seems to have +been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the +rôle of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he +aspired to play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich +Mexican lady, whose family were supporters of Juarez, still +further complicated his relations with the unfortunate emperor, +and when at the close of the American Civil War the United +States sent a powerful war-trained army to the Mexican frontier, +the French forces were withdrawn (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mexico</a></span>, <i>History</i>). +Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at Vera +Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received +by his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour, +and he was held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of +others.</p> + +<p>At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (<i>q.v.</i>) Marshal +Bazaine was placed in command of the III. corps of the Army +of the Rhine. He took no part in the earlier battles, but +Napoleon III. soon handed over the chief command of the army +to him. How far his inaction was the cause of the disaster of +Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be said of his +conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small scale +and the mania for taking up “strong positions,” common to the +French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine’s own case emphasized +by his personal dislike for the “schoolmaster” Frossard, lately +the Prince Imperial’s tutor and now commander of the army +corps posted at Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the +“strong positions” school, could only blame his own theories +for the paralysis of the rest of the army, which left the corps at +Spicheren to fight unsupported. Bazaine, indeed, when called +upon for help, moved part of his corps forward, but only to “take +up strong positions,” not to strike a blow on the battlefield. +A few days later he took up the chief command, and his tenure of +it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the army +in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage, +and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one +another. There was practically no chance of success. The +question was one of extricating the army and the government +from a disastrous adventure, and Bazaine’s solution of it was +to bring back his army to Metz. For the events which led up +to the battles before Metz and the investment of Bazaine’s +whole army in the fortress, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-german War</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metz</a></span>, +<i>Battles</i>.</p> + +<p>It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason +to which later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no +foundation in fact. Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave +the Moselle region, while there was yet time to slip past the +advancing enemy, be considered even as proof of special +incompetence. The resolution to stay in the neighbourhood of Metz +was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving French +army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and +brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In “strong +positions” close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that +he could inflict damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the +ardent Germans, and in the main the result justified the +expectation. The scheme was creditable, and even heroic, but the +execution throughout all ranks, from the marshal to the battalion +commanders, fell far short of the idea. The minutely cautious +methods of movement, which Algerian experience had evolved +suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were +liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility +of a large army, which had favourable marching conditions, +to 5 m. a day as against the enemy’s rate of 15. When, before +he had finally decided to stay in Metz, Bazaine attempted +half-heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the staff work and +organization of the movement over the Moselle was so ineffective +that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was nearing +Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery +and baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the +battlefield the marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and +conducted the fighting by means of his personal orderly officers. +After the cumbrous army had passed through Metz it encountered +an isolated corps of the enemy, which was commanded by the +brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and promptly +attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day +victory was in Bazaine’s hands. Two corps of the Germans +fought all day for bare existence. But Bazaine had no confidence +in his generals or his troops, and contented himself +with inflicting severe losses on the most aggressive portions of +the German army. Two days later, while the French actually +retreated on Metz—taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m.—the +masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his +communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine +expected, and feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or +later attack him in his chosen position, he made no attempt to +interfere with their concentration. The great battle was fought, +and having inflicted severe punishment on his assailants, Bazaine +fell back within the entrenched camp of Metz. But although he +made no appeals for help, public opinion, alarmed and excited, +condemned the only remaining army of France, Marshal MacMahon’s +“Army of Châlons,” to rescue Bazaine at all costs. The adventure +ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire collapsed.</p> + +<p>Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as +well as circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill +and a sufficient measure of success to justify his appointment. +His experience, wide as it was, had not fitted him for the +command of a large army in a delicate position. Since his Mexican +expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen into a state of moral +and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the field of battle, +because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire was +beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where +the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders +was chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be +asserted that any one of Bazaine’s subordinates would have done +better, with the possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault +was one of the junior corps commanders.</p> + +<p>Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for +ability. He was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and +underhand diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the rôle of +mayor of the palace, it was far more so in Metz, where, as +commander of the only organized army of France, he conceived +himself to be the ruler of the country’s destiny. Accordingly +he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues, some of which to +this day have never been properly cleared up. Negotiations +passed between the outer world and the besieged commander, +the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but +it is beyond question that he proposed with the permission of +the Germans to employ his army in “saving France from herself.” +The scheme, however, collapsed, and the army of the Rhine +became prisoners of war to the number of 140,000. At the +moment of the surrender a week’s further resistance would have +enabled the levies of the National Defence government to crush +the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to relieve Paris. +But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the +surrender, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great +effort at Orleans (<i>q.v.</i>). The responsibility for this crushing +blow was naturally enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine’s +shoulders, and although, when he returned from captivity, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page561" id="page561"></a>561</span> +marshal enjoyed a brief immunity, he was in 1873 brought to +trial before a military court. He was found guilty of negotiating +with and capitulating to the enemy before doing all that was +prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation and +death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence +was commuted to twenty years’ seclusion, and the humiliating +ceremonies attending degradation were dispensed with. He +was incarcerated in the Ile Sainte-Marguérite and treated rather +as an exile than as a convict; thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy. +He finally took up his abode in Madrid, where he was treated +with marked respect by the government of Alfonso XII. He +died there on the 23rd of September 1888. He published +<i>Épisodes de la guerre de 1870</i> (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote +<i>L’Armée du Rhin</i> (Paris, 1872).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the bibliography appended to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franco-German +War</a></span>; also memoir by C. Pelletan in <i>La Grande Encyclopédie</i>; for +Bazaine’s conduct see <i>Bazaine et l’armée du Rhin</i> (1873); J. Valfrey, +<i>Le Maréchal et l’armée du Rhin</i> (1873); Count A. de la Guerronière, +<i>L’Homme de Metz</i> (1871); Rossel, <i>Les Derniers Jours de Metz</i> (1871). +See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bourbaki</a></span> for the curious Regnier episode connected +with the surrender of Metz.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1819-1891), English +engineer, was born at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the +age of seventeen he was articled to an engineer, and a few years +later he began to practise successfully on his own account. His +name is best known for the engineering works he carried out in +London, especially for the construction of the main drainage +system and the Thames embankment. In 1848 the control of +London drainage, which had hitherto been divided among eight +distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve commissioners, +who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission. +Under the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he +continued to hold under the three successive commissions which +in the course of a year or two followed the second one, and when +finally in 1855 these bodies were replaced by the Metropolitan +Board of Works, he was at once appointed its chief engineer. +His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by official +obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it +was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally +opened. It consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers, +draining more than 100 sq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal +with 420 million gallons a day. The cost was £4,600,000. +Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was engaged on the plans for +the Thames embankment. The section between Westminster +and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and 1869, +and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was +declared open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea +embankment followed in 1871-1874, and in 1876 Northumberland +Avenue was formed. The total outlay on the scheme exceeded +£2,000,000. Bazalgette was also responsible for various other +engineering works in the metropolitan area, designing, for +example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and the steam +ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared +plans for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel +under it at Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these +projects carried out. He died on the 15th of March 1891 at +Wimbledon.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZARD, AMAND<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder +of a secret society in France corresponding to the Carbonari +of Italy, was born at Paris. He took part in the defence of +Paris in 1815, and afterwards occupied a subordinate situation +in the prefecture of the Seine. About 1820 he united some +patriotic friends into a society, called <i>Amis de la vérité</i>. From this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the +peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two +of Bazard’s friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the +central body, and, while taking a general lead, contributed +extensively to the Carbonarist journal, <i>L’Aristarque</i>. An +unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort ruined the society, and the +leaders were compelled to conceal themselves. Bazard, after +remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris, came to the conclusion +that the ends of those who wished well to the people +would be most easily attained, not through political agitation, +but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This +train of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist +philosophers of the school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He +contributed to their journal, <i>Le Producteur</i>; and in 1828 began +to give public lectures on the principles of the school (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Saint-Simon</a></span>). +His opposition to the emancipation of women brought +about a quarrel with Enfantin (<i>q.v.</i>) in 1831, and Bazard found +himself almost deserted by the members of the society. He +attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion between +them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a +few months he died on the 29th of July 1832.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZAS<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, a town of south-western France, in the department +of Gironde, 38½ m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) +town, 2505; commune, 4684. The town, which was the seat +of a bishop from at least the beginning of the 6th century +till 1790, has a Gothic church (formerly the cathedral) dating +from the 13th to the 16th centuries. There are remains of +ramparts (15th and 16th centuries) and several old houses +of the 16th century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce +white wine. The town is capital of an arrondissement, and +carries on tanning, &c., and trade in the well-known Bazadais +cattle.</p> + +<p>Bazas (<i>Cossio</i>) was capital of the ancient tribe of the +<i>Vasates</i>, and under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopuluna. +In later times it was capital of the district of Bazadais. +It was the scene of much bloodshed during the religious wars +of the 16th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZIGARS<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout +the peninsula, and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri, +Nats, Bediyas, &c. They live a life apart from the surrounding +Hindu population, and still preserve a certain ethnical +identity, scarcely justified by any indications given by their +physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers, basket-weavers +and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion +each clan has its king.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZIN, RENÉ<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1853-  ), French novelist and man of +letters, was born at Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He +studied law in Paris, and on his return to Angers became professor +of law in the Catholic university there. He contributed +to Parisian journals a series of sketches of provincial life and +descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation by <i>Une Tache +d’encre</i> (1888), which received a prize from the Academy. Other +novels of great charm and delicacy followed: <i>La Sarcelle bleue</i> +(1892); <i>Madame Corentine</i> (1893); <i>Humble Amour</i> (1894); +<i>De toute son âme</i> (1897); <i>La Terre qui meurt</i> (1899); <i>Les Oberlé</i> +(1901), an Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the +following year; <i>L’Âme alsacienne</i> (1903); <i>Donatienne</i> (1903); +<i>L’Isolée</i> (1905); <i>Le Blé qui lève</i> (1907); <i>Mémoires d’une vieille +fille</i> (1908). <i>La Terre qui meurt</i>, a picture of the decay of peasant +farming and a story of La Vendée, is an indirect plea for the +development of provincial France. A volume of <i>Questions +littéraires et sociales</i> appeared in 1906. René Bazin was admitted +to the Academy on the 28th of April 1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BAZIRE, CLAUDE<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was +deputy for the Côte d’Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made +himself prominent by denouncing the court and the “Austrian +committee” of the Tuileries. On the 20th of June 1792 he spoke +in favour of the deposition of the king. In the Convention he sat +with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial of Louis XVI., +and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the +Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security, +he condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by +François Chabot in the falsification of a decree relative to the East +India Company, and though his share seems to have been simply +that he did not reveal the plot, of which he knew but part, he was +accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal at the same time as +Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was executed on the 5th +of April 1794.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BDELLIUM<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="bdellion">βδέλλιον</span>, used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the +name of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to +several gums or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found +as adulterants of true myrrh (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page562" id="page562"></a>562</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BEACH,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a word of unknown origin; probably an old dialect +word meaning shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered +by shingle. Beach sometimes denotes the material thrown up by +the waves, sometimes the long resulting ridge, but more frequently +the area between high and low water, or even the area between +land and sea covered with material thrown up by exceptional +storms.</p> + +<p>The actual character of beach material depends upon the +nature and structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and +direction of currents, and the force of the waves. The southern +shore of the Isle of Wight furnishes a good example. The island +ends westward in the well-known “Needles,” consisting of chalk +with flints. The disintegration of this rock by wave action +separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards in suspension, +from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon the shore. +The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the +rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the +Ventnor rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a +very fine flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown +Bay follows, where the cliffs are composed for the most part of +greensand, and here the beach at low water is sandy and smooth. +The eastern end of the island is again composed of chalk with +flints, and here the beach material as at the western end consists +of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in similar cases, the +material has been dragged seawards from the land by constant action of +the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide and each +returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by +every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a +ridge such as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that +has blocked the old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters +into Yaverland Bay. Sandown furnishes an instructive example +of the power of the eastward currents carrying high-storm waves. +The groins built to preserve the foreshore are piled to the top with +coarse shingle on the western side, while there is a drop of over +8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall, many thousands of tons of +shingle having been moved bodily by the waves and deposited +against each groin. The force of the waves has been measured on +the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons per +square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore +from the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and +often a hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in +weight have been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore +unstable in its position. It advances in front of the encroaching +sea, burying former beaches under the sand and mud of the now +deeper water, or it retreats when the sea is withdrawn from the +land or the land rises locally, leaving the old shingle stranded in a +“raised beach,” but its formation is in all cases due to the form +and structure of the shore, the sapping action of the waves, the +backward drag of the undertow plastering the shore with material, +which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by currents that +cover the finer débris of the undertow with a layer of coarse +fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and +tides.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEACHY HEAD,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a promontory on the coast of Sussex, +England, S.W. of Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the +town. It consists of a perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and +forms the eastern termination of the hill-range known as the +South Downs. The old Bell Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-water +mark, erected in 1831 on the second cliff to the westward, +in 0° 10′ 18″ E., 50° 43′ 30″ N., has been superseded by a new +lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of the head itself.</p> + +<p><i>Battle of Beachy Head.</i>—This naval battle, known to the +French as Bévisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the +30th of June 1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line, +under command of the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and +of 22 Dutch under C. Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland, +while a French fleet of over 70 sail, commanded by the comte +de Tourville, was anchored some miles off to the south-west. +The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an expected +Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general +direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the +enemy’s superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to +the Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the +Gunfleet at the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy +from a distance till he could be reinforced. The council, which +had the support of Admiral Russell, afterwards earl of Orford, +considered that a retreat to the Gunfleet would have fatal +consequences, by which they no doubt meant that it would +leave the French free to land troops for the support of the +Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of +the enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage +of position. The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the +council, elected to treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At +daybreak on the 30th he got under way and bore down on the +enemy. The wind was at north-east and gave him the weather-gage. +As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was not able to engage +the enemy from end to end, but as the French were arranged +in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end nearest +him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his +ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring +his fleet down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch +ships, should be opposite the enemy’s van, his centre opposite +their centre, and his rear should engage their rear. The +inferiority of the allies in numbers made it therefore inevitable +that there should be gaps between the different divisions. As +the fleets actually did come to action, the Dutch with a few +English ships pressed on the French van, their leading ship being +abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his +station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great +gap between himself and the ships in the van. Being apprehensive +that the French centre would tack and pass this gap so +as to put him between two fires, he kept a long way off so as to +be free to manoeuvre against them if they made the attempt. +The English rear division, consisting of the English blue +squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action with +the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French +ships, ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to +windward and putting part of Evertsen’s squadron between +two fires. The Dutch ships suffered heavily, and one of them +which was dismasted drifted among the French and was taken. +More severe loss would have followed if the better average +seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in +good stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action, +and the surface current which in the Channel sets to the west +with the ebb began to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and +English dropped anchor. The French, who were not equally +alert, did not and were carried westward. When the tide turned +the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning several of the +most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the +French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his +ships in line of battle, which forced them to regulate their +speed by the slowest among them. Torrington was tried for his +conduct but acquitted.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full account of the battle of Beachy Head, written with +ample quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating +Herbert, will be found in Admiral Colomb’s <i>Naval Warfare</i> (London, 1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(D. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEACON<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>béacn</i>, a sign, cf. “beckon,” +another form of the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on +a high hill, structure or building for the purpose of sending a +message of alarm or of important news over long distances. +Such was the courier-fire (<span class="grk" title="aggaros pur">ἄγγαρος πῦρ</span>) that brought the news +of the fall of Troy to Argos (Aeschylus, <i>Agamemnon</i>), or the +chain of signals that told of the approach of the Spanish Armada, +or which circled the British Isles in the jubilee years of 1887 and +1897. The word occurs in many names for lofty and conspicuous +hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the highest point on +Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon towers +and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a +lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended +light, a superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and +cage, or staff and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a +conspicuous object at sea, used in each case to guide or warn +sailors. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighthouse</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Buoy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page563" id="page563"></a>563</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (1804-1881), +British statesman, second child and eldest son of Isaac +D’Israeli (<i>q.v.</i>) and Maria Basevi, who were married in 1802, was +born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on the 21st of December +1804. Of Isaac D’Israeli’s other children, Sarah was born in +1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James +(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for +genius and character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply +indebted for a wise, unswerving and sympathetic devotion, +when, in his earlier days, he needed it most. All Isaac D’Israeli’s +children were born into the Jewish communion, in which, however, +they were not to grow up. It is a reasonable inference +from Isaac’s character that he was never at ease in the +ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and +soon afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household +from the Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been +admitted to it with the usual rites eight days after his birth, was +baptized at St Andrew’s church in Holborn on the 31st of July +1817. One of Isaac D’Israeli’s reasons for quitting the tents of +his people was that rabbinical Judaism, with its unyielding +laws and fettering ceremonies, “cuts off the Jews from the great +family of mankind.” Little did he know, when therefore he cut +off the D’Israeli family from Judaism, what great things he was +doing for one small member of it. The future prime minister +was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to +provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the +faculties and ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly +view alone, of course, most fortunate for his aspirations in youth +was his withdrawal from Judaism in childhood. That it was +fully sanctioned by his intellect at maturity is evident; but the +vindication of unbiased choice would not have been readily +accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own will at the +pushing <i>Vivian Grey</i> period or after. And though a mind like +Disraeli’s might work to satisfaction with Christianity as “completed +Judaism,” it could but dwell on a breach of continuity +which means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed +to forget amongst Christians. With all, he was proud of his race +as truly, if not as vehemently, as his paternal grandmother +detested it. Family pride contributed to the feeling in his case; +for in his more speculative moods he could look back upon an +ancestry which was of those, perhaps, who colonized the shores +of the Mediterranean from before the time of the Captivity. +More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled Spanish +family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to +Venice, there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered +for six generations. The Benjamin D’Israeli, Lord Beaconsfield’s +grandfather, who came to England in 1748, was a younger +son sent at eighteen to try his fortune in London. “A man of +ardent character, sanguine, courageous, speculative, fortunate, +with a temper which no disappointment could disturb” (so +Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the beginnings +of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his +grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but +that he became a man of wealth and consideration is certain. +He married twice. His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay, +“a beautiful woman of strong intellect” and importunate +ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to because it was +despised by others. She felt so keenly the social disabilities it +brought upon her, and her husband’s indifference to them, that +“she never pardoned him his name.” Her literary son Isaac +suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he +had none that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule +him for the aspirations which he had not and for those which he +had; on the other hand, he never heard from her a tender word +“though she lived to be eighty.” Nor did any other member of +her family, according to her grandson.</p> + +<p>Isaac D’Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books +in domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably +from his father’s gentle preoccupations. As a child—unruly +and disturbing no doubt—he was sent to a school of small +account at Blackheath, and was there “for years” before he +was recalled at the age of twelve on the death of his grandfather. +Isaac D’Israeli was his father’s sole heritor, but change of fortune +seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the most hopeful +of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a +Unitarian school at Walthamstow—a well-known school, +populous enough to be a little world of emulation and conflict +but otherwise unfit. Not there, nor in any similar institution +at that illiberal time, perhaps, was a Jewish boy likely to make +a fortunate entry into “the great family of mankind.” His +name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced incompatibilities +not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards +the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His +stay at Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he +went to school no more. With the run of his father’s library, +and the benefits of that born bookman’s guidance, he now set +out to educate himself. This he did with an industry stiffened +by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions fully mature +before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to make a +man of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in +November 1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain, +Stevens and Co., solicitors, in Frederick’s Place, Old Jewry. +Here he remained for three years—“most assiduous in his +attention to business,” said one of the partners, “and showing +great ability in the transaction of it.” It was then determined +that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was entered +at Lincoln’s Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies +and an alien use for his pen. Though “assiduous in his attention +to business” in Frederick’s Place, he found time to write for +the printer. Dr Smiles, in his <i>Memoirs of John Murray</i>, tells +of certain pamphlets on the brightening prospects of the Spanish +South American colonies, then in the first enjoyment of emancipation—pamphlets +seemingly written for a Mr Powles, head of a +great financial firm, whose acquaintance Disraeli had made. In +the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel—his first, and never +published. <i>Aylmer Papillon</i> was the title of it, Dr Smiles +informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John +Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly. +The last chapter, its author says, is taken up with “Mr Papillon’s +banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconception +of a metaphysical sonnet.” About the same time he edited +a <i>History of Paul Jones</i>, originally published in America, the +preface of the English edition being Disraeli’s first appearance +as an author. Murray could not publish <i>Aylmer Papillon</i>, +but he had great hopes of its boyish writer (Isaac D’Israeli was +an old friend of his), “took him into his confidence, and related +to him his experiences of men and affairs.” Disraeli had not +completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray was +possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper; +<span class="sidenote">“The Representative.”</span> +and if his young friend did not inspire that idea he +keenly urged its execution, and was entrusted by +Murray with the negotiation of all manner of preliminaries, +including the attempt to bring Lockhart +in as editor. The title of the paper, <i>The Representative</i>, was +Disraeli’s suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-up +of a printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray’s +great satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles’s account +of the matter, with extraordinary address. But when these +arrangements were brought to the point of completion, Disraeli +dropped out of the scheme and had nothing more to do with it. +He was to have had a fourth share of the proprietorship, bringing +in a corresponding amount of capital. His friend Mr Powles, +whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have had a +similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid +up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted +Benjamin Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless +<i>Representative</i> was printed. Many years afterwards (1853) +Disraeli took an active interest in <i>The Press</i>, a weekly journal +of considerable merit but meagre fortunes.</p> + +<p>At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had +moved from the King’s Road, Gray’s Inn (now Theobald’s Road), +to No. 6 Bloomsbury Square. Here he entertained the many +distinguished friends, literary and political, who had been +drawn to him by his “Curiosities” and other ingenious works, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page564" id="page564"></a>564</span> +and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance and +conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and +to their house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen +cordially welcomed him. Murray’s friendship and associations +helped him in like manner, no doubt; and thus was opened +to Disraeli the younger a world in which he was to make a +considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that day +was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when +once you were within its borders, than the society of this. +Reverberations of the gossip of St James’s and Mayfair extended +to Bloomsbury in those days. Yet Disraeli’s range of observation +<span class="sidenote">“Vivan Grey.”</span> +must have been not only brief but limited when he +sat down at twenty or twenty-one to write <i>Vivian Grey</i>. +It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen, +a clever woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge. +His own strongly perceptive imagination (the gift in which +he was to excel every other politician of his time) and the bent +of political reading and aspiration from boyhood completed his +equipment; and so the wonder that so young a man in Disraeli’s +social position should write a book like <i>Vivian Grey</i> is accounted +for. It was published in 1826. The success of this insolently +clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the +great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour, +and opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have +always been among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli’s +history. With them it began, and successive generations of +inquirers into a strange career and a character still shrouded +and baffling refer to them as settled starting-points of +investigation. What was the man who, in such a society and with +political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such vagaries as +these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be thought +of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry +still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli’s career is +studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled +satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early +days are never remote from memory. The report of them +can hardly be doubted; and as the last relation was made +(to the writer of this article) not with intent to ridicule Mr +Disraeli’s taste but to illustrate his conquering abilities, the +story is repeated here. One of Disraeli’s first friends in the world +of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. “And,” +said Sir Henry Bulwer (“Pelham’s” brother), “we heard so +much at the time of Edward’s amazingly brilliant new friend +that we were the less inclined to make his acquaintance.” At +length, however, Sir Edward got up a little dinner-party to +convince the doubters. It was to meet at the early hour of those +days at one of the Piccadilly hotels. “There was my brother, +Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes; but for a +considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did +not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive +did his appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green +velvet trousers, a canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver +buckles, lace at his wrists, and his hair in ringlets.” The +description of the coat is forgotten. “We sat down. Not one of us +was more than five-and-twenty years old. We were all—if you +will allow me to include myself—on the road to distinction, +all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect conceit of ourselves. +Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally taken aside and +asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should have been +obliged to say ‘the man in the green velvet trousers.’” This +story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at +their sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight +against, provocation of them carried to its utmost in every +way open to him, and complete conquest in a company of young +men less likely to admit superiority in a wit of their own years, +probably, than any other that could have been brought together +at that time.</p> + +<p>Soon after the publication of <i>Vivian Grey</i>, Disraeli, who is said +by Froude to have been “overtaken by a singular disorder,” +marked by fits of giddiness (“once he fell into a trance, and did +not recover for a week”), went with the Austens on a long summer +tour in France, Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life +at Bradenham—an old manor-house near High Wycombe, which +his father had taken—Disraeli put law in abeyance and resumed +novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or three other productions, +brief, but in every literary sense the finest of his works, +were written in the next two or three years. But for <i>Ixion in +Heaven</i>, <i>The Infernal Marriage</i>, and <i>Popanilla</i>, Disraeli could not +be placed among the greater writers of his kind; yet none of his +imaginative books have been so little read as these. The +mysterious malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William +<span class="sidenote">Travel.</span> +Meredith, who was to have married Sarah Disraeli, for +a tour in southern Europe and the nearer East. He +saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople, Jerusalem, +Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht +voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then +with a Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus, +and left it with an expectation in his singularly prescient mind +that the island would one day be English. These travels must +have profited him greatly, and we have our share of the advantage; +not so much, however, in <i>The Wondrous Tale of Alroy</i> or +<i>Tancred</i>, or the “Revolutionary Epic” which he was inspired to +write on “the windy plains of Troy,” but in the letters he sent +home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom +and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted +more than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the +writer. Together with other letters also published some time +after Disraeli’s death, they tell more of him than anything that +can be found in print elsewhere. They show, for example, that +his extraordinary exuberances were unforced, leaping by natural +impulse from an overcharged source. They also show that his +Oriental fopperies were not so much “purposed affectation” as +Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in great +part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed in +such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own +enjoyment of them as much as planned. The “purposed +affectation” sprang from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire, +gauds of fancy and expression. It was not only to startle and +impress the world that he paraded his eccentricities of splendour. +His family also had to be impressed by them. It was to his sober +father that he wrote, at the age of twenty-six: “I like a sailor’s +life much, though it spoils the toilette.” It is in a letter from +Gibraltar to the same hand that we read of his two canes—“a +morning and an evening cane”—changed as the gun fires. And +the same correspondent must be told that “Ralph’s handkerchief +which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing I ever +wore.”</p> + +<p>When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the +law was abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up—the +poet’s also and the politician’s. In the next five +years he wrote <i>Contarini Fleming</i>, the <i>Revolutionary +Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He?</i> (a +<span class="sidenote">Literary production.</span> +pamphlet expository of his opinions), the <i>Runnymede +Letters</i>, a <i>Vindication of the British Constitution</i>, and other matter +of less note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was +ended in less, though its author was to the last unwilling that it +should be forgotten. The novels revived the success he had with +<i>Vivian Grey</i>, and restored him to his place among the brilliancies +and powers of the time. The political writing, too, much of it in +a garish, extravagant style, exercised his deeper ambitions, and +stands as witness to the working of original thought and foresight. +Both qualities are conspicuous in <i>What is He?</i> and the <i>Vindication</i>, +of which it has been truly said that in these pages he “struck +the keynote to the explanations he afterwards consistently offered +of all his apparent inconsistencies.” Here an interpretation of +Tory principles as capable of running with the democratic idea, +and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted. The +aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by +the Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically +“abrogated” by that measure, it became necessary that Toryism +should start from the democratic basis, from which it had never +been alien. The filched liberties of the crown and the people +should be restored, and the nation redeemed from the oligarchies +which had stolen from both. When at the beginning of all this +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page565" id="page565"></a>565</span> +writing Disraeli entered the political arena as candidate for High +Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and seconded by a +Radical—in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in the +autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to +the electors by Daniel O’Connell and the Radical Hume. In his +last candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent +ground, commending himself by a series of speeches which fully +displayed his quality, though the prescience which gemmed them +with more than one prophetic passage was veiled from his +contemporaries. Among Disraeli’s great acquaintances were +many—Lyndhurst at their head—whose expectations of his +future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was +“thought of” for various boroughs, Marylebone among the +number, but his democratic Toryism seems to have stood in his +way in some places and his inborn dislike of Radicalism in others. +It was an impracticable situation—no getting on from it; and so, +at Lyndhurst’s persuasion, as he afterwards acknowledged, he +determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when in the +spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested +the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here +again he failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting +politician and with other consequences good for notoriety. It +was at Taunton that Disraeli fell upon O’Connell, rather ungratefully; +whereupon the Liberator was roused to retort on his +assailant vehemently as “a liar,” and humorously as a probable +descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the +challenge which, when O’Connell declined it, was fastened on his +son Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr +Disraeli in his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone +police court. He declared himself very well satisfied with this +episode, but nothing in it can really have pleased him, not even +the noise it made.</p> + +<p>Here the first period of Disraeli’s public life came to an end, a +period of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself +called sowing his political wild oats. It was a more +mature Disraeli who in the general election of 1837 was +<span class="sidenote">Enters Parliament.</span> +returned for Maidstone as the colleague of his +providential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the +fortunes of the Tory party were fast reviving under Peel’s +guidance, the victory was denied him on this occasion; but, for +once, the return of the Whigs to power was no great disappointment +for the junior member for Maidstone. To gain a footing in +the House of Commons was all that his confident spirit ever asked, +and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just in time to +avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the friendly +backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up appearances, +had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) “he +had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had +gone frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made +advances to him in a speculation on his success”: they were to +get their money back with large interest or lose it altogether. +Such conditions were themselves incitement enough to a prompt +redemption of the promise of parliamentary distinction, even +without the restless spurring of ambition. And Disraeli had +another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he told +O’Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore +when, three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish +election petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that +first House of Commons speech which imagination still dwells +upon as something wondrous strange. That he should not have +known better, even by hearsay, than to address the House of +Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a fantastic figure +is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained self-confidence +enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down that a +time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the +least memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating +but not an oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he +spoke again, which shows how little damage he felt, while the good +sense, brevity, and blameless manner of the speech (on a copyright +bill) announced that he could learn. And for some time +thereafter he affected no importance in the House, though not as +withdrawing from attention.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way +with men of genius, his mind was working upon problems of +government, the magnitude, the relations and the natural +developments of which he was more sensible of than any known +politician of his time. “Sensible of,” we say, to mark the +difference between one sort of understanding and another which +comes of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt, +reading and inquiring and applying set thought, but such means +were insufficient to put into his mind all that he found there. +It seems that opinions may be formed of inquiry and study alone, +which are then constructive; but where intuitive perception or +the perceptive imagination is a robust possession, the fruits of +research become assimilative—the food of a divining faculty +which needs more or less of it according to the power of divination. +The better judgment in all affairs derives from this quality, +which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor. +His judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is +an intellectual advantage; and, standing in his mind not so +<span class="sidenote">Mental characteristics.</span> +much an edifice as a natural growth, they cannot be +so readily abandoned at the call of ease or self-interest. +They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a +purpose, but they cannot be got rid of,—which is a +moral advantage. Disraeli’s mind and its judgments were of +this character. Its greatest gift was not the romantic imagination +which he possessed abundantly and employed overmuch, but +the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or divining imagination, +without which there can be no great man of affairs. Breadth +of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less adequate +descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that +it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew +and acted on the principle that “a statesman is a practical +character,” whose business is to “serve the country according +to its present necessities,” he was unable to confine his vision +to the nearer consequences of whatever policy, or course of +action, or group of conditions it rested on. Without effort, and +even without intention probably, it looked beyond first consequences +to the farther or the final outcome; and to complete +the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter consequences +did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought +them out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far +more important than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him +to keep silence where the remoter consequences were of that +character, and ought to be provided for betimes. Of course +silence was always possible. These renderings to foresight +might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease (and +Disraeli’s prescience of much of his country’s later troubles only +made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal +advancement. But the same divining imagination which +showed him these things also showed him the near time when it +would be too late to speak of them, and when not to have spoken +would leave him irredeemably in the common herd of hand-to-mouth +politicians. Therefore he spoke.</p> + +<p>Remembrance of these characteristics—remembrance, too, +that his mind, which was neither English nor European, worked +in absolute detachment—should accompany the traveller +through all the turns and incidents of Disraeli’s long career. +They are sometimes puzzling, often speculative; yet nearly all +that is obscure in them becomes clear, much apparent contradiction +disappears, when read by these persistent unvarying +lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him +is shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment +of Ireland, and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists, +at a time when such irregularities could but damage him, a new +man, where he hoped for influence and office. At about the +same time his political genius directed him to open a resolute +critical campaign against the Conservatism of the party he +<span class="sidenote">“Coningsby,” “Sybil.”</span> +proposed to thrive in, and he could but obey. This +he did in writing <i>Coningsby</i>, a novel of the day and for +the day, but commended to us of a later generation +not only by the undimmed truth of its character-portraits, +but by qualities of insight and foresight which we who +have seen the proof of them can measure as his contemporaries +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page566" id="page566"></a>566</span> +could not. <i>Sybil</i>, which was written in the following year (1845), +is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in the preceding +paragraph. When <i>Sybil</i> was written a long historic day +was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw +so clearly as Disraeli’s the death of the old day, the birth of the +new, or what and how great their differences would be. In +<i>Coningsby</i> the political conditions of the country were illustrated +and discussed from the constitutional point of view, and by light +of the theory that for generations before the passing of the +Reform Bill the authority of the crown and the liberties of the +people had been absorbed and extinguished in an oligarchic +system of government, itself become fossilized and soulless. In +<i>Sybil</i> were exhibited the social relations of rich and poor (the +“two nations”) under this régime, and under changes in which, +while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy +ignorant of its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of +political economy imbruted the rest of the population. These +views were enforced by a startling yet strictly accurate representation +of the state of things in the factory districts at that +time. Taken from the life by Disraeli himself, accompanied by +one or two members of the Young England party of which he +was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as there +displayed, and Disraeli’s interpretation of them—a marvel of +perceptive and prophetic criticism—opened eyes, roused +consciences, and led direct to many reforms.</p> + +<p>These two books, the <i>Vindication</i>, published in 1835, and his +speeches up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough +to show what Disraeli’s Tory democracy meant, how truly +national was its aim, and how exclusive of partisanship for the +“landed interest”; though he did believe the stability and +prosperity of the agricultural class a national interest of the +first order, not on economic grounds alone or even chiefly. And +if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became aggressively +insubordinate some time before Peel’s proclaimed conversion +to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even +creditable grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over +when Peel formed the 1841 government, is one explanation of +these outbreaks, and a letter to Peel, lately published, is proof +to many minds that Disraeli’s denial to Peel’s face in 1846 that +he had ever solicited office was daringly mendacious. The +letter certainly reads like solicitation in the customary half-veiled +form. All that can be said in doubt is that since the ’41 +government came into existence on the 6th of September, and +the letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint +of being publicly neglected, as a craving for <i>some</i> mark of +recognition, is possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on +the 5th (as he very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel’s +lord chancellor) that the appointments were then complete. +The pecuniary need of office, if that comes into the question, +had been lightened, if not extinguished, two years before by his +marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis—a lady +fifteen years his senior—brought him a considerable fortune +which, however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age, +and would gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that +time brings on, to continue her mere money-worth to her +“Dizzy.” Her devotion to him, and his devotion to her, is the +whole known story of their private life; and we may believe +that nothing ever gratified him more than offering her a coronet +from Mr Disraeli.</p> + +<p>Disraeli made Peel’s acquaintance early in his career and +showed that he was proud of it. In his <i>Life of Lord George +Bentinck</i> he writes of Peel fairly and even generously. But they +were essentially antipathetic persons; and it is clear that the +great minister and complete Briton took no pains to understand +the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst thought so much, +and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make such +feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when, +after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles, +he gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in +office that Peel’s government, the creature of an anxious +Conservative reaction, began to be suspected of drifting toward +Manchester. That it was forced in that direction we should +say rather, looking back, for it was a time of dire distress, +especially in the manufacturing districts of the north; so +<span class="sidenote">Politics. 1841-67.</span> +that in his second session Peel had to provide some +relief by revising the corn laws and reducing import +dues generally. His measures were supported by +Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to the +menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total +abolition of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was +not for Peel to abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his +Young England party took up a definitely independent rôle, +which became more sharply critical to the end. Disraeli’s first +strong vote of hostility was on a coercion bill for perishing and +rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with greater emphasis in +the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland debate; and +from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel’s course and its effect +on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile +bad harvests deepened the country’s distress, Ireland was +approached by famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became +menacingly powerful, and Peel showed signs of yielding to free +trade. Disraeli’s opportunity was soon to come now; and in +1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the brilliantly destructive +series of speeches which, though they could not prevent the +abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended +them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to +sympathy, even where the limitations of Disraeli’s protectionist +beliefs are understood and where his perception of the later +consequences of free trade is most cordially acknowledged. That +he remained satisfied with them himself is doubtful, unless for +their foresight, their tremendous effect as instruments of +punishment, and as they swept him to so much distinction. Within +three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was +none to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative +party in the House of Commons.</p> + +<p>In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury. +In 1847 he was returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again +had occasion to change his constituency. Up to this time his +old debts still embarrassed him, but now his private and political +fortunes changed together. Froude reports that he “received +a large sum from a private hand for his <i>Life of Lord George +Bentinck</i>” (published in 1852), “while a Conservative millionaire +took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3% with which +he was content being exchanged for the 10% under which +Disraeli had been staggering.” In 1848 his father Isaac D’Israeli +died, leaving to his son Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate. +This went to the purchase of Hughenden Manor—not, of course, +a great property, but with so much of the pleasant and picturesque, +of the dignified also, as quite to explain what it was to the +affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too (1851), his +acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams—born +a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased +Cornish squire—who in her distant home at Torquay had +conceived a restless admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She +wrote to him again and again, pressing for an appointment to +consult on an important matter of business: would meet him +at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Her importunity +succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed, strange-mannered +old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became +his adoring friend to the end of her life. Gratitude for her +devotion brought him and his wife in constant intimacy +with her. There were many visits to Torquay; he gratified +her with gossiping letters about the great people with +whom and the great affairs with which the man who did so +much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspiration +of her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all +her fortune, which was considerable; and, as she wished, +was buried at Hughenden, close to the grave where Disraeli +was to lie.</p> + +<p>It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli’s leadership +in Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the +shattered Tory party. In doing this he made it sufficiently +clear that there could be no sudden return to Protectionist +principles. At the same time, however, he insisted (as he did +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page567" id="page567"></a>567</span> +from first to last) on the enormous importance to the country, to +the character of its people no less than to its material welfare, +of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he also obtained +<span class="sidenote">As leader in the House of Commons.</span> +a more general recognition of the fact that “the land” +had borne fiscal burdens under the old régime which +were unfair and unendurable under the new. So far he +did well; and when in 1852 he took office as chancellor +of the exchequer in Lord Derby’s first administration, the +prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving against +difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for imagination +in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy +them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New +difficulties were to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force. +His first budget was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a +coalition of Liberals and Peelites which he believed was formed +against Mr Disraeli more than against the chancellor of the +exchequer. It was on this occasion that he exclaimed, “England +does not love coalitions.” After a reign of ten months he was +again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of the +Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weakness +led them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of +the affair in twenty words: “You are going to war with an +opponent who does not want to fight, and whom you are unwilling +to encounter.” Neither were they prepared; and the +scandals and political disturbances that ensued revealed him as +a party leader who could act on such occasions with a dignity, +moderation and sagacity that served his country well, maintained +the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing. +The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen +government in 1855, and then Disraeli had the mortification of +seeing a fortunate chance of return to office lost by the timidity +and distrust of his chief, Lord Derby—the distrust too clearly +including the under-valuation of Disraeli himself. Lord Derby +wanted Lord Palmerston’s help, Mr Gladstone’s, Mr Sidney +Herbert’s. This arrangement could not be made; Lord Derby +therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord +Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favouring +times. The government in which Disraeli was again financial +minister lasted for less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and +then ensued another seven years in the cold and yet colder shade +of Opposition. Both of these seven-year outings were bad, but +the second by far the worse. Parliamentary reform had become +a burning question and an embarrassing one for the Tory party. +An enormous increase of business, consequent upon the use of +steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce, filled +the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but +that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone’s +budgets, made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs +for Liberalism. Foreign questions arose which strongly excited +English feeling—the arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian +struggles for freedom, an American quarrel, the “Arrow” affair +and the Chinese war, the affair of the French colonels and the +Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose Palmerston gathered into +his own sails (except on the last occasion) every wind of popular +favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank rapidly, becoming +nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without appreciable +loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in and +out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while +he was in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course, +in the Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with +discontent rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the +revolt at his theatricalisms, the distrust of him as “mystery +man,” which up to this time had never died out even among +men who were his nearest colleagues, were now more openly +indulged. Out of doors he had a “bad press,” in parliament +he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were +cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for +hours quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace +him, and might have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread +of the weapon that destroyed Peel. In this state of things he +patiently held his ground, working for his party more carefully +than it knew, and never seizing upon false or discrediting +advantages. But it was an extremely bad time for Benjamin +Disraeli.</p> + +<p>Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy +Bill in 1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no +hopeful spirit that the Tories took office again in that year. They +were perilously weak in the House of Commons, and affairs +abroad, in which they had small practice and no prestige, were +alarming. Yet the new administration did very well till, after +resettling the government of India, and recovering from a blunder +committed by their Indian secretary, Lord Ellenborough, they +must needs launch a Reform Bill to put that dangerous question +out of controversial politics. The well-intended but fantastic +measure brought in for the purpose was rejected. The country +was appealed to, with good but insufficient results; and at the +first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were turned out on +a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign affairs +supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at +the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the +foreign office had then in print a series of despatches which would +have answered its accusers had they been presented when the +debate began, as for some unexplained reason they were not. +Lord Palmerston now returned to Downing Street, and while he +lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to satisfy themselves with +what was meant for useful criticism, though with small hope that +it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection, the +Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France, +the Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that +was always forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time. +He never doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the +American quarrel when there was a strong feeling in favour of the +South. All the while he would have gladly welcomed any just +means of taking an animated course, for these were dull, dark +days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary party. Yet, +unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more +than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles +under the Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which +Radical applause contributed nothing in his later days, created an +atmosphere entirely favourable to the quiet growth of Conservatism. +He died in 1865. Earl Russell succeeded him as prime +minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the House of Commons. The +party most pleased with the change was the Radical; the party +best served was Disraeli’s. Another Reform Bill, memorable for +driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Aduilam, broke up +the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to +the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of +lasting worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments +of an inferior order and much less characteristic. “At this rate,” +he said in 1866, “you will have a parliament that will entirely +lose its command over the executive, and it will meet with less +consideration and possess less influence.” Look for declining +statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius dying off. “Instead of +these you will have a horde of selfish and obscure mediocrities, +incapable of anything but mischief, and that mischief devised and +regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour.” The Reform +legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out. +Lord Derby’s third administration was then formed in the +summer of the same year, and for the third time there was a Tory +government on sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in +the House of Commons; an angry Reform agitation was going +on; an ingenious resolution founded on the demand for an +enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might extinguish the +new government almost immediately; and it is pretty evident +that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for this +<span class="sidenote">Reform Bill of 1867.</span> +desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the +suffrage. Their excuses and calculations are well +known, but when all is said, Lord Derby’s statement of +its character, “a leap in the dark,” and of its intention, +“dishing the Whigs,” cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby +or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed, +and it remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli’s +private secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently +at about this time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page568" id="page568"></a>568</span> +Mr Earle, that gentleman said: “I know what your feelings must +be about this Reform Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it +was not Disraeli’s bill, but Lord Derby’s. I know everything +that occurred.” Mr Earle gave the same assurances to the writer +of these lines, and did so with hints and half-confidences (quite +intelligible, however) as to the persuasions that wrought upon his +chief. Mr Earle’s listener on these occasions confesses that he +heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he heard still +keeps company with Mahomet’s coffin. One thing, however, is +clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his +adoption of the “dishing” process is forbidden by the whole tenor +of his teaching and conduct. He could not have become suddenly +blind to the fallacy of the expectations derived from such a +course; and all his life it had been his distinction to look above +the transient and trafficking expedients of the professional +politician. However, the thing was done. After various +remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession, violent +reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867. +Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada, +had already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met +<span class="sidenote">Premier, 1868.</span> +in the next year Lord Derby’s failing health compelled +him to resign and Mr Disraeli became prime minister. +Irish disaffection had long been astir; the Fenian +menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also. +The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing +with Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the +abolition of the Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that +effect was immediately carried against the strong opposition of +the government. Disraeli insisted that the question should be +settled in the new parliament which the franchise act called for, +and he seems to have had little doubt that the country would +declare against Mr Gladstone’s proposal. He was mistaken. It +was the great question at the polls; and the first elections by the +new constituencies went violently against the authors of their being.</p> + +<p>The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone’s. The Irish +Church abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention +on the Irish land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage +and flourished exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable +went hand in hand with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish +Church was followed by a coercion act, and the land act by suspension +of <i>Habeas Corpus</i>. Disraeli, who at first preferred retirement +and the writing of <i>Lothair</i>, came forward from time to time +to point the moral and predict the end of Mr Gladstone’s +impulsive courses, which soon began to fret the confidence of his +friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct—the case of Sir R. +Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, <i>q.v.</i>), the Ewelme rectory +case,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the significant Odo Russell +(Lord Ampthill) episode (to help the government out of a scrape +the ambassador was accused of exceeding his instructions)—told yet +more. Above all, many humiliating proofs that England was losing her +place among the nations came out in these days, the discovery being +then new and unendurable. To be brief, in less than four years the +government had well-nigh worn out its own patience with its own errors, +failures and distractions, and would gladly have gone to pieces +when it was defeated on an Irish university bill. But Disraeli, +having good constitutional reasons for declining office at the +moment, could not allow this. Still gathering unpopularity, still +offending, alarming, alienating, the government went on till 1874, +suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten, the +Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends, +Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory—little hope, indeed, +of any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a +brief political outing two years before, he was received with such +acclaim as he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-eight +years old, and this was his first full banquet of popularity. +The elation and confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings +were confirmed by every circumstance of the 1874 elections. But +he was well aware of how much he owed to his opponents’ errors, +seeing at the same time how safely he could lay his future course +by them. He had always rejected the political economy of his +time, and it was breaking down. He had always refused to accept +the economist’s dictum without reference to other considerations +than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could pardon +the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a cosmopolitan +mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and +insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage +of cash profit. This was a changing England, and one that +Disraeli could govern on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if +the reviving “spirit of the country” ran to extremes of self-assertion. +At one of the great Manchester meetings he said, “Do +not suppose, because I counsel firmness and decision at the right +moment, that I am of that school of statesmen who are favourable +to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have resisted it +during a large part of my life.”</p> + +<p>But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regulation +Act, the first two years of the 1874 administration had no +remarkable excitements till near the end of them. The Public +Worship Act, introduced by the archbishop of Canterbury, was +meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who from first to last held +to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing social good +as no other organization might, supported the Bill as “putting +down ritualism”; spoke very vehemently; gave so much +offence that at one time neither the bill nor the government +seemed quite safe. For some time afterwards there was so little +legislation of the kind called “enterprising” that even some +friends of the government began to think it too tame; but at +the end of the second year an announcement was made which +put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive’s Suez Canal +<span class="sidenote">Suez Canal shares.</span> +shares had been bought by the government was +received with boundless applause. It was a courageous +thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli conception, nor +did it originate in any government department. It was suggested +from without at a moment when the possibility of ever acquiring +the shares was passing away. On the morning of the 15th of +November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the +<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office, +informed him that the khedive’s shares were passing into the +hands of a French syndicate, and urged arrest of the transaction +by purchase for England. (The shares being private property +their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.) Lord Derby +thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that +bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to +the knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered +that nevertheless it was going on. The difficulties of purchase +by England were then arrayed by Lord Derby. They were +more than one or two, and of course they had a formidable look, +but so also had the alternative and the lost opportunity. One +difficulty had already come into existence, and had to be met +at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the +khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was +no such negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very +troublesome way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling +the shares into the khedive’s head, which would be unfortunate. +“There’s my position, and now what do you say?” The +answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to the British +consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed Colonel +Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question +point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and +Lord Derby’s visitor might call next day to hear the reply from +Cairo. It is enough to add here that on receipt of the answer +the purchase for England was taken up and went to a speedy conclusion.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened +the next session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the +queen the title of empress of India—a measure which offended +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page569" id="page569"></a>569</span> +the instincts of many Englishmen, and, for the time, revived +the prejudices against its author. More important was the +revival of disturbances in European Turkey, which, in their +outcome, were to fill the last chapter of Disraeli’s career. But +for this interruption it is likely that he would have given much +of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an attractive +employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw +with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his +mind was strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable +speech delivered in 1872, he spoke with great warmth of the +slighting of the colonies, saying that “no minister in this country +will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing +as much as possible our colonial empire, and of responding to +those distant sympathies which may become the source of +incalculable strength and happiness to this island.” However, +nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two years +<span class="sidenote">Eastern question.</span> +from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy +note, the Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk +atrocities, and the accumulative excitement thereby created +in England, reopened the Eastern question with a vengeance. +The policy which Disraeli’s government now took up may be truly +called the national policy. Springing from the natural +suggestions of self-defence against the march of a dangerous +rivalry, it had the sanction of all British statesmanship for +generations, backed by the consenting instinct of the people. +It was quite unsentimental, being pro-Turkish or anti-Russian +only as it became so in being pro-British. The statesmen by +whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a power +which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe; +more particularly that it would undermine and supersede British +authority in the East. And without nicely considering the desire +of Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific or in any +other direction, they thought it one of their first duties +to maintain their own Eastern empire; or, to put it another +way, to contrive that Great Britain should be subject to Russian +ascendancy (if ever), at the remotest period allowed by destiny. +Such were the ideas on which England’s Russian policy was +founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a matter of course in +the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a first +provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously +popular it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling, +equally passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and +lasted long; and as the agitation at home and the conflict +abroad went on, certain of Disraeli’s colleagues, who were +staunch enough at the beginning, gradually weakened. It is +certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in all senses of the +word, to take strong measures against such an end to the war +as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that, +he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks, +and had gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and +defence than was known at the time or is commonly known now. +That there was a master motive for this resolution may be taken +for granted; and it is to be found in a belief that not to throw +back the Russian advance then was to lose England’s last chance +of postponing to a far future the predominance of a great rival +power in the East. How much or how little judgment shows +in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later days, we +do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues +dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to +insist upon the diplomatic action which at no point falls back +on the sword; Lord Derby (foreign minister) being among the +first to make a stand on that resolution, though he was not the +first seceder from the government. Such diplomacy in such +conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice, with whatever +affectation of boldness, without discovering its true character +to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli’s +successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered +that what with the known timidity of his colleagues, and what +with the strength and violence of the Russian party in England, +his achievement at Berlin was like the reclamation of butter +from a dog’s mouth; as Prince Bismarck understood in acknowledging +Disraeli’s gifts of statesmanship. It should also be +remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced +as malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or +bad, ill or well calculated, effective existence was denied to it; +and a man cannot be said to have failed in what he was never +permitted to attempt. The nondescript course of action which +began at the Constantinople conference and ended at Berlin +was not of his direction until its few last days. It only marked +at various stages the thwarting and suppression of his policy by +colleagues who were haunted night and day by memories of the +Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of the statesmen +who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also +looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible +to the fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the +time of the conflict, and after, that there would have been no +Crimean War had not the British government convinced the +tsar that it was in the hands of the peace party, so now he +believed that a bold policy would prevent or limit war, and at +the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise would +make a rapid advance.</p> + +<p>As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with +Disraeli’s successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he +himself sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him +after his return. At the Berlin conference he had established a +formidable reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was +affectionately enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more +cordial relations with his sovereign; and his honours in every +kind were his own achievement against unending disadvantage. +But he was soon to suffer irretrievable defeat. A confused and +unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet more unsatisfactory +in South Africa, conspired with two or three years of +commercial distress to invigorate “the swing of the pendulum” +when he dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year +before would have been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The +elections went heavily against him. He took the blow with +composure, and sank easily into a comparative retirement. Yet +he still watched affairs as a great party leader should, and from +time to time figured vigorously in debate. Meanwhile he had +another novel to sit down to—the poor though highly characteristic +<i>Endymion</i>; which, to his great surprise and equal pleasure, +was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds. Yet +even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for though +<i>Endymion</i> was not wholly written in his last days, it was in +no respect the success that <i>Lothair</i> was. This also he could +bear. His description of his grandfather recurs to us: “A man +of ardent character, sanguine, courageous and fortunate, with a +temper which no disappointment could disturb.”</p> + +<p>As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to +take refuge in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died +in his house in Curzon Street on the 19th of April 1881. The +likelihood of his death was publicly known for some days before +the event, and then the greatness of his popularity and its +warmth were declared for the first time. No such demonstration +of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He +lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with +liberty for the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the +church is a marble tablet, placed there by his queen, with a +generous inscription to his memory. The anniversary of his death +has since been honoured in an unprecedented manner, the 19th of +April being celebrated as “Primrose Day”—the primrose, for +reasons impossible accurately to define, being popularly supposed +to have been Disraeli’s favourite flower. Even among his friends +<span class="sidenote">Death and influence.</span> +in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and +not improbably among the city men who wagered their +money in irrecoverable loans to him on the chance of +his success, there may have been some who compassed the +thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but at +no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so enduringly +as Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that Sarah Disraeli +(the Myra of <i>Endymion</i>), or that “the most severe +of critics but a perfect wife,” may have had such dreams—hardly +that they could have occurred to any mind but a devoted +woman’s. Disraeli’s life was a succession of surprises, but none +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page570" id="page570"></a>570</span> +was so great as that he should be remembered after death more +widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other +statesman in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he +did not seem at all cut out for that distinction even as an +Imperialist. Significant as was the common grief when he died, no +such consequence could be inferred from it, and certainly not +from the elections of 1880. It stands, however, this high distinction, +and with it the thought that it would have been denied to +him altogether had the “adventurer” and “mystery man” of +the sixties died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have +said that never till 1872 did he look upon the full cup of popularity. +It might have been said that even at that time intrigue +to get rid of him had yet to cease in his own party; and but a few +years before, a man growing old, he was still in the lowest deeps +of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could it be +imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year, +the Jew “adventurer,” mysterious and theatrical to the last, +should fill a greater space in the mind of England twenty years +after death than Peel or Palmerston after five? Of course it can +be explained; and when explained, we see that Disraeli’s good +fortune in this respect is not due entirely to his own merits. His +last years of power might have been followed by as long a period +of more acceptable government than his own, to the effacement +of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did +follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which +the pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say +“Majuba” and “Gordon” recalls its deepest hurts, but not all +of them; and it may be that a pained and angry people, looking +back, saw in the man whom they lately displaced more than they +had ever seen before. From that time, at any rate, Disraeli has +been acknowledged as the regenerator and representative of the +Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused on the same +grounds; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the +guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It +is but a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold +upon the popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling +of the Imperial idea is understood as a timely act of revolt and +redemption: of revolt against continuous humiliations deeply +felt, redemption from the fate of nations obviously weak and +suspected of timidity. It has been called rescue-work—deliverance +from the dangers of invited aggression and a philosophical +neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement for +the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the +restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a +great defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for +“the great heart of the people.” Meanwhile political students +find to their satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and +never practised the art of working for “quick returns” of +sympathy or applause. As “adventurer,” he should have done +so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying art for the +wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit, perchance, +when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So +it is that to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to +draw more respect and admiration from their pages than could +have been found there originally. The student of his life understands +that Disraeli’s claim to remembrance rests not only on the +breadth of his views, his deep insight, his long foresight, but even +more on the courage which allowed him to declare opinions +supplied from those qualities when there was no visible likelihood +of their justification by experience, and therefore when their +natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the +event before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from +neglect. The event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputation +loses nothing by that. It gains by regret that death was +beforehand with him.</p> + +<p>“Adventurer,” as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of +abuse. “Mystery-man” had much of the same intention, but +in a blameless though not in a happy sense it was true of him to +the end of his days. Even to his friends, and to many near him, +he remained mysterious to the last. It is impossible to doubt +that some two or three, four or five perchance, were at home in +his mind, being freely admitted there; but of partial admissions +to its inner places there seem to have been few or none. Men +who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of +his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish +to understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes +they fancied they had got within the topping walls of the maze, +and might hope to gain the point whence survey could be made +of the whole; but as often they found themselves, in a moment, +where they stood at last and at first—outside. His speeches +carry us but a little way beyond the mental range; his novels +rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed that Disraeli +looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in <i>Coningsby</i>. +We group the following sentences from this description for a +purpose that will be presently seen:—(1) “He was admired by +<span class="sidenote">Character.</span> +women, idolized by artists, received in all circles with +great distinction, and appreciated for his intellect by +the very few to whom he at all opened himself.” +(2) “For, though affable and generous, it was impossible to +penetrate him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was +limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever, +but avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion +he took refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with +which it was not easy to cope. The secret history of the world +was Sidonia’s pastime. His great pleasure was to contrast the +hidden motive with the public pretext of transactions.” +(3) “He might have discovered a spring of happiness in +susceptibilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for +Sidonia. In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great +deficiency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say +that he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions; +but not for individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a +machine.” These sentences are separately grouped here for the +sake of suggesting that they will more truly illustrate Disraeli’s +character if taken as follows:—The first as representing his most +cherished social ambitions—in whatever degree achieved. The +second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of himself; +descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as +much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic affectation, +and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimating +the resolute exercise of extraordinary powers of control over +the promptings and passions by which so many capable ambitions +have come to grief. So read, Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are +brought into close resemblance by Disraeli himself; for what in +this description is untrue to the suspected fundamentals of his +character is true to his known foibles. But for a general +interpretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career none serves so +well as that which Froude insists on most. He was thoroughly +and unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from +southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing +but his devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour +and prosperity. It was not wholly by volition and design that +his mind was strange to others and worked in absolute detachment. +He had “none of the hereditary prepossessions of the +native Englishman.” No such prepossessions disturbed his +vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the time, or +rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who +worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of +Sidonia’s intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs, +but not without their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge +of the English character was the pride of a student; and we may +doubt if it ever occurred to him that there would have been less +pride but more knowledge had he been an Englishman. It is +certain that in shrouding his own character he checked the +communication of others to himself, and so could continue to +the end of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in +England. There was a great deal too (though little to his blame) +in Lord Malmesbury’s observation that he was not only disliked +in the House of Commons for his mysterious manner, but +prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and aspect. Lord +Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but he +might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach +Disraeli without some immediate consciousness that he was in +the presence of a foreigner.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page571" id="page571"></a>571</span></p> + +<p>Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money +matters; the praise could have been spared—it does not rise +high enough. It is also said to his honour that he “never +struck at a little man,” and that was well; but it is explained +as readily by pride and calculation as by magnanimity. A man +of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his faults in every +kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all. But +whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was +soon exhausted, and has long since been pardoned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The writer’s personal knowledge is largely represented +in the above article. Among the biographical literature +available prior to the authoritative <i>Life</i> the following may be +cited:—Lord Beaconsfield’s Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac +D’Israeli’s works; <i>Correspondence with his Sister</i>, and <i>Home Letters</i>, +edited by Ralph Disraeli; Samuel Smiles, <i>Memoirs and Correspondence +of John Murray; Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield</i>, by F. Hitchman; +<i>Memoir</i> by T.E. Kebbel; <i>Memoir</i> by J.A. Froude; <i>Memoir</i> +by Harold Gorst; Sir William Fraser’s <i>Disraeli and his Day; The +Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield</i>, edited by T.E. Kebbel. In 1904, +however, the large collection of material for Lord Beaconsfield’s +life, in the hands of his executors Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild, +was acquired by <i>The Times</i>, and the task of preparing the biography +was assigned to Mr W.F. Monypenny, an assistant editor of <i>The +Times</i> (1894-1899), who was best known to the public as editor of +the Johannesburg <i>Star</i> during the crisis of 1899-1903.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. G.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W.W. Harvey +(1810-1883), a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford, +for which members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone +eligible. Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in +allowing Harvey to qualify for the appointment by being formally +admitted M.A. by incorporation.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of +this affair, see Lucien Wolf’s article in <i>The Times</i> +of December 26, 1905, and Mr Greenwood’s letters on the subject.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the +river Tamar, 28 m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901) +2658. From its port at Beauty Point, 3½ m. distant, with which +it is connected by a steam tramway, communication is maintained +with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the centre of +the most important gold-field in the island.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a town of South Africa in Griqualand West, +about 3 m. S.W. of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb, +though possessing a separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of +whom 2780 were whites. Beaconsfield was founded in 1870 +near the famous Dutoitspan diamond mine. The land on which +the town is built belongs to the De Beers Company. (See +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kimberley</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEACONSFIELD,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> a town in the Wycombe parliamentary +division of Buckinghamshire, England. 23 m. W. by N. of London, +on the main road to Oxford, and on the Great Central & Great +Western joint railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 1570. It +lies in a hilly well-wooded district above the valley of the small +river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The broad Oxford road +forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a posting +station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of +ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is +the burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at +Gregories, or as he named it Butler’s Court, near the town. He +would have taken his title from Beaconsfield had he survived to +enter the peerage. A monument to his memory was erected in 1898. +Edmund Waller the poet owned the property of Hall Barn, +and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the churchyard. Benjamin +Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, his wife +having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess Beaconsfield. +The opening of railway communication with London in 1906 +resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAD,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of +different materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone, +pottery, glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from +the Middle Eng. <i>bede</i>, from the common Teutonic word for “to +pray,” cf. German <i>beten</i> and English <i>bedesman</i>, the meaning +being transferred from “prayer” to the spherical bodies strung on a +rosary and used in counting prayers. Beads have been made +from remote antiquity, and are found in early Egyptian tombs; +variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain parts of +Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as +<i>aggry</i>-beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin. +Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces +and worn as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper +kinds are employed for the decoration of women’s dress. Glass +beads have long been used for purposes of barter with savage +tribes, and are made in enormous numbers and varieties, +especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed from at +least the 14th century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque +coloured enamel (<i>smalti</i>), or having complex patterns produced +by the twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent +body, is drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are +pinched off, and finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in +heated cylinders.</p> + +<p>In architecture, the term “bead” is given to a small cylindrical +moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEADLE,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> also <span class="sc">Bedel</span> or <span class="sc">Bedell</span> (from A.S. <i>bydel</i>, from <i>beodan</i>, +to bid), originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative +assembly, who summoned persons to appear and answer charges +against them (see Du Cange, <i>supra tit. Bedelli</i>). As such, the +beadle goes back to early Teutonic times; he was probably +attached to the moot as its messenger or summoner, being under +the direction of the reeve or constable of the leet. After the +Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in +importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest +courts, and sometimes executing processes. He was also employed +as the messenger of the parish, and thus became, to a certain +extent, an ecclesiastical officer, but in reality acted more as +a constable by keeping order in the church and churchyard during +service. He also attended upon the clergy, the churchwardens +and the vestry. He was appointed by the parishioners in vestry, +and his wages were payable out of the church rate. From the +Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which poor-law +administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in +England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of +agent for the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel +was an officer who exercised various executive and spectacular +functions (H. Rashdall, <i>Hist. of Universities in the Middle Ages</i>, +i. 193). He still survives in many universities on the continent +of Europe and in those of Oxford and Cambridge, but +he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford there are +four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts and +divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or +sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor, before +whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are two, termed +esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-chancellor, bearing maces.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAK<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (early forms <i>beke</i> and <i>becke</i>, from Fr. <i>bec</i>, +late Lat. <i>beccus</i>, supposed to be a Gaulish word; the +Celtic <i>bec</i> and <i>beq</i>, however, are taken from the English), +the horny bill of a bird, and so used of the horny ends of the +mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed platypus and other animals; +hence the rostrum (<i>q.v.</i>) or ornamented prow of ancient war vessels. +The term is also applied, in classic architecture, to the pendent +fillet on the edge of the corona of a cornice, which serves as a drip, +and prevents the rain from flowing inwards.</p> + +<p>The slang use of “beak” for a magistrate or justice of the peace has not +been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning, which lasted down to +the beginning of the 19th century, was “watchman” or “constable.” According +to <i>Slang and its Analogues</i> (J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley, 1890), the +first example of its later use is in the name of “the Blind Beak,” which +was given to Henry Fielding’s half-brother, Sir John Fielding (about 1750). +Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants, <i>Caveat or Warening for commen +cursitors, Vulgarely called Vagabones</i>, 1573, explains <i>harmans +beck</i> as “counstable,” <i>harman</i> being the word for the stocks. +Attempts have been made to connect “beak” in this connexion with the Old +English <i>beag</i>, a gold torque or collar, worn as a symbol of +authority, but this could only be plausible on the assumption that +“magistrate” was the earlier significance of the word.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAKER<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (Scottish <i>bicker</i>, Lat. <i>bicarium</i>, Ger. <i>Becher</i>, +a drinking-bowl), a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory vessel. +See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Drinking-Vessels</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEALE, DOROTHEA<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1831-1906), English schoolmistress, was born on the +21st of March 1831 in London, her father being a physician of good family +and cultivated tastes. She had already shown a strong intellectual bent +and considerable force of character when in 1848 she was one of the first +to attend lectures at the newly opened Queen’s College for Ladies, +London, and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took classes there. In 1857 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page572" id="page572"></a>572</span> +for a few months she became head teacher of the Clergy +Daughters’ school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow +religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her +retirement. In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies +College at Cheltenham (opened 1854), then in very low water. +Her tact and strenuousness, backed by able financial management, +led to its success being thoroughly established by 1864, +and as the college increased in numbers new buildings were +erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Beale’s headship it +grew into one of the great girls’ schools of the country, and its +development and example played an important part in the +revolution effected in regard to the higher education of women. +Miss Beale retained her post till her death on the 9th of November +1906. Strongly religious by nature, broad-minded and keenly +interested in all branches of culture, she exercised a far-reaching +influence on her pupils.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Her <i>Life</i> was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAM<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> (from the O. Eng. <i>béam</i>, cf. Ger. <i>Baum</i>, a tree, to which +sense may be referred the use of “beam” as meaning the rood +or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as hornbeam), +a solid piece of timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough, +a loom, or a balance. In the last case, from meaning simply the +cross-bar of the balance, “beam” has come to be used of the +whole, as in the expression “the king’s beam,” or “common +beam,” which refers to the old English standard balance for +wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the +Grocers’ Company, London. As a nautical term, “beam” was +transferred from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship; +thus “on the weather-beam” means “to windward,” and a +ship is said to be “wide in the beam” when she is wide +horizontally. The phrase “to be on one’s beam-ends,” denoting a +position of extreme peril or helplessness, is borrowed from the +position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to stand on the +ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of “beam” for +shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word +to translate the Latin <i>columna lucis</i>, a pillar of light.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAN<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. <i>Bohne</i>), the seed of +certain leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world, +and furnished chiefly by the genera <i>Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos</i> +and others. The common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated +in Britain and on the continents of Europe and America, is the +produce of <i>Vicia Faba</i>. The French bean, kidney bean, or +haricot, is the seed of <i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i>; but in India several +other species of this genus of plants are raised, and form no small +portion of the diet of the inhabitants. Besides these there are +numerous other pulses cultivated for the food both of man and +domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently given. +The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it +contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the +form of legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is, +however, a rather coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is +chiefly used to feed horses, for which it is admirably adapted. +In England French beans are chiefly, almost exclusively, used +in the green state; the whole pod being eaten as a table vegetable +or prepared as a pickle. It is wholesome and nutritious; and +in Holland and Germany the pods are preserved in salt by almost +every family for winter and spring use. The green pods are cut +across obliquely, most generally by a machine invented for the +purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use they are +steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or stewed +they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no +other vegetable may be had.</p> + +<p>The broad bean—<i>Vicia Faba</i>, or <i>Faba vulgaris</i>, as it is known +by those botanists who regard the slight differences which +distinguish it from the great majority of the species of the vetch +genus (<i>Vicia</i>) as of generic importance—is an annual which has +been cultivated fiom prehistoric times for its nutritious seeds.</p> + +<p>The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the +bronze age cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown +in ancient Egypt, though, according to Herodotus, regarded +by the priests as unclean. The ancient Greeks called it <span class="grk" title="kuamos">κύαμος</span>, +the Latins <i>faba</i>, but there is no suggestion that the plant is a +native of Europe. Alphonse de Candolle (<i>Origin of Cultivated +Plants</i>, p. 320) concludes that the bean was introduced into +Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of their +earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was twofold +some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the +south of the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that +its area has long been in process of diminution and extinction. +The nature of the plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has +no means of dispersing itself, and rodents or other animals can +easily make prey of it; the struggle for existence which was +going against this plant as against maize would have gradually +isolated it and caused it to disappear, if man had not saved it by +cultivation. It was introduced into China a little before the +Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into India, +though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher Himalayas +its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It +is a plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil. +The seeds are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills 2½ ft. asunder for +the smaller and 3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should, +preferably, be a rather heavy loam, deeply worked and well +enriched. For an early crop, seeds may be sown in November, +and protected during winter in the same manner as early peas. +An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the seeds in +November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting +them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by +sowing suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All +the culture necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the +stems. The plants are usually topped when the pods have set, +as this not only removes the black aphides which often settle +there, but is also found to promote the filling of the pods.</p> + +<p>The following are some of the best sorts:—for early use, +Early Mazagan, Long-pod, Marshall’s Early Prolific and Seville +Long-pod; for late use, Carter’s Mammoth Long-pod and Broad +Windsor.</p> + +<p>The horse-bean is a variety—var. <i>equina</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Cultivation of Field-bean</i>.—Several varieties of <i>Vicia Faba</i> +(<i>e.g.</i> the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter +bean) are cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain, +which is used as food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which +serves for either fodder or litter. They are best adapted for +heavy soils such as clays or clayey loams. The time for sowing +is from the end of January to the beginning of March, or in the +case of winter beans from the end of September to the middle +of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two +crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be +sown, the land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure, +which is then ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with +the harrows, and the seed, which should be hard and light brown +in colour, is drilled in rows from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate +of from 2 to 2½ bushels to the acre and then harrowed in. The +alternative is to “dibble” the seed in the furrow left by the +autumn ploughing and cover it in with the harrows; or the +land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough, manure +deposited in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges +being then split back so as to cover both manure and seed. +After the plant shows, horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between +the rows is carried on so long as the plant is small enough to +suffer no injury therefrom. The routine of cultivation for +winter beans hardly differs from that described except as regards +the time of sowing.</p> + +<p>Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and the haulm is almost +black either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though +the stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter +implement. They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a +considerable time before stacking. There is less fear of injury to +the crop through damp than in the case of other cereals. Their +value for feeding purposes increases in the stack, where they may +remain for a year or more before threshing. Pea and bean +weevils, both striped (<i>Sitones lineatus</i>) and spotted (<i>Sitones +crinitus</i>), and the bean aphis (<i>Aphis rumicis</i>), are noted pests of +the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the +spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page573" id="page573"></a>573</span> +the attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its +ravages. Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre.</p> + +<p><i>Phascolus vulgaris</i>, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an +annual, dwarf and bushy in growth, is widely cultivated in temperate, +sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as +a wild plant. It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea +which was disproved by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the +facts bearing on its origin as follows:—<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i> has not +been long cultivated in India, the south-west of Asia and Egypt, +and it is not certain that it was known in Europe before the discovery +of America. At the latter epoch the number of varieties +in European gardens suddenly increased, and all authors began +to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus exist +in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species +in question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain +date, intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is +probable that the plant is of South American origin.</p> + +<p>It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy +soil and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well +enriched with hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by +the end of March or beginning of April. If, however, the temperature +of the soil is below 45°, the beans make but little progress. +The main crops should be got in early in May; and a later +sowing may be made early in July. The earlier plantings may be +sown in small pots, and put in frames or houses, until they can be +safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering of straw or some +other simple shelter suffices to protect from late frosts. The seeds +should be covered 1½ or 2 in. deep, the distance between the rows +being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in., and that between +plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green vegetable, +in which case they should be gathered whilst they are so crisp as +to be readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds +are to be used the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green +pods are gathered others will continue to be formed in abundance, +but if old seed-forming pods are allowed to remain the formation +of young ones will be greatly checked. There are numerous +varieties; among the best are Canadian Wonder, Canterbury +and Black Negro.</p> + +<p><i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to <i>P. +vulgaris</i>, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but +differs in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a +thick fleshy root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual. +Its bright, generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and +the fact that it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil, +combine to make it a favourite garden plant. It is also of interest +as being one of the few plants that twine in a direction contrary +to the apparent motion of the sun. The seeds of the runner beans +should be sown in an open plot,—the first sowing in May, another +at the beginning of June, and a third about the middle of June. +In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12 in. apart, in +4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are pinched or cut +off when the plants are from 2 to 2½ ft. high, to save the expense +of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to have the +rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6 or +7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being +crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the +pods are forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be +supplied to the plants. In training the shoots to their supports, +they should be twined from right to left, contrary to the course +of the sun, or they will not lay hold. By frequently picking the +pods the plants are encouraged to form fresh blooms from which +pods may be picked until the approach of frost.</p> + +<p>The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there +is a white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is +very prolific and of excellent quality. Another variety called +Painted Lady, with the flowers red and white, is very ornamental, +but not so productive. Carter’s Champion is a large-podded +productive variety.</p> + +<p>Another species <i>P. lunatus</i>, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with +a scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long +containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer parts of the world.</p> + +<p>The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, <i>Dolichos +Lablab</i>, as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we +use the kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical +Africa, but is now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word +<i>Dolichos</i> is of Greek origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the +scarlet runner.</p> + +<p>Another species, <i>D. biflorus</i>, is the horse gram, the seed of +which is eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also, +as are the pods, a food for horses and cattle.</p> + +<p>The Soy bean, <i>Glycine hispida</i>, was included by Linnaeus in +the genus <i>Dolichos</i>. It is extensively cultivated in China and +Japan, chiefly for the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is +prepared a piquant sauce. It is also widely grown in India, +where the bean is eaten, while the plant forms a valuable fodder; +it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the United States.</p> + +<p>Other references to beans will be found under special headings, +such as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calabar Bean</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Locust-Tree</a></span>. There are also several +non-leguminous seeds to which the popular name bean is attached. +Among these may be mentioned the sacred Egyptian or Pythagorean +bean (<i>Nelumbium speciosum</i>), and the Ignatius bean +(probably <i>Strychnos multiflora</i>), a source of strychnine.</p> + +<p>The ancient Greeks and Romans made use of beans in gathering +the votes of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A +white bean signified absolution, and a black one condemnation. +Beans had a mysterious use in the <i>lemuralia</i> and <i>parentalia</i>, +where the master of the family, after washing his hands three +times, threw black beans over his head nine times, reiterating +the words “I redeem myself and my family by these beans.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAN-FEAST,<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> primarily an annual dinner given by an employer +to his workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification. +The phrase is variously derived. The most probable theory is +that which connects it with the custom in France, and afterwards +in Germany and England, of a feast on Twelfth Night, at which +a cake with a bean buried in it was a great feature. The bean-king +was he who had the good fortune to have the slice of cake in +which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by a bean +was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and +Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch +was master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A +clue to his original functions is possibly found in the old popular +belief that the weather for the ensuing twelve months was +determined by the weather of the twelve days from Christmas to +Twelfth Night, the weather of each particular month being prognosticated +from each day. Thus the king of the bean of Twelfth +Night may have originally reigned for the twelve days, his chief +duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for ensuring +good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in +him and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descendant +of the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated +Saturn and, when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his +assumed character. Another but most improbable derivation for +bean-feast connects it with M.E. <i>bene</i> “prayer,” “request,” the +allusion being to the soliciting of alms towards the cost of their +Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wayzgoose</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Misrule, Lord of</a></span>; also J. Boemus, <i>Mores, +leges et ritus omnium gentium</i> (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel +de la Salle, <i>Croyances et légendes du centre de la France</i>, i. 19-29; +Lecœur, <i>Esquisses du Bocage normand</i>, ii. 125; Schmitz, <i>Sitten und +Sagen des Eifler Volkes</i>, i. 6; Brand, <i>Popular Antiquities of Great +Britain</i> (Hazlitt’s edit. 1905), under “Twelfth Night”; Cortet, +<i>Fêtes religieuses</i>, p. 29 sqq.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAR,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> properly the name of the European brown bear (<i>Ursus +arctus</i>), but extended to include all the members of the <i>Ursidae</i>, +the typical family of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their +massive bodies, short limbs, and almost rudimentary tails. +With the single exception of the Indian sloth-bear, all the species +have forty-two teeth, of which the incisors and canines closely +resemble those of purely carnivorous mammals; while the +molars, and especially the one known as the “sectorial” or +“carnassial,” have their surfaces tuberculated so as to adapt +them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been +supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but +most prefer vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page574" id="page574"></a>574</span> +supply of this can be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly +carnivorous; while the polar bear is almost wholly so.</p> + +<p>Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws, +which are not retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and +climbing than for tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering +fashion, and, in descending, always come hind-quarters first. +The grizzly bear is said to lose this power of climbing in the +adult stage. In northern countries bears retire during the +winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or allow the falling +snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the advent +of spring, about which time the female usually produces her +young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly +five weeks before they see, or become covered with hair. Before +hibernating the adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual +consumption of this fat—known in commerce as bear’s grease—that +such vital action as is necessary to the continuance of life +is sustained.</p> + +<p>The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every +quarter of the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from +the highest northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm +regions of India and Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa +the single representative of the family found on that continent +occurs.</p> + +<p>The polar or white bear (<i>Ursus maritimus</i>), common to the +Arctic regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the +other species by having the soles of the feet covered with close-set +hairs,—in adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear +being thereby enabled to walk securely on slippery ice. In the +whiteness of its fur also, it shows such an assimilation in colour +to that of surrounding nature as must be of considerable service +in concealing it from its prey. The food of the white bear +consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of which it shows +great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable degree +of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales, +birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be +had. That it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved +by instances on record of its being fed for years on bread only, in +confinement. These bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward +Sabine having found one “swimming powerfully 40 m. from +the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to afford it rest.” +They are often carried on floating ice to great distances, and to +more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than twelve +Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way +during one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male +may be seen abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear +exceeds most other members of the family, measuring nearly +9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600 ℔.</p> + +<p>Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and +their fur more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear (<i>Ursus +arctus</i>,—<span class="grk" title="arktos">ἄρκτος</span> of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its +varieties all over the temperate and north temperate regions of +the eastern hemisphere, from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually +brownish, but there are black, blackish-grey and yellowish +varieties. It is a solitary animal, frequenting the wooded parts +of the regions it inhabits, and living on a mixed diet of fruits, +vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In winter it +hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It does +not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its +young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs +and endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-baiting, +till within comparatively recent times, was a favourite +sport throughout Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and +badger-baiting, has gradually disappeared before a more humane +civilization. It was a favourite pastime among the Romans, +who imported their bears from Britain, a proof that the animal +was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed, +from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does +not appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of +the 11th century. It is now found in greatest abundance in +Norway, Russia and Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite +sport, and where, when dead, its remains are highly valued. +Among the Kamchadales “the skin of the bear,” says a traveller, +“forms their beds and their coverlets, bonnets for their heads, +gloves for their hands and collars for their dogs. The flesh and +fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make masks or +covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun +in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending +them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said +to be put in requisition for cutting grass.” In confinement the +brown bear is readily tamed; and advantage has been taken +of the facility with which it can sustain itself on the hind feet +to teach it to dance to the sound of music. It measures 4 ft. in +length, and is about 2½ ft. high. Of this species Crowther’s +bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear (<i>Ursus arctus +pyriacus</i>) and the snow or isabelline bear (<i>Ursus arctus isabellinus</i>) +of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> American +naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct +group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan +Peninsula, over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive +external features are their large size, light-brown colour, high +shoulders, massive heads of great breadth and shaggy coat.</p> + +<p>The grizzly bear (<i>Ursus arctus horribilis</i>, formerly known as <i>U. +ferox</i>) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by +others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied. +It was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of +disposition and muscular strength. Stories were told of its +attacking the bison, and it has been reported to carry off the +carcase of a wapiti, weighing nearly 1000 ℔, for a considerable +distance to its den, there to devour it at leisure. It also eats fruit +and vegetables. Its fur is usually of a yellowish-brown colour, +coarse and grizzled, and of little value commercially, while its +flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable even by the Indians. +The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States, save in the +Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho, +though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical +races are recognized. The Tibet bear (<i>U. pruinosus</i>) is a +light-coloured small species.</p> + +<p>The American black bear (<i>Ursus americanus</i>) occurs throughout +the wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is +being gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in +size to the brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of +a shining black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At +the beginning of the 19th century black bears were killed in +enormous numbers for their furs, which at that time were highly +valued. In 1803 the skins imported into England numbered +25,000, but the imports have since decreased to one-half of that +number. They are chiefly used for military accoutrements. This +is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits, and lying +dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently +killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians, +who never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity +which impels them to do so.</p> + +<p>The Himalayan black bear (<i>U. torquatus</i>) is found in the forest +regions ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam. +The average length is about 5 ft.; there is no under-fur, and the +coat is smooth, black in colour, with the exception of a white +horseshoe-mark on the chest. It feeds chiefly on fruit and roots, +but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies and cattle, and sometimes +devours carrion.</p> + +<p>The small bruang or Malayan bear (<i>Ursus malayanus</i>) is of a +jet-black colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and +attains a length of 4½ ft. Its food consists almost solely of +vegetables and honey, but the latter is its favourite food,—the +extreme length and pliability of the tongue enabling it to scoop +out the honeycombs from the hollows of trees. It is found in the +Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily tamed.</p> + +<p>Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American +spectacled bear of the Andes (<i>U. ornatus</i>), distinguished from all +the rest by the presence of a perforation in the lower end of the +humerus, and hence sometimes separated as <i>Tremarctus</i>. It is +black, with tawny rings round the eyes, and white cheeks, throat +and chest. A second race or species exists.</p> + +<p>The sloth-bear (<i>Melursus labiatus</i> or <i>ursinus</i>) is distinguished +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page575" id="page575"></a>575</span> +by the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the +cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is +also known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being +also given to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the +size of the brown bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of +extremely uncouth aspect. It inhabits the mountainous regions +of India, is readily tamed and is the bear usually exhibited by +the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of fruits, honey and +white ants.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the +Pliocene age. Those of the great cave bear (<i>Ursus spelaeus</i>), +found abundantly in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia, +show that it must have exceeded in size the polar bear of the +present day. Its remains are also found in similar situations in +Britain associated with those of an allied species (<i>Ursus priscus</i>).</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Lydekker, in <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1897, p. 412.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAR-BAITING<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> and <b>BULL-BAITING,</b> sports formerly very +popular in England but now suppressed on account of their +cruelty. They took place in arenas built in the form of theatres +which were the common resort even of cultivated people. In the +bear-gardens, which are known to have existed since the time of +Henry II., the bear was chained to a stake by one hind leg or by +the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about 1500) +from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of “many herds of +bears maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting.” +Sunday was the favourite day for these sports. Hentzner, +writing in 1598, describes the bear-garden at Bankside as +“another place, built in the form of a theatre, which serves for +the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are fastened behind, and +then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not without great +risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth of the +other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot; +fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that +are wounded or tired.” He also describes the whipping of a +blinded bear, a favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous +baiting which took place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen +bears were provided. Of it Robert Laneham (fl. 1575) wrote, “it +was a sport very pleasant to see, to see the bear, with his pink +eyes, tearing after his enemies’ approach; the nimbleness and +wait of the dog to take his advantage and the force and experience +of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he were bitten in one +place how he would pinch in another to get free; that if he were +taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing, with +roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind +himself from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears +twice or thrice with the blood and the slaver hanging about his +physiognomy.” The famous “Paris Garden” in Southwark was +the chief bear-garden in London. A Spanish nobleman of the +time, who was taken to see a pony baited that had an ape tied to +its back, expressed himself to the effect that “to see the animal +kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape, beholding +the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very +laughable.” Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first +canto of his <i>Hudibras</i>.</p> + +<p>The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting, +although Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was “not +because it gave pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure +to the spectators.” The efforts of the Puritans seem, however, +to have had little effect, for we find the sport flourishing at the +Restoration; but the conscience of cultivated people seems to +have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his <i>Diary</i>, under the date +of June 16th, 1670: “I went with some friends to the bear-garden, +where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull baiting, it +being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather +barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the +Irish wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately +creature indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls +tossed a dog full into a lady’s lap, as she sat in one of the boxes +at a considerable height from the arena. Two poor dogs were +killed, and so all ended with the ape on horseback, and I most +heartily weary of the rude and dirty pastime, which I had not +seen, I think, in twenty years before.” Steele also attacked +these cruel sports in the <i>Tatler</i>. Nevertheless, when the tsar +Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a +prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport +the bull’s nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him +the more furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the +ground, into which to thrust his nose and lips, his most vulnerable +parts. Sometimes the bull was tethered, and dogs, trained +for the purpose, set upon him one by one, a successful attack +resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly in the bull’s snout. +This was called “pinning the bull.” A sport called bull-running +was popular in several towns of England, particularly at Tutbury +and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John +of Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual +festival on August 16th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure, +delivered a bull, which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail +cut off, his nostrils filled with pepper and his whole body smeared +with soap. The minstrels gave chase to the bull, which became +the property of any minstrel of the county of Stafford who +succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a lock of his hair. +Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the dissolution of +the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of Devonshire, +who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took +place annually on November 13th, the bull being provided by +the butchers of the town, the townspeople taking part in the +chase, which was carried on until both people and beast were +exhausted, and ended in the killing of the bull. Certain rules +were strictly observed, such as the prohibition of carrying +sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The Stamford +bull-running survived well into the 19th century. Bear-baiting and +bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1825-1900), American +painter, was born on the 13th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio. +He studied abroad, and in 1861 removed to New York City, +where in 1862 he became a member of the National Academy +of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much +inventiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment. +His humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys, +generally with some human occupation and expression, usually +satirical, gave him a great vogue at one time, and his pictures +were largely reproduced. His brother, James Henry Beard +(1814-1893), was also a painter.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARD<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (A.S. <i>beard</i>, O.H. and Mod. Ger. <i>Bart</i>, Dan. <i>baard</i>, +Icel. <i>bar</i>, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slav, <i>barda</i>, Russ. +<i>barodá</i>. Cf. Welsh <i>barf</i>, Lat. <i>barba</i>, though, according to the +<i>New English Dictionary</i>, the connexion is for phonetic reasons +doubtful). Modern usage applies this word to the hair grown +upon a man’s chin and cheek. When the chin is shaven, what +remains upon the cheeks is called whiskers. “Moustache” or +“moustaches” describes the hair upon the upper lip. But the +words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has +stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time +signified what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson +Crusoe’s great pair of “Turkish whiskers.”</p> + +<p>The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in +high honour. It is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the +eunuch is beardless, and the bearded woman is reckoned a witch, +a loathsome thing to all ages. Also the beard shrinks from the +profane hand; a tug at the beard is sudden pain and dishonour. +The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the wondering +Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he +died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence +to the native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by +plucking at their flowing beards.</p> + +<p>David’s ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by +a bold heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame—“Tarry +ye at Jericho until your beards be grown”—but war +answered the insult. The oath on the beard is as old as history, +and we have an echo of it in the first English political ballad +when Sir Simon de Montfort swears “by his chin” revenge on +Warenne.</p> + +<p>Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard: +Zeus Allfather is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who +hardily pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page576" id="page576"></a>576</span> +long beard of his fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the +ancient heroes. Abraham and Agamemnon, Woden and King +Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in our pictures. +With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an unshaven +prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that +amongst most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged +the unity of God and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely. +But before Mahomet’s day, kings of Persia had plaited their +sacred beards with golden thread, and the lords of Nineveh had +curiously curled and oiled beards such as their winged bull wears. +Bohadin tells us that Saladin’s little son wept for terror when +he saw the crusaders’ envoys “with their clean-shaven chins.” +Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke +into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating +Mufti that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by. +But such tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the +absolute rule of Peter the Great is made clear when we know +that he taxed Russian beards and shaved his own, and yet died +in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much and more with his +well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade them +shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them.</p> + +<p>With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation +has broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their +emperor has beard and moustache; a short moustache is common +amongst Japanese officers and statesmen, and generals and +admirals of Nippon follow the imperial example. The Nearer +East also is abandoning the full beard, even in Mahommedan +lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards +below their girdles, but Náṣiru’d-Dín and his successor have +shaved their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has +added a beard to his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of +a bearded father, has a soldier’s moustache only. In Europe +the great Russian people is faithful to the beard, Peter’s law +being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.’s beard might have +satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played delightedly +with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth’s agent George +Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the +most part bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of +Olivier le Dain, of the man who can be trusted with a sharp +razor near a crowned king’s throat, is extinct. Leopold II., +king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the only sovereign +with the full beard unclipped. The Austrian emperor, Francis +Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the ’sixties, and +the German emperor, William II., for a short period, +commemorated by a few very rare photographs, had a beard, +although it was never suffered to reach the length of that beard +which gave his father an air of Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In +France bearded presidents have followed each other, but it may +be noted that the waxed moustache and “imperial” beard of +the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman +of English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving +clean is rare in France save among actors, and during 1907 +many Parisian waiters struck against the rule which forbade +them to grow the moustache.</p> + +<p>For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave +clean, as have done the popes for two centuries and more. But +missionary bishops cultivate the long beard with some pride, and +the orders have varying customs, the Dominican shaving and the +Franciscan allowing the hair to grow. The Roman Catholic +clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are allowed to wear the +moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession to national +prejudices.</p> + +<p>Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion, +the hair of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved +away, curled or clipped into a hundred devices. Before the +immigration from Sleswick the Briton knew the use of the razor, +sometimes shaving his chin, but leaving the moustaches long. +The old English also wore moustaches and forked beards, but, +save for aged men, the beard had passed out of fashion before the +Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework, Edward +the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his +younger fighting men have their chins reaped. “The English,” +says William of Malmesbury, “leave the upper lip unshaven, +suffering the hair continually to increase,” and to Harold’s spies +the Conqueror’s knights, who had “the whole face with both lips +shaven,” were strange and priest-like. Matthew Paris had a +strange idea that the beard was distinctive of Englishmen; he +asserts that those who remained in England were compelled to +shave their beards, while the native nobles who went into exile +kept their beards and flowing locks “like the Easterns and +especially the Trojans.” He even believed that “William with +the beard,” who headed a rising in London under Richard I., +came of a stock which had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the +Normans, a statement which Thierry developed.</p> + +<p>The <i>Chanson de Roland</i> shows us “the pride of France” as +“that good bearded folk,” with their beards hanging over coats +of mail, and it makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his +beard. It was only about the year 1000, according to Rodolf +Glaber, that men began in the north of France to wear short hair +and shave “like actors”; and even in the Bayeux tapestry the +old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare was hair on +the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the forefather +of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered +after his death as William “Asgernuns” or “Oht les gernuns,” +<i>i.e.</i> “William with the moustaches,” the epithet revived by one +of his descendants making our modern name of Algernon. Count +Eustace of Boulogne was similarly distinguished. Fashion swung +about after the Conquest, and, in the day of Henry I., Serle the +bishop could compare bearded men of the Norman-English court +with “filthy goats and bristly Saracens.” The crusades, perhaps, +were accountable for the beards which were oddly denounced as +effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not only +the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the +Saracen fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavourable +to the use of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the +Latins stormed the town by night, bearded knights owed their +death to the assumption that every Christian would be a shaven +man. But for more than four centuries diversity is allowed, +beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found side by side, +although now and again one fashion or another comes uppermost +to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a close-shaven +king, and Richard II.’s effigy shows but a little tuft on +each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin +of Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls +his beard in three great ringlets, and the third Edward’s long +forked beard flows down his breast in patriarchal style. The +mid-13th century, as seen in the drawings attributed to Matthew +Paris, is an age of many full and curled beards, although the +region about the lips is sometimes clipped or shaved. The beard +is common in the 14th century, the forked pattern being favoured +and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride with +him to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant’s +“forked beard,” the white beard of the franklin and the red beard +of the miller, but the reeve’s beard is “shave as ny as ever he +can.” Henry of Monmouth and his son are shaven, and thereafter +beards are rare save with a few old folk until they come +slowly back with the 16th century. In Ireland the statute +enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited that no manner +of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have beard +above his mouth—the upper lip must be shaven at least every +fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip,—and this +statute remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years. +Henry VIII., always a law to himself, brought back the beard to +favour, Stowe’s annals giving 1535 as the year in which he caused +his beard “to be knotted and no more shaven,” his hair being +polled at the same time. Many portraits give his fashion of +wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and squarely +trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was +followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is +remarkable that those about him rarely imitated their most dread +sovereign. While Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean +shaven, the Seymour brothers, Denny and Russell, have the +beard long and flowing. Even the forty shilling a year man, says +Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time while he sets his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page577" id="page577"></a>577</span> +beard in order. About this time the clergy began to break with +the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is +commanded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole, +coming from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a +Greek patriarch. The law too, the church’s kinswoman, begins +to forbid, a sign of the change, and from 1542 the society of +Lincoln’s Inn makes rules for fining and expelling those who +appear bearded at their mess, rules which the example of exalted +lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560.</p> + +<p>The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and +merchants all bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes, +Dudleys and Walsinghams have the beard. A shaven chin such +as that seen in the portrait of Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is +rare, but the beards take a hundred fashions, and satirists and +Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and with the men +who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting +them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills. +Stubbs gives them a place amongst his abuses. “It is a world to +consider how their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out +from one cheek to another and turned up like two horns towards +the forehead.” Of the English variety of beards Harrison has a +good word: “beards of which some are shaven from the chin +like those of Turks, not a few cut short like to the beard of +Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing brush, others +with a <i>pique de vant</i> (O! fine fashion) or now and then suffered to +grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this behalf +as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight +face, a Marquess Otto’s cut will make it broad and large; if it +be platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the +narrower; if he be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the +cheeks will make the owner look big like a bowdled hen, and as +grim as a goose, if Cornelis of Chelmersford say true.” Nevertheless +he adds that “many old men do wear no beards at all.” The +Elizabethan fashions continued under King James, the beard +trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King +Charles there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving +the cheeks and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward +and the chin beard like a downward flame is followed by most +of the gentry. With some the beard disappears altogether or +remains a mere fleck below the lip. Archbishop Laud has a +cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache, but Abbot his +predecessor wore the spade beard, the “cathedral beard” of +Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of +Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure +with his angry moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square +at the bottom.</p> + +<p>From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use. +Young men shave clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs +of a moustache over each cheek, but his brother James is shaven. +With the reign of Queen Anne the country enters the beardless +age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers are no more seen. In +the 18th century the moustache indicated a soldier from beyond +sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage +loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby, +was indeed wearing a beard in 1798, but he was reckoned a madman +therefor, and Phillips’s <i>Public Character</i> pictures him as +“the only peer and perhaps the only gentleman of either Great +Britain or Ireland who is thus distinguished.” That George III. +in his madness should have been left unshaved was a circumstance +of his misery that wrung the hearts of all loyal folk. But in the +very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby’s image was engraved for +the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered near +Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign +troops, and we may note that the hair of the face, which +disappeared when wigs came in, began to reappear as wigs went out. +Early in the 19th century the bucks began to show a patch of +whisker beside the ear, and the soldier’s moustache became a +common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen were complaining +that officers of humbler regiments imitated their fashion of the +moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry +officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next +moustached corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered, +following their example in the ’fifties. But for a civilian to grow +a moustache was long reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger. +Clive Newcome, it will be remembered, wore one until the +taunting question whether he was “going in the Guards” shamed +him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George Frederick +Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were those +who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method +of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward, +R.A. (d. 1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the +unwritten law, defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen +arguments as a thing pleasing at once to the artist and to his +Creator. Freedom in these matters only came when the troops +were home from the Crimea, when officers who had grown beards +and acquired the taste for tobacco during the long months in the +trenches showed their beards and their cigars in Piccadilly. Then +came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a soldier, +taking a soldier’s licence. The dominant fashion was the +moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the +“Piccadilly weepers” of the ’sixties were out of the mode for +the younger men when the ’eighties began, and by the end of the +century whiskers were seen in the army only upon a few veteran +officers. The fashion of clean shaving had made some way, the +popularity of the shaven actor having a part in this. In 1909 all +modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be recognized, +but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and the +full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination +to shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule +which ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by +regulation, shaved or wore both beard and moustache, but their +beards were always trimmed. Most barristers shaved the lips, +although the last judge unable to hear an advocate whose voice a +moustache interrupted had left the bench. Clergymen followed +the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart kings, although +there was still some prejudice against the moustache as an +ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857, +describing the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a +Mansion House meeting, records that he came wearing a +moustache, “braving the prejudices of his countrymen and thus +evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited by him amongst +the savages of Central Africa.” Even as late as 1884 the <i>Pall +Mall Gazette</i> has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop +Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool.</p> + +<p>The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a +hundred years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary +whisker of the early eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman +and groom come under the same rule. The jockey and the hunt +whip are shaven likewise, but the courier has the whiskers and +moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in the English +milor’s service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no tradition +behind him, is often moustached.</p> + +<p>Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since +England came out of the beardless century. The regent took +the new fashion, and sat “in whiskered state,” but his brother +and successor shaved clean and disliked even the hussar’s +moustache. The prince consort wore the moustache as a young +man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward VII. wore +moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also +followed the fashion of many fellow admirals.</p> +<div class="author">(O. Ba.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (1872-1898), English +artist in black and white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of +August 1872. In 1883 his family settled in London, and in the +following year he appeared in public as an “infant musical +phenomenon,” playing at several concerts with his sister. In +1888 he obtained a post in an architect’s office, and afterwards +one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company (1889). +In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis +de Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he +attended the classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under +Professor Brown; and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on +the 16th of March 1898, his work came continually before the +public, arousing a storm of criticism and much hostile feeling. +Beardsley had an unswerving tendency towards the fantastic of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page578" id="page578"></a>578</span> +the gloomier and “unwholesome” sort. His treatment of most +subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored proportion +and perspective, and the “freedom from convention” which he +displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In +certain phases of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier +methods of dealing with the single line in conjunction with masses +of black are in their way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan, +the country which probably gave his ideas some assistance. He +was always an ornamentist, rather than an illustrator; and his +work must be judged from that point of view. His frontispiece +to <i>Volpone</i> is held by some to be, from this purely technical +standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age. His posters +for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among the +first of the modern cult of that art.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following are the chief works which are illustrated with +drawings by Beardsley: the <i>Bon Mot</i> Library, <i>The Pall Mall +Budget</i>, and <i>The Studio</i> (1893), Sir Thomas Malory’s <i>Morte d’Arthur</i> +(1893-1894), <i>Salomé</i> (1894), <i>The Yellow Book</i> (1894-1895), <i>The Savoy +Magazine</i> (1896), <i>The Rape of the Lock</i> (1896).</p> + +<p>See also J. Pennell, <i>The Studio</i> (1893); Symons, <i>Aubrey Beardsley</i> +(1898); R. Ross, <i>Volpone</i> (1898); H.C. Marillier, <i>The Early Work +of Aubrey Beardsley</i> (1899); Smithers, <i>Reproductions of Drawings by +Aubrey Beardsley</i>; John Lane, <i>The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley</i> +(1901); R. Ross, <i>Aubrey Beardsley</i> (1908).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. F. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARDSTOWN,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the +W. part of the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about +111 m. N. of St Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore +& Ohio South-Western, and the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington +& Quincy) railways, and by steamboats plying between it and +St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900) 4827 (444 foreign-born); +(1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of the city include +flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the St Louis +division) of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway, ice +factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing +interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827 +and was incorporated as a city in 1896. It was named in honour +of Thomas Beard, who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During +the Black Hawk War (1832) it was a base of supplies for the +Illinois troops. The old court house in which Abraham Lincoln, +in 1854, won his famous “Armstrong murder case,” is now used +for a city hall.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARER,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> strictly “one who carries,” a term used in India +for a palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant. +The term is also used in connexion with military ambulances, +and “bearer” companies formed part of the Royal Army +Medical Corps until amalgamated with the field-hospitals to +form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce the +word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft +not made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical +use, as in printing, of anything that supports pressure in +machinery, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEARINGS<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span>. In engineering a “bearing” is that particular +kind of support which, besides carrying the load imposed upon +it by the shaft associated with it, allows the shaft freedom +to revolve. Or, put in another way, a bearing forms with the +shaft a pair of elements having one degree of freedom to turn +relatively to one another about their common axis. The part +of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the <i>journal</i>. The +component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer +block or pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in +fig. 1, and these parts, put together, are further illustrated in +fig. 2 with the shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly +lettered in the two illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the +<i>brasses</i> (B<span class="su">1</span> and B<span class="su">2</span>) made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other +suitable material. The lower brass fits into the main casting +(A) in the semicircular seat provided for it, and is prevented from +moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and from turning with the +shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into corresponding +recesses in the casting (A), one of which is shown at <i>p</i>. After the +shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B<span class="su">2</span>) and the +cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Q<span class="su">1</span>, Q<span class="su">2</span>). +The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C) +respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing +is held to the framework of the machine by bolts (R<span class="su">1</span>, R<span class="su">2</span>) passing +through holes (H, H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjustment +of the whole bearing in order to facilitate the alignment of +the shaft. Oil or other lubricant is introduced through the hole +(G), and it passes +through the top +brass to grooves +or oilways cut into +the surface of the +brass for the purpose +of distributing +the oil uniformly to +the journal.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:361px; height:401px" src="images/img578a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Some form of +lubricator is usually +fitted at G in order +to supply oil to the +bearing continuously. +A form of +lubricator used for +this purpose is +shown in place, fig. +2, and an enlarged +section is shown in +fig. 3. It will be +seen that the lubricator +consists essentially of a cup the base of which is pierced +centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small distance of +the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway leading +to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside +is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and +thence to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick +thrust down on a piece of wire. It is only necessary to withdraw +the wick from the central tube to stop the supply of oil. +The lubricator is fitted through a hole in the lid which is usually +plugged with a piece of cane or closed by more elaborate means. +A line of shafting would be supported by several bearings of the +kind illustrated, themselves supported by brackets projecting +from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop, or on frames +resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof girders +or principals.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:498px; height:213px" src="images/img578b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 130px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:80px; height:145px" src="images/img578c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the +general arrangement shown in fig. 1 is modified so that the +alignments of the shaft can be made both vertically or horizontally +by means of adjusting screws, and the brass is jointed with +the supporting main body so that it is free to follow the small +deflections of the shaft which take place when the shaft is working. +Another modern improvement is the formation +of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the +bearing itself, and the transference of the oil from +this well to the shaft by means of one or two rings +riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of +the ring dips into the oil contained in the well of +the bearing and, as the shaft rotates, the ring rolls +on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the shaft +continuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces +of the shaft and bearing in contact. It should be +understood that the upper brass is slotted crossways to allow +the ring to rest on the shaft. When the direction of the load +carried by the bearing is constant it is unnecessary to provide +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page579" id="page579"></a>579</span> +more than one brass, and the construction is modified accordingly. +Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods wagons on the +Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method of +pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The +main casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the +upper part supports and constrains the spring buckle through +which the load W is transmitted to the bearing, and the lower +part inside is arranged to support the brass, B. The brass is +jointed freely with the main casting by means of a hemispherical +hump resting in a corresponding recess in the casting. What +may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the axle box, +but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an oil +reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a +tin frame. The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of +brush, shaped to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower +part consists of streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is +fed to the brush by the capillary action of the streamers. The +reservoirs are filled with oil through the apertures P and O. +The bottom cap is held in position by the T-headed bolts +Q<span class="su">1</span> and Q<span class="su">2</span> (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning the T-heads +fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away +and the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as +shown to prevent dust from entering the axle box.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:545px; height:542px" src="images/img579a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:477px; height:536px" src="images/img579b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 360px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:288px; height:456px" src="images/img579c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Footsteps</i>.—A bearing arranged to support the lower end of +a vertical shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing. +A simple form of footstep is shown in fig 6. A casting A, +designed so that it can be conveniently bolted to a foundation +block, cross beam, or bracket is bored out and fitted with a +brass B, which is turned inside to carry the end of the shaft S. +The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by the footstep, +so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating apparatus. +Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in <i>Proc. +Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut +in the brass, as indicated at <i>g</i> (fig 6), and if the oil is led to the +centre of this groove by a channel <i>c</i> communicating with the +exterior, the rotation of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of +oil which radiates from the +centre and makes its way +vertically between the shaft +and the brass and finally +overflows at the top of the +brass. The overflowing oil +may be led away and may +be re-introduced into the +footsteps at <i>c</i>. The rotation +of the shaft thus causes +a continuous circulation of +oil through the footstep. +One experiment from the +report mentioned above +may be quoted. A 3-in. +shaft, revolving 128 times +per minute and supported +on a manganese bronze +bearing lubricated in the +way explained above sustained +increasing loads +until, at a load of 300 +pounds per square inch of +the area of the end of the +shaft, it seized. The +mechanical details of a footstep may be varied for purposes of +adjustment in a variety of ways similarly to the variations of a +common bearing already explained.</p> + +<p><i>Thrust Block Bearing</i>.—In cases where a bearing is required to +resist a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for +example in the case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a +vertical shaft supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep, +the shaft is provided with one or more collars which are grooved +with corresponding recesses in the brasses of the bearing. A +general sketch of a thrust block for a propeller shaft is shown in +fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on the shaft and into the +circumferential grooves between them fit corresponding +circumferential projections on the brasses, these projections being +formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings which are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page580" id="page580"></a>580</span> +fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of +construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted +if it should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should +be proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50 +to 70 ℔ per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a +thrust block with water in case of heating. The spindles of +drilling machines, boring machine spindles, turbine shafts may be +cited as examples of vertical shafts supported on one collar. +Experiments on the friction of a collar bearing have been made +by the Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers (<i>Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, 1888).</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:512px; height:170px" src="images/img579d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Roller and Ball Bearings</i>.—If rollers are placed between two +surfaces having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance +to be overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move +along with a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the +surfaces. This way of reducing frictional resistance has been +applied to all kinds of mechanical contrivances, including bearings +for shafts, railway axle boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An +example of a roller bearing for a line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8 +and 9. The main casting, A, and cap, C, bolted together, form a +spherical seating for the part of the bearing E corresponding to +the brasses in a bearing of the usual type. Between the inside of +the casting E and the journal are placed rollers held in position +relatively to one another by a “squirrel cage” casting, the +section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional +elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes +of the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the +rolling motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the +surfaces of the journal and bearing between which they roll are +hardened.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:523px; height:177px" src="images/img580a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of +rollers, and the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general +use principally in connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bicycle</a></span>). In ball bearings the load is concentrated at a few +points, the points where the balls touch the race, and in the roller +bearing at a few lines, the lines of contact between the rollers and +the surfaces of the journal and bearing; consequently the load +which bearings of this kind carry must not be great enough to +cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact. Both +rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are +made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be +exactly the same size in an individual bearing in order to distribute +the load between the points or lines of contact as uniformly +as possible. The finest workmanship is required therefore +to make good roller or good ball bearings.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:213px; height:282px" src="images/img580b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication</i>.—When the +shaft turns the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are +prevented from actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and +maintained by the motion of the shaft and which sustains the +pressure between the journal and the brass provided the surfaces +are accurately formed and the supply of oil is unlimited. This +film changes what would otherwise be the friction between +metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the film itself. +When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect lubrication +this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the journal to +make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases; and +it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and +may ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may +become stuck together. With the object of reducing the friction +at the points of metallic contact and of confining the damage of a +hot bearing to the easily renewable brass, the latter is partially, +sometimes wholly, lined with a soft fusible metal, technically +known as white metal, which melts away before actual seizure +takes place, and thus saves the journal which is more expensive +because it is generally formed on a large and expensive shaft. +However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the work required +to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the continuous +rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence +the temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at +which heat is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated +from the bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve +with a minimum resistance and without undue heating two +precautions must be taken: (1) means must be taken to ensure +that the film of oil is complete and never fails; and (2) arrangements +must be made for controlling the temperature should it rise +too high. The various lubricating devices already explained +supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since experiments have +shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this way is akin +to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic contact. +In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with +certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be +supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in +between the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced +lubrication and water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10, +which represents one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-alternator +installed at the power station of the Underground +Electric Railways Company of London at Lots Road, Chelsea. +Oil flows under pressure from a tank +on the top of a tower along a supply +pipe to the oil inlet O, and after +passing through the bearing and +performing its duty as a film it falls +away from each end of the journal +into the bottom of the main casting, +from which a pipe, E, conveys the +oil back to the base of the tank tower +where it is cooled and finally pumped +back into the tank. There is thus a +continuous circulation of oil through +the bearing. The space C is for cooling +water; in fact the bearing is water +jacketed and the jacket is connected +to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so +that a continuous circulation may be +maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and +48 in. long, and it carries a load of about 12.8 tons. The rise in +temperature of the bearing under normal conditions of working +without water circulating in the jacket is approximately 38° F. +The speed of rotation is such that the surface velocity is about +50 ft. per second.</p> + +<p>Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-speed +engines was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss & Morcom, +Ltd., under patents taken out in the name of A.C. Pain. It +should be understood that providing the film of oil in the bearing +of an engine can be properly maintained a double-acting engine +can be driven at a high speed without any knocking, and without +perceptible wear of the rubbing surfaces. Fig. 11 shows that the +general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss & Morcom +engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F, +driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P, +along which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main +bearing. There is a groove turned on the inside of the brass +from which a slanting hole leads to B. The oil when it arrives +at A thus has two paths open to it, one to the right and left of +the groove through the bearing, the other along the slanting +hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams, one stream +going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing +up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B +follows the slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led +to the big end journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin, +and through the slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the +left main bearing. The oil forced through each bearing falls +away to the right and to the left of the journal and drops into +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page581" id="page581"></a>581</span> +the bottom of the engine framing, whence it is again fed to the +pump through a strainer. The parts of an engine lubricated in +this way must be entirely enclosed.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 410px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:359px; height:637px" src="images/img581a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Load on bearings.</i>—The distribution of pressure over the +film of lubricant separating the rubbing surfaces of a +bearing is variable, being greatest at a point near but not +at the crown of the brass, and falling away to zero in all +directions towards the boundaries of the film. It is usual +in practice to ignore this variation of pressure through +the film, and to indicate the severity with which the +bearing is loaded by stating the load per square inch of +the rubbing surfaces projected on to the diametral +plane of the journal. Thus the projected area of the +surfaces of a journal 6 in. in diameter and 8 in. long is +48 sq. in., and if the total load carried by the bearing is 20,000 pounds, the +bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square +inch. When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one +direction the load per square inch with which it is safe to load +the bearing in order to avoid undue heating is much less than if +the motion is intermittent. A table of a few values of the bearing +loads used in practice is given in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lubricants</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Bearing Friction.</i>—If W is the total load on a bearing, and if µ is +the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the tangential +resistance to turning is expressed by the product µW. If v is the +relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per second +against friction is µWv foot pounds. This quantity of work is converted +into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore +µWv/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient µ is a variable +quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is +separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might +be expected that µ would have values characteristic of the coefficient +of friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the +characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the +oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is, +according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness +being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced +lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental +researches. Beauchamp Tower (“Report on Friction Experiments,” +<i>Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng.</i>, November 1883) found that when oil was +supplied to a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction +was approximately constant with the value of <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">100</span>, thus following the +law of solid friction; but when the journal was lubricated by means +of an oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as +the load on the bearing, thus making µW = constant. The tangential +resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it is +independent of the pressure. Tower’s experiments were carried +out at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of +O. Lasche (<i>Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure</i>, 1902, 46, +pp. 1881 et seq.) show how µ depends upon the temperature. Lasche’s main +results with regard to the variation of µ are briefly:—µW is a constant +quantity, thus confirming Tower’s earlier experiments; µ is +practically independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing +surfaces within the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and the +product µt is constant, t being the temperature of the bearing. +Writing p for the load per unit of projected area of the bearing, +Lasche found that the result of the experiments could be expressed +by the simple formula pµt = constant = 2, where p = the pressure in +kilograms per square centimetre, and t = the temperature in degrees +centigrade. If p is changed to pounds per square inch the constant +in the expression is approximately 30. The expression is valid +between limits of pressure 14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of +temperature 30° to 100° C., and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft. +per second.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 330px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:280px; height:265px" src="images/img581b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Theory of Lubrication.</i>—After the publication of Tower’s +experiments on journal friction Professor Osborne Reynolds showed +(<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion +with a journal lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by +a theory based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous +fluid. It is first established as an essential part of the theory that +the radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of +the journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal +and I the centre of the brass. Given this difference of curvature +and a sufficient supply of oil, the rotation of the journal +produces and maintains an oil film between the rubbing +surfaces, the circumferential extent of which depends upon +the rate of the oil supply and the external load. With an +unlimited supply of oil, that is with oil-bath lubrication, the +film extends continuously to the extremities of the brass, +unless such extension would lead to negative pressures and +therefore to a discontinuity, in which case the film ends +where the pressures in the film become negative. The +minimum distance between the journal and the brass occurs at +the point H (fig. 12), on the off side of the point O where the line +of action of the load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right +and left of H the thickness of the film gradually increases, this being +the condition that the oil-flow to and from the film may be +automatically maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H +moves farther from O as the load increases until it reaches a +maximum distance, and then it moves back again towards O as the +load is further increased until a limiting load is reached at which +the pressure in the film becomes negative at the boundaries of the +film, when the boundaries recede from the edges of the brass as +though the supply of oil were limited.</p> + +<p>In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary +to define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows:—If +two parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if +whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity +U, the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains +at rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with +the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential +motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the +tangential resistance will be F = µU/h, where µ is the coefficient of +viscosity and h is the thickness of the film. With this definition of +viscosity and from the general equations representing the stress in +a viscous fluid, the following equation is established, giving the +relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film, h the +thickness of the film at a point x measured round the circumference of +the journal in the direction of relative motion, and U the relative +tangential velocity of the surfaces,</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>d</td> <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">(</span>h³</td> <td>dp</td> + <td rowspan="2"><span class="f200">)</span> = 6µU</td> <td>dh</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">dx</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(1)</div> + +<p class="noind">In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate +parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness +of the film h is some function of x, and for a journal Professor +Reynolds takes the form,</p> + +<p class="center">h = a {1 + c sin(θ − φ<span class="su">0</span>)},</p> + +<p class="noind">in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in +fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (1) with this value of h +it becomes</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td>dp</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>6RµUc {sin(θ − φ<span class="su">0</span>) − sin(φ<span class="su">1</span> − φ<span class="su">0</span>)}</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dθ</td> <td class="denom">a²{1 + c sin(θ − φ<span class="su">0</span>)}³</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(2)</div> + +<p class="noind">φ<span class="su">1</span> being the value of θ for which the pressure is a maximum. In +order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a +trigonometrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed, and the +integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by Professor +J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = h<span class="su">0</span> + ax², where h<span class="su">0</span> +is the minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the form</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">−</td> <td>dp</td> <td rowspan="2">=</td> <td>6µU</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>C</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">dx</td> <td class="denom">(h<span class="su">0</span> + ax²)²</td> +<td class="denom">(h<span class="su">0</span> + ax²)³</td></tr></table> + +<div class="author">(3)</div> + +<p class="noind">and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form +(1) to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in +<i>The Calculus for Engineers</i> by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also +the final solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page582" id="page582"></a>582</span></p> + +<p>Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to +one of Tower’s experiments, plotted the pressures through the film +both circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with +the observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly close. The +whole investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and +is in fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to insinuate +itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing carrying +a heavy load. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lubrication</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. E. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAR-LEADER,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> formerly a man who led bears about the +country. In the middle ages and Tudor times these animals +were chiefly used in the brutal sport of bear-baiting and were +led from village to village. Performing bears were also common, +and are even still sometimes seen perambulating the country +with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or Italians. The +phrase “bear-leader” has now come colloquially to mean a +tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his +travels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉARN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> formerly a small frontier province in the south of +France, now included within the department of Basses-Pyrénées. +It was bounded on the W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the +N. by Chalosse, Tursan and Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the +Pyrénées. Its name can be traced back to the town of Beneharnum +(Lescar). The <i>civitas Beneharnensium</i> was included in +the <i>Novempopulania</i>. It was conquered by the Vascones in the +6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the +dukes of Aquitaine—a feudal link which was broken in the +11th century, when the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any +suzerain. They then reigned over the two dioceses of Lescar +and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas, where they had a +mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In the +13th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade, +made Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (1229-1290) +was a perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England, +each anxious to assert his suzerainty over Béarn. As Gaston +left only daughters, the viscounty passed at his death to the +family of Foix, from whom it was transmitted through the +houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons, and they, in the +person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an apanage of +the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the +royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political +changes weakened the independent spirit of the Béarnais. From +the 11th century onward, they were governed by their own +special customs or <i>fors</i>. These were drawn up in the language +of the country, a Romance dialect (1288 being the date of the +most ancient written code), and are remarkable for the manner +in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining +the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or +vassals. Moreover, from the 12th century Béarn enjoyed a kind +of representative government, with <i>cours plénières</i> composed of +deputies from the three estates. From 1220 onward, the +judiciary powers of these assemblies were exercised by a <i>cour +majour</i> of twelve barons <i>jurats</i> charged with the duty of maintaining +the integrity of the <i>fors</i>. When Gaston-Phoebus +wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (<i>fouage</i>) in the +viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in +assemblies called <i>états</i>. These soon acquired extensive political +and financial powers, which continued in operation till 1789. +Although, when Béarn was annexed to the domains of the crown, +it was granted a <i>conseil d’état</i> and a parlement, which sat at Pau, +the province also retained its <i>fors</i> until the Revolution.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Olhagaray, <i>Histoire de Foix, Béarn et Navarre</i> (1609); +Pierre de Marca, <i>Histoire de Béarn</i> (1640). This work does not go +beyond the end of the 13th century; it contains a large number of +documents. Faget de Baure, <i>Essais historiques sur le Béarn</i> (1818); +<i>Les Fors de Béarn</i>, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by +J. Brissaud and P. Rogé in <i>Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de +Béarn</i> (1905); Léon Cadier, <i>Les États de Béarn depuis leur origine +jusqu’au commencement du XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAS<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bias</span>, a river of India. The Beas, which was the +Hyphasis of the Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab. +It issues in the snowy mountains of Kulu at an altitude of +13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows through the Kangra valley and +the plains of the Punjab, and finally joins the Sutlej after a +course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway bridge near +Jullundur.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAT<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic +languages; it is connected with the similar Romanic words +derived from the Late Lat. <i>battere</i>), a blow or stroke; from the +many applications of the verb “to beat” come various meanings +of the substantive, in some of which the primary sense has +become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the pulse or +heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge, or +to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the +striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sound</a></span>), and also to the movement of the baton by which a +conductor of an orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to +the divisions of a bar. As a nautical term, a “beat” is the +zigzag course taken by a ship in sailing against the wind. The +application of the word to a policeman’s or sentry’s round comes +either from beating a covert for game and hence the term means +an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated strokes +of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense +the word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and +Mississippi, of a voting precinct.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEATIFICATION<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>beatus</i>, happy, blessed, and +<i>facere</i>, to make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman +Catholic Church, a stage in the process of canonization (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEATON<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bethune</span>), <b>DAVID,</b> (<i>c.</i> 1494-1546), Scottish +cardinal and archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of +John Beaton of Balfour in the county of Fife, and is said to have +been born in the year 1494. He was educated at the universities +of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his sixteenth year was sent to +Paris, where he studied civil and canon law. About this time he +was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle James +Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was +translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of +Arbroath in his nephew’s favour, under reservation of one half of +the revenues to himself during his lifetime. The great ability of +Beaton and the patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promotion +to high offices in the church and kingdom. He was sent by +King James V. on various missions to France, and in 1528 was +appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a leading part in the +negotiations connected with the king’s marriages, first with +Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At the +French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I., +and was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in +December 1537. On the 20th of December 1538 he was appointed +a cardinal priest by Pope Paul III., under the title of St Stephen +in the Coelian Hill. He was the only Scotsman who had been +named to that high office by an undisputed right, Cardinal +Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment +from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop +James Beaton in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial +see of Scotland.</p> + +<p>Beaton was one of King James’s most trusted advisers, and it +was mainly due to his influence that the king drew closer the +French alliance and refused Henry VIII.’s overtures to follow +him in his religious policy. On the death of James in December +1542 he attempted to assume office as one of the regents for the +infant sovereign Mary, founding his pretensions on an alleged will +of the late king; but his claims were disregarded, and the earl of +Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton, and next heir to the +throne, was declared regent by the estates. The cardinal was, by +order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord Seaton; +but his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again +at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English +alliance. Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed +the preachers by whom he had been surrounded, and joined the +cardinal at Stirling, where in September 1543 Beaton crowned +the young queen. In the same year he was raised to the office of +chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed protonotary apostolic +and legate <i>a latere</i> by the pope. Had Beaton confined himself to +secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the plans of Henry +VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned him the +lasting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were +inextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the +time, and resistance to English influence involved resistance to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page583" id="page583"></a>583</span> +the activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate +victory has obscured the cardinal’s genuine merits as a statesman. +During the lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts +of the hierarchy to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued +the same line of conduct still more systematically after his +elevation to the primacy. The popular accounts of the persecution +for which he was responsible are no doubt exaggerated, and +it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so far as capital +punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of humble +rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when +a more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George +Wishart. Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of +several years, about the end of 1544. His sermons produced a +great effect, and he was protected by several barons of the +English faction. These barons, with the knowledge and approbation +of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to assassinate the +cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have been a +willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of the +plot, perhaps suspected Wishart’s knowledge of it, and in any +case was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most +eloquent supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was +unsuccessful; but at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested +the preacher, and carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the +28th of February 1546 Wishart was brought to trial in the +cathedral before the cardinal and other judges, the regent +declining to take any active part, and, being found guilty of +heresy, was condemned to death and burnt.</p> + +<p>The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish +people, and the cardinal became an object of general dislike, +which encouraged his enemies to proceed with the design they +had formed against him. Naturally resolute and fearless, he +seems to have under-estimated his danger, the more so since his +power had never seemed more secure. He crossed over to Angus, +and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate daughter with the +heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St Andrews he +took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the chief +of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William +Kirkaldy of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak +of the 29th of May 1546, and murdered the cardinal under +circumstances of horrible mockery and atrocity.</p> + +<p>The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a +statesman he was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic. +As an ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy +and the dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always +with harshness and sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities, +like his acts of persecution, were exaggerated by his opponents; +but his private life was undoubtedly a scandal to religion, and has +only the excuse that it was not worse than that of most of his +order at the time. The authorship of the writings ascribed to him +in several biographical notices rests on no better authority than +the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster.</p> + +<p>Beaton’s uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), archbishop +of Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland +before he became archbishop of Glasgow in 1509, was chancellor +from 1513 to 1526, and was appointed archbishop of St Andrews +and primate of Scotland in 1522. He was one of the regents +during the minority of James V., and was chiefly responsible for +this king’s action in allying himself with France and not with +England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and +died at St Andrews in September 1539.</p> + +<p>This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton, +or Bethune (1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of +Glasgow. A son of John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of +Cardinal Beaton, James was a trusted adviser of the Scottish +regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James V., and a determined +foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated archbishop of +Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in Paris, +acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Knox, <i>Hist. of the Reformation in Scotland</i>, ed. +D. Laing (1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews, +<i>Hist. of the Church of Scotland</i> (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851); +Art. in <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> and works there quoted; and A. Lang, +<i>Hist. of Scotland</i>, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEATRICE,<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E. +Nebraska, U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875 +(852 foreign-born); (1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago, +Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and +the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice is the seat of the state +institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a Carnegie library. +The city is very prettily situated in the valley of the Big Blue +river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among its +manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery), +canned goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines, +well-machinery, barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, corn-huskers, +and hay-balers. Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming +the county-seat in the same year. It was reached by its first +railway and was incorporated as a town in 1871, was chartered as +a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the first class.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEATTIE, JAMES<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on +philosophy, was born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland, +on the 25th of October 1735. His father, a small farmer and +shopkeeper, died when he was very young; but an elder brother +sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he gained a +bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun +in his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric +Francis Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the +supreme court of Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he +became an usher in the grammar school of Aberdeen, and two +years later he was made professor of moral philosophy at +Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with +Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gérard +and others, who formed a kind of literary or philosophic society +known as the “Wise Club.” They met once a fortnight to +discuss speculative questions, David Hume’s philosophy being +an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie published a +small volume of <i>Original Poems and Translations</i>, which contained +little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed +all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his <i>Essay +on the Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry +and scepticism</i>, the object of which, as explained by its author, +was to “prove the universality and immutability of moral +sentiment” (letter to Sir W. Forbes, 17th January 1765). It +was in fact a direct attack on Hume, and part of its great popularity +was due to the fact. Hume is said to have justly complained +that Beattie “had not used him like a gentleman,” but +made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical value. +Beattie’s portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal +College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the <i>Essay +on Truth</i> in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down +three figures representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry, +scepticism and infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattie +(February 1774) intimates that he is well enough pleased that +one of the figures is identified with Hume, and that he intended +Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie visited London in 1773, +and was received with the greatest honour by George III., who +conferred on him a pension of £200 a year. In 1771 and 1774 +he published the first and second parts of <i>The Minstrel</i>, a poem +which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian +stanza in which it is written is managed with smoothness and +skill, and there are many fine descriptions of natural scenery. +It is entirely on his poetry that Beattie’s reputation rests. The +best known of his minor poems are “The Hermit” and “Retirement.”</p> + +<p>In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edinburgh +University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many +friends, and lost none. “We all love Beattie,” said Dr Johnson. +“Mrs Thrale says, if ever she has another husband she will have +him.” He was in high favour too with Mrs Montagu and the +other <i>bas bleus</i>. Beattie was unfortunate in his domestic life. +Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane, and his +two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder, +James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the +age of nineteen had been associated with his father in his +professorship, died in 1790. In 1794 the father published <i>Essays +and Fragments in Prose and Verse by James Hay Beattie</i> with a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page584" id="page584"></a>584</span> +touching memoir. The younger brother died in 1796. Beattie +never recovered from this second bereavement. His mind was +seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture occasionally, +he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a +stroke of paralysis, and died on the 18th of August 1803.</p> + +<p>Beattie’s other poetical works include <i>The Judgment of Paris</i> +(1765), and “Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill,” a +bitter attack which the poet afterwards suppressed. The best +edition is the <i>Poetical Works</i> (1831, new ed. 1866) in the +<i>Aldine Edition of the British Poets</i>, with an admirable memoir by +Alexander Dyce.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>An Account of the Life of James Beattie</i> (1804), by A. +Bower; and <i>An Account of the Life and Writings of James Beattie</i> +(1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be found +in <i>Beattie and his Friends</i> (1904), by the poet’s great-grand-niece, +Margaret Forbes; and <i>James Beattie, the Minstrel. Some Unpublished +Letters</i>, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEATUS,<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk, +theologian and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798. +About 776 he published his <i>Commentaria in Apocalypsin</i>, containing +one of the oldest Christian world-maps. He took a +prominent part in the Adoptionist controversy, and wrote +against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially as upheld by +Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife of +King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and +Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original +map, which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the +distribution of the Apostolic missions throughout the world—depicting +the head of Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of +Thomas in India, of James in Spain, and so forth—has survived +in ten more or less modified copies. One only of these—the +“Osma” of 1203—preserves the Apostolic pictures; among +the remaining examples, that of “St Sever,” now at Paris, and +dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of “Valcavado,” +recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970, +is the earliest; that of “Turin,” dating from about 1100, is +perhaps the most curious. Three others—“Valladolid” of +about 1035, “Madrid” of 1047, and “London” of 1109—are +derivatives of the “Valcavado-Ashburnham” of 970; the +eighth, “Paris II,” is connected, though not very intimately, +with “St Sever,” otherwise “Paris I”; the ninth and tenth, +“Gerona” and “Paris III,” belong to the Turin group of +Beatus maps. All these works are emphatically of “dark-age” +character; very seldom do they suggest the true forms of +countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some useful +information as to early medieval conditions and history. St +Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw, +directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine, +and probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented +in a measure by the Peutinger Table of the 13th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief MSS. of the <i>Commentaria in Apocalypsin</i> are (1-3) +Paris, National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290; +(4) Ashburnham MSS. xv.; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS. +11695; (6) Turin, National Library 1, ii. (1); (7) Valladolid, +University Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma, in Old Castile.</p> + +<p>There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez +(Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, <i>Die Weltkarte des Beatus</i>, +Heft I. of <i>Mappaemundi: die ältesten Weltkarten</i> (Stuttgart, 1895); +d’Avezac in <i>Annales de ... géographie</i> (June 1870); Beazley, +<i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, i. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-605 (1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. R. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUCAIRE,<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> a town of south-eastern France, in the department +of Gard, 17 m. E. by S. of Nîmes on the Paris-Lyon railway. +Pop. (1906) 7284. Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the +Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which it is connected by two +handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge of four spans and 1476 ft. +in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular keep, a chapel, +and other remains of a château (13th and 14th centuries) of the +counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises +to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis, +belongs to the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and +contains fine sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the +great July fair, which has been held here annually since the 12th +century, but has now lost its former importance (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fair</a></span>). +Beaucaire gives its name to the canal which communicates with +the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it with the Canal du +Midi, forming part of the line of communication between the +Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the +Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and +freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne. +Among its industries are distilling and the manufacture of +furniture, and the preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other +provisions.</p> + +<p>Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient <i>Ugernum</i>, and +several remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well +as (in 1734) the road that led from Nîmes. The present name +is derived from <i>Bellum Quadrum</i>, a descriptive appellation +applied in the middle ages either to the château or to the rock +on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came into the possession +of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI., established +the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In +the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its +castle was destroyed by Richelieu.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUCE<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Belsia</i>), a physical region of north-central +France, comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-Loir +and Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret +and Seine-et-Oise. It has an area of over 2800 sq. m., its limits +being roughly defined by the course of the Essonne on the E., +of the Loire on the S., and of the Brenne, the Loir and the Eure +towards the W., though in the latter direction it extends somewhat +beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a treeless, arid +and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills and +church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape. +Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insignificant +streams, of which the Conie in the west need alone be +mentioned. The inhabitants live in large villages, and are +occupied in agriculture, particularly in the cultivation of wheat, +for which the Beauce is celebrated. Clover and lucerne are +the other leading crops, and large flocks of sheep are kept in the +region. Chartres is its chief commercial centre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUCHAMP,<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> the name of several important English families. +The baronial house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at +the Conquest by Hugh de Beauchamp, who received a barony +in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon left a daughter, whose +husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was created +earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de Beauchamp, +nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king +in 1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of +Bedford, of whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal +forces in the struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards +made prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided +with the barons under Simon de Montfort, fell at Evesham. +With him the line ended, but a younger branch was seated at +Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle remain, +and held their barony there into the 14th century.</p> + +<p>The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest +house of the name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de +Beauchamp with the daughter of Urise d’Abetot, a Domesday +baron, which brought him the shrievalty of Worcestershire, the +office of a royal steward, and large estates. His descendant +William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and eventually heiress +to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son succeeded +in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained +with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the +Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy, +the 2nd, distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of +Edward I., who warned him at his death against Piers Gaveston. +Under Edward II. he was one of the foremost foes of Piers, who +had styled him “the black cur of Arden,” and with whose death +he was closely connected. As one of the “lords ordainers” he +was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By +the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl +Thomas, who distinguished himself at Crécy and Poitiers, was +marshal of the English host, and, with his brother John, one of +the founders of the order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl +Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to 1379 he was among the lords +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page585" id="page585"></a>585</span> +striving for reform, and in the latter year he was appointed +governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the lords +appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and +was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by +Richard in 1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the +Beauchamp Tower being called after him), but liberated by +Henry IV. on his triumph (1399). In 1401 he was succeeded +by his son Earl Richard, a brave and chivalrous warrior, who +defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at Shrewsbury, +and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy Land, +was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay +ambassador from England to the council of Constance (1414). +He held command for a time at Calais, and took an active part +in the French campaigns of Henry V., who created him earl +and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge of the +education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant +of France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left +by Isabel, widow of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a +son, Earl Henry, who was created duke of Warwick, 1445, and +is alleged, but without authority, to have been crowned king of +the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the last of his line, in +June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in 1449, his +vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole blood, +wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury (“the Kingmaker”), +who thereupon became earl of Warwick.</p> + +<p>Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of +Powyke and Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and +became extinct in 1496; from it sprang the Beauchamps, Lords +St. Amand from 1448, of whom was Richard, bishop of Salisbury, +first chancellor of the order of the Garter, and who became +extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs of the race. +Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of +Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster +(the first baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388; +the barony became extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord +Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned in 1363, is said to have been +descended from the Powyke branch; his line ended early in the +15th century. Later cadets were John, brother of the 3rd earl, +who carried the standard at Crécy, became captain of Calais, +and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and +William, brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the +French wars, and succeeding to the lands of the Lords Abergavenny +was summoned in that barony 1392; his son was created +earl of Worcester in 1420, but died without male issue in 1422; +from his daughter, who married Sir Edward Neville, descended +the Lords Abergavenny.</p> + +<p>The Lords Beauchamp of “Hache” (1299-1361) were so +named from their seat of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and +were of a wholly distinct family. Their title, “Beauchamp of +Hache,” was revived for the Seymours in 1536 and 1559. The +title of “Beauchamp of Powyke” was revived as a barony in +1806 for Richard Lygon (descended through females from the Beauchamps +of Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir W. Dugdale, <i>Baronage</i> (1675-1676) and <i>Warwickshire</i> +(2nd ed., 1730); G.E. C[okayne], <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898); +W. Courthope, <i>Rows Roll</i> (1859); and J.H. Round, <i>Geoffrey de +Mandeville</i> (1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE,<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> French historian and man of +letters, was born at Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784 +he entered a Sardinian regiment of marines, but on the outbreak +of war with the French Republic, he refused to fight in what he +considered an unjust cause, and was imprisoned for several +months. After being liberated he took up his residence in Paris, +where he obtained a post in one of the government offices. On +the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the <i>bureau</i> +of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence of +the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he +made use in his first and most popular historical work, <i>Histoire +de la Vendée et des Chouans</i>, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with +great favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities. +The third edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his +post, and in 1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his +abode in Reims. In 1811 he obtained permission to return, and +again received a government appointment. This he had to resign +on the Restoration, but was rewarded with a small pension, +which was continued to his widow after his death.</p> + +<p>Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for +the magazines. His biographical and historical works are +numerous, and those dealing with contemporary events are +valuable, owing to the sources at his disposal. They must, +however, be used with great caution. The following are worth +mention:—<i>Vie politique, militaire et privée du général Moreau</i> +(1814); <i>Catastrophe de Murat, ou Récit de la dernière révolution de +Naples</i> (1815); <i>Histoire de la guerre d’Espagne et du Portugal, +1807-1813</i> (2 vols., 1810); <i>Collection de mémoires relatifs aux +révolutions d’Espagne</i> (2 vols., 1824); <i>Histoire de la révolution de +Piémont</i> (2 vols., 1821, 1823); <i>Mémoires secrets et inédits pour +servir à l’histoire contemporaine</i> (2 vols., 1825). The <i>Mémoires de +Fouché</i> have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that +he only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouché +himself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See an article by Louis Madelin in <i>La Revolution française</i> (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT,<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> the name of the family descended from the union +of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir +Hugh Swynford, taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to +John of Gaunt. There were four children of this union—John, +created earl of Somerset and marquess of Dorset; Henry, afterwards +bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beaufort, +Henry</a></span>); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and +Joan, who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and +died in 1440. In 1396, some years after the birth of these +children, John of Gaunt and Catherine were married, and in 1397 +the Beauforts were declared legitimate by King Richard II. In +1407 this action was confirmed by their half-brother, King +Henry IV., but on this occasion they were expressly excluded +from the succession to the English throne.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Beaufort</span>, earl of Somerset (<i>c.</i> 1373-1410), assisted +Richard II. in 1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants, +and made himself an absolute ruler. For these services he was +made marquess of Dorset, but after the deposition of Richard in +1399, he was degraded to his former rank as earl. In 1401, +however, he was declared loyal, and appeared later in command +of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of Thomas +Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving +three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane +or Joan, who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret, +who married Thomas Courtenay, earl of Devon.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Thomas Beaufort</span> (d. 1426) held various high offices under +Henry IV., and took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the +north in 1405. He became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this +office in January 1412 and took part in the expedition to France +in the same year. He was then created earl of Dorset, and when +Henry V. became king in 1413, he was made lieutenant of +Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town passed into +the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant of +Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to +England he compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh. +Crossing to France in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he +took an active part in the subsequent campaign, was made +captain of Rouen, and went to the court of France to treat for +peace. He was then captured by the French at Baugé, but was +soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death +of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry’s executors, +and it is probable that the king entrusted his young son, King +Henry VI., to his care. However this may be, Exeter did not +take a very prominent part in the government, although he was +a member of the council of regency. Having again shared in the +French war, the duke died at Greenwich about the end of the +year 1426. He was buried at Bury St. Edmunds, where his +remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He +married Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but +left no issue. The Beaufort family was continued by <span class="sc">Henry +Beaufort</span> (1401-1419), the eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of +Somerset, who was succeeded as earl of Somerset by his brother +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page586" id="page586"></a>586</span> +<span class="sc">John Beaufort</span> (1403-1444). The latter fought under Henry V. +in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner remained in +France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he returned +to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of +Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and, +with his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur. +Although chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made +regent of France, Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442, +and in 1443 was made duke of Somerset. He died, probably by +his own hand, in May 1444. He married Margaret, daughter of +Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, <span class="sc">Margaret Beaufort</span>, +afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for +her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom +she became the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the +blood of the Beauforts was mingled with that of the Tudors, and +of all the subsequent occupants of the English throne.</p> + +<p>The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John +Beaufort in 1444 to his brother <span class="sc">Edmund Beaufort</span>, duke of +Somerset (<i>q.v.</i>), who was killed at St Albans in 1455. By his +marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp, daughter of the fifth earl of +Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund and John, and a +daughter, Margaret.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Henry Beaufort</span> (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in +1455, and soon began to take part in the struggle against Richard, +duke of York, but failed to dislodge Richard’s ally, Richard +Neville, earl of Warwick, from Calais. He took part in the +victory of the Lancastrians at Wakefield in 1460, escaped from +the carnage at Towton in 1461, and shared the attainder of +Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was captured at +Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The +title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, <span class="sc">Edmund +Beaufort</span> (<i>c</i>. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the +disasters to the Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in +1471, in which year he fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a +promise of pardon was beheaded after the battle on the 6th of +May 1471. His younger brother <span class="sc">John Beaufort</span> had been killed +probably at this battle, and so on the execution of Edmund the +family became extinct.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Margaret Beaufort</span> married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and +was the mother of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry +Beaufort, third duke of Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate +son, Charles Somerset, who was created earl of Worcester by +Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant, Henry Somerset, +fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles I. and in +1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry, +the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the +present duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Thomas Walsingham, <i>Historia Anglicana</i>, edited by H.T. +Riley (London, 1863-1864); W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History of +England</i>, vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); <i>The Paston Letters</i>, +edited by James Gairdner (London, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, FRANÇOIS DE VENDÔME,<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> <span class="sc">Duc de</span> (1616-1669), +a picturesque figure in French history of the 17th century, +was the second son of César de Vendôme, and grandson of Henry +IV., by Gabrielle d’Estrées. He began his career in the army and +served in the first campaigns of the Thirty Years’ War, but his +ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a more +congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in +the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its +failure was obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu’s +death. Returning to France, he became the centre of a group, +known as the “Importants,” in which court ladies predominated, +especially the duchess of Chevreuse and the duchess of Montbazon. +For an instant after the king’s death, this group seemed likely to +prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the new government. +But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of a plot to +murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September +1643. He escaped on the 31st of May 1648, just in time to join +the Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the +parlement and the princes, against Mazarin. His personal +appearance, his affectation of popular manners, his quality of +grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV., rendered him a favourite +of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere. He was known +as the <i>Roi des Halles</i> (“king of the markets”), and popular +subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of +becoming prime minister. But among the members of the +parlement and the other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded +as merely a tool. His intelligence was but mediocre, and he +showed no talent during the war. Mazarin, on his return to +Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was only allowed to +return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any reason to +fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he +was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the +naval army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from +that on. In 1664 he directed the expedition against the pirates of +Algiers. In 1669 he led the French troops defending Candia +against the Turks, and was killed in a night sortie, on the I5th of +June 1669. His body was brought back to France with great +pomp, and official honours rendered it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld, +the Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D’Avenel, +<i>Richelieu et la monarchic absolue</i> (1884); Cheruel, <i>La France sous le +ministère Mazarin</i> (1879); and <i>La France sous la minorité de +Louis XIV</i> (1882).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, HENRY<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1377-1447), English cardinal and +bishop of Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke +of Lancaster, by Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His +parents were not married until 1396, and in 1397 King Richard II. +declared the four children of this union to be legitimate. Henry +spent some of his youth at Aix la-Chapelle, and having entered +the church received various appointments, and was consecrated +bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When his half-brother became +king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to take a prominent +place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403, but he +resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln +to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He +exercised considerable influence over the prince of Wales, afterwards +King Henry V., and although he steadily supported the +house of Lancaster he opposed the party led by Thomas Arundel, +archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute over money left by John +Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened a breach in the +royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details are not +quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and the +bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV. +to abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king +dismissed his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have +shared his disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413 +the bishop again became chancellor and took a leading part in the +government until 1417, when he resigned his office, and proceeded +to the council which was then sitting at Constance. His arrival +had an important effect on the deliberations of this council, and +the compromise which was subsequently made between the rival +parties was largely his work. Grateful for Beaufort’s services, +the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal’s hat which Henry +V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he +remained loyal to Henry; and after the king’s death in 1422 became +a member of the council and was the chief opponent of the +wild and selfish schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In +1424 he became chancellor for the third time, and was mainly +responsible for the conduct of affairs during Gloucester’s expedition +to Hainaut. He was disliked by the citizens of London; +and this ill-feeling was heightened when Gloucester, who was a +favourite of the Londoners, returned to England and was doubtless +reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his undertaking. A riot +took place in London, and at the bishop’s entreaty, the protector, +John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this dispute +was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in +February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate. +Charged by Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his +successors, Beaufort denied the accusations. But although a +reconciliation was effected, the bishop evidently regarded this as +a defeat; and having resigned the chancellorship his energies +were diverted into another channel.</p> + +<p>Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites, +Pope Martin again offered him a cardinal’s hat, which Beaufort +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page587" id="page587"></a>587</span> +accepted. He went to France in 1427, and was then appointed +papal legate for Germany, Hungary and Bohemia; and proceeding +eastwards, he made a bold but futile effort to rally the +crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise money for a +fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London; but +his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and +Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beaufort +gave way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was +made in 1429 to deprive him of his see. Having raised some +troops he set out for Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which +had just attended the English arms in France, he was induced to +allow these soldiers to serve in the French war; and in February +1431 the death of Martin V. ended his commission as legate. +Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to exclude the +cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided that his +attendance was required except during the discussion of questions +between the king and the papacy. He accompanied King +Henry VI. to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431 +crowned him king of France. About this time Gloucester made +another attempt to deprive Beaufort of his see, and it was argued +in the council that as a cardinal he could not hold an English +bishopric. The general council was not inclined to press the case +against him; but the privy council, more clerical and more +hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment against him, +and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to England he +attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the +charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute +was passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have +incurred under the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He +supported Bedford in his attempts to restore order to the finances. +In August 1435 he attended the congress at Arras, but was unable +to make peace with France; and after Bedford’s death his +renewed efforts to this end were again opposed by Gloucester, who +favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions the council +advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England, but +in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and +1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at +his instigation the English council decided to release Charles, +duke of Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew +up and presented to the king a long and serious list of charges +against Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the +cardinal and ignored the personal accusations against him. +Beaufort, however, gradually retired from public life, and after +witnessing the conclusion of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey +palace, Winchester, on the 10th of April 1447. The “black +despair” which Shakespeare has cast round his dying hours +appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried in +Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He +also refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near +Winchester.</p> + +<p>Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several +occasions he lent large sums of money to the king. He was the +lover of Lady Alice Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of +Arundel, by whom he had a daughter, Joan, who married Sir +Edward Stradling of St Donat’s in Glamorganshire. His +interests were secular and he was certainly proud and ambitious; +but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character when he +observes that Beaufort “was merciful in his political enmities, +enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful, +and ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that +from the moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and +went worse and worse until all was lost.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Historiae Croylandensis continuatio</i>, translated by H.T. Riley +(London, 1854); <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council</i>, +edited by N.H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius +Piccolomini, <i>Historica Bohemica</i> (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707); +W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895): M. +Creighton, <i>A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i> +(London, 1897); and L.B. Radford, <i>Henry Beaufort</i> (1908).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> (d. 1795), French historian, of whose +life little is known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a <i>Dissertation +sur l’incertitude des cinq premiers siècles de l’histoire romaine</i>, +in which he showed what untrustworthy guides even the historians +of highest repute, such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, +were for that period, and pointed out by what methods +and by the aid of what documents truly scientific bases might be +given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold for its time, +against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at that very +moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute +it in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the <i>Miscellanea +Liviensia</i>. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical <i>Remarques</i> +in the appendix to the second edition of his <i>Dissertation</i> (1750). +Beaufort also wrote an <i>Histoire de César Germanicus</i> (Leyden, +1761), and <i>La République romaine, ou plan général de L’ancien +gouvernement de Rome</i> (The Hague, 1766, 2 vols. quarto). Though +not a scholar of the first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of +having been a pioneer in raising the question, afterwards elaborated +by Niebuhr, as to the credibility of early Roman history.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT SCALE,<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> a series of numbers from 0 to 12 arranged +by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate +the strength of the wind from a calm, force 0, to a hurricane, force +12, with sailing directions such as “5, smacks shorten sails” for +coast purposes, and “royals, &c., ‘full and by’” for the open sea. +An exhaustive report was made in 1906 by the Meteorological +Office on the relation between the estimates of wind-force +according to Beaufort’s scale and the velocities recorded by +anemometers belonging to the office, from which the following +table is taken:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Beaufort scale.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Corresponding wind.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Limits of hourly<br />velocity.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Numbers.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">Miles per hour.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Calm</td> <td class="tcl rb">Under 2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1-3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Light breeze</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 2-12</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4-5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Moderate wind</td> <td class="tcc rb">13-23</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">6-7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Strong wind</td> <td class="tcc rb">24-37</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">8-9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Gale</td> <td class="tcc rb">38-55</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10-11</td> <td class="tcl rb">Storm</td> <td class="tcc rb">56-75</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Hurricane</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Above 75</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUFORT WEST,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> in Cape province, South Africa, the +capital of a division of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape +Town. Pop.(1904) 5481. The largest town in the western part +of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot +of the southern slopes of the Nieuwveld mountains. It has several +fine public buildings and the streets are lined with avenues of +pear trees, while an abundant supply of water, luxuriant orchards, +fields and gardens give it the appearance of an oasis in the desert. +It is a favourite resort of invalids. The town was founded in 1819, +and in its early days was largely resorted to by Griquas and +Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The Beaufort +West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of +10,762, 45% being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal +industry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUGENCY,<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> a town of central France, in the department of +Loiret, 16 m. S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between +that city and Blois. Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot +of vine-clad hills on the right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of +which it is united by a bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them +dating from the 13th century. The chief buildings are the +château, mainly of the 15th century, of which the massive donjon +of the 11th century known as the Tour de César is the oldest +portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in the +Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of +the buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church +belonged, remain. The hôtel de ville, the façade of which is +decorated with armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the +church of St Étienne, an unblemished example of Romanesque +architecture, are of interest. Several old houses, some remains of +the medieval ramparts and the Tour de l’Horloge, an ancient +gateway, are also preserved. The town carries on trade in grain, +and has flour mills.</p> + +<p>The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in +the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries; at the end of the 13th century +the fief was sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the +house of Orleans, then to those of Dunois and Longueville and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page588" id="page588"></a>588</span> +ultimately again to that of Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the +English here in 1429. In 1567 the town was sacked and burned +by the Protestants. On the 8th, 9th and 10th of December +1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of +Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under +General Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes), +which was fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of +Beaugency.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUHARNAIS,<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> the name of a French family, well known +from the 15th century onward in Orléanais, where its members +occupied honourable positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de +Beauharnais, seigneur de Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau, +who in 1661 founded a female charitable order, called after her +the Miramiones. François de Beauharnais, marquis de la +Ferté-Beauharnais, was a deputy in the states-general of 1789, and a +devoted defender of the monarchy. He emigrated and served +in Condé’s army. Later he gave his adherence to Napoleon, and +became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823. His +brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine +Tascher de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon +Bonaparte) and had two children by her—Eugène de +Beauharnais (<i>q.v.</i>) and Hortense, who married Louis Bonaparte, +king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III. Claude de +Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis +and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and +became a vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Françoise +(called Fanny) Mouchard, a woman of letters who had a celebrated +salon. His son, also named Claude (d. 1819), was created a peer +of France in 1814, and was the father of Stéphanie de +Beauharnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house of +Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of +Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugène.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUHARNAIS, EUGÈNE DE<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (1781-1824), step-son of +Napoleon I., was born at Paris on the 3rd of September 1781. +He was the son of the general Viscount Alexandre de Beauharnais +(1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie. The +father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the American +War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French +Revolution, and in June-August 1793 commanded the army +of the Rhine. His failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him +(especially that of the relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested, +and he was guillotined (23rd June 1794) not long before the fall +of Robespierre. The marriage of his widow Josephine to +Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first resented by +Eugène and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved +to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the +Italian campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugène served as aide-de-camp +to Bonaparte, and accompanied him to Egypt in the same +capacity. There he distinguished himself by his activity and +bravery, and was wounded during the siege of Acre. Bonaparte +brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it is +known that the intervention of Eugène and Hortense helped +to bring about the reconciliation which then took place between +Bonaparte and Josephine. The services rendered by Eugène +at the time of the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire (1799) and during the +Consulate (1799-1804) served to establish his fortunes, despite +the efforts of some of the Bonapartes to destroy the influence +of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce of Josephine.</p> + +<p>After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugène received the +title of prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and +became general of the <i>chasseurs à cheval</i> of the Guard. A year +later, when the Italian republic became the kingdom of Italy, +with Napoleon as king, Eugène received the title of viceroy, +with large administrative powers. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span>.) Not long after +the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805) Napoleon dignified +the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and arranged a +marriage between Eugène and the princess Augusta Amelia of +Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugène gave general +satisfaction in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts +between the Simplon Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace +of Presburg (December 1805), Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808 +(on the further partition of the papal states) the frontier of the +kingdom was extended southwards to the borders of the kingdom +of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In the campaign +of 1809 Eugène commanded the army of Italy, with General +(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his <i>adlatus</i>. The battle of +Sacile, where he fought against the Austrian army of the Archduke +John, did not yield proofs of military talent on the part +of Eugène or of Macdonald; but on the retreat of the enemy +into Austrian territory (owing to the disasters of their main +army on the Danube) Eugène’s forces pressed them vigorously +and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of the +Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon, +in the island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugène and +Macdonald acquitted themselves most creditably in the great +battle of Wagram (6th July 1809). In 1810 Eugène received +the title of grand-duke of Frankfort. Equally meritorious were +his services and those of the large Italian contingent in the +campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they distinguished themselves +especially at the battles of Borodino and Malojaroslavitz; +and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat which +ensued, Eugène’s soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon +shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast +with the tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the +Napoleonic régime Eugène retired to Munich, where he continued +to reside, with the title duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of +Eichstädt. He died in 1824, leaving two surviving sons and three +daughters.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further details concerning Eugène see <i>Mémoires et correspondance +politique et militaire du Prince Eugène</i>, edited by Baron A. +Ducasse (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F.J.A. Schneidewind, +<i>Prinz Eugen, Herzog van Leuchtenberg in den Feldzügen seiner Zeit</i> +(Stockholm, 1857); A. Purlitzer, <i>Une Idylle sous Napoléon I<span class="sp">er</span>: le +roman du Prince Eugène</i> (Paris, 1895); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa +famille</i> (Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUJEU<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span>. The French province of Beaujolais was formed +by the development of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (department +of Rhône, arrondissement of Villefranche). The lords of +Beaujeu held from the 10th century onwards a high rank in +feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was sent by Philip +Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III.; he was present +at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son +Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and +became constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert, +married Renaud, count of Forez; and their second son, Louis, +assumed the name and arms of Beaujeu. His son Guichard, +called the Great, had a very warlike life, fighting for the king of +France, for the count of Savoy and for his own hand. He was +taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing +important estates. Guichard’s son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal +of France, fought at Crécy, and perished in the battle of Ardres +in 1351. His son died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded +by his cousin, Edward of Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave +his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes to Louis II., duke of +Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of Beaujeu in +1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XI., +and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of +Beaujeu. Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., got Beaujolais +assigned to herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon. +In 1531 the province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II. +gave it back to the Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560, +from which house it passed to that of Orleans. The title of +comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son of Philippe “Égalité,” +duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAULIEU,<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> a village in the French department of Alpes-Maritimes. +Pop. (1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of +Nice (1¼ m. from Villefranche), and on the main line between +Marseilles and Mentone; it is also connected with Nice and +Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late years it has become +a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome villas +(among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have +been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been +extended and adapted for the reception of yachts.</p> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAULY<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (pronounced <i>Bewley</i>; a corruption of <i>Beaulieu</i>), a +town of Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page589" id="page589"></a>589</span> +Inverness by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its +chief interest is the beautiful remains of the Priory of St John, +founded in 1230 by John Bisset of the Aird, for Cistercian monks. +At the Reformation the buildings (except the church, now a +ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the right +bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged +to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser +and afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of +Kirkhill containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south +of Beauly is Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine +modern mansion in the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the +site of a fortress erected in the time of Alexander II., which was +besieged in 1303 by Edward I. This was replaced by several +castles in succession, of which one—Castle Dounie—was taken +by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in 1746, +the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by +Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The +land around Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in +coal, timber, lime, grain and fish.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMANOIR,<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span> a seigniory in what is now the department of +Côtes-du-Nord, France, which gave its name to an illustrious +family. Jean de Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of +Blois, and captain of Josselin, is remembered for his share in the +famous battle of the Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown +trouvère and retold with variations by Froissart, was an episode +in the struggle for the succession to the duchy of Brittany +between Charles of Blois, supported by the king of France, and +John of Montfort, supported by the king of England. John +Bramborough, the English captain of Ploërmel, having continued +his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by the +captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge, +which resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions, +knights and squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th +of March 1351, near Ploërmel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty +Bretons, Bramborough a mixed force of twenty Englishmen, six +German mercenaries and four Breton partisans of Montfort. The +battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes, was of the most +desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of the last +fight of the Burgundians in the <i>Nibelungenlied</i>, especially +in the celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who +was asking for water: “Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that +will quench your thirst!” In the end the victory was decided by +Guillaume de Montauban, who mounted his horse and overthrew +seven of the English champions, the rest being forced to surrender. +All the combatants on either side were either dead or seriously +wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The prisoners +were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom. +(See <i>Le Poème du combat des Trente</i>, in the <i>Panthéon littéraire</i>; +Froissart, <i>Chroniques</i>, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 110 ff., and pp. 338-340).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Jean de Beaumanoir</span> (1551-1614), seigneur and afterwards +marquis de Lavardin, count of Nègrepelisse by marriage, served +first in the Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the +massacre of St Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed, +and then fought against Henry of Navarre. When that prince +became king of France, Lavardin changed over to his side, and +was made a marshal of France. He was governor of Maine, +commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was ambassador +extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of his +descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701), +was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a +difference between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE RÉMI,<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sire de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1250-1296), +French jurist, was born in the early part of the 13th +century and died in 1296. The few facts known regarding his +life are to be gathered from legal documents in which his name +occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled the post of +<i>bailli</i> at Senlis, and in 1280 held a similar office at Clermont. He +is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the assizes held at +various towns. His great work is entitled <i>Coutumes de Beauvoisis</i> +and first appeared in 1690, a second edition with introduction by +A.A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as one of +the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently +referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir +also obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best +known of his poems being <i>La Manekine</i>, <i>Jehan et Blonde</i> and <i>Salut d’amour</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> (1732-1799), +French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of +January 1732. His father, a watchmaker named Caron, brought +him up to the same trade. He was an unusually precocious and +lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music and +imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of +twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which +was pirated by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published +his grievance in the <i>Mercure</i>, and had the matter referred to the +Academy of Sciences, which decided in his favour. This affair +brought him into notice at court; he was appointed, or at least +called himself, watchmaker to the king, who ordered from him a +watch similar to one he had made for Mme de Pompadour. His +handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make his way +at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official, +persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron, +and, on her husband’s death, a few months later, married the +handsome watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the +name Beaumarchais; and four years later, by purchasing the +office of secretary to the king obtained a patent of nobility.</p> + +<p>At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of +the king’s sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This +position enabled him to confer a slight favour on the great banker +Joseph Duverney, who testified his gratitude by giving Beaumarchais +a share in his speculations. The latter turned the +opportunity to good account, and soon realized a handsome +fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain, partly with +commercial objects in view, but principally on account of the +Clavijo affair. José Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to +marry the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word. +The adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe’s <i>Clavigo</i>, for +Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words. +Beaumarchais made his first essay as a writer for the stage with +the sentimental drama <i>Eugénie</i> (1767), in which he drew largely +on the Clavijo incident. This was followed after an interval of +two years by <i>Les Deux Amis</i>, but neither play had more than +moderate success. His first wife had died within a year of the +marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married Mme Lévêque. +Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of +poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his +death a duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and +Beaumarchais had been drawn up, in which the banker acknowledged +himself debtor to Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs. +Duverney’s heir, the comte de La Blache, denied the validity of +the document though without directly stigmatizing it as a +forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his +cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the +parlement. In the meantime the duc de Chaulnes forced +Beaumarchais into a quarrel over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the +Comédie Italienne, which resulted in the imprisonment of both +parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache to demand +judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney +agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or +four days to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain +an interview with Goezman, the member of the parlement +appointed to report on his case. At last, just before the day on +which the report was to be given in, he was informed privately +that, by presenting 200 <i>louis</i> to Mme Goezman and 15 to her +secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result +should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The +money was sent and the interview obtained; but the decision +was adverse, and 200 <i>louis</i> were returned, the 15 going as business +expenses to the secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that +there was no secretary save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on +restitution of the 15 <i>louis</i>, but the lady denied all knowledge of +the affair. Her husband, who was probably not cognisant of the +details of the transaction at first, doubtless thought the defeated +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page590" id="page590"></a>590</span> +litigant would be easily put down, and at once brought an +accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt justice. The +battle was fought chiefly through the <i>Mémoires</i>, or reports +published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais’s +success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and +broad humour, his famous <i>Mémoires</i> have never been surpassed. +Even Voltaire was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais +was skilful enough to make his particular case of universal +application. He was attacking the parlement through one of its +members, and the parlement was the universally detested body +formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The <i>Mémoires</i> were, +therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author, from +being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once +the idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais. +The parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman <i>au +blâme</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to civic degradation, while the husband was obliged +to abandon his position. Beaumarchais was reduced to great +straits, but he obtained restitution of his rights within two years, +and finally triumphed over his adversary La Blache.</p> + +<p>During the next few years he was engaged in the king’s +secret service. One of his missions was to England to destroy +the <i>Mémoires secrets d’une femme publique</i> in which Charles +Theveneau de Morande made an attack on Mme Du Barry. +Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt the whole +impression in London. Another expedition to England and +Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette +led to a series of incidents more amazing than the intrigues +in Beaumarchais’s own plays, but his own account must +be received with caution. Beaumarchais pursued the libeller +to Germany and overtook him in a wood near Neustadt. After +a struggle he had gained possession of the document when he +was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged +to have been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted. +The Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a +suspicion justified by the circumstances. He was imprisoned +for some time in Vienna, and only released on the receipt of +explanations from Paris.</p> + +<p>His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest +in the impending struggle between the American colonies and +the mother-country. His sympathies were entirely with the +former; and by his unwearied exertions he succeeded in inducing +the French government to give ample, though private, assistance +in money and arms to the Americans. He himself, partly on +his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the French and +Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with +America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie, +he employed a fleet of forty vessels to provide help for the +insurgents.</p> + +<p>During the same period he produced his two famous comedies. +The earlier, <i>Le Barbier de Seville</i>, after a prohibition of two years, +was put on the stage in 1775. The first representation was a +complete failure. Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene +with allusions to the facts of his own case and the whole action +of the piece was laboured and heavy. But he cut down and +remodelled the piece in time for the second representation, when +it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which were +necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more +famous comedy, <i>Le Mariage de Figaro</i>, are highly amusing, and +throw much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at +the time. The play was completed in 1778, but the opposition +of Louis XVI., who alone saw its dangerous tendencies, was not +overcome till 1784. The comedy had an unprecedented success. +The principal character in both plays, Figaro, is a completely +original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a portrait of +himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit, +shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly +be ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays +are generally known through the adaptations of them in the +grand opera of Mozart and Rossini; but in France they long +retained popularity as acting pieces. The success of <i>Le Mariage +de Figaro</i> was helped on by the methods of self-advertisement +so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of the +fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of +which provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the +imprudence to retaliate by personalities that were reported by +his enemies to be dedicated against the king and queen. Beaumarchais +was imprisoned for a short time by royal order in the +prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he was, Beaumarchais +was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook +to defend the company of the “Eaux de Paris,” in which he had +a large interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself +an invective to which he could offer no reply. His real influence +was gone from that date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he +was violently attacked by Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for +defamation of character. He gained his case, but his reputation +had suffered in the pamphlet war. Beaumarchais’s later productions, +the bombastic opera <i>Tarare</i> (1787) and the drama <i>La +Mère coupable</i> (1792), which was very popular, are in no way +worthy of his genius.</p> + +<p>By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though +quite unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the +Revolution. At heart he hardly seems to have been a republican, +and the new state of affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing +thing is that the society travestied in <i>Le Mariage de Figaro</i> was +the most vehement in its applause. The court looked on at a +play justly characterized by Napoleon as the “revolution +already in action” apparently without a suspicion of its real +character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau +and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the +enmity of the envious. A speculation into which he entered, +to supply the Convention with muskets from Holland, proved +a ruinous failure. He was accused of concealing arms and corn +in his house, but when his house was searched nothing was +discovered but some thousands of copies of the edition (1783-1790) +of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at his +private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason +to the republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the 20th +of August 1792. A week later he was released at the intercession +of Mme Houret de la Marinière, who had been his mistress. He +took refuge in Holland and England. His memoirs entitled, +<i>Mes six époques</i>, detailing his sufferings under the republic, are +not unworthy of the Goezman period. His courage and happy +disposition never deserted him, although he was hunted as an +agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in Paris +he was proscribed as an <i>émigré</i>. He returned to Paris in 1796, +and died there, suddenly, on the 18th of May 1799.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Gudin de la Brenellerie’s <i>Histoire de Beaumarchais</i> (1809) was +edited by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Loménie, +<i>Beaumarchais et son temps</i> (1855), Eng. trans. by H.S. Edwards, +(4. vols., 1856); A. Hallay’s <i>Beaumarchais</i> (1897); M. de Lescure, +<i>Éloge de Beaumarchais</i> (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du +lundi</i>, vol. vi. Beaumarchais’s works have been edited by Gudin +(7 vols., 1809); by Furne (6 vols., 1827); and by É. Fournier (1876). +A variorum edition of his <i>Théâtre complet</i> was published by MM. +d’Heylli and de Marescot (4 vols., 1869-1875); and a <i>Bibliographie +des œuvres de Beaumarchais</i>, by H. Cordier in 1883.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMARIS,<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, and the +county town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of +Beaumaris, not far from Penmon, the northern entrance of the +Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It has but one considerable +street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to the Virgin, has +some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College, Oxford, +founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include +town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary’s church of the 13th +century, with chancel of the 16th. Practically without trade +and with no manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a +bathing-place. Its earliest charter dates from 1283 and was +revised under Elizabeth. The town was formerly called Barnover +and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and bears its present name of French +origin since Edward I. built its castle in 1293. This extensive +building was erected on low ground, so that the fosse might +communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its +walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton +(1646).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT,<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> <span class="sc">Belmont</span>, or <span class="sc">Bellomont</span>, the name of a +Norman and English family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page591" id="page591"></a>591</span> +Normandy. Early in the 11th century Roger de Beaumont, a +kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a daughter of +Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, <span class="sc">Robert de Beaumont</span> +(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080. +Before this date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had +added large estates in Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of +Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he received when his +father entered the abbey of St Peter at Préaux. It was during +the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to +eminence, and under the latter monarch he became “the first +among the counsellors of the king.” A “strenuous and sagacious +man” he rendered valuable service to both kings in their Norman +wars, and Henry I. was largely indebted to him for the +English crown. He obtained lands in Leicestershire, and it has +been said he was created earl of Leicester; this statement, +however, is an error, although he exercised some of the privileges +of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and diplomatist +gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and +Henry of Huntingdon describes him as “the wisest man between +this and Jerusalem.” He seems to have been a man of independent +character, for he assisted Anselm against William Rufus, +although he supported Henry I. in his quarrel with Pope Paschal +II. When Robert died on the 5th of June 1118 his lands appear +to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert and Waleran, +while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Robert de Beaumont</span> (1104-1168), justiciar of England, +married a granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and +receiving his father’s English fiefs in 1118 became earl of +Leicester. He and his brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers +of Stephen, and helped this king to seize the bishops of Salisbury +and Lincoln in 1139; later, however, Robert made his peace with +Henry II., and became chief justiciar of England. First among +the lay nobles he signed the Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought +to reconcile Henry and Archbishop Becket, and was twice in +charge of the kingdom during the king’s absences in France. +The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pré at Leicester and +other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the burgesses +of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and customs. +His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and with +other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against +his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also +on a later occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the +favour of Richard I., and died in Greece when returning from a +pilgrimage in 1190. His son and heir, Robert, died childless +in 1204.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Waleran de Beaumont</span> (1104-1166) obtained his father’s +French fiefs and the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After +being imprisoned for five years by Henry I. he spent some time +in England, and during the civil war between Stephen and the +empress Matilda he fought for the former until about 1150, +when he deserted the king and assisted the empress. His later +history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan +remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when +it was united with the royal domain.</p> + +<p>Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative +of the earlier Beaumonts, was <span class="sc">Louis de Beaumont</span> (d. 1333), +bishop of Durham from 1317 until his death. This prelate was +related to the English king, Edward II., and after a life spent +in strife and ostentation, he died on the 24th of September 1333. +<span class="sc">John Beaumont</span>, master of the rolls under Edward VI., was +probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and corrupt +judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552.</p> + +<p>The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when <span class="sc">Henry +Beaumont</span> (d. 1340), who was constable of England in 1322, was +summoned to parliament under this title. It was retained by +his descendants until the death of William, the 7th baron and +the 2nd viscount,<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in 1507, when it fell into abeyance. In 1840 +the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas Stapleton (1805-1854), +a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter +of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his descendants.</p> + +<p>In 1906 <span class="sc">Wentworth Blackett Beaumont</span> (1829-1907), the +head of a family well known in the north of England, was created +Baron Allendale.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and +constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity of a viscount in England.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> (1703-1781), French ecclesiastic +and archbishop of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and +Saint-Quentin branch of the illustrious Dauphiné family of +Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in 1741, then archbishop +of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of forty-three, +archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle with the +Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull <i>Unigenitus</i> which +condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese +to refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull, +and to deny funeral rites to those who had confessed to a +Jansenist priest. While other bishops sent Beaumont their +adhesion to his crusade, the parlement of Paris threatened to +confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade the parlement +to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its proving +obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The “royal +chamber,” which was substituted, having failed to carry on the +administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall +the parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable +exile (August 1754). An effort was made to induce him to +resign the active duties of his see to a coadjutor, but in spite +of the most tempting offers—including a cardinal’s hat—he +refused. On the contrary, to his polemic against the Jansenists +he added an attack on the <i>philosophes</i>, and issued a formal +mandatory letter condemning Rousseau’s <i>Émile</i>. Rousseau +replied in his masterly <i>Lettre à M. de Beaumont</i> (1762), in which +he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is +essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by +force.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>De Beaumont’s <i>Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales</i> were +published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> (1583-1627), English poet, second +son of the judge, Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu +in Leicestershire in 1583. The deaths of his father (in 1598) +and of his elder brother, Sir Henry Beaumont (in 1605), made +the poet early the head of this brilliant family; the dramatist, +Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John went to +Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner +in Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was +admitted to the Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry +he no doubt went down to Grace-Dieu to manage the family +estates. He began to write verse early, and in 1602, at the age +of nineteen, he published anonymously his <i>Metamorphosis of +Tabacco</i>, written in very smooth couplets, in which he addressed +Drayton as his “loving friend.” He lived in Leicestershire for +many years as a bachelor, being one “who never felt Love’s +dreadful arrow.” But in process of time he became a tardy +victim, and married a lady of the Fortescue family, who bore +him four stout sons, the eldest of whom, another John, was +accounted one of the most athletic men of his time. “He could +leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a stand-leap, +jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle beyond +the table, and raise himself straight up.” This magnificent +young man was not without literary taste; he edited his father’s +posthumous poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he +was killed in 1644 at the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir +John Beaumont’s sons, Gervaise, died in childhood, and the +incidents of his death are recorded in one of his father’s most +touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his powers +on a poem in eight books, entitled <i>The Crown of Thorns</i>, which +was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and +others, but which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was +persuaded by the duke of Buckingham to move in larger circles; +he attended court and in 1626 was made a baronet. This +honour he did not long survive, for he died on the 19th of April +1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days later. +The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume +entitled <i>Bosworth Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems +left by Sir John Beaumont</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page592" id="page592"></a>592</span> +No more “tastes” were ever vouchsafed, so that it is by this volume and by the juvenile +<i>Metamorphosis of Tobacco</i> that Beaumont’s reputation has to +stand. Of late years, the peculiarities of John Beaumont’s +prosody have drawn attention to his work. He wrote the heroic +couplet, which was his favourite measure, with almost unprecedented +evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle +of which Beaumont’s principal poem gives a vaguely epical +narrative, lay close to the poet’s house of Grace-Dieu. He +writes on all occasions with a smoothness which was very remarkable +in the first quarter of the 17th century, and which marks +him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as one of the +pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers’s +<i>English Poets</i>, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with “memorial +introduction” and notes, was included (1869) in Dr A.B. Grosart’s +<i>Fuller Worthies’ Library</i>; and the <i>Metamorphosis of Tobacco</i> +was included in J.P. Collier’s <i>Illustrations of Early English +Popular Literature</i>, vol. i. (1863).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> and <b>FLETCHER,</b> English dramatists<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The +names of <span class="sc">Francis Beaumont</span> (1584-1616) and <span class="sc">John Fletcher</span> +(1579-1625) are inseparably connected in the history of the +English drama. John Fletcher was born in December 1579 at +Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 20th of the same month. +Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen’s chaplain, dean +of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester +and London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was +born who was to make their name immortal. That son was just +turned of seven when the dean distinguished and disgraced +himself as the spiritual tormentor of the last moments on earth +of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he was admitted +pensioner of Bene’t College, Cambridge, and two years later was +made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had +been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his +son’s admission had received from its authorities a first letter of +thanks for various benefactions, to be followed next year by a +second. Four years later than this, when John Fletcher wanted +five or six months of his seventeenth year, the bishop died +suddenly of over much tobacco and the displeasure of Queen +Elizabeth at his second marriage—this time, it appears, with a +lady of such character as figures something too frequently on the +stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children by his first +marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles Fletcher, +author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is still +held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the +queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession +of Essex, but with what result is uncertain.</p> + +<p>From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John +Fletcher, till the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the +brilliant and triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time +with the yet more glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and +youngest son of Sir Francis Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the +justices of the common pleas—born, according to general report, +in 1586, but, according to more than one apparently irrefragable +document, actually born two years earlier. The first record of +his existence is the entry of his name, together with those of his +elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of +Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College. +But most lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the +admirable lines of Wordsworth on the “eager child” who played +among the rocks and woodlands of Grace-Dieu; though it may be +doubted whether even the boy’s first verses were of the peaceful +and pastoral character attributed to them by the great laureate +of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which was so soon +and for so short a time to “shake the buskined stage” with heroic +and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and +slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the +first in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it +would be a likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we +know on more authorities than one that he was always called by +his contemporaries, even in the full flush of his adult +fame—“never more than Frank,” says Heywood) went to college at the +ripe age of twelve, he had already committed a tragedy or two in +emulation of <i>Tamburlaine</i>, <i>Andronicus</i> or <i>Jeronymo</i>. +The date of his admission was the 4th of February 1597; on the 22nd +of April of the following year his father died; and on the 3rd of +November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the +boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two +brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son +of Judge Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the +son of Bishop Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is +equally difficult to imagine either poet invested with either +gown. Two years later appeared the poem of <i>Salmacis and Hermaphroditus</i>, +generally attributed to Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous +expansion of the Ovidian legend, not on the whole discreditable +to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the popular love-poems of +Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally exceeds in +long-winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits. At +twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece +of Ben Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his “dear +friend” the author; and in the same year (1607) appeared the +anonymous comedy of <i>The Woman-Hater</i>, usually assigned to +Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the main a crude and puerile +imitation of Jonson’s manner, and certainly more like a man’s +work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal evidence +would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who in +the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from +Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first +play that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also +prefixed to the first edition of <i>Volpone</i> a copy of commendatory +verses, we may presume that their common admiration for a common +friend was among the earliest and strongest influences +which drew together the two great poets whose names were +thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During the dim eleven +years between the death of his father and the dawn of his fame, +we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been +unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-eight +his youth may presumably have been spent in such painful +struggles for success, if not for sustenance, as were never known +to his younger colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at +Oxford a few months after Fletcher must in all likelihood have +left Cambridge to try his luck in London: a venture most +probably resolved on as soon as the youth had found his family +reduced by the father’s death to such ruinous straits that any +smoother course can hardly have been open to him. Entering +college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years earlier, +Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life than +his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations +when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good +offices of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy +soon became so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that +the household which they shared as bachelors was conducted on +such thoroughly communistic principles as might have satisfied +the most trenchant theorist who ever proclaimed as the cardinal +point of his doctrine, a complete and absolute community of bed +and board, with all goods thereto appertaining. But in the year +following that in which the two younger poets had united in +homage to Jonson, they had entered into a partnership of more +importance than this in “the same clothes and cloak, &c.,” with +other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey.</p> + +<p>In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-worthiest, +the twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the +first time. The loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays +that we owe to the comrades or the successors of Shakespeare, +<i>Philaster</i>, has generally been regarded as the first-born +issue of their common genius. The noble tragedy of <i>Thierry and Theodoret</i> +has sometimes been dated earlier and assigned to Fletcher +alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date nor the single +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page593" id="page593"></a>593</span> +authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both the +great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the character +of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout the +unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there +are parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for +reserve and temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the +collaboration of a calmer and more patient hand; and these more +equable and less passionate parts of the poem recall rather the +touch of Massinger than of Beaumont. In the second act, for +example, the regular structure of the verse, the even scheme of +the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of the hero +a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all qualities +which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or the +weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or +after his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in +common. Even the Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too +highly coloured, does not “write himself down an ass,” like +Thierry on his first entrance, after the too frequent fashion of +Massinger’s braggarts and tyrants; does not proclaim at starting +or display with mere wantonness of exposure his more unlovely +qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare also +the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and +metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the +first is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate +narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these +distinctive notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of +parenthetic sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines; +the classical common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and +Sparta in one superfluous breath; the pure and vigorous but +somewhat level and prosaic order of language, with the use of +certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to Massinger as catchwords; +the flat and feeble terminations by means of which the +final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more pause +or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and +gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the +very points in which the style of Massinger differs from that of +Fletcher; whose lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each +other without sensible distinction between the end of one line and +the beginning of the next; who is often too fluent and facile to +be choice or forcible in his diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or +conventional in phrase or allusion, and by no means habitually +given to weave thoughts within thoughts, knit sentence into +sentence, and hang whole paragraphs together by the help of loops +and brackets. From these indications we might infer that this +poem belongs altogether to a period later than the death of +Beaumont; though even during his friend’s life it appears that +Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser +dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the <i>Honest +Man’s Fortune</i>, of which the accounts are to be found in Henslowe’s +papers.</p> + +<p>Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious +life were spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date +assigned to the first radiant revelation of his genius in <i>Philaster</i> +and the date which marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th +of March 1616 Francis Beaumont died—according to Jonson and +tradition, “ere he was thirty years of age,” but this we have seen +to be inconsistent with the registry of his entrance at Oxford. If +we may trust the elegiac evidence of friends, he died of his own +genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet from the magnificent and +masculine beauty of his portrait one should certainly never have +guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of invention could have +worn out so long before its time so fair and royal a temple for so +bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy will not +fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between the +faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, handsome +and significant in feature and expression alike;—Beaumont’s +the statelier and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes, +full arched brows, and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at +the tip; a grave and beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved +lips; the form of face a long pure oval, and the imperial head with +its “fair large front” and clustering hair set firm and carried high +with an aspect at once of quiet command and kingly observation: +Fletcher’s a more keen and fervid face, sharper in outline every +way, with an air of bright ardour and glad fiery impatience; +sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and colour of hair; +the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost recalling that of a +noble hound in act to break the leash it strains at;—two heads as +lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any gallery of great +men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in passing, was +the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world; for, +just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 23rd of +April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever +dwelt among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided +the death-days of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three +years earlier by Dyce’s estimate, when about the age of twenty-nine, +Beaumont had married Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to +Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he left two daughters, +one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived his friend just nine +years and five months; he died “in the great plague, 1625,” and +was buried on the 29th of August in St Saviour’s, Southwark; not, +as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in fame, who +but three days after his untimely death had added another +deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster +Abbey, which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just +four months short of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we +can now calculate, altogether some fourteen years and six months +more of life than the poet who divides with him the imperial +inheritance of their common glory.</p> + +<p>The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made +one name of the two names of these great twin brothers in song +is a thing so admirable and so delightful to remember, that +it would seem ungracious and unkindly to claim for either a +precedence which we may be sure he would have been eager to +disclaim. But if a distinction must be made between the +Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was +the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a +demigod of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any +side Beaumont was a poet of higher and purer genius than +Fletcher; but so much must be allowed by all who have eyes +and ears to discern in the fabric of their common work a distinction +without a difference. Few things are stranger than the +avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he +could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays +which we owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe +solely to Fletcher. To others this line has always appeared in +almost every case unmistakable. Were it as hard and broad +as the line which marks off, for example, Shakespeare’s part +from Fletcher’s in <i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i>, the harmony would +of course be lost which now informs every work of their common +genius, and each play of their writing would be such another +piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of +Shakespeare’s invention, the posthumous birth of his parting +Muse which was suckled at the breast of Fletcher’s as a child of +godlike blood might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother—or +in this case, we might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-goat +who left in the veins of the heaven-born suckling somewhat +too much of his nurse Amalthaea. That question however +belongs in any case more properly to the study of Shakespeare +than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to +observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple +of tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser +workman almost equally at his best and at him worst, at his +weakest and at his strongest. In the plays which we know by +evidence surer than the most trustworthy tradition to be the +common work of Beaumont and Fletcher, there is indeed no +trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture as leaves +the greatest example of romantic tragedy—for <i>Cymbeline</i> and +the <i>Winter’s Tale</i>, though not guiltless of blood, are in their +issues no more tragic than <i>Pericles</i> or the <i>Tempest</i>—a unique +instance of glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly aid other +than heavenly breed, disproportioned and divine. But throughout +these noblest of the works inscribed generally with the names +of both dramatists we trace on every other page the touch of +a surer hand, we hear at every other turn the note of a deeper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page594" id="page594"></a>594</span> +voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of Fletcher alone. +Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field of comedy +his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field where his +freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and +the closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential +matter of expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself +always a student of Shakespeare’s second manner, of the style +in which the graver or tragic part of his historical or romantic +plays is mostly written; doubtless, the most perfect model that +can be studied by any poet who, like Beaumont, is great enough +to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a mere copyist, but +while studious of the perfection set before him is yet conscious +of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters the +presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The +general style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and +severe in its purity of note and regularity of outline as that of +Fletcher’s is by comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The +matchless fluency and rapidity with which the elder brother +pours forth the stream of his smooth swift verse gave probably +the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has not yet fallen +duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its suggestion that +the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain within +bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet +who while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of +hand such a crown as was bestowed by the noble love and the +loving “envy” of Ben Jonson was, according to this tradition, +a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only to revise and restrain the +too liberal effusions of his elder in genius as in years. Now, in +every one of the plays common to both, the real difficulty for a +critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to detect the +touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such +play, and above all of their two masterpieces, <i>Philaster</i> +and <i>The Maid’s Tragedy</i>, it should be clear to the most +sluggish or cursory of readers that he has not to do with the +author of <i>Valentinian</i> and <i>The Double Marriage</i>. +In those admirable tragedies the style is looser, more +fluid, more feminine. From the first scene to the last we +are swept as it were along the race of a running river, always +at full flow of light and buoyant melody, with no dark reaches +or perilous eddies, no stagnant pools or sterile sandbanks; +its bright course only varied by sudden rapids or a stronger +ripple here and there, but in rough places or smooth +still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in +those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of +Beaumont’s genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a +deeper key of emotion is touched, than ever was struck by +Fletcher. The lighter genius is palpably subordinate to the +stronger, and loyally submits itself to the impression of a loftier +spirit. It is true that this distinction is never grave enough to +produce a discord: it is also true that the plays in which the +predominance of Beaumont’s mind and style is generally perceptible +make up altogether but a small section of the work that +bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within +this section the most precious part of that work is comprised. +Outside it we shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such +clearness of outline, no such cunning of hands as we recognize +in the three great studies of Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In +his male characters, as for instance in the parts of Philaster and +Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show something of that +exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague is perhaps +more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there +is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a +rigid criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with +the gentle beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which +Aspatia procures herself the death desired at the hand of +Amintor. This is noted as a fault by Dyce; but may well be +forgiven for the sake of the magnificent scene which follows, and +the highest tragic effect ever attained on the stage of either poet. +That this as well as the greater part of those other scenes which +are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might readily be +shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene +of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the +earlier years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of +Fletcher; but the part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the +main assigned to the more potent hand of his fellow. There is +a fine harmony of character between her naked audacity in the +second act and her fierce repentance in the fourth, which is +not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of Shakespeare; +Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful of the +nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature, +compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From +him we might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of +handling, but hardly in such perfect keeping as this of Beaumont’s +Evadne, the murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of +one crimson colour with her sin. Nor even in Fletcher’s Ordella, +worthy as the part is throughout even of the precious and +exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such cunning touch of +tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the parts of +Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness, +a subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight, +beyond the reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female +character have dignity, energy, devotion of the heroic type; +but they never touch us to the quick, never waken in us any +finer and more profound sense than that of applause and admiration. +There is a modest pathos now and then in his pictures of +feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this +submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like +in its abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so +many generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories +of Aspatia and Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for +Fletcher as in the masculine parts of his work it was enough for +him to excite wonder, to sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate +by any vivid and violent means the interest of readers or spectators. +The single instance of noble pathos, the one scene he has +left us which appeals to the higher and purer kind of pity, is the +death of the child Hengo in <i>Bonduca</i>—a scene which of itself +would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on the list of our +great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the whole +merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit and +splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and +demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton, +which is one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of +overstrained and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher; +yet the parts of Caratach and Poenius may be counted among +the loftiest and most equal of his creations. But no surer test +or better example can be taken of the distinctive quality which +denotes the graver genius of either poet than that supplied by +a comparison of Beaumont’s <i>Triumph of Love</i> with Fletcher’s +<i>Triumph of Death</i>. Each little play, in the brief course of its +single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick +of its author’s hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of +Beaumont, the rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have +nowhere found a more noticeable vent for the expression respectively +of the most tender and profound simplicity of quiet sweetness, +the most buoyant and impatient energy of tragic emotion.</p> + +<p>In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet +easier to distinguish the respective work of either hand. The +bias of Fletcher was towards mixed comedy; his lightest and +wildest humour is usually crossed or tempered by an infusion +of romance; like Shakespeare in this one point at least, he has +left no single play without some touch on it of serious interest, +of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and fugitive. +Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben +Jonson’s more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his +genius with the whole force of a resolute will into the form or +mould prescribed for comedy by the elder and greater comic poet. +The admirable study of the worthy citizen and his wife, who +introduce to the stage and escort with their applause <i>The Knight +of the Burning Pestle</i> through his adventurous career to its +untimely end, has all the force and fulness of Jonson’s humour +at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure comedy, +varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was +the earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose +mantle was afterwards to be shared among the academic poets +of a younger generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page595" id="page595"></a>595</span> +sought shelter under the shadow of its voluminous folds. The +best example of the school of Jonson to be found outside the +ample range of his own work is <i>The Scornful Lady</i>, a comedy +whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must have +been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its +wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross +humour of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, invention +or character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher +which a critic who weighs the meaning of his words can admit +to be as coarse as the coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are +prone, indeed, to indulge elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant +licence of talk; and Fletcher, at least, is liable to confuse the +shades of right and wrong, to deface or efface the boundary lines +of good and evil, to stain the ermine of virtue and palliate the +nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and incongruous +laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the business +of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some particular +scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all seemliness +and consistency of character to the present aim of stage +effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious +eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy +of Diana in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this +play both style and sentiment are throughout on a lower level, +the action and emotion are of a baser kind than usual; the +precept of Aristotle and the practice of Jonson have been so +carefully observed and exaggerated that it might almost be said +to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely of the +sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full +as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the +comedy extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of +reservation as permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon +the clerical character) is certainly more offensive to artistic law +and aesthetic judgment by the general and ingrained coarseness +of its tone, than the tragi-comedy denounced by the immoral +Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst work and that of +his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in passing, as +groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is impudent; +for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising +panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval +of “the austere scarlet” (remembering, perhaps, that Aristophanes +was the chosen bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at least no +such offence against art or taste in the eccentricity of its +situations or the daring of its dialogue. The buoyant and +facile grace of Fletcher’s style carries him lightly across quagmires +in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of slower tread, +would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the knees. +To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic +pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour; +to Fletcher had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of +invention, a more aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more +various readiness and fulness of bright exuberant speech. The +genius of Beaumont was deeper, sweeter, nobler than his elder’s; +the genius of Fletcher more brilliant, more supple, more prodigal, +and more voluble than his friend’s. Without a taint or a shadow +on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and degrades +the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont +may fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his +comedy of Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than as a +client, as an ally than as a follower: but the more special +province of Fletcher was a land of his own discovering, where +no later colonist has ever had power to settle or to share his +reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of Shakespeare it +has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation of +graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action. +Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire. +The rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track +are too sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown +of praise is to have created a wholly new and wholly delightful +form of mixed comedy or dramatic romance, dealing merely +with the humours and sentiments of men, their passions and +their chances; to have woven of all these a web of emotion +and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours +and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift +light sureness of touch, that we may return once and again from +those heights and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden +him, ready as ever to enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable +charm, the force and ease and grace of life, which fill and animate +the radiant world of his romantic invention. Neither before +him nor after do we find, in this his special field of fancy and of +work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or departing +genius. Admirable as are his tragedies already mentioned, rich +in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as +is the Roman history of <i>The False One</i>, full of interest +and vigour as is the better part of <i>Rollo Duke of Normandy</i>, +and sublime in the loveliness of passion as is the one scene of +perfect beauty and terror which crowns this latter tragedy, +Fletcher may claim a yet higher and more special station among his great dramatic +peers by right of his comic and romantic than by right of his +tragic and historic plays. Even in these he is more a romantic +than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius, never sombre or +subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air and +sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless +boyish laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more +of rainbow than of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is +but a tragic twilight. What with him is the noon of night would +seem as sunshine on the stage of Ford or Webster. There is +but one passage in all these noble plays which lifts us beyond a +sense of the stage, which raises our admiration out of speech +into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a touch +of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted +for an instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare’s +tragedy, when Amintor stands between the dead and the dying +woman whom he has unwittingly slain with hand and tongue. +The first few lines that drop from his stricken lips are probably +the only verses of Beaumont or Fletcher which might pass for +Shakespeare’s even with a good judge of style—</p> + +<p class="center">“This earth of mine doth tremble,” &c.</p> + +<p>But in Fletcher’s tragedy, however we may be thrilled and +kindled with high contagious excitement, we are never awed into +dumb delight or dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or +pity too deep or even deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts +and Martias can hardly persuade us to forget for the moment +that “they do but jest, poison in jest.” A critic bitten with the +love of classification might divide those plays of Fletcher usually +ranked together as comedies into three kinds: the first he would +class under the head of pure comedy, the next of heroic or +romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in +this, the last and most delightful division of the poet’s work the +special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended +and delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant +examples of this class are <i>The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas, +The Custom of the Country</i>, and <i>The Elder Brother</i>. Next +to these and not too far below them, we may put <i>The Little +French Lawyer</i> (a play which in its broad conception of a +single eccentric humour suggests the collaboration of Beaumont +and the influence of Jonson, but in style and execution throughout +is perfect Fletcher), <i>The Humorous Lieutenant</i> (on which +an almost identical verdict might be passed), <i>Women Pleased, +Beggars’ Bush</i>, and perhaps we might add <i>The Fair Maid +of the Inn</i>; in most if not in all of which the balance of +exultant and living humour with serious poetic interest of a +noble and various kind is held with even hand and the skill of +a natural master. In pure comedy <i>Rule a Wife and have a Wife</i> +is the acknowledged and consummate masterpiece of Fletcher. +Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and force of character, +<i>Wit without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The Chances</i>, +and <i>The Noble Gentleman</i>, a broad poetic farce to whose +overflowing fun and masterdom of extravagance no critic has +ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has ventured, not without +reason, to match its joyous and preposterous audacities of +superlative and sovereign foolery with the more +sharp-edged satire and practical merriment of <i>King and No +King</i>, where the keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his +swordsmen is as typical of the comic style in which Beaumont +had been trained up under Ben Jonson as the high interest and graduated action of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page596" id="page596"></a>596</span> +serious part of the play are characteristic of his more earnest +genius. Among the purely romantic plays of Fletcher, or those +in which the comic effect is throughout subordinate to the +romantic, <i>The Knight of Malta</i> seems most worthy of the highest +place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which informs +it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion and +Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example +of those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of +visionary chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the +romance of more recent days has sought to cast the glamour of a +mirage over the darkest and deadliest “ages of faith.” The pure +and fervent eloquence of the style is in perfect keeping with the +high romantic interest of character and story. In the same class +we may rank among the best samples of Fletcher’s workmanship +<i>The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a Month, Love’s +Pilgrimage</i>, and <i>The Lover’s Progress</i>,—rich all of them in +exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and +graceful and passionate interludes. In <i>The Coxcomb</i>, and <i>The +Honest Man’s Fortune</i>—two plays which, on the whole, can +hardly be counted among the best of their class—there are tones +of homelier emotion, touches of a simpler and more pathetic +interest than usual; and here, as in the two admirable first +scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which relieve and redeem +from contempt the tragic burlesque of <i>Cupid’s Revenge</i>, the note +of Beaumont’s manner is at once discernible.</p> + +<p>Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great +twin poets must impress every capable student with a sense of +the homage due to this living witness of their large and liberal +genius. The loss of their names from the roll of English poetry +would be only less than the loss of the few greatest inscribed on +it. Nothing could supply the want of their tragic, their comic or +romantic drama; no larger or more fiery planet can ever arise to +supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our zodiac. Whatever +their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in their very names +or the mere thought of their common work a kind of special and +personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic poetry. +There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us; if +there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its +gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were +a music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early +manhood, a joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful +labour, which might charm asleep for ever all thought or blame +of all mortal infirmity or folly, or any stain of earth that may +have soiled in passing the feet of creatures half human and half +divine while yet they dwelt among men. For good or for evil, +they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot conceive of +them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the +authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience. +In the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on +earth were their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move +among the graver presences and figures of sedater fame like the +two spoilt boys of heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of +all the brood of deity. Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson +may have nodded approval of their bright swift work, neither of +these great elders grudging his praise to the special charm which +won for it a preference during one generation at least even over +their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the advance in +natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike manifest +whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine +and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit +of Jonson or even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too +stiff with classic starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches +and forced conceits, to persuade us that either can in any age have +fairly represented the light free talk and facile humour of its +youth. In another field than this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as +high and secure a station of their own as any poet of their race. +In perfect workmanship of lyrical jewellery, in perfect bloom and +flower of song-writing, they equal all compeers whom they do not +excel; the blossoms of their growth in this kind may be matched +for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare’s, and for morning +freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest grafts of +Jonson. <i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i> alone might speak for Fletcher +on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in semi-dramatic +shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost faultless; +but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the acting +plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was the +submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too +probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike +the loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And +whether we assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of +melancholy (<i>moestius lacrymis Simonideis</i>), perfect in form as +Catullus and profound in sentiment as Shelley, which Milton +himself could but echo and expand, could not heighten or deepen +its exquisite intensity of thought and word alike, there will +remain witness enough for the younger brother of a lyric power as +pure and rare as his elder’s.</p> + +<p>The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets +usually ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for +some half century or so after their own time has perhaps been +somewhat overstated by tradition. Whatever may have been +for a season the fashion of the stage, it is certain that Shakespeare +can show two editions for one against them in folio; four in all +from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their two of 1647 and +1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even plausibly +be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a school +either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their +survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot +properly be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of +the time had so much in common with them as he. At first +sight, indeed, his choice of romantic subject and treatment of +foreign stories, gathered from the fertile tale-tellers of the south, +and ranging in date from Boccaccio to Cervantes, may seem to +mark him out as a member of the same school; but the deepest +and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far apart from +theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or +discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of +works in which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside +theirs, the tone of his thought and speech seems by comparison +severe as well as sober, and sad as well as severe. Their extravagant +and boyish insanity of prostrate royalism is not more +alien from his half pensive and half angry undertone of political +protest than his usually careful and complete structure of story +from their frequently lax and slovenly incoherence of character +or plot, than his well composed and proportioned metre from +their lighter and looser melodies, than the bitter insistence and +elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on hypocrisy or oppression +from the gaiety or facility of mood which suffers them in +the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters by some +juggler’s trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them +to wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of +oblivion on all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such +steady skill and explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the +strenuous and able work of Massinger at its highest point of +success has no breath in it of their brighter and more immediate +inspiration. Shirley, on the other hand, may certainly be classed +as a pupil who copied their style in water-colour; his best +tragedy and his best comedy, <i>The Traitor</i> and <i>The Lady of +Pleasure</i>, might pass muster undetected among the plays of +Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest +class of these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an +almost exact reproduction of Fletcher’s metrical effects,—a +reverberation of that flowing music, a reiteration of those +feminine final notes. In his later tragi-comedies, throughout +his masterpiece of <i>Women beware Women</i>, and in the noble +scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of <i>The Changeling</i> +or <i>The Spanish Gipsy</i>,—wherever, in a word, we find the +admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best—we find +a likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which +undoubtedly suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances +of imitation, other examples of discipleship, might perhaps be +found among lesser men of the next generation; but the mass +of succeeding playwrights began in a very short time to lower +the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry; and +especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page597" id="page597"></a>597</span> +form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last and least +of those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet +discernible, we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications +of legitimate descent exactly such marks of decadence rather +than degeneracy as we might have anticipated in the latest heir +of a long line which began with the rise of Marlowe, “sun of the +morning,” in the highest heaven of our song, to prepare a pathway +for the sun. After Shakespeare there was yet room for +Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other constellations +had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that +diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room +in heaven for the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this +last reflex from a sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had +passed away from English drama, to alight upon that summit of +epic song, whence Milton held communion with darkness and +the stars.</p> +<div class="author">(A. C. S.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Bibliographical Appendix</p> + +<p>The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and +Fletcher are: <i>Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beaumont +and John Fletcher Gentlemen</i>, printed by Humphrey +Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing plays “never printed +before”; <i>Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written, &c.</i> (fol. 1679); +<i>Works ...</i> (11 vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander Dyce, +which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman +and H. Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second +two-volume edition by Dyce in 1852; <i>The Works of Francis +Beaumont and John Fletcher</i> (15 vols. 1905, &c.) edited by Arnold +Glover and A.R. Waller in the “Cambridge English Classics” +from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving variant readings from +all separate issues of the plays previous to that edition; and +<i>Works ...</i> (12 vols. 1904, &c.), under the general editorship +of A.H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with +many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs +and excursuses by the editor.</p> + +<p>The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher +is to be found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the +two dramatists and their collaborators has been the object of a +series of studies for the establishment of metrical and other tests. +Fletcher’s verse is recognizable by the frequency of an extra +syllable, often an accented one, at the end of a line, the use of +stopped lines, and the frequency of trisyllabic feet. He thus +obtained an adaptable instrument enabling him to dispense +with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in these +matters was done by F.G. Fleay in a paper read before the New +Shakspere Society in 1874 on “Metrical Tests as applied to +Fletcher, Beaumont and Massinger.” His theories were further +developed in the article “Fletcher” in his <i>Biog. Chron. of the +Eng. Drama</i>. Further investigations were published by R. Boyle +in <i>Englische Studien</i> (vols. v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), and in +the New Shakspere Society <i>Transactions</i> (1880-1886), by Benno +Leonhardt in <i>Anglia</i> (Halle, vols. xix. <i>seq.</i>), and by E.H. Oliphant +in <i>Englische Studien</i> (vols. xiv. <i>seq.</i>). Mr Oliphant restores to +Beaumont much which other critics had been inclined to deny +him. On the sources of the plays see E. Köppel in <i>Münchener +Beiträge zur roman. u. eng. Phil.</i> (Erlangen and Leipzig, 1895). +Consult further articles by A.H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively +on Fletcher and Massinger in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i>; G.C. +Macaulay, <i>Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study</i> (1883); and +Dr A.W. Ward’s chapter on “Beaumont and Fletcher” in +vol. ii. of his <i>Hist. of Eng. Dram. Lit.</i> (new ed. 1899).</p> + +<p>A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with +some details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main +lines of criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne’s article above it is +often difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where +the play was produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write +for the stage there can be no certainty that we are not dealing +with a piece which is an adaptation of an earlier play by a later +hand.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher.—The Scornful Lady</i> +(acted <i>c.</i> 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in +which Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a +fourth hand. <i>Philaster or Love Lies a-Bleeding</i> is assigned by +Macaulay to Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Fleay +attributes only three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c. +1609, and was printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle +and (1763) by the younger Colman, probably owing its long popularity +to the touching character of Bellario. Beaumont’s share also +predominated in <i>The Maid’s Tragedy</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1609, pr. 1619), in <i>A +King and No King</i> (acted at court December 26, 1611, and perhaps earlier, pr. +1619), while <i>The Knight of the Burning Pestle</i> (<i>c.</i> 1610, pr. +1613), burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood’s +<i>Four Prentices</i> is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to +Beaumont’s account. In <i>Cupid’s Revenge</i> (acted at court January +1612, and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on +Sidney’s <i>Arcadia</i>, the two dramatists appear to have had a third +collaborator in Massinger and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.</p> + +<p>The <i>Coxcomb</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1610, and by the Children of the Queen’s +Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by +Massinger. Fletcher’s collaboration with other dramatists had +begun during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased +to write for the stage two or three years before his death.</p> + +<p><i>Works Assigned to Beaumont’s Sole Authorship.—The Woman Hater</i> +(pr. 1607, as “lately acted by the children of Paul’s”) was assigned +formerly to Fletcher. The <i>Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray’s Inn</i> +was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the +marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of <i>Four Plays, or +Moral Representations, in One</i> (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the <i>Induction</i>, +with <i>The Triumph of Honour</i> and <i>The Triumph of Love</i>, both founded +on tales from the <i>Decameron</i>, are by Beaumont.</p> + +<p><i>Works Assigned to Fletcher’s Sole Authorship.—The Faithful +Shepherdess</i> (pr. <i>c.</i> 1609) was ill received on its original production, +but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author is +practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond’s +<i>Conversations</i> is made to assert that “Beaumont and Fletcher ten +years since hath written <i>The Faithful Shepherdess</i>.” It was translated +into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Milton’s +<i>Comus</i> owes not a little to it. In <i>Four Plays in One</i>, the two last, +<i>The Triumph of Death</i> and <i>The Triumph of Time</i>, are Fletcher’s. In +the indifferent comedy of <i>The Captain</i> (acted 1612-1613, revived +1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than +Fletcher’s, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and +Rowley has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are: <i>Wit Without +Money</i> (acted 1614, pr. 1639); the two romantic tragedies of <i>Bonduca</i> +(in which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than +Bonduca or Boadicea) and <i>Valentinian</i>, both dating from <i>c.</i> 1616 +and printed in the first folio; <i>The Loyal Subject</i> (acted 1618, revived +at court 1633, pr. 1647); <i>The Mad Lover</i> (acted before March 1619, +pr. 1647), which borrows something from the story of Mundus and +Paulina in Josephus (bk. xviii.); <i>The Humorous Lieutenant</i> (1619, +pr. 1647); <i>Woman Pleased</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647); <i>The Woman’s Prize or +The Tamer Tam’d</i> (produced probably between 1610 and 1613, acted +1633 at Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to <i>The +Taming of the Shrew</i>; <i>The Chances</i> (uncertain date, pr. 1647), taken +from <i>La Sennora Cornelia</i> of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after +the Restoration and in the 18th century; <i>Monsieur Thomas</i> (acted +perhaps as early as 1609, pr. 1639); <i>The Island Princess</i> (<i>c.</i> 1621, pr. +1647); <i>The Pilgrim</i> and <i>The Wild Goose-Chase</i> (pr. 1652), the second +of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in +1621, and possibly then not new pieces; <i>A Wife for a Month</i> (acted +1624, pr. 1647); <i>Rule a Wife and Have a Wife</i> (lic. 1624, pr. 1640). +<i>The Pilgrim</i> received additions from Dryden, and was adapted by Vanbrugh.</p> + +<p><i>Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists</i>.—External evidence +of Fletcher’s connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine, +who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: “Playes they did +write together, were great friends,” and elsewhere claimed for +Massinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James +Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used +to be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a +letter from Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for £5 for their +joint necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is +a postscript suggesting the deduction of the sum from the “mony +remaynes for the play of Mr Fletcher and ours.” The problem is +complicated when the existing versions of the play are posterior to +Fletcher’s lifetime, that is, revisions by Massinger or another of +pieces which were even originally of double authorship. In this way +Beaumont’s work may be concealed under successive revisions, and +it would be rash to assert that none of the late plays contains anything +of his. Mr R. Boyle joins the name of Cyril Tourneur to those of Fletcher +and Massinger in connexion with <i>The Honest Man’s Fortune</i> +(acted 1613, pr. 1647), which Fleay identifies with “the play +of Mr Fletcher’s and ours.” <i>The Knight of Malta</i> +(acted 1618-1619, pr. 1647) is in its existing form a revision by +Fletcher, Massinger, and possibly Field, of an earlier play which +Oliphant thinks was probably written by Beaumont about 1608. The same +remarks (with the exclusion of Field’s name) apply to <i>Thierry +and Theodoret</i> (acted <i>c.</i> 1617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire +on contemporary manners at the French court, though Beaumont’s share +in either must be regarded as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger’s +great tragedy of <i>Sir John van Olden Barnaveldt</i> (acted 1619) was +first printed in Bullen’s +<i>Old Plays</i> (vol. ii., 1883). They followed it up with <i>The Custom of the Country</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page598" id="page598"></a>598</span> +(acted 1619, pr. 1647), based on an English translation +(1619) of <i>Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda; The Double Marriage</i> +(<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647); <i>The Little French Lawyer</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647), the +plot of which can be traced indirectly to a <i>novellino</i> by Massuccio +Salernitano; <i>The Laws of Candy</i> (<i>c.</i> 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed +authorship; <i>The False One</i> (<i>c.</i> 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the +subject of Caesar and Cleopatra; <i>The Spanish Curate</i> (acted 1622, pr. +1647), repeatedly revived after the Restoration, was derived from +Leonard Digges’s translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, <i>Gerardo, the +Unfortunate Spaniard; The Prophetess</i> (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards +made into an opera by Betterton to Purcell’s music; <i>The Sea-Voyage</i> +(1622, pr. 1647); <i>The Elder Brother</i> (perhaps originally written by +Fletcher <i>c</i>. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); <i>Beggar’s Bush</i> +(acted at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647); and <i>The +Noble Gentleman</i> (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small +share in <i>Wit at Several Weapons</i>—“if he but writ an act or two,” +says an epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626),—and the play is +probably a revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont +and Fletcher play. <i>A Very Woman</i> (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by +Massinger of <i>The Woman’s Plot</i> ascribed to Fletcher and acted at +court in 1621. Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the +lost play of the <i>Jeweller of Amsterdam</i> (1619), as on the <i>Faithful +Friends</i> (1613-1614) and <i>The Queen of Corinth</i> (<i>c.</i> 1618, pr. 1647). +<i>The Lover’s Progress</i> (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by +Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as <i>The Wandering +Lovers</i>, and is perhaps identical with <i>Cleander</i>, licensed in 1634. +<i>Love’s Cure or The Martial Maid</i> (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr +Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher +play produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher +in <i>The Maid in the Mill</i> (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with +Massinger in the revision of <i>The Fair Maid of the Inn</i> (licensed 1626, +pr. 1647), based on <i>La illustre Fregona</i> of Cervantes. <i>Nice Valour</i> +(acted 1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton +from an earlier play; <i>The Widow</i>, printed in 1652 as by Jonson, +Fletcher and Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to +Middleton. <i>The Night Walker</i> (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a +Fletcher play.</p> + +<p><i>Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration</i>.—The history of <i>The Bloody +Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy</i>, printed in 1637 as by “B.J.F.,” +is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the +play to be an early work (<i>c</i>. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is superimposed +a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and a +subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view +is that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and +Fletcher. Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher’s <i>Love’s +Pilgrimage</i> (pr. 1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger +in 1635.</p> + +<p><i>Fletcher and Shakespeare</i>.—<i>The Two Noble Kinsmen</i> was printed +in 1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its +first representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher’s death. +It was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher’s +comedies and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in +concert it was probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably +represents a revision by Massinger in 1625. <i>Henry VIII.</i> (played +at the Globe in 1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher +and Massinger, and the conditions of its production were probably +similar. Fletcher and Shakespeare are together credited at +Stationers’ Hall with the lost play of <i>Cardenio</i>, destroyed by +Warburton’s cook.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion +as to the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed +to them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the +<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, remains the classical modern criticism +of Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected. +As representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, +it is therefore retained as written, the results of later research being epitomized +in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (<i>Ed.</i>)</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUMONT,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, +Texas, U.S.A., situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of +the state, about 28 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E. +of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296; (1900) 9427, of whom 2953 +were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is served by the +Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the Kansas +City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern, +New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western +(from Beaumont to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston, +Beaumont & North-Eastern railways. The Neches river from +Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not less than 19 ft.; +from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft. wide, and 12 m. +long) which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft. wide +and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of +a region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beaumont +is one of the largest lumber centres of the southern states; +it is also the centre of a large rice-growing region. The +manufactories include rice mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind +factories, shingle mills, iron works, oil refineries, broom factories +and a dynamite factory. In 1905 the cleaning and polishing of +rice was the most important industry, its output being valued +at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the product of the +rice mills of the city in 1900, 25.9% of the total value of the +state’s product of polished and cleaned rice, 46.1% of the value +($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont’s factory products, and about +7.4% of the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice +for the whole United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil +wells in 1901, Beaumont became one of the principal oil-producing +places in the United States; its oil refineries are connected +by pipe lines with the surrounding oil fields, and two 6-in. pipe +lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma. Beaumont was first +settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in 1899.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUNE,<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Côte-d’Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m. +S.S.W. of Dijon on the main line of the Paris-Lyon railway. +Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at the foot of the hills of Côte-d’Or. +Portions of its ancient fortifications are still to be seen, +but they have been for the most part replaced by a shady +promenade which separates the town from its suburbs. The +most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of St +Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy. +Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preservation. +The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround +the main courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by +numerous dormer windows with decorated gables, recalling the +Flemish style of architecture. In the interior there are several +interesting apartments; the chief of these is the ample +council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an important +wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many +artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the 17th +century in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last +Judgment, attributed to Roger van der Weyden. The principal +church of the town, Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the 12th +and 13th centuries, has a fine central tower and a triple portal +with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is some +valuable tapestry of the 15th century, and other works of art. +Two round towers (15th century) are a survival of the castle +of Beaune, dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and +several houses of the Renaissance period, some of which are +built over ancient wine-cellars, are architecturally notable. +There is a statue to the mathematician, G. Monge, born in the +town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the politician +(d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and +viticulture and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on +considerable trade in live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of +its market-gardens, and manufactures of casks, corks, white +metal, oil, vinegar and machinery for the wine-trade are +included among the industries; it is chiefly important for its +vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of Burgundy.</p> + +<p>Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during +the middle ages. It was the capital of a separate county which +in 1227 was united to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became +the first seat of the Burgundian parlement or <i>jours généraux</i> +and a ducal residence. On the death of Charles the Bold, it +sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, but was besieged +and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank as +commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I. +in 1521. In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the +League, but afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry +IV., from whom it received the confirmation of its communal +privileges and permission to demolish its fortifications. The +revocation of the edict of Nantes struck a severe blow at the +cloth and iron industries, which had previously been a source +of prosperity to the town. In the 18th century there were no +fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a Bernardine +abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (<i>c</i>. 1772-?), French adventurer, +the son of a poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born +about 1772. He received the name Beauregard from a nobleman +in whose service he was engaged as valet. On the outbreak of the +revolution, this nobleman converted all his fortune into gold, +and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his valet, fled to +the frontier. For security’s sake master and man took different +roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris. +By speculations in provisions and military equipments under +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page599" id="page599"></a>599</span> +the Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling +himself the marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid +mansion and began giving magnificent entertainments. Detected +at the height of his success, the impostor was arrested +and condemned to four years in irons and to be branded. He +soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear in +Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however, +he disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed +suicide. It is probable that most of the information available +about him is a blend of fact and fiction.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> (1818-1893), +American soldier, was born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the +28th of May 1818. At the United States military academy he +graduated second in his class in July 1838, and was appointed +lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he distinguished +himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in all +the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and +receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became +captain and was in charge of fortification and other engineer +works of various points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860. +He had just been appointed superintendent of West Point when +the secession of his state brought about his resignation (20th +February 1861). As a brigadier-general of the new Confederate +army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S.C. As +the commander of the Southern “Army of the Potomac” he +opposed McDowell’s advance to Bull Run, and during the battle +was second in command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had +joined him on the previous evening. He was one of the five full +generals appointed in August 1861, and in 1862 was second in +command under Sidney Johnston on the Tennessee. After +Johnston’s death he directed the battle of Shiloh, subsequent +to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended against +the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862, +when he retreated in good order to the southward. His health +now failing, he was employed in less active work. He defended +Charleston against the Union forces from September 1862 to +April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a severe and eventually +successful battle at Drury’s Bluff against General Butler and +the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to +gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman’s advance from +Atlanta, and eventually surrendered with Johnston’s forces in +April 1865. After the war he engaged in railway management, +became adjutant-general of his state and managed the Louisiana +lottery. He declined high commands which were offered to him +in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies. General +Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 20th of February 1893. +He was the author of <i>Principles and Maxims of the Art of War</i> +(Charleston, 1863); <i>Report on the Defence of Charleston</i> (Richmond, 1864).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Alfred Roman, <i>Military Operations of General Beauregard</i> (New York, 1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span> (1659-1738), French Protestant +divine, was born at Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After +studying theology at the Protestant academy of Saumur, he was +ordained at the age of twenty-two, becoming pastor at +Chatillon-sur-Indre. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes +he fled to Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was appointed chaplain +to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of Orange. In +1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin and +became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor +of the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher, +counsellor of the Consistory, director of the <i>Maison française</i>, +a hospice for French people, inspector of the French gymnasium and +superintendent of all the French churches in Brandenburg. He died +on the 5th of June 1738. He had strong sense with profound +erudition, was one of the best writers of his time and +an excellent preacher.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUVAIS,<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> a town of northern France, capital of the department +of Oise, 49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway. +Pop. (1906) 17,045. Beauvais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the +left bank of the Thérain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its +ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded +by boulevards, outside which run branches of the Thérain. In +addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the +town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some respects the most +daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a +transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The +vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small +Romanesque church of the 10th century known as the Basse-Oeuvre +occupies the site destined for the nave. Begun in 1247, +the work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of the vaulting +of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a too ambitious central tower, +after which little addition was made. The transept was built +from 1500 to 1548. Its façades, especially that on the south, +exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved +wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are masterpieces +respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship. The church +possesses an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and +tapestries of the 15th and 17th centuries; but its chief artistic +treasures are stained glass windows of the 13th, 14th and 16th +centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of the +Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To +him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Étienne, the second +church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition +stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.</p> + +<p>In the Place de l’Hôtel de Ville and in the old streets near the +cathedral there are several houses dating from the 12th to the +16th centuries. The hôtel de ville, close to which stands the +statue of Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1752. The +episcopal palace, now used as a court-house, was built in the +16th century, partly upon the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The +industry of Beauvais comprises, besides the state manufacture of +tapestry, which dates from 1664, the manufacture of various +kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, boots and shoes, +and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in the vicinity +and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.</p> + +<p>The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of +assizes; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, +together with a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of +France, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a lycée and training +colleges.</p> + +<p>Beauvais was known to the Romans as <i>Caesaromagus</i>, and took +its present name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose +capital it was. In the 9th century it became a countship, which +about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately +became peers of France. In 1346 the town had to defend itself +against the English, who again besieged it in 1433. The siege +which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of Burgundy +was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the +leadership of Jeanne Hachette, whose memory is still celebrated +by a procession on the 14th of October (the feast of Ste Angadrème), +in which the women take precedence of the men.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See V. Lhuillier, <i>Choses du vieux Beauvais et au Beauvaisis</i> (1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUVILLIER,<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> the name of a very ancient French family +belonging to the country around Chartres, members of which are +found filling court offices from the 15th century onward. For +Charles de Beauvillier, gentleman of the chamber to the king, +governor and <i>bailli</i> of Blois, the estate of Saint Aignan was created a countship in 1537. François de Beauvillier, comte de Saint +Aignan, after having been through the campaigns in Germany +(1634-1635), Franche-Comté (1636), and Flanders (1637), was +sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the battle of +Thionville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court party +during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint +Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duché-pairie) +in 1663. His son Paul, called the duc de Beauvillier, was +several times ambassador to England; he became chief of the +council of finance in 1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy, +Anjou and Berri from 1689 to 1693, minister of state in 1691, and +grandee of Spain in 1701. He married a daughter of Colbert. +Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de Montrésor, afterwards +duc de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from 1715 to +1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of +regency in 1719.</p> +<div class="author">(M. P.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page600" id="page600"></a>600</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> the <i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Eugène +Auguste Roger de Bully</span> (1806-1866), French writer, who +was born on the 8th of November 1806 in Paris. He was the son +and nephew of public officials who did not approve his literary +inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote over the +signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow, +of independent means, an indefatigable <i>viveur</i>, he astonished all +Paris with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his +romantic novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation. +Among the best of them are <i>L’Écolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme</i> +(1832), which is said to have furnished Alexandre Dumas and +Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with the idea of the <i>Tour de +Nesle</i>, and <i>Le Chevalier de Saint Georges</i> (1840). He had married +in 1847 an actress, Eléonore Léocadie Doze (1822-1859), from +whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two later after +a long and notorious trial, following which his mother-in-law got +him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs for a +satirical poem, <i>Mon Procès</i> (1849). Ruined by extravagance +and tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life +in retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAUX, CECILIA<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1863-  ), American portrait-painter, +was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil +of William Sartain. But her real art training was obtained in +Paris, where she started in the <i>atelier</i> Julian and had the coaching +of painters like Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan +Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition. +Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in 1893 the gold +medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at +the New York National Academy, and later various other +distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy +of Design, New York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those +of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer (exhibited at the Salon in 1896); +Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and Mrs Larz Anderson. +Her “Dorothea and Francesca,” and “Ernesta and her Little +Brother,” are good examples of her skill in painting children.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAVER,<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span><a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the largest European aquatic representative of the +mammalian order <span class="sc">Rodentia</span> (<i>q.v.</i>), easily recognized by its large +trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal +direction. The true beaver (<i>Castor fiber</i>) is a native of Europe +and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a +closely-allied species (<i>C. canadensis</i>), chiefly distinguished by +the form of the nasal bones of the skull. Beavers are nearly +allied to the squirrels (<i>Sciuridae</i>), agreeing in certain structural +peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the <i>Sciuridae</i> the +two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are +quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are +arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or <i>Castoridae</i> these +bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed, +expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have +webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. +In length beavers—European and American—measure about +2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are +covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial +value; this consists of two kinds of hair—the one close-set, +silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and +longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially aquatic +in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by +necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver +has not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of +the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the +Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. The American +species is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant +pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are sociable +anirrals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of +sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and +boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the +neighbourhood they make their “lodges,” which are roomy +chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is +plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by +the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. They are mainly +nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of +water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature +of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it +is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, +with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use +of are driftwood, green willows, birch and poplars; also mud +and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the +strength of the dam, but there is no particular method observed, +except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that +all the parts are made of equal strength. “In places,” writes +Hearne, “which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, +their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, +capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as +the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, +they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I +have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests +among the branches.” Their houses are formed of the same +materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure, +and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young +beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger +houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of +the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for +the apartments have usually no communication with each other +except by water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with +their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They +always work in the night and with great expedition. They +cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, +freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, +so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.</p> + +<p>The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily +(<i>Nuphar luteum</i>), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk, +and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also +gnaw the bark of birch, poplar and willow trees; but during +the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, +is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they always +leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before +the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, +and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to +repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer +coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new +habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin +building till towards the end of August.</p> + +<p>The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and +when roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to +taste like pork. <i>Castoreum</i> is a substance contained in two +pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction, +of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely +employed as a medicine, but now used only in perfumery.</p> + +<p>Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other +superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; +while in the Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur +remains of a giant extinct beaver, <i>Trogontherium cuvieri</i>, representing +a genus by itself.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the <i>Bergens +Museum Aarbog</i> for 1897. See also R.T. Martin, <i>Castorologia, a +History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver</i> (London, 1892).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf. +Sanskrit <i>babhrús</i>, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. <i>fiber</i>, Ger. <i>Biber</i>, +Swed. <i>bafver</i>, Russ. <i>bobr’</i>; the root <i>bhru</i> has given “brown,” and, +through Romanic, “bronze” and “burnish.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAVER<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (from Fr. <i>bavière</i>, a child’s bib, from <i>bave</i>, saliva), +the lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armour to protect +the face and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor +moved down, but the word is sometimes used to include the visor. +The right form of the word, “baver,” has been altered from a +confusion with “beaver,” a hat made of beaver-fur or a silk +imitation, also, in slang, called a “castor,” from the zoological +name of the beaver family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAVER DAM,<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., +situated in the S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee, +on Beaver Lake, which is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890) +4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023 were foreign-born; (1905) +5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is of German +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page601" id="page601"></a>601</span> +descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee & +St Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public +library, and is the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist), +a co-educational preparatory school affiliated with the university +of Chicago. Beaver Dam is situated in the midst of a fine farming +country; it has a good water-power derived from Beaver +Lake, and among its manufactures are woollen and cotton goods, +malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene engines, agricultural +implements, stoves and beer. The city was first settled about +1841, and was incorporated in 1856.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAVER FALLS,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania, +U.S.A., on Beaver river, about 3½ m. from its confluence with +the Ohio, opposite New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of +Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735; (1900) 10,054, of whom 1554 +were foreign-born; (1910), census, 12,191. The borough is +served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie +railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft. +above the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise +abruptly, especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft. +Bituminous coal, natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity; +the river provides excellent water-power; the borough is a +manufacturing centre of considerable importance, its products +including iron and steel bridges, boilers, steam drills, carriages, +saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting, stoves, glass-ware, scales, +chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile, bricks and typewriters. +In 1905 the city’s factory products were valued at $4,907,536. +Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational), +established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was +removed in 1880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1900, 899), +1 m. N. of Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate +department, departments of music, oratory and art, and a +physical department, and in 1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235 +students. Beaver Falls was first settled in 1801; was laid out as +a town and named Brighton in 1806; received its present name +a few years later; and in 1868 was incorporated as a borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEAWAR,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Nayanagar</span>, a town of British India, the +administrative headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-Merwara. +It is 33 m. from Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is +an important centre of trade, especially in raw cotton, and has +cotton presses and the Krishna cotton mills. It was founded +by Colonel Dixon in 1835.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (1840-  ), German socialist, +was born at Cologne on the 22nd of February 1840; he became +a turner and worked at Leipzig. Here he took a prominent part +in the workmen’s movement and in the association of working +men which had been founded under the influence of Schultz-Delitzsch; +at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the +influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed +advocate of socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the +branch of the socialists which was in close correspondence with +Karl Marx and the International, and refused to accept the +leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to carry on the +work after Lassalle’s death. He was one of those who supported +a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach +conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as +“the Eisenacher.” In this year he was elected a member of the +North German Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with +an interval from 1881 to 1883, remained a member of the German +parliament. His great organizing talent and oratorical power +quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their +chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and Liebknecht +were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary +subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of +Lassalle, on the other hand, voted for the government proposals. +He was the only Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in +1871, but he used his position to protest against the annexation +of Alsace-Lorraine and to express his full sympathy with the +Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards said that this speech +of Bebel’s was a “ray of light,” showing him that Socialism was +an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872 Bebel +was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and +condemned to two years’ imprisonment in a fortress, and, for +insulting the German emperor, to nine months’ ordinary imprisonment. +After his release he helped to organize, at the congress +of Gotha, the united party of Social Democrats, which +had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing +of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the +debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the +Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was proclaimed in +Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned +to nine months’ imprisonment for taking part in a secret society. +Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not recognize +a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far +the most influential member of the party. In the party meetings +of 1890 and 1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the +extremists, the “young” Socialists from Berlin, who wished +to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a +complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a +quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside +from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the +Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bringing +about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual +amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel +came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional +views of the orthodox Marxist party. He was exposed to some +natural ridicule on the ground that the “Kladderadatsch,” which +he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make its appearance. +On the other hand, though a strong opponent of militarism, he +publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany must not +expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His +book, <i>Die Frau und der Socialismus</i> (1893), which went through +many editions and contained an attack on the institution of marriage, +identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Mehring, <i>Geschichte der deutschen Social-Demokratie</i> +(Stuttgart, 1898); <i>Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social +Democratic Party</i>, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890); +B. Russell, <i>German Social-Democracy</i> (London, 1897).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. W. He.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECCAFICO<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (Ital. for “fig-pecker”), a small migratory bird +of the warbler (<i>Sylviidae</i>) family, which frequents fig-trees and +vineyards, and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> (1486-1551), Italian +painter, of the school of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan +republics Siena had been in artistic genius, and almost in political +importance, the rival of Florence. But after the great plague in +1348 the city declined; and though her population always comprised +an immense number of skilled artists and artificers, yet +her school did not share in the general progress of Italy in the +15th century. About the year 1500, indeed, Siena had no native +artists of the first importance; and her public and private +commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But +after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo +at Rome in 1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the +desire of imitating them. Among these accomplished men who +now, without the mind and inspiration of Raphael or Michelangelo, +mastered a great deal of their manner, and initiated the +decadence of Italian art, several of the most accomplished arose +in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the son of a +peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a +well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs +of a talent for drawing in his labourer’s son, Lorenzo Beccafumi +took the boy into his service and presently adopted him, causing +him to learn painting from masters of the city. Known afterwards +as Domenico Beccafumi, or earlier as Il Mecarino (from +the name of a poor artist with whom he studied), the peasant’s +son soon gave proof of extraordinary industry and talent. In +1509 he went to Rome and steeped himself in the manner of the +great men who had just done their first work in the Vatican. +Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly gained employment +and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a +vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mythological +decorations for private patrons. But the work by which +he will longest be remembered is that which he did for the +celebrated pavement of the cathedral of Siena. For a hundred +and fifty years the best artists of the state had been engaged +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page602" id="page602"></a>602</span> +laying down this pavement with vast designs in <i>commesso</i> work,—white +marble, that is, engraved with the outlines of the subject in +black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in many +colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in +continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improvements +in the technical processes employed, and laid down +multitudinous scenes from the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of +Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses. These are not so interesting +as the simpler work of the earlier schools, but are much +more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their +fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when +he was collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try +and purchase the original cartoons. But their owner would not +part with them, and they are now in the Siena Academy and +elsewhere. The subjects have been engraved on wood, by the +hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at one time or +another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a +triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the procession +of the emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In +his later days, being a solitary liver and continually at work, he +is said to have accelerated his death by over-exertion upon the +processes of bronze-casting.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> (1716-1781), Italian +physicist, was born at Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and +entered the religious order of the Pious Schools in 1732. He +became professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo and +then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar situation at Turin +in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young princes de +Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at +Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was +elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published +several papers on electrical subjects in the <i>Phil. Trans</i>. +He died at Turin on the 27th of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the +way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge +of the electrical researches of Franklin and others. His principal +work was the treatise <i>Dell’ Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale</i> +(1753), which was translated into English in 1776.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE,<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marchese de</span> (1735-1794), +Italian publicist, was born at Milan on the 15th of March +1735. He was educated in the Jesuit college at Parma, and +showed at first a great aptitude for mathematics. The study +of Montesquieu seems to have directed his attention towards +economic questions; and his first publication (1762) was a +tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states, +with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction +with his friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began +to publish a small journal, in imitation of the <i>Spectator</i>, +called <i>Il Caffè</i>. In 1764 he published his brief but justly +celebrated treatise <i>Dei Delitti e delle Pene</i> (“On Crimes and Punishments”). +The weighty reasonings of this work were expounded with all the +additional force of a clear and animated style. It pointed out +distinctly and temperately the grounds of the right of punishment, +and from these principles deduced certain propositions as to the +nature and amount of punishment which should be inflicted for +any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within eighteen +months it passed through six editions. It was translated into +French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous +commentary by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in +1768 and it was translated into several other languages. Many +of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European +nations are traceable to Beccaria’s treatise. In November 1768 +he was appointed to the chair of law and economy, which had +been founded expressly for him at the Palatine college of Milan. +His lectures on political economy, which are based on strict +utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories +of the English school of economists. They are published in the +collection of Italian writers on political economy (<i>Scrittori +Classici Italiani di Economia politico</i>., vols. xi. and xii.). +In 1771 Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council; +and in 1791 he was appointed one of the board for the reform of +the judicial code. In this post his labours were of very great +value. He died at Milan on the 28th of November 1794.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECCLES,<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span> a market town and municipal borough, in the +Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the +right bank of the river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by +the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant, +well-wooded site overlooking the flat lands bordering the +Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly Perpendicular, is a +fine example of the style, having an ornate south porch of two +storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar school +(1712), and boys’ school and free school on the foundation of Sir +John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated +manor of brick, of the 16th century. Printing works, malting, +brick and tile, and agricultural implement works are the chief +industries. Beccles was incorporated in 1584. It is governed by +a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2017 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECERRA, GASPAR<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> (1520-1570), Spanish painter and +sculptor, was born at Baéza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome, +it is said under Michelangelo, and assisted Vasari in painting +the hall of the Concelleria. He also contributed to the anatomical +plates of Valverde. After his return to Spain he was extensively +employed by Philip II., and decorated many of the rooms in +the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted altar-pieces +for several of the churches, most of which have been destroyed. +His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter. His +best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was +destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at +Madrid in 1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment +of the fine arts in Spain.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÊCHE-DE-MER<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (sometimes explained as “sea-spade,” from +the shape of the prepared article, but more probably from the +Port, <i>bicho</i>, a worm or grub), or <span class="sc">Trepang</span> (Malay, <i>tripang</i>), +an important food luxury among the Chinese and other Eastern +peoples, connected with the production of which considerable +trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the coasts of New +Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several species +of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus <i>Holothuria</i>, +especially <i>H. edulis</i>. The creatures, which exist on coral +reefs, have bodies from 6 to 15 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence +their name of “sea-cucumbers.” The skin is sometimes covered +with spicules or prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with +or without “teats” or ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five +varieties are recognized in the commerce of the Pacific Islands, +the finest of which is the “brown with teats.” The large black +come next in value, followed by the small black, the red-bellied +and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups which form +an important article of food in China. They are prepared for +use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried +first in the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are +slightly smoked.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> (1635-1682), German chemist, +physician, scholar and adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635. +His father, a Lutheran minister, died while he was yet a child, +leaving a widow and three children. The mother married again; +the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the children; and +at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not +only for his own support but also for that of his mother and +brothers. He learned and practised several small handicrafts, and +devoting his nights to study of the most miscellaneous description +earned a pittance by teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen, +he published an edition of Salzthal’s <i>Tractatus de lapide +trismegisto</i>; his <i>Metallurgia</i> followed in 1660; and the +next year appeared his <i>Character pro notitia linguarum universali</i>, +in which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal language. +In 1663 he published his <i>Oedipum Chemicum</i> and a book on +animals, plants and minerals (<i>Thier- Kräuter- und Bergbuch</i>). +At the same time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical. +He negotiated with the elector palatine for the establishment +of factories at Mannheim; suggested to the elector of Bavaria +the creation of German colonies in Guiana and the West Indies; +and brought down upon himself the wrath of the Munich +merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manufacture +and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready +welcome elsewhere. In 1666 he was appointed teacher of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page603" id="page603"></a>603</span> +medicine at Mainz and body-physician to the archbishop-elector; +and the same year he was made councillor of commerce (<i>Commerzienrat</i>) +at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful support of +Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand chamberlain +of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission +to Holland, he there wrote in ten days his <i>Methodus Didactica</i>, +which was followed by the <i>Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossenschaft</i> +and the <i>Politischer Discurs vom Auj- und Abblühen der +Städte</i>. In 1669 he published his <i>Physica subterranea</i>, and the +same year was engaged with the count of Hanau in a scheme +for settling a large territory between the Orinoco and the Amazon. +Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the elector of +Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the +establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a +great company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal +to unite the Rhine and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria, +and his absence bringing him into ill odour at Vienna, he +complained of the incompetence of the council of commerce +and dedicated a tract on trade (<i>Commercien-Tractat</i>) to the +emperor Leopold. His <i>Psychosophia</i> followed, and “An invitation +to a psychological community” (<i>Einladung zu einer +psychologischen Societät</i>), for the realization of which Duke +Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow (d. 1695) offered +him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to nothing, and +next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to transmute +Danube sand into gold, and writing his <i>Theses chemicae veritatem +transmutationis metallorum evincentes</i>. For some reason he +incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where +with the aid of the government he continued his experiments. +Pursued even there by the resentment of his former +patron, he crossed to England, whence he visited the mines of +Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He afterwards went +for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year. At +the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society, +<i>De nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurata horologiorum +constructione</i>, in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of +the honour of applying the pendulum to the measurement of +time. The views of Becher on the composition of substances +mark little essential advance on those of the two preceding +centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt, mercury +and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the +combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed that +the last of these, the <i>terra pinguis</i>, was liberated, and this +conception is the basis on which G.E. Stahl founded his doctrine +of “phlogiston.” His ideas and experiments on the nature +of minerals and other substances are voluminously set forth in +his <i>Physica Subterranea</i> (Frankfort, 1669); an edition of this, +published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements +(<i>Experimentum chymicum novum</i> and <i>Demonstratio Philosophica</i>), +proving the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, <i>Experimentum +novum ac curiosum de minera arenaria perpetua</i>, the +paper on timepieces already mentioned and also <i>Specimen +Becherianum</i>, a summary of his doctrines by Stahl, who in the +preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words <i>Becheriana +sunt quae profero</i>. At Falmouth he wrote his <i>Laboratorium +portabile</i> and at Truro the <i>Alphabetum minerale</i>. In 1682 he +returned to London, where he wrote the <i>Chemischer Glückshafen +oder grosse Concordanz und Collection van 1500 Processen</i> and +died in October of the same year.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECHUANA,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> a South African people, forming a branch of the +great Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuanaland, +to which they have given their name, and Basutoland, but +are the most numerous native race in the Orange River Colony +and in the western and northern districts of the Transvaal. It +seems certain that they reached their present home later than +the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the east coast +of the continent, but it is probable that they started on their +southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the +forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala, +who were subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the +later arrivals, and who by intermingling to a certain extent with +the aborigines gave rise to the “Kalahari Bushmen” (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kalahari Desert</a></span>). The Bechuana family may be classed in two +great divisions, the western or Bechuana proper, and the eastern +or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a large number of +tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and involved +owing to continual inter-tribal wars and migrations, during +which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further +confusion was produced by subsequent marauding expeditions +by the coast “Kaffirs.” An ingenious attempt to disentangle +the highly complicated tribal movements which took place in +the early 19th century may be found in Stow’s <i>Native Races +of South Africa</i>. One migration of particular interest calls for +mention. In the early part of the 19th century a number of +Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the +Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a +supremacy over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper +portion of the river, imposing their language on the conquered +peoples. After the death of Sekeletu, Sebituane’s successor, +the vassal tribes arose and exterminated their conquerors. Only +a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had sent with David Livingstone +to the coast. These established themselves to the south of Lake +Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto speech, however, +still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana tribes were the +Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou, Bataung, +Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or +Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato, +Batauana, Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing +the southern Bakuena were in comparatively recent times +welded together to form the Basuto nation, of which the founder +was the chief Moshesh (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basutoland</a></span>). The Basuto have +been not only influenced in certain cultural details (<i>e.g.</i> the form +of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples, +but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which +has improved their physique. They are good riders and make +considerable use of their horses in war and the chase.</p> + +<p>The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in. +in stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is +but moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found. +Their skin is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their +features are fairly regular, though in all cases coarser than those +of Europeans. One of their chief peculiarities lies in the fact +that each tribe respects (usually) a particular animal, which the +members of the tribe may not eat, and the killing of which, if +necessary, must be accompanied by profuse apologies and +followed by subsequent purification. Many of the tribes take +their name from their <i>siboko</i>, as the animal in question is called; +<i>e.g.</i> the Batlapin, “they of the fish”; Bakuena, “they of the +crocodile.” The <i>siboko</i> of the Barolong, who as a tribe are +accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other +tribes have adopted as their particular emblem respectively +the sun, rain, dew, &c. Certain ceremonies are performed in +honour of the tribal emblem, hence an inquiry as to the tribe +of an individual is put in the form “What do you dance?” +In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly children were +killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed; those born +blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the +infant was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension +of British authority these practices were prohibited. Circumcision +is universally practised, though there is no fixed age for +it. It is performed at puberty, when the boys are secluded for +a period in the bush. The operation is accompanied by whipping +and even tortures. Girls at puberty must undergo trials of +endurance, <i>e.g.</i> the holding of a bar of heated iron without crying +out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns of considerable +size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they +live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the +chief seldom exercising his individual authority independently, +though the extent of his power naturally depends on his personality. +They have their public assemblies, but only when circumstances, +chiefly in reference to war, require. These are +generally characterized by great freedom of speech, and there +is no interruption of the speaker. The chief generally closes the +meeting with a long speech, referring to the subjects which each +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page604" id="page604"></a>604</span> +speaker has either supported or condemned, not forgetting to +clear his own character of any imputation. These public +assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occurrence. +The clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage; +the women wear a skin apron, reaching to the knee, under +which is a fringed girdle. Skin cloaks (<i>kaross</i>) are worn by both +sexes, with the difference that the male garment is distinguished +by a collar. The hair is kept short for the most part; women +shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which is plastered +with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn, +and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass.</p> + +<p>The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bangwaketse +and Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they +possess, but these are used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing +wives, especially among the Basuto. At the same time they are +excellent craftsmen, and show no little skill in smelting and +working iron and copper and the preparation of hides and +pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong +and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief +Umsilikazi on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters; +the Barolong as wood carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders. +The huts, with the exception of those of the Basuto who have +adopted the Kaffir model, are cylindrical, with clay-plastered +walls and a conical roof of thatch. In spite of the constant +tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the 19th century, the +Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially +when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist +of the throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved +sheaths, and, occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes +poisoned. Hide shields of a peculiar shape, resembling a +depressed hour-glass, are found except among the Basuto, who +use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually takes the +form of great drives organized in concert, and the game is driven +by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of pits. +Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize +a somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies, +called <i>Morimo</i>. The plural form of this word, <i>Barimo</i>, is used +of the <i>manes</i> of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of +reverence is paid. There is universal belief in charms and +witchcraft, and divination by means of dice is common. Witchdoctors, +who are supposed to counteract evil magic, play a not +insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of +making rain occupies a very important position, as might be +expected among an agricultural people inhabiting a country +where droughts are not infrequent. They have a great dread +of anything connected with death; when an old man is on the +point of expiring, a net is thrown over him, and he is dragged +from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before life is extinct. +The dead are buried in a sitting position with their faces to +the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under +the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the +Bechuana have become Christianized, and many of the customs +mentioned are no longer practised.</p> + +<p>Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not +found to the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs]. +The woman is purchased from her father, chiefly by means of +cattle, though among the western Bechuana other articles are +included, many of which become the property of the girl herself. +The wives live in separate huts, and the first is given priority +over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after marriage +is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as +offences against property. Cannibalism is found, but is rare +and confined to certain tribes.</p> + +<p>The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu linguistic +family, is copious, with but few slight dialectic differences, +and is free from the Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and +Zulu tongues. The richness of the language may be judged +from the fact that, though only oral until reduced to writing by +the missionaries, it has sufficed for the translation of the whole +Bible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—G.W. Stow, <i>The Native Races of South Africa</i> +(London, 1905); Gustav Fritsch, <i>Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas</i> +(Breslau, 1872); Robert Moffat, <i>Missionary Labours and Scenes in +Southern Africa</i> (1842); David Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels and +Researches in South Africa</i> (London, 1857); J.C. MacGregor, <i>Basuto +Traditions</i> (Cape Town, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECHUANALAND<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (a name given from its inhabitants, the +Bechuana, <i>q.v.</i>), a country of British South Africa occupying +the central part of the vast tableland which stretches north to the +Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the Orange river, N.E. and E. +by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, and +W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland +geographically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but +politically it is divided as follows:—</p> + +<p>I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape +Colony. Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom +9276 were whites.</p> + +<p>II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of +the country, governed on the lines of a British crown colony. +Area (estimated), 225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom +Europeans numbered 1004. The natives, in addition to the +Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of Bushmen (Masarwa). +Administratively attached to the protectorate is the Tati +concession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the +south-west corner of Matabeleland.</p> + +<p>The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also +geographically to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley +diamond mines region is still largely inhabited by Bechuana. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Griqualand</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Physical Features</i>.—The average height of the tableland of +which Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is +hilly and undulating with a general slope to the west, where the +level falls in considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large +part of the country is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia. +There is very little forest land. The western region, the Kalahari +Desert (<i>q.v.</i>), is mainly arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in +part by dense bush. In the northern region are large marshy +depressions, in which the water is often salt. The best known of +these depressions, Ngami (<i>q.v.</i>), lies to the north-west and is +the central point of an inland water system apparently in process +of drying up. To the north-east and connected with Ngami +by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which +also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy +season a large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a +great lake, the water surface stretching beyond the horizon, +while in the dry season a mirage is often seen. The permanent +marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south to north and from +30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers, such as the +Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other +streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance +is the frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal.</p> + +<p>The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, intermittent +or lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however, +from the extent of the beds of these streams and of others now +permanently dry, and from remains of ancient forests, that at +a former period the country must have been abundantly watered. +From the many cattle-folds and walls of defence scattered over +the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it is also evident +that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The increasing +dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attributable +to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by +whites, and to the custom of annually burning the grass, which +is destructive to young wood.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the +lower valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land, +where malarial fever is prevalent. Though in great part within +the tropics, the heat is counteracted by the dryness of the air. +Throughout the year the nights are cool and refreshing; in +winter the cold at night is intense. In the western regions the +rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the east the average +rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The rainy season +is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are +irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall +is steadily declining. From December to February violent +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page605" id="page605"></a>605</span> +thunder and hail storms are experienced. In the whiter or dry +season there are occasional heavy dust storms.</p> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with +superficial deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions +of the Kalahari and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the +Okavango basin. The oldest rocks, granites, gneisses and +schistose sandstones, the Ngami series, rise to the surface in +the east and south-east and doubtless immediately underlie much +of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood of +Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg +formation of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate +dolerites (<i>Loalemandelstein</i>) occur in the same region. A deposit +of sinter and a calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari +Kalk, considered by Dr Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies +a sandstone and curious breccia (<i>Botletle Schnichten</i>). These +deposits are held by Passarge to indicate Tertiary desert conditions, +to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly reverting.</p> + +<p><i>Fauna</i>.—Until towards the close of the 19th century Bechuanaland +abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home +of the lion, leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus, +rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope of many species, ostrich and even +the giraffe. Venomous reptiles, <i>e.g.</i> puff-adders and cobras, are +met with, enormous frogs are common, and walking and flying +locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying beetles, scorpions, spiders +and tarantulas are very numerous. The crocodile is found in +some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well stocked with +fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only, the fish +preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the +ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish +(<i>clarias</i> sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable +size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both +sweet and sour veld. In the “bush” are found tufts of tall +coarse grass with the space between bare or covered with +herbaceous creepers or water-bearing tubers. A common creeper +is one bearing a small scarlet cucumber, and a species of watermelon +called <i>tsoma</i> is also abundant. Of the melon and cucumber +there are both bitter and sweet varieties. Besides the grass and +the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding bushes (some +of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the wait-a-bit +thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton +plants grow wild. Among the rare big trees—found chiefly +in the north-east—are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit +trees, one bearing a pink plum. There are remains of ancient +forests consisting of wild olive trees and the camel thorn, near +which grows the <i>ngotuane</i>, a plant with a profusion of fine, +strongly scented yellow flowers.</p> + +<p><i>Chief Towns</i>.—The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, <i>i.e.</i> +the part incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (<i>q.v.</i>), near +the headwaters of the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of +the Barolong tribe, and although within the Cape border is the +seat of the administration of the protectorate. Vryburg (pop., +1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in 1882, and Taungs, +are towns on the railway between Kimberley and Mafeking. +Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of +the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof, +is an Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904 +by the London Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north +bank of the Orange, an agricultural centre, is the chief town +in Gordonia, the western division of southern Bechuanaland. +Kuruman (<i>q.v.</i>) is a native town near the source of the Kuruman +river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been the scene of +missionary labours since the early years of the 19th century. +North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small +towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the +chief township in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining +region, and the most important white settlement in the protectorate. +Besides these places there are five or six large native +towns, each the headquarters of a distinct tribe. The most +important is Serowe, with over 20,000 inhabitants, the capital of +the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama in 1903. It is +about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the place of +the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded +Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture and Trade</i>.—The soil is very fertile, and if properly +irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid +under wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an +acre. Cereals are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize +and millet are the chief crops. The wealth of the Bechuana +consists principally in their cattle, which they tend with great +care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the choice of pasture +suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be obtained +all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The +“sweet veld” is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter +grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep.</p> + +<p>Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries +having been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz +reefs at Madibi, near Mafeking, where mining began in 1906. +Diamonds have been found near Vryburg. The existence of coal +near Palapye about 60 ft. below the surface has been proved. +The coal, however, is not mined, and much of the destruction of +timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the demand for +fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near Francistown.</p> + +<p>Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but +this has ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supplying +the natives with European goods in exchange for cattle, +hides, the skins and horns of game, firewood and fencing poles, +and in forwarding goods north and south. The protectorate is a +member of the South African Customs Union. The value of the +goods imported into the protectorate in 1906 was £118,322; the +value of the exports was £77,736. The sale of spirits to natives is +forbidden.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—As the great highway from Cape Colony to +the north, Bechuanaland has been described as the “Suez canal +of South Africa.” The trunk railway from Cape Town to the +Victoria Falls traverses the eastern edge of Bechuanaland +throughout its length. The railway enters the country at +Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane, +584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route +to Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is +now rarely used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W. +from Palapye Road Station, and to all the settlements. From +the scarcity of water on the main routes through the Kalahari +these roads are known as “the thirsts”; along some of them +wells have been sunk by the administration.</p> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—The protectorate is administered by a resident +commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South +Africa. Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of +the high commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of +semi-military police recruited in Basutoland and officered by +Europeans. Revenue is obtained mostly from customs and a hut +tax, while the chief items of expenditure have been the police +force and a subsidy of £20,000 per annum towards the cost of the +railway, a liability which terminated in the year 1908. The +average annual revenue for the five years ending the 31st of March +1906 was £30,074; the average annual expenditure during the same +period was £80,114. There is no public debt, the annual deficiency +being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial exchequer. +The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and +native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards +the close of the 18th century. The generally peaceful disposition +of the tribes rendered the opening up of the country +comparatively easy. The first regular expedition to +<span class="sidenote">Missionary work.</span> +penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John +(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and +William Somerville—an army physician and afterwards husband +of Mary Somerville—were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy +cattle. The London Missionary Society established stations in +what is now Griqualand West in 1803, and in 1818 the station of +Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was founded. In the meantime +M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W.J. Burchell (1811-1812), +both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had made +familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page606" id="page606"></a>606</span> +country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the +Bible Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the +adjoining districts in 1812-1814 and 1819-1821, adding considerably +to the knowledge of the river systems. About 1817 +Mosilikatze, the founder of the Matabele nation, fleeing from the +wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king, began his career of conquest, +during which he ravaged a great part of Bechuanaland and +enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies. Eventually +the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which +afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at +Kuruman as agent of the London Missionary Society, and made +it his headquarters for fifty years. Largely as the result of the +work of Moffat (who reduced the Bechuana tongue to writing), +and of other missionaries, the Bechuana advanced notably in +civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in 1841 marked +the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern +regions. His travels, and those of C.J. Andersson (1853-1858) +and others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto unknown. +In 1864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district.</p> + +<p>At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men +the Cape government was the only civilized authority in South +Africa; and from this cause, and the circumstance +that the missionaries who lived among and exercised +<span class="sidenote">Boer encroachment.</span> +great influence over them were of British nationality, +the connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape +became close. As early as 1836 an act was passed extending the +jurisdiction of the Cape courts in certain cases as far north as 25° +S.—a limit which included the southern part of Bechuanaland. +Although under strong British influence the country was nevertheless +ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the best-known in +the middle of the 19th century were Montsioa, chief of the +Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of +Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very +unsettled state, and those living in the western districts showed +a marked inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana. +In 1852 Great Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged +the independence of the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no +frontier was indicated, and “boasting,” writes Livingstone in his +<i>Missionary Travels</i>, “that the English had given up all the +blacks into their power ... they (the Boers) assaulted the +Bakwains” (Bakwena).</p> + +<p>With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be +said to have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his +capital Kolobeng, and the European stores and Livingstone’s +house there looted, but the Boers stopped a trader named M‘Cabe +from going northward. Again to quote Livingstone, “The +Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I determined to open +the country.” In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries that +they must not go north without their (the Boers’) consent. +Moffat complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape +Colony, through whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal +Boers of British subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland +was stopped. At a later date (1865) the Boers tried to raise +taxes from the Barolong, but without success, a commando sent +against them in 1868 being driven off by Montsioa’s brother +Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from Montsioa, which +he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the Transvaal, +threatening to submit the matter to the British high commissioner +if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part +of the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a +meeting held in August 1870, at which President Pretorius and +Paul Kruger represented the Transvaal, invited the Barolong +to join their territories with that of the republic, in order to save +them from becoming British. Montsioa’s reply was short: “No +one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke.” In the +following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other +tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R.W. Keate, lieutenant-governor +of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa’s +territory outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of +the Boers to gain possession of Bechuanaland having failed, +T.F. Burgers, the president of the Transvaal in 1872, endeavoured +to replace Montsioa as chief of the Barolong by Moshette, whom +he declared to be the rightful ruler and paramount chief of that +people. The attacks of the Boers at length became so unbearable +that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British authorities +to be taken under their protection. In formulating this appeal +he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze, +chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn understanding +that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise +they had broken. Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern +Bechuanaland, wrote in August 1876 to Sir Henry Barkly +making an appeal similar to that sent by the Barolong. The +letter contained the following significant passages:</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may +preserve for me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are +coming into it, and I do not like them.” “Their actions are cruel +among us black people. We are like money, they sell us and our +children.” “I ask Her Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her +people. There are three things which distress me very much—war, +selling people, and drink. All these things I shall find in the +Boers, and it is these things which destroy people to make an end +of them in the country. The custom of the Boers has always been +to cause people to be sold, and to-day they are still selling people.”</p> +</div> + +<p class="noind">The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have +been exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them, +and even a Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the +system of apprenticeship of natives which obtained among the +Boers “as slavery in the fullest sense of the word.” These +representations on the part of the Barolong, and the Bamangwato +under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape +politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern +Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards +General Sir Charles) Warren. A small police force continued +to occupy the district until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes +of the Bechuana and the recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere +(then high commissioner), the home government refused to take +the country under British protection. On the withdrawal of +the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of anarchy, +nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and the +Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any +beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and +Moshette, while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the +Boers against Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief +of the Batlapin. The Transvaal War of that date offered opportunities +to the freebooting Boers of the west which were not to +be lost. At this time the British, wearied of South African +troubles, were disinclined to respond to native appeals for help. +<span class="sidenote">Stellaland and Goshen.</span> +Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or +hindrance with their conquest and annexation of +territory. In 1882 they set up the republic of Stellaland, +with Vryburg as its capital, and forthwith +proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in +spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town +called Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa +to quit the territory. The efforts of the British authorities at +this period (1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement +were feeble and futile, and fighting continued until peace was +made entirely on Boer lines. The Transvaal government was +to have supreme power, and to be the final arbiter in case of +future quarrels arising among the native chiefs. This agreement, +arrived at without any reference to the British government, was +a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an intimation on +the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the new +republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling +was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken +at once, the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost, +while German territory on the west might readily be extended +to join with that of the Boers. In the London convention of +February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby in response to the +overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries were +again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in +Boer territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained +in Stellaland and Goshen—which were west of the new Transvaal +frontier, and in April 1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had +succeeded Livingstone, was sent to the country to arrange +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page607" id="page607"></a>607</span> +matters. He found very little difficulty in negotiating with the +various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was not so +successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while +in Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given. +At the instance of the new Cape government, formed in May +and under control of the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was +accused of being too “pro-Bechuana” and who had been refused +the help of any armed force, was recalled on the 30th of July by +the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson. In his place +Cecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in the Cape parliament, +was sent to Bechuanaland.</p> + +<p>Rhodes’s mission was attended with great difficulty. British +prestige after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low +ebb, and he realized that he could not count on any +active help from the imperial or colonial authorities. +<span class="sidenote">Rhodes’s Mission.</span> +He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided that +the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British +suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing. +Commandant P.J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond, +entered the country and attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left +under protest, declaring that the Boers were making war against +Great Britain. The Boers now (10th of September) proclaimed +the country under Transvaal protection. This was a breach of +the London convention, and President Kruger explained that +the steps had been taken in the “interests of humanity.” +<span class="sidenote">Warren expedition.</span> +Indignant protest in Cape Town and throughout +South Africa, as well as England, led to the despatch +in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was +sent out by the British government to remove the filibusters, to +bring about peace in the country, and to hold it until further +measures were decided upon. Before Sir Charles Warren +reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape premier, and +Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to Bechuanaland +and arranged a “settlement” which would have left the Boer +filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused +to take notice of this “settlement.” Public opinion throughout +Great Britain was too strong to be ignored. The limit of concessions +to the Boers had been reached, and Sir Charles Warren’s +force—4000 strong—had reached the Vaal river in January 1885. +On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at the Modder +river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther, +saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the +country. Warren, however, continued his march, and without +firing a shot broke up the republics of Stellaland and Goshen. +Bechuanaland was formally taken under British protection +(30th of September 1885), and the sphere of British influence +was declared to extend N. to 22° S. and W. to 20° E. (which last-mentioned +line marks the eastern limit of German South-West Africa).</p> + +<p>The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British +policy, and from this time forward Khama’s country was known +as the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion +lying to the south of the Molopo river was described as British +Bechuanaland, and was constituted a crown colony. In 1891 +<span class="sidenote">British protectorate.</span> +the northern frontier of the protectorate was extended +to its present boundaries, and the whole of it placed +under the administration of a resident commissioner, +a protest being made at the time by the British South +Africa Company on the ground that the protectorate was +included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able administration +(1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (<i>q.v</i>.) peace was +maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty +to British rule.</p> + +<p>The history of the country shows how much has been due to +the efforts of men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It +is quite clear that had they not represented the true state of +affairs to the authorities the whole of this territory would have +gradually been absorbed by the Boers, until they had effected a +union with the Germans on the west. The great road to the +north would thus have been effectually shut against trade and +British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of +missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always +remain divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a missionary +but also an enlightened traveller, stated that a considerable +amount of benefit had been conferred upon the native +races by missionary teaching. Livingstone was a great advocate +of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives, and that policy +was always adhered to by Khama.</p> + +<p>In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to +British Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to +Cape Colony. At the same time it was provisionally arranged +that the Bechuanaland protectorate should pass under the +administration of the British South Africa Company (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rhodesia</a></span>). +Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came to +England and protested against this arrangement. The result was +that their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the +north of the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the +importation of alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer +was to be appointed to each of the reserves. A stipulation, +however, was made with these chiefs that a strip of country +sufficient for the purposes of a railway to Matabeleland should be +conceded to the Chartered Company. In December 1895 the +occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these +territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the +administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the +imperial government. The administration, besides fostering the +scanty material resources of the country, aids the missionaries in +their endeavours to raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization. +The results are full of encouragement. The natives proved +staunch to the British connexion during the war of 1899-1902, +and Khama and other chiefs gave help by providing transport. +Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during the German +campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many +natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning +the chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened +trouble in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The +Bechuana were entirely unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in +Natal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Of early works the most valuable are David +Livingstone, <i>Missionary Travels in South Africa</i> (London, 1857); +Robert Moffat, <i>Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa</i> +(London, 1842); J. Campbell, <i>Travels in South Africa</i> (London, 1815), +<i>Travels ... a Second Journey</i> ... (2 vols., London, 1822); +and A.A. Anderson, <i>Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Gold Regions +of Africa</i>, vol. i. (London, 1887). See also J.D. Hepburn, +<i>Twenty Years in Khama’s Country</i> (London, 1895); S. Passarge’s +<i>Die Kalahari</i> (Berlin, 1904) deals chiefly with geological and allied +questions; John Mackenzie’s <i>Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it</i> +(London, 1887); <i>John Mackenzie</i>, a biography by W.D. Mackenzie +(London, 1902); and the article “Bechuanaland” by Sir S. Shippard +in <i>British Africa</i> (London, 1899), give the story of the beginnings of +British rule in the protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally +with Bechuanaland consult G.M. Theal’s <i>History of South Africa</i>; +E.A. Pratt’s <i>Leading Points in South African History</i> (London, +1900); and <i>Cecil Rhodes, His Political Life and Speeches</i>, by Vindex +(London, 1900). See also the <i>Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope</i>, +issued yearly at Cape Town, and the <i>Annual Report, Bechuanaland Protectorate</i>, +issued by the Colonial Office, London.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> (1757-1832), German philologist, +historian, theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned +men of his time, was born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January +1757. He studied at Leipzig University, where he was appointed +(1785) professor of Greek and Latin literature. This post he +resigned in 1819 in order to take up the professorship of history, +but resumed it in 1825. He also had the management of the +university library, was director of the institute for the deaf and +dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In +1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philological seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808 +he was made a <i>Hofrath</i> by the king of Saxony, and in 1820 a +knight of the civil order of merit. His philological lectures, in +which grammar and criticism were subordinated to history, were +largely attended by hearers from all parts of Germany. He died +at Leipzig on the 13th of December 1832. He edited a number +of classical authors: <i>Pedo Albinovanus</i> (1783), Pindar and the +Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &c.), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page608" id="page608"></a>608</span> +Euripides (1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (1797), Demosthenes +<i>De Pace</i> (1799), Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807), Titus +Calpurnius Siculus (1803). He translated Ferguson’s <i>Fall of the +Roman Republic</i> and Goldsmith’s <i>History of Greece</i>, and added +two volumes to Bauer’s Thucydides. He also wrote on theological +and historical subjects, and edited philological and +bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and valuable +library of 24,000 volumes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Nobbe, <i>Vita C.D. Beckii</i> (1837); +and G. Hermann, <i>Opuscula</i>, v. 312.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECK<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Beek</span>), <b>DAVID</b> (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter, +was born at Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van Dyck, +from whom he acquired the fine manner of pencilling and +sweet style of colouring peculiar to that great master. He +possessed likewise that freedom of hand and readiness, or rather +rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck was so remarkable, +insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the expeditious +manner of Beck’s painting, he exclaimed, “Faith! Beck, I believe +you could paint riding post.” He was appointed portrait-painter +and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he executed +portraits of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn her gallery. +His death at the Hague was suspected of being due to poisoning.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> (1761-1840), German philosopher, +was born at Danzig in 1761. Educated at Königsberg, he became +professor of philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then +at Rostock. He devoted himself to criticism and explanation +of the doctrine of Kant, and in 1793 published the <i>Erläuternder +Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften</i>, which has been widely +used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He endeavoured to +explain away certain of the contradictions which are found in +Kant’s system by saying that much of the language is used in +a popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, <i>e.g.</i> where Kant +attributes to things-in-themselves an existence under the +conditions of time, space and causality, and yet holds that they +furnish the material of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that +the real meaning of Kant’s theory is idealism; that of objects +outside the domain of consciousness, knowledge is impossible, +and hence that nothing positive remains when we have removed the +subjective element. Matter is deduced by the “original synthesis.” +Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representation +of the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of +Beck’s exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to +the greater attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the +three volumes of the <i>Erläuternder Auszug</i>, he published the +<i>Grundriss der krit. Philosophie</i> (1796), containing an interpretation +of the Kantian <i>Kritik</i> in the manner of Salomon Maimon.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ueberweg, <i>Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit</i>; +Dilthey in the <i>Archiv für Geschichte der Philos.</i>, +vol. ii. (1889), pp. 592-650. For Beck’s letters to Kant, +see R. Reicke, <i>Aus Kants Briefwechsel</i> (Königsberg, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKENHAM,<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> an urban district in the Sevenoaks parliamentary +division of Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London +by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1881) 13,045; +(1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling parish extending +from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to the south +end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of Shortlands. +Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the 19th +century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place +of residence for London business men. It retains, however, +some of its rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and +many handsome residences standing in extensive grounds. +King William IV.’s Naval Asylum was endowed by Queen Adelaide +for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of St George was built +in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular church. +Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina were +removed hither from the old church. The tower of the church was +completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in memory of +Cecil Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which dates from 1624.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKER, HEINRICH<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (1770-1822), German actor, whose +real name was <span class="sc">Blumenthal</span>, was born at Berlin. He obtained, +while quite a young man, an appointment in the court theatre +at Weimar, at that time under Goethe’s auspices. The poet +recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager, entrusted +him with several of the leading roles in his dramas and consulted +him in all matters connected with the staging of his plays. +For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage, +and although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe’s +great satisfaction, Vansen in <i>Egmont</i>, and was also seen to great +advantage in the leading parts of several of Schiller’s plays; +notably Burleigh in <i>Maria Stuart</i>, Karl Moor in <i>Die Räuber</i>, +and Antonio in <i>Torquato Tasso</i>. Becker left Weimar in the +spring of 1809, played for a short time at Hamburg (under +Schröder) and at Breslau, and then began a wandering life, +now joining travelling companies, now playing at provincial +theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned +in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by +Goethe, who reinstated him at the theatre. After playing for two +short years with indifferent success, he died at Weimar in 1822.</p> + +<p>Becker was twice married. His first wife, <span class="sc">Christiane Luise +Amalie Becker</span> (1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical +manager and dramatic poet, Johann Christian Neumann, and +made her first stage appearance in 1787 at Weimar. Here she +received some training from Goethe and from Corona Schröter, +the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite +both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793. +She died on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that +of Euphrosyne in the opera <i>Das Petermännchen</i>, and it is under +this name that Goethe immortalized her in a poem which first +appeared in Schiller’s <i>Musen Almanack</i> of 1799.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (1796-1846), German classical +archaeologist, was born at Dresden. At first destined for a +commercial life, he was in 1812 sent to the celebrated school at +Pforta. In 1816 he entered the university of Leipzig, where he +studied under Beck and Hermann. After holding subordinate +posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842 appointed professor +of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the 30th of +September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely known +are the <i>Gallus</i> or <i>Römische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts</i> +(1838, new ed. by Göll, 1880-1882), and the <i>Charicles</i> or +<i>Bilder altgriechischer Sitte</i>, (1840, new ed. by Göll, 1877-1878). +These two books, which have been translated into English by Frederick +Metcalfe, contain a very interesting description of the everyday +life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in the form of a romance. +The notes and appendixes are valuable. More important is the +great <i>Handbuch der röm. Alterthümer</i> (1843-1868), completed +after Becker’s death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker’s treatises +<i>De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis</i> (1837), +<i>De Romae Veteris Muris atque Portis</i> (1842), +<i>Die römische Topographie in Rom</i> (1844), +and <i>Zur römischen Topographie</i> (1845) may also be mentioned.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKET, THOMAS<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1118-1170), by his contemporaries +more commonly called Thomas of London, English chancellor +and archbishop of Canterbury under Henry II., was born about +the year 1118 in London. His mother was a native of Caen; +his father, who came of a family of small Norman landowners, +had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before the +birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of +portreeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances. +The young Thomas received an excellent education. At the +age of ten he was put to school with the canons of Merton priory +in Surrey. Later he spent some time in the schools of London, +which enjoyed at that time a high reputation, and finally studied +theology at Paris. Returning at the age of twenty-two he was +compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents, to become +a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit Deniers, +who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142 +a family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop +Theobald, of whose household he at once became an inmate. +He accompanied the primate to Rome in 1143, and also to the +council of Reims (1148), which Theobald attended in defiance of +a prohibition from the king. It appears to have been at some +time between the dates of these two journeys that he visited +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page609" id="page609"></a>609</span> +Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law +to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent +advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind +was legal, he never made himself an expert jurist; but he had +the art of turning his knowledge, such as it was, to excellent +account. In 1151 he was sent to Rome by the archbishop with +instructions to dissuade the Curia from sanctioning the coronation +of Stephen’s eldest son Eustace. It is said that Thomas +distinguished himself by the ability with which he executed his +commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of +the Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was +promoted to be archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking +deacon’s orders. In the following year Henry II., at the primate’s +recommendation, bestowed on him the important office of +chancellor. In this capacity Thomas controlled the issue of +royal writs and the distribution of ecclesiastical patronage; +but it was more important for his future that he had ample +opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a prince +who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen +years his junior. He became Henry’s bosom friend and was consulted +in all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald +that Becket’s influence would be exercised to support the +extensive privileges which the Church had wrested from Stephen. +But the chancellor, although preserving friendly relations with +his old patron, subordinated the interests of the Church to those +of his new master. Under his administration the Church was +severely taxed for the prosecution of Henry’s foreign wars; +and the chancellor incurred the reproach “of plunging his sword +into the bowels of his mother.” Like Wolsey he identified +himself with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It was +Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even +in the field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a +company of knights, directing the work of devastation, and +superintending the conduct of the war after the king had +withdrawn his presence from the camp. When there was war with +France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as Henry’s +representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat +and unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to +his part to arrange the terms of peace with France. He +discharged the duties of an envoy with equal magnificence and +dexterity; the treaty of May 1160, which put an end to the war, +was of his making.</p> + +<p>In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry +bestowed on him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the +death of Theobald. The appointment caused some murmurs; +since Becket, at the time when it was made, was still a simple +deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as the one means +of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had been +impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the +bishops accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find +in Becket the archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the +archdeacon; and anticipated that the Church would once more +be reduced to that state of dependence in which she had stood +during the latter years of Henry I. Becket, however, disappointed +all the conflicting expectations excited by his appointment. +He did not allow himself to be made the king’s tool; nor on the +other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring +the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic +practices, confined himself to the society of churchmen, and +resigned the chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation +(procured by the king) which authorized him to hold that office +concurrently with the primacy. By nature a violent partisan, +the archbishop now showed himself the uncompromising champion +of his order and his see. Hence he was on the worst of terms +with the king before a year had elapsed. They came +into open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when +Becket successfully opposed the king’s proposal that a land-tax, +known as the sheriff’s aid, which formed part of that official’s +salary, should be henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But +there were more serious differences in the background. Becket +had not shrunk from excommunicating a tenant in chief who +had encroached upon the lands of Canterbury, and had protected +against the royal courts a clerk named Philip de Brois who was +charged with an assault upon a royal officer. These disputes +involved questions of principle which had long occupied +Henry’s attention, and Becket’s defiant attitude was answered +by the famous Constitutions of Clarendon (<i>q.v.</i>), in which the +king defined, professedly according to ancient use and custom, +the relations of Church and State. Becket and the bishops were +required to give these constitutions their approval. Henry’s +demands were more defensible in substance than might be +supposed from the manner in which he pressed them on the +bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous +clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused +should be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punishment +of the guilty were left to the lay power. Becket’s opposition +rested upon a casuistic interpretation of the canon law, +and an extravagant conception of the dignity attaching to the +priesthood; he showed, moreover, a disposition to quibble, to +equivocate, and to make promises which he had no intention +of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground that +the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But +when he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his +conduct was reprobated by the other bishops, although approved +by the pope. It was fortunate for Becket’s reputation that +Henry punished him for his change of front by a systematic +persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop was thus +enabled to invoke the pope’s assistance, and to quit the country +with some show of dignity.</p> + +<p>Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once succeeded +in obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation +of the constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and +menaced by an alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was +indisposed to take extreme measures against Henry; and six +years elapsed before the king found himself definitely confronted +with the choice between an interdict and a surrender. For the +greater part of this time the archbishop resided at the Burgundian +monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations with +Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from +whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In +1166 Becket received from the pope a commission to publish +what censures he thought fit; of which he at once availed himself +to excommunicate the king’s principal counsellors. In 1169 he +took the same step against two of the royalist bishops. In +more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused to support +him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury +by causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king. +In that year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a reconciliation +which took place later at Fréteval on the 22nd of July. +It was a hollow truce, since the subject of the constitutions was +not mentioned; and Thomas returned to England with the +determination of riding roughshod over the king’s supporters. +If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the bishops who +had taken part in the young king’s coronation, he had at least +raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences. +But the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the +bishops, and before his return published papal letters which, +in announcing these sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null +and void. It was only to be expected that such a step, which +was virtually a declaration of war against the king, should arouse +in him the strongest feelings of resentment. The archbishop’s +murder, perpetrated within a month of his return to England +(29th December 1170), was, however, the work of over zealous +courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry.</p> + +<p>Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine +at Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims. +Plenary indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an +official register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the +relics of the saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with +the gold and silver and jewels offered by the pious. It was +plundered by Henry VIII., to whom the memory of Becket was +specially obnoxious; but the reformers were powerless to +expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on +which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page610" id="page610"></a>610</span> +the principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation +of Becket must appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident +that in the course of his long struggle with the state he fell more +and more under the dominion of personal motives. At the last +he fought not so much for an idea as for the humiliation of an +opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated. William +of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial +contemporaries when he says that the bishop was <i>zelo justitiae +fervidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus</i>: +“burning with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according +to wisdom God knows.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Original:</i>—The correspondence of Becket and +most of the contemporary biographies are collected by J.C. Robertson +in <i>Materials for the History of Thomas Becket</i> (7 vols., Rolls +Series, 1875-1885). See also the <i>Vie de Saint Thomas</i>, by Garníer +de Pont Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the +chronology of the controversy see Eyton’s <i>Itinerary of Henry II.</i></p> + +<p><i>Modern:</i>—Morris, <i>Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket</i> (London, 1885); +Lhuillier, <i>Saint Thomas de Cantorbéry</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1891-1892); +J.C. Robertson, <i>Becket</i> (London, 1859); +F.W. Maitland, <i>Roman Canon Law in the Church of England</i>, c. iv.; +J.A. Froude in his <i>Short Studies</i>, vol. iv., +and Freeman in his <i>Historical Essays</i> (1871), +give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKFORD, WILLIAM<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (1760-1844), English author, son of +Alderman William Beckford (1709-1770), was born on the 1st +of October 1760. His father was lord mayor of London in +1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous supporter of John +Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were afterwards +inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to +George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to +the king in 1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited +a princely fortune from his father. He married Lady Margaret +Gordon in 1783, and spent his brief married life in Switzerland. +After his wife’s death (1786) he travelled in Spain and Portugal, +and wrote his <i>Portuguese Letters</i> (published 1834, 1835), which +rank with his best work. He afterwards returned to England, +and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, began +to build a magnificent residence there, on which he expended in +about eighteen years the sum of £273,000. His eccentricities, +together with the strict seclusion in which he lived, gave rise +to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house, +together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar, +and soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying +part of the villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty +structure on Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to +reside till his death in 1844. His first work, +<i>Biographical Memoirs of Extraordinary Painters</i> (1780) +was a slight, sarcastic <i>jeu d’esprit</i>. In 1782 he wrote in French +his oriental romance, <i>The History of the Caliph Vathek</i>, +which appeared in English, translated by the Rev. Samuel Henley, +in 1786 and has taken its place as one of the finest productions +of luxuriant imagination.</p> + +<p>Beckford’s wealth and large expenditure, his position as a +collector and patron of letters (he bought Gibbon’s library at +Lausanne), his literary industry, and his reputation as author +of <i>Vathek</i>, make him an interesting figure in literary history. +He had a seat in parliament from 1784 to 1793, and again from +1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the eldest of whom was +married to the 10th duke of Hamilton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Cyrus Redding’s <i>Memoir</i> (1859) is the only full biography, but prolix; +see Dr R. Garnett’s introduction to his edition of <i>Vathek</i> (1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKINGTON<a name="ar243" id="ar243"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bekynton</span>), <b>THOMAS</b> (<i>c.</i> 1390-1465), +English statesman and prelate, was born at Beckington in +Somerset, and was educated at Winchester and New College, +Oxford. Having entered the church he held many ecclesiastical +appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423; then +devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to +Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442. +At this time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI., +and soon after his return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy +seal and bishop of Bath and Wells. The bishop erected many +buildings in Wells, and died there on the 14th of January 1465. +The most important results of Beckington’s missions to France +were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring to the +embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants, +relating to the journey to Armagnac.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beckington’s own journal is published in the <i>Proceedings of the +Privy Council</i>, vol. v., edited by N.H. Nicolas (1835); and the other +journal in the <i>Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton</i>, edited by +G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many interesting +letters. This latter journal has been translated into English +by N.H. Nicolas (1828). See G.G. Perry, “Bishop Beckington and +Henry VI.,” in the <i>English Historical Review</i> (1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKMANN, JOHANN<a name="ar244" id="ar244"></a></span> (1739-1811), German scientific author, +was born on the 4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his +father was postmaster and receiver of taxes. He was educated +at Stade and the university of Göttingen. The death of his +mother in 1762 having deprived him of his means of support, +he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the Lutheran +community, Anton Friedrich Büsching, the founder of the +modern historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural +history in the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he +relinquished in 1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden, +where he studied the methods of working the mines, and made +the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala. In 1766 he was +appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at Göttingen. +There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such +success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He +was in the habit of taking his students into the workshops, +that they might acquire a practical as well as a theoretical +knowledge of different processes and handicrafts. While thus +engaged he determined to trace the history and describe the +existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on which he +was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the <i>Bibliothecae</i> of +Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann’s industry and +ardour were unable to overtake the amount of study necessary +for this task. He therefore confined his attention to several +practical arts and trades; and to these labours we owe his +<i>Beiträge zur Geschichte der Erfindungen</i> (1780-1805), translated +into English as the <i>History of Inventions</i>—a work in which he +relates the origin, history and recent condition of the various +machines, utensils, &c., employed in trade and for domestic +purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the +founder of scientific technology, a term which he was the first +to use in 1772. In 1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the +Royal Society of Göttingen, and he contributed valuable scientific +dissertations to its proceedings until 1783, when he withdrew +from all further share in its work. He died on the 3rd of February +1811. Other important works of Beckmann are +<i>Entwurf einer allgemeinen Technologie</i> (1806); +<i>Anleitung zur Handelswissenschaft</i> (1789); +<i>Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde</i> (1795-1800); <i>Beiträge zur +Ökonomie, Technologie, Polizei- und, Kameralwissenschaft</i> (1777-1791).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL<a name="ar245" id="ar245"></a></span> (1852-  ), American portrait-painter, +was born at Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of September 1852. +He studied in the National Academy of +Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became a member, +and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the +United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure +in American art. He took an active part in the formation of +the Fine Arts Society, and was president of the National Free +Art League, which attempted to secure the repeal of the American +duty on works of art. Among his portraits are those of W.M. Chase (1882), +of Miss Jordan (1883), of Mark Twain, T.A. Janvier, General Schofield +and William Walton. He decorated one of the domes of the +Manufactures Building at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY<a name="ar246" id="ar246"></a></span> (1772-1831), British general, +was the son of Major-General John Beckwith, who was +colonel of the 20th regiment (Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge +at Minden. In 1791 he entered the 71st regiment (then commanded +by Colonel David Baird), in which he served in India +and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in Colonel +Coote Manningham’s experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly +afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle +Brigade. In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page611" id="page611"></a>611</span> +year lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite +officers of Sir John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and +aided that general in the training of the troops which afterwards +became the Light Division. In 1806 he served in the expedition +to Hanover, and in 1807 in that which captured Copenhagen. In +1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira, and in the campaign of +Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the rearguard fighting. +Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to the field of +Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810 and +in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light +Division he was given a brigade command in it. After the +brilliant action of Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time +from active service, but the Rifles and the brigade he had +trained and commanded added to their fame on every subsequent +battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant +quartermaster-general, and he took part in the war against the +United States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was +created K.C.B. In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of the +Rifle Brigade. He went to India as commander-in-chief at Bombay +in 1829, and was promoted lieutenant-general in the following year. +He died on the 15th of January 1831 at Mahableshwar.</p> + +<p>His elder brother, Sir <span class="sc">George Beckwith</span> (1753-1823), distinguished +himself as a regimental officer in the American War +of Independence, and served subsequently in high administrative +posts and in numerous successful military operations in the +West Indies during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. +He was made a K.B. for his capture of Martinique in 1809, +and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir George Beckwith +commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820. +He died in London on the 20th of March 1823.</p> + +<p>Their nephew, Major-General <span class="sc">John Charles Beckwith</span> (1789-1862), +joined the 50th regiment in 1803, exchanging in +1804 into the 95th Rifles, with which regiment he served in +the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was subsequently +employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was repeatedly +mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-major, +and after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg) +lieutenant-colonel and C.B. In 1820 he left active service. +Seven years later an accident drew his attention to the Waldenses, +whose past history and present condition influenced him so +strongly that he settled in the valleys of Piedmont. The rest +of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of educating +the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large +number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people. +In 1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of +St Maurice and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the +British army in 1837 and major-general in 1846. He died on +the 19th of July 1862 at La Torre, Piedmont.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECKX, PIERRE JEAN<a name="ar247" id="ar247"></a></span> (1795-1887), general of the Society +of Jesus, was born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February 1795, +and entered the novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in 1819. +His first important post was as procurator for the province +of Austria, 1847; next year he became rector of the Jesuit +college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary to the +provincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order +in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal +for missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the +society’s headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in 1870. +His chief literary work was the often-translated +<i>Month of Mary</i> (Vienna, 1843). He retired in September 1883, +being succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a Swiss, who had seen +service in the United States. He died at Rome on the 4th of March 1887.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECQUE, HENRY FRANÇOIS<a name="ar248" id="ar248"></a></span> (1837-1899), French dramatist, +was born on the 9th of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book +of an opera <i>Sardanapale</i> in imitation of Lord Byron for the +music of M. Victorin Joncières in 1867, but his first important +work, <i>Michel Pauper</i>, appeared in 1870. The importance of this +sombre drama was first realized when it was revived at the +Odéon in 1886. <i>Les Corbeaux</i> (1882) established Becque’s position +as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful +play, <i>La Parisienne</i>. Becque produced little during the last +years of his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had +created. He died in May 1899.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>Querelles littéraires</i> (1890), and <i>Souvenirs d’un auteur +dramatique</i> (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted articles in which he +does not spare his opponents. His <i>Théâtre complet</i> (3 vols., 1899) +includes <i>L’Enfant prodigue</i> (Vaudeville Theatre, 6th of Nov. 1868); +<i>Michel Pauper</i> (Théâtre de la Porte-Saint-Martin, 17th of June 1870); +<i>L’Enlèvement</i> (Vaudeville, 18th of Nov. 1871); +<i>La Navette</i> (Gymnase, 15th of Nov. 1878); +<i>Les Honnêtes Femmes</i> (Gymnase, 1st of Jan. 1880); +<i>Les Corbeaux</i> (Comédie Française, 14th of Sept. 1882); +<i>La Parisienne</i> (Théâtre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉCQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO<a name="ar249" id="ar249"></a></span> (1836-1870), Spanish poet and +romance-writer, was born at Seville on the 17th of February +1836. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated by his +godmother, refused to adopt any profession, and drifted to +Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the civil service. +He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible +Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign +novels; he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of +December 1870. His works were published posthumously in 1873. +In such prose tales as <i>El Rayo de Luna</i> and <i>La Mujer de +piedra</i>, Bécquer is manifestly influenced by Hoffmann, and as a +poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a fairyland of +his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel in +Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly +free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia, +and its lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BECQUEREL,<a name="ar250" id="ar250"></a></span> the name of a French family, several members +of which have been distinguished in chemical and physical +research.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Antoine César Becquerel</span> (1788-1878), was born at Châtillon +sur Loing on the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the +École Polytechnique he became <i>ingénieur-officier</i> in 1808, and +saw active service with the imperial troops in Spain from 1810 +to 1812, and again in France in 1814. He then resigned from +the army and devoted the rest of his life to scientific investigation. +His earliest work was mineralogical in character, but he soon +turned his attention to the study of electricity and especially +of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal +from the Royal Society “for his various memoirs on electricity, +and particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets +and sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very +low tension,” which it was hoped would lead to increased knowledge +of the “recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the +processes which may have been employed by nature in the +production of such bodies in the mineral kingdom.” In biological +chemistry he worked at the problems of animal heat and +at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he +also devoted much time to meteorological questions and +observations. He was a prolific writer, his books including +<i>Traité d’électricité et du magnétisme</i> (1834-1840), +<i>Traité de physique dans ses rapports avec la chimie</i> (1842), +<i>Éléments de l’électro-chimie</i> (1843), +<i>Traité complet du magnétisme</i> (1845), +<i>Éléments de physique terrestre et de météorologie</i> (1847), and +<i>Des climats et de l’influence qu’exercent +les sols boisés et déboisés</i> (1853). He died on the 18th +of January 1878 in Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor +of physics at the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Alexandre Edmond Becquerel</span> (1820-1891), was +born in Paris on the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his +pupil, assistant and successor at the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle; +he was also appointed professor at the short-lived Agronomic +Institute at Versailles in 1849, and in 1853 received the chair +of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. Edmond +Becquerel was associated with his father in much of his work, +but he himself paid special attention to the study of light, +investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic +characters of solar radiation and the electric light, and the +phenomena of phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by +the sulphides and by compounds of uranium. It was in connexion +with these latter inquiries that he devised his phosphoroscope, +an apparatus which enabled the interval between exposure +to the source of light and observation of the resulting effects to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page612" id="page612"></a>612</span> +be varied at will and accurately measured. He published in +1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on <i>La Lumière, ses causes +et ses effets</i>. He also investigated the diamagnetic and paramagnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested +in the phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumulating +much evidence in favour of Faraday’s law and proposing +a modified statement of it which was intended to cover certain +apparent exceptions. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1891.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Antoine Henri Becquerel</span> (1852-1908), son of the last-named, +who succeeded to his chair at the Musée d’Histoire +Naturelle in 1892, was born in Paris on the 15th of December +1852, studied at the École Polytechnique, where he was appointed +a professor in 1895, and in 1875 entered the department <i>des +ponts et chaussées</i>, of which in 1894 he became <i>ingénieur en chef</i>. He was distinguished as the discoverer of radioactivity, having found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary temperatures emits an +invisible radiation which in many respects resembles Röntgen +rays, and can affect a photographic plate after passing through +thin plates of metal. For his researches in this department he +was in 1903 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre Curie. +He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light, +phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He +died at Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BED<a name="ar251" id="ar251"></a></span> (a common Teutonic word, cf. German <i>Bett</i>, probably +connected with the Indo-European root <i>bhodh</i>, seen in the +Lat. <i>fodere</i>, to dig; so “a dug-out place” for safe resting, or +in the same sense as a garden “bed”), a general term for a +resting or sleeping place for men and animals, and in particular +for the article of household furniture for that object, and so used +by analogy in other senses, involving a supporting surface or +layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed (bedding, coverlets, +etc.) have naturally varied considerably in different times, +and its form and decoration and social associations have considerable +historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads +which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and +curtains to hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well, +semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians, +Medes and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently +decorated their furniture with inlays or <i>appliqués</i> of metal, +mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a bedstead +is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making +in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork +of beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had +a wooden frame, with a board at the head and bands of hide +laced across, upon which skins were placed. At a later period +the bedstead was often veneered with expensive woods; sometimes +it was of solid ivory veneered with tortoise-shell and with +silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows and coverings +also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated +places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage. +Folding beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman +mattresses were stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the +last was used towards the end of the Republic, when custom +demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head +and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could +only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often arranged +for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well +as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes +very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures +in gold; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front. +The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver, +and Elagabalus, like some modern Indian princes, had one of +solid silver. In the walls of some of the houses at Pompeii +bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains +or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, <i>lectus genialis</i>, +was much decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A +low pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as <i>scimpodium</i>. +Other forms of couch were called <i>lectus</i>, but were not beds in +the modern sense of the word except the <i>lectus funebris</i>, on +which the body of a dead person lay in state for seven days, +clad in a toga and rich garments, and surrounded by flowers and foliage. +This bed rested on ivory legs, over which purple blankets +embroidered with gold were spread, and was placed in the atrium +with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense by its side. +The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves covered +with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and +moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor +or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses +stuffed with feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering. +They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves +in the large linen sheets which were stretched over the +cushions. In the 13th century luxury increased, and bedsteads +were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved and +painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which served +as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon +leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, +while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung +from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall. +The Carolingian MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at +the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use till +the 13th century in France, many cushions being added to raise +the body to a sloping position. In the 12th-century MSS. the +bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving and painting, +and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony. +Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp +is often shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of +less importance, being generally entirely covered by hangings +of rich materials. Silk, velvet and even cloth of gold were much +used. Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give +details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered. +Then it was that the tester bed made its first appearance, the +tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls, +a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut +in by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all +draughts. The space between bed and wall was called the +<i>ruelle</i>, and very intimate friends were received there. In the +15th century beds became very large, reaching to 7 or 8 ft. +by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the mattresses were filled +with pea-shucks or straw—neither wool nor horsehair is +mentioned—but feathers also were used. At this time great +personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property +about with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this +reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks +to be covered up; but about the beginning of the 16th century +bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the +lords remained in the same place for longer periods. In the +museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which belonged +to Antoine de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well +as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the +Musée Cluny ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in +design, with a bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts; +at the head figures of warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV. +had an enormous number of sumptuous beds, as many as 413 +being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them +had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures on a silver +or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or +Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronnière. The great bed at +Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which “The Triumph +of Venus” was embroidered. So much gold was used that +the velvet scarcely showed. Under the influence of Madame +de Maintenon “The Sacrifice of Abraham,” which is now on +the tester, replaced “The Triumph of Venus.” In the 17th +century, which has been called “the century of magnificent +beds,” the style <i>à la duchesse</i>, with tester and curtains +only at the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though +they lasted much longer in England. In the 18th century +feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which +in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected +with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The +beds were <i>à la duchesse</i>, but in France itself there was great +variety both of name and shape—the <i>lit à alcove, lit d’ange</i>, +which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains +drawn back, <i>lit à l’Anglaise</i>, which looked like a high sofa by +day, <i>lit en baldaquin</i>, with the tester fixed against the wall, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page613" id="page613"></a>613</span> +<i>lit à couronne</i> with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which +appeared under Louis XVI., and was fashionable under the +Restoration and Louis Philippe, and <i>lit à l’impériale</i>, which had +a curved tester, are a few of their varieties. The <i>lit en baldaquin</i> +of Napoleon I. is still at Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble +contains several richly carved beds of a more modern date. +The custom of the “bed of justice” upon which the king of +France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes +being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials +kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the +throne. Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom +lasted till the end of the monarchy. From the habit of using +this bed to hear petitions, &c., came the usage of the <i>grand lit</i>, +which was provided wherever the king stayed, called also <i>lit de +parement</i> or <i>lit de parade</i>, rather later. Upon this bed the dead +king lay in state. The beds of the king and queen were saluted +by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none approached them +even when there was no railing to prevent it. These railings +were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons +originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the 15th +century mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed. +In the <i>chambre de parade</i>, where the ceremonial bed was placed, +certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords, whom it +was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion +than the crowd of courtiers. The <i>petit lever</i> was held in the +bedroom itself, the <i>grand lever</i> in the <i>chambre de parade</i>. +At Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before +and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and even +directly after marriage—in fact in any circumstances which +were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During +the 17th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to +avoid the tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used +in high society in France till the end of the <i>ancien régime</i>. The +earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles +the Bold (see <i>Memoirs</i> of Philippe de Comines). They had +curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine +as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the 18th century; +the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects +which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned +in the inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569, +“un lit de fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton, +ensemble quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton +pour mettre sur les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure +d’Olopherne ensemble de Judith, qui sont d’albâtre.” In +Scotland, Brittany and Holland the closed bed with sliding or +folding shutters has persisted till our own day, and in +England—where beds were commonly quite simple in form—the +four-poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual +citizen’s bed till the middle of the 19th century. Many fine +examples exist of 17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of +which have found their way into museums. The later forms, in which +mahogany was usually the wood employed, are much less architectural +in design. Some exceedingly elegant mahogany bedsteads +were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton, +and there are signs that English taste is returning to the wooden +bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form.</p> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BED,<a name="ar252" id="ar252"></a></span> in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually +found to be arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are +the beds of rock or strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is +horizontal or very nearly so; when the upper and lower surfaces +of a bed are parallel, the bedding is said to be regular; if it is +thickest at one point and thins away thence in every direction, +the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft. or more) +or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, <i>e.g.</i> paper shales, such +thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate +regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones. +In fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more +regular than in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits. +Bedding is confined to rocks which have been formed under +water or by the agency of wind; these are the “stratified” +rocks.</p> + +<p>The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as +a rule uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an +immediate change in the size of the particles deposited upon a +given area; thus a coarse sand layer may be succeeded by a finer +sand or a mud, or two sandy layers may be separated by a thin +layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most often induced by a change +in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a sandstone is +followed by a shale or vice versa—changes which may be due +to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature +of the deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby +we get beds of rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or +again, organic activities may influence the deposit, beds of coal +may succeed layers of shale, iron-stone may lie between limestones +or clays, a layer of large fossils or of flints may determine +a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky minerals like +mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes; +and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed +deposits has no doubt often produced a tendency in the particles +to arrange themselves normal to the direction of pressure, +thus causing the rock to split more readily along the same +direction.</p> + +<p>Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are transporting +or depositing sand, &c., the bedding is generally not +horizontal, but inclined more or less steeply; this brings about +the formation of what is variously called “cross-bedding,” +“diagonal bedding”, “current bedding” or improperly “false-bedding.” +Igneous materials, when deposited through the +agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no true stratification +is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after cooling, +although in granites and similar rocks the process of weathering +frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure. +Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a “vein,” if +it is one that has some economic value, <i>e.g.</i> a “vein of coal +or ironstone.”</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDARESI, YEDAIAH<a name="ar253" id="ar253"></a></span> (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician +and philosopher of Provence. His most successful work was +an ethical treatise, <i>Behinath ‘Olam</i> (Examination of the World), +a didactic poem in thirty-seven short sections. The work is +still very popular. It was translated into English by Tobias +Goodman.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÉDARIEUX,<a name="ar254" id="ar254"></a></span> a town of southern France, in the department +of Hérault, on the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Béziers by rail. +Pop. (1906) 5594. The town has a 16th-century church, a board of +trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a communal +college and a school of drawing. Bédarieux was at one +time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving industry, +carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the 17th +century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000 +workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool +and cotton spinning, &c. In spite of the introduction of modern +machinery from England, the industries of the place declined, +mainly owing to the loss of the trade with the Levant; but of +late years they have somewhat revived, owing partly to the +opening up of coal mines in the neighbourhood. Besides cloth +factories and wool-spinning mills, there are now numerous +tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some trade in +timber, wool and agricultural produce.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDDGELERT<a name="ar255" id="ar255"></a></span> (“Gelert’s grave”), a village in Carnarvonshire, +North Wales, at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of +Gelert, Llewelyn’s hound, being buried there is old in Wales; +and common to it and India is the legend of a dog (or ichneumon) +saving a child from a beast of prey (or reptile), and being killed +by the child’s father under the delusion that the animal had +slain the infant. The English poet, W.R. Spencer, has versified +the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the baby +prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood +of a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was +slain. Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives +the Indian equivalent (Lord Teignmouth’s <i>Life of Jones</i>, +ed. Rev. S.C. Wilkes, editor’s supplement). A Brahmin, leaving +home, left his daughter in charge of an ichneumon, which he had +long cherished. A black snake came up and was killed by the +ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by the Brahmin on +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page614" id="page614"></a>614</span> +his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance in +<i>The Seven Wise Masters of Rome</i>. In the edition printed by +Wynkyn de Worde it is told by “the first master”—a knight +had one son, a greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to +a tourney, a snake attacked the son, the falcon roused the hound, +which killed the serpent, lay down by the cradle, and was killed +by the knight, who discovered his error, like Llewelyn, and +similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum reprint, by +Gomme and Wheatley).</p> + +<p>On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the +falcon), a hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was +found a brass Roman shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn +Pass, dividing Carnarvon and Merioneth. In the centre is +Cadair Rhys Goch o’r Eryri, a rock named as the chair of Rhys +Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died traditionally, +1429). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium +to Segontium (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnarvon</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDDOES, THOMAS<a name="ar256" id="ar256"></a></span> (1760-1808), English physician and +scientific writer, was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the 13th +of April 1760. After being educated at Bridgnorth grammar +school and at Pembroke College, Oxford, he studied medicine in +London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In 1784 he published +a translation of L. Spallanzani’s <i>Dissertations on Natural History</i>, +and in 1785 produced a translation, with original notes, of +T.O. Bergman’s <i>Essays on Elective Attractions</i>. He took his +degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting +Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed +reader in chemistry at Oxford University in 1788. His lectures +attracted large and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy +with the French Revolution exciting a clamour against him, he +resigned his readership in 1792. In the following year he published +<i>Observations on the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence</i>, and +the <i>History of Isaac Jenkins</i>, a story which powerfully exhibits +the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000 copies are reported +to have been sold. About the same time he began to work at +his project for the establishment of a “Pneumatic Institution” +for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this +he was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter, +Anna, became his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was +established at Clifton, its first superintendent being Humphry +Davy, who investigated the properties of nitrous oxide in its +laboratory. The original aim of the institution was gradually +abandoned; it became an ordinary sick-hospital, and was +relinquished by its projector in the year before his death, which +occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a man of +great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble +and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by +popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid +imagination and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him. +Besides the writings mentioned above, he was the author of +<i>Political Pamphlets</i> (1795-1797), a popular <i>Essay +on Consumption</i> (1799), which won the admiration of Kant, +an <i>Essay on Fever</i> (1807), and <i>Hygeia, or Essays Moral +and Medical</i> (1807). He also edited John Brown’s <i>Elements +of Medicine</i> (1795), and <i>Contributions to Physical and Medical +Knowledge, principally from the West of England</i> (1799).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL<a name="ar257" id="ar257"></a></span> (1803-1849), English dramatist +and poet, son of the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at +Clifton on the 20th of July 1803. His mother was a sister of +Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was sent to Bath grammar +school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he wrote a good +deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820 he +was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year +published <i>The Improvisatore</i>, afterwards carefully suppressed, +and in 1822 <i>The Bride’s Tragedy</i>, which showed him as the +disciple of the later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The +play found a small circle of admirers, and procured for Beddoes +the friendship of Bryan Waller Procter (Barry Cornwall). +Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his degree, and +there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas Forbes +Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became +his biographer and editor. At this time he composed the dramatic +fragments of <i>The Second Brother</i> and <i>Torrismond</i>. +Unfortunately he lacked the power of constructing a plot, and +seemed to suffer from a constitutional inability to finish +anything. Beddoes was one of the first outside the limited circle +of Shelley’s own friends to recognize Shelley’s genius, and he +was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical method. +In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the +illness of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained +some time in Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage +Landor before he returned to England. In 1825 he took his +degree at Oxford, and in that year he began what he calls +(<i>Letters</i>, p. 68) “a very Gothic styled tragedy” with “a jewel +of a name.” This work was completed in 1829 as the fantastic +and incoherent drama, <i>Death’s Jest Book or The Fool’s Tragedy</i>; +but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only +published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to +study anatomy and physiology, not, however, without some hope +that his studies might, by increasing his knowledge of the human +mechanism, further his efforts as a dramatist. In the autumn +of 1825 he entered on his studies at Göttingen, where he remained +for four years. In 1829 he removed to Würzburg, and in 1832 +obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his intimate association +with democratic and republican leaders in Germany and Switzerland +forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his diploma. +He settled in Zürich, where he practised for some time as a +physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative +anatomy at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify +his appointment because of his revolutionary views. He frequently +contributed political poems and articles to German and +Swiss papers, but none of his German work has been identified. +The years at Zürich seem to have been the happiest of his life, +but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town rendered it unsafe +for him, and early in the next year he had to escape secretly. +From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his +books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was +only broken by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of +arts degree, in 1835, in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He +had adopted German thought and manners to such an extent +that he hardly felt at home in England; and his study of the +German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost +weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a +letter, “a non-conductor of friendship”; and it is not surprising +that his old friends found him much changed and eccentric. In +1847 he returned to Frankfort, where he lived with a baker +called Degen, to whom he became much attached, and whom +he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen with him to +Zürich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give his +friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at +Basel, and in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed +himself to death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to +his friends in England that he had had a fall from horseback. +His leg was amputated, and he was in a fair way to recovery +when, on the first day he was allowed to leave the hospital, he +took curare, from the effects of which he died on the 26th of +January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend Kelsall.</p> + +<p>In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote:—“I am +convinced the man who is to awaken the drama must be a bold, +trampling fellow—no creeper into worm-holes—no reviser +even—however good. These reanimations are vampire cold. Such +ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &c., are better dramatists, better +poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of ours—but they +are ghosts—the worm is in their pages” (<i>Letters</i>, p. 50). In +spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a “creeper into +worm-holes,” a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur, +especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death, +and in the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions +portrayed. In his blank verse he caught to a certain degree the +manner of his Jacobean models, and his verse abounds in beautiful +imagery, but his <i>Death’s Jest Book</i> is only finished in the +sense of having five acts completed; it remains a bizarre +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page615" id="page615"></a>615</span> +production which appeals to few minds, and to them rather for +the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire composition. +His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the +study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere +imitations, and some of them, like the “Dirge for Wolfram” +(“If thou wilt ease thy heart”), and “Dream Pedlary” (“If +there were dreams to sell”), are among the most exquisite of +19th-century lyrics.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Kelsall published Beddoes’ great work, <i>Death’s Jest Book: or, The +Fool’s Tragedy</i>, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a +certain Duke Boleslaus of Münsterberg was stabbed by his court-fool, +the “Isbrand” of the play (see C.F. Floegel, <i>Geschichte der +Hofnarren</i>, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851 +with <i>Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes</i>, to which a memoir was +prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the +title of <i>Poems, Posthumous and Collected</i>. All these volumes are +very rare. Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Browning, +with a note stating the real history of Beddoes’ illness and death, +which was kept back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning +is reported to have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his +first lecture would be on Beddoes, “a forgotten Oxford poet.” Mr +Edmund Gosse obtained permission to use the documents from +Browning, and edited a fuller selection of the <i>Poetical Works</i> (2 vols., +1890) for the “Temple Library,” supplying a full account of his life. +He also edited the <i>Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes</i> (1894), containing +a selection from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and +contains much amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of +Beddoes by Ramsay Colles in the “Muses’ Library” (1906).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDE,<a name="ar258" id="ar258"></a></span> <span class="sc">Beda</span>, or <span class="sc">Bæda</span> (672 or 673-735), English historian +and theologian. Of Bæda, commonly called “the Venerable +Bede,” almost all that we know is contained in the short autobiographical +notice which he has appended to his <i>Ecclesiastical +History</i>:—“Thus much concerning the ecclesiastical history of +Britain, and especially of the race of the English, I, Baeda, a +servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of the blessed +apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at +Jarrow, have with the Lord’s help composed, so far as I could +gather it, either from ancient documents, or from the tradition +of the elders, or from my own knowledge. I was born in the +territory of the said monastery, and at the age of seven I was, +by the care of my relations, given to the reverend Abbot Benedict +(Biscop), and afterwards to Ceolfrid, to be educated. From +that time I have spent the whole of my life within that monastery +devoting all my pains to the study of the scriptures; and amid +the observance of monastic discipline, and the daily charge of +singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to learn or +teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the +diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands +of the most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the +bidding of Abbot Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to +the priesthood to my (present) fifty-ninth year, I have endeavoured, +for my own use and that of my brethren, to make +brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out of the works of +the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their meaning and +interpretation.” Then follows a list of his works, so far as, at +that date, they had been composed. As the <i>Ecclesiastical +History</i> was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for +the principal events in Bede’s uneventful life:—birth, 672-673; +entrance into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon, +691-692; as priest, 702-703.</p> + +<p>The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict +Biscop in 674, and that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6 +m. apart, they were intended to form a single monastery under +a single abbot, and so Bede speaks of them in the passage given +above. It is with Jarrow that Bede is chiefly associated, though +no doubt from the close connexion of the two localities he would +often be at Wearmouth. The preface to the prose life of Cuthbert +proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721, while the +Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in 733. +The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons +from Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and +by his total silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited +above, “monastic discipline, the daily charge of singing in the +church, learning, teaching, writing,” in other words devotion +and study make up the even tenor of Bede’s tranquil life. Anecdotes +have been preserved which illustrate his piety both in +early and in later years; of his studies the best monument is to +be found in his writings. As a little boy he would take his place +among the pupils of the monastic school, though he would soon +pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was +ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that +he was regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness.</p> + +<p>For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to +know him. They fall into three main classes: (1) scientific; +(2) historical; (3) theological. The first class comprises works +on grammar, one on natural phenomena, and two on chronology +and the calendar. These last were inspired largely by the +Paschal Question, which was the subject of such bitter controversy +between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the 7th century. +They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the +chief place is held by the <i>Ecclesiastical History of the English +Nation</i>. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father +of English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to +others than professed students. It is indeed one of the most +valuable and one of the most beautiful of historical works. +Bede has the artist’s instinct of proportion, the artist’s sense +for the picturesque and the pathetic. His style too, modelled +largely, in the present writer’s opinion, on that of Gregory in the +<i>Dialogues</i>, is limpid and unaffected. And though it would be +wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of the +words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting +his information from the best available sources, and in distinguishing +between what he believed to be fact, and what he +regarded only as rumour or tradition. Other historical works +of Bede are the <i>History of the Abbots</i> (of Wearmouth and Jarrow), +and the lives of Cuthbert in verse and prose. The <i>History of the +Abbots</i> and the prose life of Cuthbert were based on earlier works +which still survive. In the case of the latter it cannot honestly +be said that Bede has improved on his original. In the <i>History +of the Abbots</i> he was much nearer to the facts, and could make +additions out of his own personal knowledge. The Epistle to +Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here, +because of the valuable information which it contains as to +the state of the Northumbrian Church, on which the disorders +and revolutions of the Northumbrian kingdom had told with +disastrous effect. It is probably the latest of Bede’s extant +works, as it was written in November 734, only six months +before his death. The third or theological class of writings +consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not +commentaries in name, are so in fact. They are based largely +on the works of the four great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine, +Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though Bede’s reading is very +far from being limited to these. His method is largely allegorical. +For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin versions, the +Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But he +certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it +may be said that his works, scientific, historical and theological, +practically sum up all the learning of western Europe in his time, +which he thus made available for his countrymen. And not for +them only; for in the school of York, founded by his pupil +Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin (Ealhwine) the initiator +under Charles the Great of the Frankish schools, which did so +much for learning on the continent. And though Bede makes +no pretensions to originality, least of all in his theological works, +freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare in medieval +writers) acknowledging what he took, “out of the works of the +venerable Fathers,” still everything he wrote is informed and +impressed with his own special character and temper. His +earnest yet sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in +almost every line. “In history and in science, as well as in +theology, he is before all things the Christian thinker and +student.” (Plummer’s <i>Bede</i>, i. 2.) Yet it should not be forgotten +that Bede could hardly have done what he did without the noble +library of books collected by Benedict Biscop.</p> + +<p>Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down +as to the origin of the epithet of “venerable” generally attached +to his name. Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly +given to priests in his day. It has given rise to a false idea that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page616" id="page616"></a>616</span> +he lived to a great age; some medieval authorities making him +ninety when he died. But he was not born before 672 (see above); +and though the date of his death has been disputed, the traditional +year, 735, is most probably correct. This would make +him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching and +beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter. +His last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and +teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing +bodily weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel +of St John, a work which unhappily has not survived. It was a +fitting close to such a life as his.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—The above sketch is largely based on the present +writer’s essay on Bede’s Life and Works, prefixed to his edition of Bede’s +<i>Historia Ecclesiastica, &c.</i> (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896). <i>Beda der +Ehrwurdige und seine Zeit</i>, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna, 1875), is +excellent. Gehle, <i>Disputatio ... de Bedae vita et Scriptis</i> (Leiden, +1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright’s <i>Chapters of Early English +Church History</i> (3rd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is indispensable. +See also Ker, <i>Dark Ages</i>, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected works of Bede +the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in twelve volumes +(8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the <i>Historical Works</i>. +The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563; Cologne, 1612 and 1688) +contain many works which cannot by any possibility be Bede’s. +The edition of Migne, <i>Patralogia Latina</i> (1862 ff.) is based on a +comparison of the Cologne edition with Giles and Smith (see below), and +is open to the same criticism. On the chronology and genuineness of +the works commonly ascribed to Bede, see Plummer’s ed., i., cxlv-clix.</p> + +<p>On the MSS. early editions and translations of the <i>Historia +Ecclesiastica</i>, see Plummer, <i>u.s.</i>, i., lxxx-cxxxii. The edition of +Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first +English edition of the Latin text, and as the <i>editio princeps</i> of the +Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alfred the +Great</a></span>). Smith’s edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only +these, but also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and +appendices. It is a monument of learning and scholarship. The +most recent edition is that with notes and introduction by the +present writer, u.s. It includes also the <i>History of the Abbots</i>, and +the Epistle to Egbert. Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned +edition by Professors Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed., 1881). +A cheap and handy edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder +(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882, &c.). The best-known modern English +translation is that by the Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor +historical works a good edition was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for +the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841; and a translation by the same hand +was included in <i>Church Historians of England</i>, vol. i., part ii. (1853). +See also Plummer’s edition, pp. cxxxii-cxlii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Pl.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDE, CUTHBERT,<a name="ar259" id="ar259"></a></span> the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-1889), +English author, who was born at Kidderminster on the +25th of March 1827. He entered University College, Durham, +in 1845, and later studied at Oxford, where he made the acquaintance +of J.G. Wood, the naturalist. He took holy orders, and +eventually became rector of Stretton in Rutlandshire. Here he +gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered among his friends +Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert Smith. +He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the <i>Illustrated +London News</i>, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly +known as the author of <i>The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an +Oxford Freshman</i> (1853), which he also illustrated and of which +a third part appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford +characters of the time are depicted in its pages, such as Dr +Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss the registrar, and the +waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent fun. In +1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington, Lincolnshire, +where he died on the 12th of December 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDELL, WILLIAM<a name="ar260" id="ar260"></a></span> (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born +at Black Notley in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cambridge, +became fellow of Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders. +In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to Sir H. Wotton, then +English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for four years, +acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He +translated the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> into Italian, and was on +terms of closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo). +In 1616 he was appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near +to Bury St Edmunds, where he had previously laboured), which he +held for twelve years. In 1627 he became provost of Trinity +College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh. +He set himself to reform the abuses of his diocese, encouraged the +use of the Irish language, and personally undertook the duties +generally discharged by the bishop’s lay chancellor. In 1633 +he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants were being +massacred, Bedell’s house was not only left untouched, but became +the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however, +the rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken +shelter in his house, and on the bishop’s refusal he was seized +and imprisoned with some others in the ruined castle of +Loughboughter. Here he was detained for several weeks, and when +released, rapidly sank from the effects of exposure, and died +on the 7th of February 1642.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by +his elder son (ed. T.W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDESMAN,<a name="ar261" id="ar261"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Beadsman</span> (Med. Eng. <i>bede</i>, prayer, from +O. Eng. <i>biddan</i>, to pray; literally “a man of prayer”), generally +a pensioner or almsman whose duty it was to pray for his +benefactor. In Scotland there were public almsmen supported by +the king and expected in return to pray for his welfare and that +of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a pewter +badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns. +Their number corresponded to the king’s years, an extra one being +added each royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms +throughout Scotland. On the king’s birthday each bedesman +received a new blue gown, a loaf, a bottle of ale, and a leathern +purse containing a penny for every year of the king’s life. On +the pewter badge which they wore were their name and the +words “pass and repass,” which authorized them to ask alms. +In 1833 the appointment of bedesmen was stopped. In 1863 +the last payment was paid to a bedesman. In consequence of +its use in this general sense of pensioner, “bedesman” was long +used in English as equivalent to “servant.” The word had a +special sense as the name for those almsmen attached to cathedral +and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for the souls of +deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times, these +old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF<a name="ar262" id="ar262"></a></span>. The present English +title of duke of Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes +in the Russell family. In January 1550 John, Baron Russell, +was created earl of Bedford, and in May 1694 his descendant, +William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford. The Russell +line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The title of +duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably +by the third son of Henry IV.; and the earlier creations may first +be considered here.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Plantagenet</span>, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son +of Henry IV., king of England, was born on the 20th of June +1389. He received various dignities after his father became +king in 1399, and gained his early experiences in warfare when +he undertook the office of warden of the east marches of Scotland +in 1404; he was fairly successful in this command, which he +held until September 1414. In the previous May his brother, the +new king Henry V., had created him duke of Bedford, and after +resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the +royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during +Henry’s expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 commanded +the ships which defeated the French fleet at the mouth +of the Seine, and was instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again +appointed lieutenant in July 1417, he marched against the +Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick at his approach; and +on his return to London he brought Sir John Oldcastle to trial +and was present at his execution. He appears to have governed +the country with considerable success until December 1419, +when he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king +in France. Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy +for the third time in June 1421, and in the following May +conducted the queen to join Henry in Normandy. He then took +his brother’s place and led the English troops to the relief of +Cosne, but on hearing of the king’s serious illness he left the army +and hurried to his side. Henry’s last wish was that Bedford +should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and +that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent +in France. But when Philip declined to undertake this office, +it too was assumed by Bedford, who, after the death of the French +king Charles VI. in October 1422, presided at a session of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page617" id="page617"></a>617</span> +parlement of Paris, and compelled all present to take an oath +of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the English parliament +had decided that Bedford should be “protector and defender” of +the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should devolve +upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining +himself to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took +up Henry V.’s work of conquest, captured Meulan and other +places, and sought to strengthen his position by an alliance +with Philip of Burgundy. This task was rendered more difficult +as Gloucester had just married Jacqueline, countess of Holland +and Hainaut, a union which gave the English duke a claim +on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself. Bedford, +however, having allayed Philip’s irritation, formed an alliance +with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in +April 1423, and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the +Burgundian duke. This marriage was celebrated at Troyes +in the following June, and the war against Charles, the dauphin +of France, was prosecuted with vigour and success. Bedford +sought to restore prosperity to the districts under his rule by +reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to merchants +and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then +granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility +between him and Gloucester, and on the 17th of August 1424 +gained a great victory over a combined army of French and Scots +at Verneuil. But in spite of the efforts of the protector the good +understanding between England and Burgundy was partially +destroyed when Gloucester invaded Hainaut in October 1424. +The ambition of his brother gave Bedford trouble in another +direction also; for on his return from Hainaut Gloucester +quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of +Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England +to settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and +after concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected +a reconciliation between the duke and the chancellor; and +knighted the young king, Henry VI. Bedford then promised +to act in accordance with the will of the council, and in harmony +with the decision of this body raised a body of troops and +returned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester to +desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany +and compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance; +and the success of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans, +to which he consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October +1428. Having assured himself that Philip was prepared to +desert him, Bedford sent orders to his army to raise the siege +in April 1429. He then acted with great energy and judgment in +attempting to stem the tide of disasters which followed this +failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent to England +for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place +he visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer +to England, and after his return to Paris resigned the French +regency to Philip of Burgundy in accordance with the wish of +the Parisians. Retaining the government of Normandy Bedford +established himself at Rouen and directed the movements of +the English forces with some success. He did not interfere to +save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in +April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and +he secured Henry’s coronation at Paris in December 1431. In +November 1432 his wife Anne died, and in April 1433 he was +married at Therouanne to Jacqueline, daughter of Pierre I., +count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford’s vigour the +English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and +this marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England +and Burgundy. Negotiations for peace had no result, and when +the duke returned to England in June 1433 he told parliament +that he had come home to defend himself against the charge +that the losses in France were caused by his neglect, and +demanded that his detractors should make their accusations public. +The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the +king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great +services. His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national +finances; and when asked by the parliament to stay in England +he declared that his services were at the king’s disposal. As +chief councillor he offered to take a smaller salary than had been +previously paid to Gloucester, and undertook this office in +December 1433, when his demands with regard to a continual +council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute +the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in +1435 was obliged to consent to the attendance of English r +epresentatives at a congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras. +Unable to consent to the French terms the English envoys left +Arras in September, and Philip of Burgundy made a separate +treaty with France. Bedford only lived to see the ruin of the +cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at Rouen +on the 14th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral +of that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate +issue. Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability, +brave and humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was +not responsible for the misfortunes of the English in France, +and his courage in the face of failure was as admirable as his +continued endeavour to make the people under his rule contented +and prosperous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford’s life are: <i>Vita et +gesta Henrici Quinti</i>, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de +Monstrelet, <i>Chronique</i>, edited by L.D. d’Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862); +William of Worcester, <i>Annales rerum Anglicarum</i>, edited by J. +Stevenson (London, 1864). See also <i>Proceedings and Ordinances of +the Privy Council of England</i>, edited by J.R. Dasent (London, 1890-1899); +W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895); +P.A. Barante, <i>Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne</i> (Paris, 1824).</p> +</div> + +<p>In 1470 <span class="sc">George Nevill</span> (<i>c.</i> 1457-1483), son of John, earl of +Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his +father’s attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471 +he was degraded from the peerage.</p> + +<p>The next duke of Bedford was <span class="sc">Jasper Tudor</span> (<i>c.</i> 1430-1495), +half-brother of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He +was made earl of Pembroke in 1453. Having survived the +vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he was restored to his +earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The duke, who +was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without +legitimate issue on the 21st of December 1495.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 1st earl of Bedford (<i>c.</i> 1486-1555), was a son +of James Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained +some position at the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently +in great favour with Henry VIII. In 1513 he took part in the +war with France, and, having been knighted about the same +time, was afterwards employed on several diplomatic errands. +He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, +and, returning to military service when the French war was +renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He +was soon made knight marshal of the royal household, and in +1523 went secretly to France, where he negotiated a treaty +between Henry and Charles, duke of Bourbon, who was anxious +to betray the French king Francis I. After a short visit to +England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining the +constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope +Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who +endeavoured to capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia +in February 1525, returning to England about the close of the +year. In January 1527 he was sent as ambassador to Clement, +who employed him to treat on his behalf with Charles de Lannoy, +the general of Charles V. The next few years of Russell’s life +were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament +for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an +opponent of the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of +Henry VIII. He took an active part in suppressing the +Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536, and was one of the commissioners +appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners. Honours now +crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the +king’s household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy councillor +in 1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward +of the duchy of Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March +1539 he was created Baron Russell of Chenies, and in 1542 +became high steward of the university of Oxford, and keeper of +the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and Francis I. were +threatening to invade England, he was sent into the west, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page618" id="page618"></a>618</span> +crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He +was in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and +when Henry died in January 1547 was one of the executors of +his will. Under Edward VI. Russell was lord high steward and +keeper of the privy seal, and the defeat which he inflicted on +the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in August 1549, was +largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in Devonshire. +In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one of +the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in +this year. He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on +the throne; supported Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord +privy seal; and assisted to prevent Sir Thomas Wyat’s rising +from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went to Spain to +conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II., and +soon after his return died in London on the 14th of March 1555. +By extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of +the wealth and greatness of the house of Russell. Through his +wife, Anne (d. 1550), daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he +married in 1526, he obtained Chenies, and in 1539 was granted +the forest of Exmoor, and also Tavistock, and a number of +manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which had formerly +belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received +Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the +eastern counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of +land in London, formerly the property of the protector Somerset. +He left an only son, Francis, who succeeded him in the title.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> (London, 1862-1901); +<i>State Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII.</i> (London, 1831-1852); +<i>Calendar of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary</i> (London, 1861); +J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London, +1833); J.A. Froude, <i>History of England, passim</i> (London, +1881 fol.).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 2nd earl of Bedford (<i>c.</i> 1527-1585), was +educated at King’s Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his +father to the French war in 1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was +member of parliament for Buckinghamshire, being probably the +first heir to a peerage to sit in the House of Commons. He +assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in 1549, and after his +father had been created earl of Bedford in January 1550, was +known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords +under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the +reformers, whose opinions he shared, and was in communication +with Sir Thomas Wyat; and in consequence of his religious +attitude was imprisoned during the earlier part of Mary’s reign. +Being released he went into exile; visited Italy; came into +touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle of St +Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some +measure of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of +the counties of Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558. +When Elizabeth ascended the throne in November 1558 the earl +of Bedford, as Russell had been since 1555, became an active +figure in public life. He was made a privy councillor, and was +sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France and Mary +queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was +governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland, +in which capacity he conducted various negotiations between +Elizabeth and Mary. He appears to have been an efficient +warden, but was irritated by the vacillating and tortuous +conduct of the English queen. When the northern insurrection +broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat in +judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was +president of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the +commissioners deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth +and Francis, duke of Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight +of the garter in 1564, was lord warden of the Stannaries from +1553 to 1580. He appears to have been a generous and popular +man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585. He was +buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562), +daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and +three daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father. +His second wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord +Hussey. He was succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, <span class="sc">Edward</span> +(1572-1627), only son of Francis, Lord Russell (<i>c.</i> 1550-1585). +The 3rd earl left no children when he died on the 3rd of May +1627, and was succeeded by his cousin.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the +only son of William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which +barony he succeeded in August 1613. For a short time previously +he had been member of parliament for the borough of +Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made lord-lieutenant of Devonshire; +and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by the death of his +cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke out +between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the +demands of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition +of Right, and in 1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation +of Sir Robert Dudley’s pamphlet, “Proposition for His Majesty’s +service,” but was quickly released. The Short parliament meeting +in April 1640 found the earl as one of the king’s leading +opponents. He was greatly trusted by John Pym and Oliver +St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the “great +contrivers and designers” in the House of Lords. In July 1640 +he was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders +refusing to invite a Scottish army into England, but promising +to stand by the Scots in all legal and honourable ways; and his +signature was afterwards forged by Thomas, Viscount Savile, +in order to encourage the Scots to invade England. In the following +September he was among those peers who urged Charles to +call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to dismiss +his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English commissioners +appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the +Long parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally +regarded as the leader of the parliamentarians. In February +1641 he was made a privy councillor, and during the course of +some negotiations was promised the office of lord high treasurer. +He was essentially a moderate man, and seemed anxious to +settle the question of the royal revenue in a satisfactory manner. +He did not wish to alter the government of the Church, was on +good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced of +Stafford’s guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of +the parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the +9th of May 1641. Clarendon described him as “a wise man, +and of too great and plentiful a fortune to wish the subversion +of the government,” and again referring to his death said that +“many who knew him well thought his death not unseasonable +as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him as well +from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which +men of all conditions have since undergone.” Bedford was the +head of those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens, +called after him the “Bedford level.” He spent a large sum of +money over this work and received 43,000 acres of land, but +owing to various jealousies and difficulties the king took the +work into his own hands in 1638, making a further grant of land +to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657), daughter of +Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, by whom he had four sons and four +daughters. His eldest son, <span class="sc">William</span> (1613-1700), succeeded +him as 5th earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and +then on that of the king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was +created marquess of Tavistock and duke of Bedford.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Clarendon, <i>History of the Rebellion, passim</i> (Oxford, 1888); J.H. +Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London, 1833); J.L. +Sanford, <i>Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion</i> (London, 1858).</p> +</div> + +<p>The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of +Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his +grandson Wriothesley (1680-1711), who was a son of Lord +William Russell (<i>q.v.</i>) by his marriage with Rachel, daughter of +Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of Southampton, and who became +second duke in 1700. Eleven years later the second duke was succeeded +by his eldest son Wriothesley (1708-1732), who died without +issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother John.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second +son of Wriothesley Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife, +Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of John Howland of Streatham, +Surrey, was born on the 30th of September 1710. Known as Lord +John Russell, he married in October 1731 Lady Diana Spencer, +daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became duke of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page619" id="page619"></a>619</span> +Bedford on his brother’s death a year later; and having lost his +first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude Leveson-Gower +(d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of +Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a +fairly prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike +of George II. When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office +in November 1744, Bedford became first lord of the admiralty +in the administration of Henry Pelham, and was made a privy +councillor. He was very successful at the admiralty, but was +not equally fortunate after he became secretary of state for the +southern department in February 1748. Pelham accused him of +idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of Newcastle, +and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends +he was active in opposition to the government, and after Newcastle’s +resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of +Ireland in the ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devonshire, +retaining this office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt, +returned to power in June 1757. In Ireland he favoured a +relaxation of the penal laws against Roman Catholics, but did +not keep his promises to observe neutrality between the rival +parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his friends. +His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife’s good +qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity, +although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In +March 1761 he resigned this office. Having allied himself with +the earl of Bute and the party anxious to bring the Seven Years’ +War to a close, Bedford was noticed as the strongest opponent of +Pitt, and became lord privy seal under Bute after Pitt resigned +in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was divided over the +policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but pacific counsels +prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France to +treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of +the peace negotiations were conducted through other channels, +but he signed the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning +his office as lord privy seal soon afterwards, various causes of +estrangement arose between Bute and Bedford, and the subsequent +relations of the two men were somewhat virulent. The +duke refused to take office under George Grenville on Bute’s +resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to +power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on +condition that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting +under this rebuff, he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord +president of the council in September 1763. His haughty manner, +his somewhat insulting language, and his attitude with regard +to the regency bill in 1765 offended George III., who sought +in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was obliged to +make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765, +however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford +and his colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political +party, distinguished for rapacity, and known as the “Bedford +party,” or the “Bloomsbury gang.” During his term of office +he had opposed a bill to place high import duties on Italian +silks. He was consequently assaulted and his London residence +attacked by a mob. He took some part in subsequent political +intrigues, and although he did not return to office, his friends, +with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke of Grafton in +December 1767. This proceeding led “Junius” to write his +“letter to the duke of Bedford,” one of especial violence. Bedford +was hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a +mob favourable to the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His +health had been declining for some years, and in 1770 he became +partially paralysed. He died at Woburn on the 15th of January +1771, and was buried in the family burying place at Chenies. +His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in +the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public +offices: lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and +chancellor of Dublin University among others, and was a knight +of the garter. Bedford was a proud and conceited man, but +possessed both ability and common-sense. The important part +which he took in public life, however, was due rather to his +wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He +was neither above nor below the standard of political morality +of the time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very +ambitious, and by followers who were singularly unscrupulous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford</i>, edited by Lord +John Russell (London, 1842-1846); J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs +of the House of Russell</i> (London, 1833); W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of +England</i>, vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, <i>Memoirs of the +Reign of George II.</i> (London, 1847), and <i>Memoirs of the Reign of George +III.</i>, edited by G.F.R. Barker (London, 1894.)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Francis Russell</span>, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest +son of Francis Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his +wife, Elizabeth (d. 1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl +of Albemarle, was baptized on the 23rd of July 1765. In January +1771 he succeeded his grandfather as duke of Bedford, and was +educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, +afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign travel. Regarding +Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined the +Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle +of the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome +some nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak +in the House, and soon became one of the leading debaters in +that assembly. He opposed most of the measures brought forward +by the ministry of William Pitt, and objected to the grant +of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which drew down upon +him a scathing attack from Burke’s pen. Bedford was greatly +interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at +Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding +of sheep. He was a member of the original board of agriculture, +and was the first president of the Smithfield club. He died at +Woburn on the 2nd of March 1802, and was buried in the family +burying-place at Chenies. The duke was never married, and +was succeeded in the title by his brother, John.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Lord Holland, <i>Memoirs of the Whig Party</i> (London, 1854); +J.H. Wiffen, <i>Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell</i> (London, +1833): E. Burke, <i>Letter to a Noble Lord</i> (Edinburgh, 1837); and Earl +Stanhope, <i>Life of Pitt</i> (London, 1861-1862).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">John Russell</span>, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839), was succeeded +as seventh duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had +an only son, William (1809-1872), who became duke on his +father’s death in 1861. When the eighth duke died in 1872, he +was succeeded by his cousin, Francis Charles Hastings (1819-1891), +who was member of parliament for Bedfordshire from +1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke was the +eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell (1790-1846), +who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth, +daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons, +George William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand +Arthur (b. 1858), succeeded in turn to the title.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar263" id="ar263"></a></span> a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the +county town of Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of +London by the Midland railway; served also by a branch of the +London & North-Western. Pop. (1901) 35,144. It lies in the +fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks, but mainly on the north, +on which stands the mound which marks the site of the ancient +castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and Perpendicular, +but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains the tomb +of Sir William Harper or Harpur (<i>c.</i> 1496-1573), lord mayor of +London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford. +St Peter’s church has in its central tower masonry probably of +pre-Conquest date; that of St Mary’s is in part Norman, and +that of St John’s Decorated; but the bodies of these churches +are largely restored. There are some remains of a Franciscan +friary of the 14th century. The Congregational chapel called +Bunyan’s or the “Old Meeting” stands on the site of the building +in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair +is preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where +he underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He +was born at Elstow, 1½ m. from Bedford, where, while playing +on the green, he believed himself to have received the divine +summons to renounce sin. In the panels of a fine pair of bronze +doors in the chapel are scenes illustrative of Bunyan’s <i>Pilgrim’s +Progress</i>. Bedford is noted for its grammar school, founded by +Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir William Harper. The +existing buildings date from 1891, and have been increased since +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page620" id="page620"></a>620</span> +that date, and the school is one of the important public schools of +England. Harper’s endowment includes land in London, and +is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition +modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls’ high +school, and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards +both entrance exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or +other higher educational institution. The old grammar school +buildings are used as a town hall; and among other modern +buildings may be mentioned the shire hall and county hospital. +There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and John Howard +(1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the +Congregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at +Cardington in the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a +large trade as a market town for agricultural produce, and +extensive engineering works and manufactures of agricultural +implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member. +The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and +18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres.</p> + +<p>Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first +mentioned in 571, when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It +subsequently became a Danish borough, which in 914 was +captured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as the county town, +it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and was assessed +at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The +prescriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who +gave the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of £40 +in lieu of all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant, +all tolls, and liberties and laws in common with the citizens of +Oxford. This charter was confirmed by successive sovereigns +down to Charles II. During the 15th century, owing to the rise +of other market towns, Bedford became less prosperous, and the +fee-farm rent was finally reduced to £20 by charter of Henry VII. +Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St Leonard’s hospital, +which was still held in the 19th century at St Leonard’s farm, +the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in Lent +and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market. +A 17th century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire +mentions the trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by +the Ouse from Lynn and Yarmouth. The town was also one of +the earliest centres of the lace trade, to the success of which +French refugees in the 17th and 18th centuries largely contributed.</p> + +<p>Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after +that date two members were returned regularly, until by the +Redistribution of Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its +members. The unlimited power of creating freemen, an inherent +right of the borough, led to great abuse, noticeably in 1769 +when 500 freemen<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> were created to support the political interest +of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the borough.</p> + +<p>Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen’s +reign (1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The +mound marking its site is famous as a bowling-green.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Called “guinea-pigs.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar264" id="ar264"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county, +Indiana, U.S.A., in the south-central part of the state, about +60 m. north-west of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351; +(1910) 8716. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern, +the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Southern Indiana, +and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5 m. distant) +the Bedford & Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of the +Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity +and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones +in the United States—of this stone were built the capitols of +Indiana, Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical +library at Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis, +Missouri; and many other important public buildings. The +city has large cement works, foundries and machine shops +(stone-working machinery being manufactured), and the repair +shops of the Southern Indiana railway. Bedford was settled in +1826 and received a city charter in 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDFORD,<a name="ar265" id="ar265"></a></span> a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata +river, about 35 m. south by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242; +(1910) 2235. Bedford is served by the Bedford branch of the +Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful valley. In the +borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the latter +part of the 18th century, an art gallery and a soldiers’ monument. +There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough, +and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford +Mineral Springs—a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur +spring, and a “sweet-water” spring—which attract many +visitors during the summer season. There are also chalybeate +and other less important springs about the same distance east of +the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m. south-west of it. +Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade, manufactures flour, +dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in a fine +fruit-growing district, especially known for its apples and plums. +The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary +settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough +about 1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years +the place was known as Raystown; the present name was +adopted not later than 1759. In July 1758 Fort Bedford, for +many years an important military post on the frontier, was +constructed, and here, later in the year, General John Forbes +brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against +Fort Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1769, and +in 1771 it was made the county-seat of Bedford county which +was organized in that year. The borough was incorporated in +1795, and received a new charter in 1817. Washington came here +in 1794 to review the army sent to quell the Whisky Insurrection, +and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is still standing.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BEDFORDSHIRE<a name="ar266" id="ar266"></a></span> [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county +of England, bounded N.E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridgeshire, +S.E. by Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W. +by Northamptonshire. It is the fourth smallest English county, +having an area of 466.4 sq. m. It lies principally in the middle +part of the basin of the river Ouse, which, entering in the north-west, +traverses the rich and beautiful Vale of Bedford with a +serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to the north-eastern +corner near St Neots. North of it the land is undulating, +but low; to the south, a well-wooded spur of the Chiltern Hills +separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley +of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is +included in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from +the lowland to bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable. +In this neighbourhood the county includes the headwaters of the +Lea, and thus a small portion of it falls within the Thames basin. +In the north a few streams are tributary to the Nene.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The general trend of the outcrops of the various formations +is from south-west to north-east; the dip is south-easterly. +In the northern portion of the county, the Middle Oolites are the +most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay predominates over +most of the low ground upon which Bedford is situated. At Ampthill +a development of clay, the Ampthill clay, represents the Corallian +limestones of neighbouring counties. The Cornbrash is represented +by no more than about 2 ft. of limestone; but the Kellaways Rock +is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of this rock are +frequently cemented to form hard masses called “doggers.” The +Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county on the west, +has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the Great Oolite +as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays may be +seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through +Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower +Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton +Buzzard they are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of +fuller’s earth occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton, +phosphatized nodules may be obtained, and here a hard bed, the +“Carstone,” lies at the top of the formation. Above the Lower Greensand +comes the Gault Clay, which lies in the broad vale south-east of the +former and north-west of the Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above +the Gault and forms the high ground of Dunshill Moors and the +Chiltern Hills. At the base of the Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above +this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on account of its great hardness, +usually stands out as a well-marked feature. The Lower Chalk, +which comes next in the upward succession, is capped in a similar +manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston and elsewhere. The +upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the south-eastern boundary. +Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie upon the older rocks +over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian fossils, rhinoceros, +mammoth, &c., with palaeolithic implements, have been found +in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its tributaries.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page621" id="page621"></a>621</span></p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—Agriculture is important, nearly nine-tenths of +the total area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat, +for which the soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited; +while on the sandy loam of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood +of Biggleswade, market-gardening is extensively carried on, +the produce going principally to London, whither a considerable +quantity of butter and other dairy-produce is also sent. The +manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements employs +a large number of hands at Bedford and Luton. Luton, however, +is specially noted for the manufacture of straw hats. Straw-plaiting +was once extensively carried on in this neighbourhood +by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now +almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese +and Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the +county is the manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace +designs are French, as a number of French refugees settled +in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and Maltese patterns are also +copied.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i> are provided in the east by the Great Northern +main line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the +Midland railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley +and Cambridge branch of the London & North-Western railway +crosses these main lines at Bedford and Sandy respectively. +The main line of the same company serves Leighton Buzzard +in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to Dunstable, +which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great +Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from +Bedford connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and +formerly afforded the Midland access to London over Great +Northern metals.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The area of the ancient +county is 298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704 +and in 1901 of 171,240. The area of the administrative county +is 302,947 acres. The municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop. +35,144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton (36,404). The other urban +districts are—Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade (5120), Kempston, +connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and Leighton +Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn +(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural +trade. The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at +Bedford. It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided +into eight petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford, +Dunstable and Luton have separate commissions of the peace, +and Bedford has a separate court of quarter-sessions. There are +133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an archdeaconry in the +diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and parts of 6 +others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern +(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one +member; and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning +one member. The principal institution, apart from those in +the towns, is the great Three Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire, +Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire), in the south-east of the +county near Arlesey.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—Although the Saxon invaders were naturally +attracted to Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and +facilities for agriculture, the remains of their settlements are +few and scattered. They occur, with one exception, south of the +Ouse, the most important being a cemetery at Kempston, where +two systems—cremation and earth-burial—are found side by +side. Early reference to Bedfordshire political history is scanty. +In 571 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat on the Britons at Bedford +and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what is now the +shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore, however, +it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King +Edward (919-921). The first actual mention of the county +comes in 1016 when King Canute laid waste to the whole shire. +There was no organized resistance to the conqueror within +Bedfordshire, though the Domesday survey reveals an almost +complete substitution of Norman for English holders. In the +civil war of Stephen’s reign the county suffered severely; the +great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire receipts +had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for the +Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons’ war +when Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de +Breaute, one of the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges +before it was demolished by the king’s orders in 1224. The +peasants’ revolt (1377-1381) was marked by less violence here +than in neighbouring counties; the Annals of Dunstable make +brief mention of a rising in that town and the demand for and +granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money was levied on Bedfordshire, +and in the Civil War that followed, the county was one +of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes that +here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter.</p> + +<p>Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggleswade, +Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey +and Wiscamtree, and the liberty, half hundred or borough of +Bedford. From the Domesday survey it appears that in the 11th +century there were three additional half hundreds, viz. Stanburge, +Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the 14th century become +parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and Biggleswade +respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for Bedfordshire +and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being held +at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting +Flitt, remained in the king’s possession. Flitt was parcel of the +manor of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of +Eleanor, sister of Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The +burgesses of Bedford and the prior of Dunstable claimed +jurisdictional freedom in those two boroughs. The <i>Hundred Rolls</i> +and the <i>Placita de quo warranto</i> show that important jurisdiction +had accrued to the great over-lordships, such as those of +Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious +houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in +more than fifty places in the county.</p> + +<p>With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original +writ which has been discovered was issued in 1290 when two +members were returned for the county. In 1295 in addition +to the county members, writs are found for two members +to represent Bedford borough. Subsequently until modern +times two county and two borough members were returned +regularly.</p> + +<p>Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always +been a prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing +county. From the 13th to the 15th century sheep farming +flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in request and plentiful. +Surviving records show that in assessments of wool to the king, +Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition says +that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I., +who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom +Mary queen of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace +industry is associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when +trade was dull, burnt her lace and ordered new to be made. +As late as the 19th century the lace makers kept “Cattern’s +Day” as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings, expelled +by Alva’s persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of +Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding +districts. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and consequent +French immigration, gave further impetus to the industry. +Defoe writing in 1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements +in the Bedfordshire bone-lace manufacture. In 1794 further +French refugees joined the Bedfordshire lace makers.</p> + +<p>Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the +seat of the duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the +county. The Burgoynes of Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from +1641, have been in Bedfordshire since the 15th century, whilst +the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory since its +purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne +represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other +county families are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton, +the Brandreths of Houghton Regis, and the Orlebars of +Hinwick.</p> + +<p>With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire +fell naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of +Lincoln diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally transferred +to Ely. In 1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page622" id="page622"></a>622</span> +including six rural deaneries, which remained practically unaltered +until 1880, when they were increased to eleven with a new +schedule of parishes.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include +the fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at +Dunstable, serving as the parish church; the church (also +imperfect) of Elstow near Bedford, which belonged to a +Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith, niece of William the +Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine Chicksands Priory +and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the parish +churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant +styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest +date, however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church, +near Bedford on the north, and in a door of Stevington church. +Fine Norman and Early English work is seen at Dunstable and +Elstow, and the later style is illustrated by the large cruciform +churches at Leighton Buzzard and at Felmersham on the Ouse +above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions to the +church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken rood-screen. +To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches +of Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached +campanile, may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good +specimen of fine Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne +Hatley, near Potton, is fitted with rich Flemish carved wood, +mostly from the abbey of Alne near Charleroi, and dating from +1689, but brought here by a former rector early in the 19th +century. In medieval domestic architecture the county is not +rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of +the 18th century.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—<i>Victoria County History</i> (London, 1904, &c.); +Fishe, <i>Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for +Bedfordshire</i> (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836); J.D. Parrv, +<i>Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire</i> (London, 1827); <i>Bedfordshire +Domesday Book</i> (Bedford, 1881); <i>Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582, +and 1634</i>, in <i>Harleian Society’s Publications</i>, vol. xiv. (London, 1884); +<i>Genealogica Bedfordiensis</i>, 1538, 1800 (London, 1890); and <i>Illustrated +Bedfordshire</i> (Nottingham, 1895). See also <i>Bedfordshire Notes and +Queries</i>, ed. F.A. Blades, and <i>Transactions of the Bedfordshire Natural +History and Field Club.</i></p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 3, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 3 SLICE 4 *** + +***** This file should be named 34405-h.htm or 34405-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/4/0/34405/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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