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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers
+of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations
+
+Author: Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+Release Date: November 30, 2010 [EBook #34513]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This book was produced from scanned images of public
+domain material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                   A
+                        Biographical Dictionary
+                                  of
+                              FREETHINKERS
+                                  of
+                         All Ages and Nations.
+
+
+                                   By
+                             J. M. WHEELER.
+
+
+                                London:
+                    Progressive Publishing Company,
+                      28 Stonecutter Street, E.C.
+
+                                 1889.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+John Stuart Mill in his "Autobiography" declares with truth that
+"the world would be astonished if it knew how great a proportion
+of its brightest ornaments, of those most distinguished even in
+popular estimation for wisdom and virtue are complete sceptics in
+religion." Many of these, as Mill points out, refrain from various
+motives from speaking out. The work I have undertaken will, I trust,
+do something to show how many of the world's worthiest men and women
+have been Freethinkers.
+
+My Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who
+have rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation
+would rather be the task of an international society than of an
+individual. Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now
+inaccessible. Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom
+the world was not worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom
+in prison or at the stake. Some of the names of these are only known
+by the vituperation of their adversaries. I have done my best to
+preserve some trustworthy record of as many as possible.
+
+The only complete work with a similar design of which I have any
+knowledge, is the Dictionnaire des Athées anciens et modernes,
+by Sylvain Maréchal with its supplements by Jerome de Lalande the
+Astronomer, An. VIII. (1800)-1805. That work, which is now extremely
+rare, gave scarcely any biographical details, and unfortunately
+followed previous orthodox atheographers, such as Buddeus, Reimmann,
+Hardouin, Garasse, Mersenne, in classing as Atheists those to whom
+the title was inapplicable. I have taken no names from these sources
+without examining the evidence.
+
+A work was issued by Richard Carlile in 1826, entitled A Dictionary of
+Modern Anti-Superstionists; or, "an account, arranged alphabetically,
+of those who, whether called Atheists, Sceptics, Latitudinarians,
+Religious Reformers, or etc., have during the last ten centuries
+contributed towards the diminution of superstition. Compiled by
+a searcher after Truth." The compiler, as I have reason to know,
+was Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task adequate scholarship
+and leisure. It was, however, conceived on too extensive a scale,
+and in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only reached to the name of
+Annet. Julian Hibbert also compiled chronological tables of English
+Freethinkers, which were published in the Reasoner for 1855.
+
+Of the Anti-Trinitarian Biography of the Rev. Robert Wallace, or of
+the previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but little
+use. To include the names of all who reject some of the Christian
+dogmas was quite beside my purpose, though I have included those of
+early Unitarians and Universalists who, I conceive, exhibited the true
+spirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the Freydenker
+Lexikon of J. A. Trinius (1759) my obligations are slight, but should
+be acknowledged. To Bayle's Dictionary, Hoefer's Nouvelle Biographie
+Generale, Meyer's Konversations Lexikon, Franck's Dictionnaire des
+Sciences Philosophiques, and to Larousse's Grand Dictionnaire Universel
+I must also express my indebtedness. In the case of disputed dates
+I have usually found Haydn's Dictionary of Biography (1886) most
+trustworthy, but I have also consulted Oettinger's valuable Moniteur
+des Dates.
+
+The particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available
+sources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives
+dealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and
+relation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works
+of authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full
+a list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive
+Freethought works; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone
+wishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only
+work of a bibliographical kind is the Guide du Libre Penseur, by
+M. Alfred Verlière, but his list is very far from complete even of
+the French authors, with whom it is almost entirely occupied. I should
+also mention La Lorgnette Philosophique, by M. Paquet, as giving lively
+sketches, though not biographies, of some modern French Freethinkers.
+
+In the compilation of my list of names I have received assistance
+from my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for
+the opportunity of publication), Mr. W. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and
+Mr. F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers
+I am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and
+Mr. E. T. Craig, while Professor Dalla Volta, of Florence, has kindly
+assisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my
+indebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose Dizionario Biografico degli
+Scrittori Contemporanei I have found of considerable service. My thanks
+are also due to G. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the
+titles of all Freethought works in the British Museum.
+
+Some readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while
+omitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted
+many foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who,
+ostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be
+found in my purpose, which is to record the names of those who have
+contributed in their generation to the advance of Freethought. No one
+can be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than myself,
+but I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that "though it
+be the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide wood, it is
+no discredit if he do not find it all"; and the hope that what I have
+attempted some other will complete.
+
+The most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the
+claims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in
+this dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I
+designed it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and
+leave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of
+"the good old cause"; a history which has yet to be written, and for
+which, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe.
+
+Should this volume be received with an encouraging share of favor,
+I hope to follow it with a History of Freethought in England, for
+which I have long been collecting materials.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FREETHINKERS.
+
+
+Abælardus (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher of philosophy at Paris, renowned
+for being loved by the celebrated Eloise. He was accused of teaching
+erroneous opinions, chiefly about the Creation and the Trinity, and was
+condemned by a council at Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140,
+at the instigation of St. Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent
+his last days as a monk at Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. "Abelard,"
+observes Hallam, "was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the
+age of darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence."
+
+Abano (Petrus de). See Petrus, de Abano.
+
+Abauzit (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian family
+which settled in the South of France early in the ninth century,
+b. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted
+with Bayle, attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by
+Voltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels,
+and an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority
+of that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His Miscellanies were
+translated in English by E. Harwood, 1774.
+
+Abbot (Francis Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, 6
+Nov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a
+Unitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned
+in 1869. He started the Index, a journal of free religious inquiry
+and anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he
+edited 1870-80. In 1872 appeared his Impeachment of Christianity. In
+addition to his work on the Index, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great
+deal, and has contributed to the North American Review and other
+periodicals. He was the first president of the American National
+Liberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and defends
+his views in Scientific Theism, 1886.
+
+Ablaing van Giessenburg (R.C.) See Giessenburg.
+
+Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail (Abu J'afar) Al Isbili. Spanish Arabian
+philosopher, b. at Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic
+tendency Hai Ibn Yakdan, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671,
+and into English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of The Improvement
+of Human Reason. Died at Morocco 1185.
+
+Abu-Fazil (Abu al Fadhl ibn Mubarak, called Al Hindi), vizier to
+the great Emperor Akbar from 1572. Although by birth a Muhammadan,
+his investigations into the religions of India made him see equal
+worth in all, and, like his master, Akbar, he was tolerant of all
+sects. His chief work is the Ayin Akbary, a statistical account of
+the Indian Empire. It was translated by F. Gladwin, 1777. He was
+assassinated 1604.
+
+Abul-Abbas-Abdallah III. (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, caliph,
+son of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was a patron
+of science and literature, collected Greek and Hebrew manuscripts,
+and invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He wrote
+several treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug. 833.
+
+Abul-Ola (Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn Sulaiman), celebrated Arabian poet,
+b. at Maari, in Syria, Dec., 973. His free opinions gave much scandal
+to devout Moslems. He was blind through small-pox from the age of
+four years, but his poems exhibit much knowledge. He called himself
+"the doubly imprisoned captive," in allusion to his seclusion and
+loss of sight. He took no pains to conceal that he believed in no
+revealed religion. Died May, 1057, and ordered the following verse
+to be written on his tomb:--"I owe this to the fault of my father:
+none owe the like to mine."
+
+Abu Tahir (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at Bahrein,
+on the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of followers
+captured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He suddenly
+attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the head of
+thirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943.
+
+Achillini (Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b. Bologna 29
+Oct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote largely
+upon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were published
+at Venice, 1545.
+
+Ackermann (Louise-Victorine, née Choquet), French poetess, b. Paris 30
+Nov. 1813. She travelled to Germany and there married (1853) a young
+theologian, Paul Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his
+Christian faith, and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick
+William (afterwards Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four
+(1846). Both were friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann's poems
+(Paris 1863-74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and
+Atheist. "God is dethroned," says M. Caro of her poems (Revue des
+Deux Mondes, 15 May, 1874). She professes hatred of Christianity
+and its interested professors. She has also published Thoughts of a
+Solitary. Sainte Beuve calls her "the learned solitary of Nice."
+
+Acollas (Pierre Antoine René Paul Emile), French jurisconsult and
+political writer, b. La Châtre 25 June, 1826, studied law at Paris. For
+participating in the Geneva congress of the International Society
+in 1867 he was condemned to one year's imprisonment. In 1871 he was
+appointed head of the law faculty by the Commune. He has published
+several manuals popularising the legal rights of the people, and has
+written on Marriage its Past, Present, and Future, 1880. Mrs. Besant
+has translated his monograph on The Idea of God in the Revolution,
+published in the Droits de l'Homme.
+
+Acontius (Jacobus--Italian, Giacomo Aconzio). Born at Trent early
+in sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in the Church of
+Rome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland in 1557. He
+subsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as a military
+engineer. To her he dedicated his Strategems of Satan, published at
+Basle 1565. This was one of the earliest latitudinarian works, and
+was placed upon the Index. It was also bitterly assailed by Protestant
+divines, both in England and on the Continent. An English translation
+appeared in 1648. Some proceedings were taken against Acontius before
+Bishop Grindall, of the result of which no account is given. Some
+passages of Milton's Areopagitica may be traced to Acontius, who,
+Cheynell informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen's Dictionary of National
+Biography says he is believed to have died shortly after 1566.
+
+Acosta (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a Christianised Jew;
+he was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching maturity, rejected
+that faith. He went to Holland, where he published a work equally
+criticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was excommunicated by the
+Synagogue, fined and put in prison by the Amsterdam authorities,
+and his work suppressed. After suffering many indignities from both
+Jews and Christians, he committed suicide 1647.
+
+Adams (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one month's
+imprisonment for selling the Oracle of Reason.
+
+Adams (Robert C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. Author
+of Travels in Faith from Tradition to Reason (New York, 1884), also
+Evolution, a Summary of Evidence.
+
+Adler (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a Jewish rabbi,
+was b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at Columbia
+College, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature
+at Cornell University from '74 to May '76, when he established in
+New York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he discourses on
+Sundays. In 1877 he published a volume entitled Creed and Deed, in
+which he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has also contributed
+many papers to the Radical literature of America.
+
+Ænesidemus. A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first century. He
+adopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were in course
+of change, and argued against our knowledge of ultimate causes.
+
+Airy (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. Alnwick
+27 July, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior
+wrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance
+astronomical science. His Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures 1876,
+proves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker.
+
+Aitkenhead (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who was
+indicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having
+called the Old Testament "Ezra's Fables," and having maintained
+that God and nature were the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696,
+and hanged for blasphemy, 8 Jan. 1697.
+
+Aitzema (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum 19
+Nov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, between
+1621-68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at the Hague 23
+Feb. 1669.
+
+Akbar (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the emperors of
+Hindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide administration and
+improvement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration alike to Christians,
+Muhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith. He had the Christian
+gospels and several Brahmanical treatises translated into Persian. The
+result of his many conferences on religion between learned men of
+all sects, are collected in the Dabistan. Akbar was brought up as a
+Muhammadan, but became a Theist, acknowledging one God, but rejecting
+all other dogmas. Died Sept. 1605.
+
+Alberger (John). American author of Monks, Popes, and their Political
+Intrigues (Baltimore, 1871) and Antiquity of Christianity (New York,
+1874).
+
+Albini (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he
+studied medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many
+other physiological subjects.
+
+Alchindus. Yakub ibn Is'hak ibn Subbah (Abú Yúsuf) called Al Kindi,
+Arab physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the
+companions of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about
+840. He was a rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies
+he was set down as a magician.
+
+Alciati (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At first
+a Romanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually
+advanced to Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters
+to Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that
+Alciati deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but
+Bayle takes pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.
+
+Aleardi (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, b. Verona, 4
+Nov. 1812. He was engaged in a life-long struggle against the Austrian
+dominion, and his patriotic poems were much admired. In 1859 he was
+elected deputy to Parliament for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.
+
+Alembert (Jean le Rond d'), mathematician and philosopher, b. at
+Paris 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of Canon Destouches
+and Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from a church
+near which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards resided
+for forty years with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the most
+tempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy of
+Sciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of
+Berlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the
+problem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation
+of the earth's axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose opinions
+he was in complete accord, in compiling the famous Encyclopédie, for
+which he wrote the preliminary discourse. In addition to this great
+work he published many historical, philosophical and scientific essays,
+and largely corresponded with Voltaire. His work on the Destruction
+of the Jesuits is a caustic and far-reaching production. In a letter
+to Frederick the Great, he says: "As for the existence of a supreme
+intelligence, I think that those who deny it advance more than they
+can prove, and scepticism is the only reasonable course." He goes on
+to say, however, that experience invincibly proves the materiality of
+the "soul." Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous
+essays were printed in Paris. His works prove d'Alembert to have been
+of broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge.
+
+Alfieri (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist, b. Asti,
+Piedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are justly
+celebrated, and in his Essay on Tyranny he shows himself as favorable
+to religious as to political liberty. Written in his youth, this work
+was revised at a more advanced age, the author remarking that if he
+had no longer the courage, or rather the fire, necessary to compose
+it, he nevertheless retained intelligence, independence and judgment
+enough to approve it, and to let it stand as the last of his literary
+productions. His attack is chiefly directed against Catholicism,
+but he does not spare Christianity. "Born among a people," he says,
+"slavish, ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the
+Christian religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience,
+and is unacquainted even with the name of liberty." Alfieri's tragedy
+of Saul has been prohibited on the English stage. Died Florence,
+8 Oct. 1803.
+
+Alfonso X., surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon; b. in
+1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. He
+compiled a complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and
+had drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By
+his liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish
+literature. For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his
+independence towards the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical
+revenues, he has been stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed
+the well-known remark that had he been present at the creation of the
+world he would have proposed some improvements. Father Lenfant adds
+the pious lie that "The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy
+when a thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to
+ashes." Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.
+
+Algarotti (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, b. at
+Venice, 11 Dec. 1712. A visit to England led him to write Newtonianism
+for the Ladies. He afterwards visited Berlin and became the friend
+both of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his
+Chamberlain. Died with philosophical composure at Pisa, 3 May, 1764.
+
+Alger (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts, 30
+Dec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the
+advanced type. His Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future
+Life, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot,
+is a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view.
+
+Allen (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. in
+Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, Oxford,
+and graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of Logic
+in Queen's College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to '77 he was
+its principal. Since then he has resided in England, and become
+known by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published works
+include Physiological Æsthetics (1877), The Evolutionist at Large
+(1881), Nature Studies (1883), Charles Darwin (1885), and several
+novels. Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle,
+and has written on Force and Energy (1888).
+
+Allen (Ethan) Col., American soldier, b. at Litchfield, Connecticut,
+10 Jan. 1737. One of the most active of the revolutionary heroes,
+he raised a company of volunteers known as the "Green Mountain Boys,"
+and took by surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing
+100 guns, 10 May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and £100 offered
+for his arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken
+prisoner and sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was
+eventually exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member
+of the state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition
+of Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 Reason
+the only Oracle of Man, the first publication in the United States
+openly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently
+reprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont,
+13 Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.
+
+Allsop (Thomas). "The favorite disciple of Coleridge," b. 10 April,
+1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he lived till 1880. A friend
+of Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was implicated in the attempt
+of Orsini against Napoleon III. In his Letters, Conversations and
+Recollections of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he has imported many of
+his Freethought views.
+
+Alm (Richard von der). See Ghillany (F. W.)
+
+Alpharabius (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called
+Al Farabi, Turkish philosopher, termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest
+philosopher the Moslems ever had, travelled to Bagdad, mastered
+the works of Aristotle, and became master of Avicenna. Al Farabi is
+said to have taught the eternity of the world and to have denied the
+permanent individuality of the soul. His principal work is a sort
+of encyclopædia. Rénan says he expressly rejected all supernatural
+revelation. Died at Damascus Dec. 950, aged upwards of eighty.
+
+Amaury or Amalric de Chartres, a heretic of the thirteenth century,
+was a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at Paris, where he gave
+lessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of Physion, condemned
+by a bull of Pope Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have taught a
+kind of Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son must give
+place to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were burnt at
+Paris 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and placed
+in the flames.
+
+Amberley (John Russell) Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell,
+b. 1843. Educated at Harrow, Edinburgh and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where ill-health prevented him reading for honors. He
+entered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member for Nottingham. Lord
+Amberley contributed thoughtful articles to the North British,
+the Fortnightly and Theological Reviews, and will be remembered by
+his bold Analysis of Religious Belief (1876), in which he examines,
+compares and criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley
+left his son to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of
+great ability and force of character; but the will was set aside, on
+appeal to the Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding's
+heretical views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.
+
+Amman (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b. Lake Zurich
+1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt, and
+afterwards published a curious book called Voyage in the Promised
+Land. Died at Zurich, 1658.
+
+Ammianus (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth century,
+b. at Antioch. He wrote the Roman history from the reign of Nerva to
+the death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen
+are lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. He served
+under Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of the period
+to that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him "an accurate and faithful
+guide." Died about 395 A.D.
+
+Ammonius, surnamed Saccas or the Porter, from his having been obliged
+in the early part of his life to adopt that calling, was born of
+Christian parents in Alexandria during the second century. He,
+however, turned Pagan and opened a school of philosophy. Among his
+pupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He undoubtedly originated
+the Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most serious opposition
+to Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died A.D. 243, aged
+over eighty years.
+
+Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, b. about 499 B.C.,
+lived at Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 B.C. he
+was accused of Atheism for maintaining the eternity of matter and was
+banished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428 B.C. It is related that,
+being asked how he desired to be honored after death, he replied,
+"Only let the day of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys
+in the schools." He taught that generation and destruction are only
+the union and separation of elements which can neither be created
+nor annihilated.
+
+Andre-Nuytz (Louis), author of Positivism for All, an elementary
+exposition of Positive philosophy, to which Littré wrote a preface,
+1868.
+
+Andrews (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton, Mass.,
+22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent speaker,
+and the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His principle
+work is entitled The Basic Outline of Universology (N. Y., 1872). He
+also wrote The Church and Religion of the Future (1886). He was a
+prominent member and vice-president of the Liberal Club of New York,
+a contributor to the London Times, the New York Truthseeker, and many
+other journals. Died at New York, 21 May, 1886.
+
+Andrieux (Louis). French deputy, b. Trévoux 20 July, 1840. Was
+called to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his political
+pleading. He took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples in 1869,
+and in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three months
+for his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the Republic he
+was nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal council of
+that city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of Deputies. In
+1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in 1881 and was
+elected deputy by his constituents at Lyons. He has written Souvenirs
+of a Prefect of Police (1885).
+
+Angelucci (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near Tolentino
+1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was banished
+from Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in Italy,
+he also made an excellent translation of the Æneid of Virgil. Died
+Montagnana, 1600.
+
+Angiulli (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. 1837,
+author of a work on philosophy and Positive research, Naples 1868. He
+became professor of Anthropology at Naples in 1876, and edits a
+philosophical review published in that city since 1881.
+
+Annet (Peter). One of the most forcible writers among the English
+Deists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a schoolmaster
+and invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at school
+and corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on
+Freethinking the Great Duty of Religion, by P. A., minister of
+religion. This was followed by the Conception of Jesus as the
+Foundation of the Christian Religion, in which he boldly attacks
+the doctrine of the Incarnation as "a legend of the Romanists,"
+and The Resurrection of Jesus Considered (1744) in answer to Bishop
+Sherlock's Trial of the Witnesses. This controversy was continued in
+The Resurrection Reconsidered and The Resurrection Defenders Stript
+of all Defence. In An Examination of the History and Character of
+St. Paul he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and
+even questions the authenticity of his epistles. In Supernaturals
+Examined (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761
+he issued nine numbers of the Free Inquirer, in which he attacked
+the authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this he was
+brought before the King's Bench and sentenced to suffer one month's
+imprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, once at
+Charing Cross and once at the Exchange, with a label "For Blasphemy,"
+then to have a year's hard labor in Bridewell and to find sureties
+for good behavior during the rest of his life. It is related that
+a woman seeing Annet in the pillory said, "Gracious! pilloried for
+blasphemy. Why, don't we blaspheme every day!" After his release Annet
+set up a school at Lambeth. Being asked his views on a future life
+he replied by this apologue: "One of my friends in Italy, seeing the
+sign of an inn, asked if that was the Angel." "No," was the reply,
+"do you not see it is the sign of a dragon." "Ah," said my friend,
+"as I have never seen either angel or dragon, how can I tell whether
+it is one or the other?" Died 18 Jan. 1769. The History of the Man
+after God's Own Heart (1761) ascribed to Annet, was more probably
+written by Archibald Campbell. The View of the Life of King David
+(1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also falsely attributed to Annet.
+
+Anthero de Quental, Portuguese writer, b. San Miguel 1843. Educated
+for the law at the University of Coimbra, he has published both poetry
+and prose, showing him to be a student of Hartmann, Proudhon and Rénan,
+and one of the most advanced minds in Portugal.
+
+Anthony (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker family
+at South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a teacher,
+a temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent advocate
+of women's rights. Of the last movement she became secretary. In
+conjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury she conducted
+The Revolutionist founded in New York in 1868, and with Mrs. Stanton
+and Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the History of Woman's Suffrage,
+1881. Miss Anthony is a declared Agnostic.
+
+Antoine (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and divinity of
+Jesus, and was strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, 1632.
+
+Antonelle (Pierre Antoine) Marquis d', French political economist,
+b. Arles 1747. He embraced the revolution with ardor, and his article
+in the Journal des Hommes Libres occasioned his arrest with Baboeuf. He
+was, however, acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.
+
+Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius). See Aurelius.
+
+Apelt (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 March,
+1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the standpoint
+of reason, and wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near Gorlitz,
+27 Oct. 1859.
+
+Aquila, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselyte to Christianity, but
+afterwards left that religion. He published a Greek version of the
+Hebrew scriptures to show that the prophecies did not apply to Jesus
+(A.D. 128). The work is lost. He has been identified by E. Deutsch
+with the author of the Targum of Onkelos.
+
+Arago (Dominique François Jean), French academician, politician,
+physicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was elected to
+the French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three. He made
+several optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated
+the undulatory theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and
+Freethinker, and took part in the provisional Government of 1848. He
+opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the
+oath of allegiance after the coup d'état of December, 1851. Died 2
+Oct. 1853. Humboldt calls him a "zealous defender of the interests
+of Reason."
+
+Ardigo (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone (Cremona)
+28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to philosophy. In
+1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, followed next year
+by Psychology as a Positive Science. Signor Ardigo has also written on
+the formation of the solar system and on the historical formation of
+the ideas of God and the soul. An edition of his philosophical works
+was commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one of the leaders of the
+Italian Positivists. His Positivist Morals appeared in Padua 1885.
+
+Argens (Jean Baptiste de Boyer) Marquis d', French writer, b. at
+Aix, in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and
+served with distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great
+he invited d'Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his
+chamberlains. Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to
+Aix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were
+published in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are Lettres
+Juives, Lettres Chinoises and Lettres Cabalistiques, which were
+joined to La Philosophie du bon sens. He also translated Julian's
+discourse against Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity
+of the World. Argens took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to
+that philosopher.
+
+Argental (Charles Augustin de Ferriol) Count d', French diplomat,
+b. Paris 20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother
+of D'Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship
+for Voltaire. He was said to be the author of Mémoires du Comte de
+Comminge and Anecdotes de la cour d'Edouard. Died 5 Jan. 1788.
+
+Aristophanes, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Socrates,
+Plato, and Euripides, b. about 444 B.C. Little is known of his life. He
+wrote fifty-four plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned
+in a public assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost
+boldness he satirised not only the the political and social evils
+of the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology
+of the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes' works
+under his pillow. Died about 380 B.C.
+
+Aristotle, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was born at
+Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 B.C. He was employed by Philip of Macedon
+to instruct his son Alexander. His inculcation of ethics as apart
+from all theology, justifies his place in this list. After the death
+of Alexander, he was accused of impiety and withdrew to Chalcis,
+where he died B.C. 322. Grote says: "In the published writings of
+Aristotle the accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for
+sustaining their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that
+prayer and sacrifices to the gods were of no avail." His influence
+was predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante
+speaks of him as "the master of those that know."
+
+Arnold of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against the papal
+authority and the temporal power, and the vices of the clergy. He
+was condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and retired
+from Italy. He afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his exertions
+against sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and burnt at
+Rome in 1155. Baronius calls him "the patriarch of political heretics."
+
+Arnold (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby,
+b. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford,
+where he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the Strayed
+Reveller, and other Poems, signed A. In 1851 he married and became
+an inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared Empedocles on Etna, a poem
+in which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives much secular
+philosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In
+1871 he published an essay entitled St. Paul and Protestantism; in 1873
+Literature and Dogma, which, from its rejection of supernaturalism,
+occasioned much stir and was followed by God and the Bible. In 1877
+Mr. Arnold published Last Essays on Church and State. Mr. Arnold
+has a lucid style and is abreast of the thought of his age, but he
+curiously unites rejection of supernaturalism, including a personal
+God, with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said
+in his own words to wander "between two worlds, one dead, the other
+powerless to be born." Died 15 April, 1888.
+
+Arnould (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As
+journalist he wrote on l'Opinion Nationale, the Rappel, Reforme and
+other papers. In 1864 he published a work on Beranger, and in '69 a
+History of the Inquisition. In Jan. 1870 he founded La Marseillaise
+with H. Rochefort, and afterwards the Journal du Peuple with Jules
+Valles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of
+the Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He
+has also written many novels and dramas.
+
+Arnould (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. 1838,
+advocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a History of the
+Church 1874, and a little work on the Philosophy of Liberalism 1877.
+
+Arouet (François Marie). See Voltaire.
+
+Arpe (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 May,
+1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (i.e., Rotterdam,
+1712). A reply to La Monnoye's treatise on the book De Tribus
+Impostoribus is attributed to him. Died, Hamburg, 4 Nov. 1740.
+
+Arthur (John) is inserted in Maréchal's Dictionnaire des Athées
+as a mechanic from near Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and
+republished the Invocation to Nature in the last pages of the System
+of Nature. Julian Hibbert inserted his name in his Chronological
+Tables of Anti-Superstitionists, with the date of death 1792.
+
+Asseline (Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829, became an
+advocate in 1851. In 1866 he established La Libre Pensée, a weekly
+journal of scientific materialism, and when that was suppressed
+La Pensée Nouvelle. He was one of the founders of the Encyclopédie
+Générale. He wrote Diderot and the Nineteenth Century, and contributed
+to many journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected
+mayor of the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards
+one of the Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878.
+
+Assezat (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was a son
+of a compositor on the Journal des Debats, on which Jules obtained a
+position and worked his way to the editorial chair. He was secretary of
+the Paris Society of Anthropology, contributed to La Pensée Nouvelle,
+edited the Man Machine of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works
+of Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.
+
+Assollant (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 March,
+1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.
+
+Ast (Georg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29
+Dec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Landshut and
+Munich. Wrote Elements of Philosophy, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31
+Dec. 1841.
+
+Atkinson (Henry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was educated
+at the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in
+the Zoist. In 1851 he issued Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature
+and Development, in conjunction with Harriet Martineau, to whom he
+served as philosophic guide. This work occasioned a considerable
+outcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the National
+Reformer and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec. 1884, at Boulogne,
+where he had resided since 1870.
+
+Aubert de Verse (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth century,
+who wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of blasphemy.
+
+Audebert (Louise). French authoress of the Romance of a Freethinker
+and of an able Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of Orleans, 1868.
+
+Audifferent (Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste Comte,
+was born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at Marseilles,
+and is the author of several medical and scientific works.
+
+Aurelius (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, b. at
+Rome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated, and lived a laborious,
+abstemious life. On the death of his uncle Antoninus Pius, 161, the
+Senate obliged him to take the government, but he associated with
+himself L. Verus. On the death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed
+sole authority, which he exercised with wise discretion and great
+glory. Much of his time was employed in defending the northern
+frontiers of the empire against Teutonic barbarians. He had no
+high opinion of Christians, speaking of their obstinacy, and it is
+pretended many were put to death in the reign of one of the best
+emperors that ever ruled. If so we may be assured it was for their
+crimes. Ecclesiastical historians have invented another pious miracle
+in a victory gained through the prayers of the Christians. Antoninus
+held that duty was indispensable even were there no gods. His
+Meditations, written in the midst of a most active life, breathe a
+lofty morality, and are a standing refutation of the view that pure
+ethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, 180.
+
+Austin (Charles), lawyer and disciple of Bentham, b. Suffolk 1799. At
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won,
+much to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions,
+the Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he
+was sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley "I could
+have written a much better essay on the other side." He afterwards
+wrote on the other side in the Westminster Review. Successful as a
+lawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his
+influence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his
+heretical opinions. He says "He inclined to Darwinism, because as he
+said, it is so antecedently probable; but, long before this theory
+broke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up." Died
+21 Dec. 1874.
+
+Austin (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, 1790. A
+friend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he shared,
+he is chiefly known by his profound works on jurisprudence. Died 17
+Dec. 1859.
+
+Avempace, i.e., Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called
+Ibn al-Saigh (the son of the goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and
+poet, b. at Saragossa, practised medicine at Seville 1118, which he
+quitted about 1120, and became vizier at the court of Fez, where he
+died about 1138. An admirer of Aristotle, he was one of the teachers
+of Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn Khâkân represents him as an infidel and
+Atheist, and says: "Faith disappeared from his heart and left not a
+trace behind; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did [the holy]
+name cross his lips." He is said to have suffered imprisonment for
+his heterodoxy.
+
+Avenel (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828. One of
+the promoters of the Encyclopédie Générale. His vindication of Cloots
+(1865) is a solid work of erudition. He became editor of la République
+Française and edited the edition of Voltaire published by Le Siècle
+(1867-70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was,
+by his express wish, buried without religious ceremony.
+
+Averroes (Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), Abu al Walid, Arabian
+philosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at Morocco 10
+Dec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of Aristotle,
+and resolutely placed the claims of science above those of theology. He
+was prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the Muhammadan doctors,
+was spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the hour of prayer,
+and afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions, which incline
+towards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being condemned
+by the University of Paris in 1240. They were opposed by St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the Renaissance
+through the Paduan school were again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.
+
+Avicenna (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called Ibn Sina), Arabian physician and
+philosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the district of Bokhara. From his early
+youth he was a wonderful student, and at his death 15 June, 1037,
+he left behind him above a hundred treatises. He was the sovereign
+authority in medical science until the days of Harvey. His philosophy
+was pantheistic in tone, with an attempt at compromise with theology.
+
+Aymon (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphiné 1661. Brought up in the
+Church, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the Hague. He
+published Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion, and is said to have
+put forward a version of the Esprit de Spinoza under the famous title
+Treatise of Three Impostors. Died about 1734.
+
+Bagehot (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian parents,
+Langport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died at the same place 24
+March, 1877. He was educated at London University, of which he became
+a fellow. For the last seventeen years of his life he edited the
+Economist newspaper. His best-known works are The English Constitution,
+Lombard Street and Literary Studies. In Physics and Politics (1872),
+a series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he applies Darwinism
+to politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very original thinker,
+who rejected historic Christianity.
+
+Baggesen (Jens Immanuel), Danish poet, b. Kösor, Zealand. 15
+Feb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzerland; at
+Berne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote popular poems
+both in Danish and German, among others Adam and Eve, a humorous mock
+epic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire. Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.
+
+Bahnsen (Julius Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern,
+Schleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil,
+1847. He fought against the Danes in '49, and afterwards studied at
+Tübingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and
+Hartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written
+several works, among which we mention The Philosophy of History,
+Berlin, 1872, and The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the
+Nature of the World (2 vols), Berlin 1880-82.
+
+Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25
+Aug. 1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor
+of biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered
+from place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called
+New Revelations of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and
+Thinkers, Berlin, 1787, and a Catechism of Natural Religion, Halle,
+1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792.
+
+Bailey (James Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the
+Torch, and the Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna: its Monarch
+and Inhabitants; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the
+"Social Reformer's Cabinet Library," and some interesting Essays on
+Miscellaneous Subjects, at Leeds, 1842.
+
+Bailey (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His
+essay on the Formation and Publication of Opinions appeared in 1821. He
+vigorously contends that man is not responsible for his opinions
+because they are independent of his will, and that opinions should
+not be the subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work
+was Letters from an Egyptian Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search
+of Religion. This was at first issued privately 1839, but afterwards
+printed as a Reasoner tract. He also wrote The Pursuit of Truth,
+1829, and a Theory of Reasoning, 1851. He was acquainted with both
+James and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the
+philosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving
+£90,000 to his native town.
+
+Bailey (William S.), editor of the Liberal, published in Nashville,
+Tennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death, March, 1886. In
+a slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of abolition.
+
+Baillie (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff in one
+of the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the Glasgow
+Eclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best essay on
+Christianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara Hennell. In
+1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether Jesus
+prophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of his
+followers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated
+in his Prophet of Nazareth. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself
+of his fortune (£18,000) which was to be applied to the erection
+and endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative
+classes by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining
+only the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few years.
+
+Baillière (Gustave-Germer), French scientific publisher, b. at Paris
+26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted himself to bringing out
+scientific publications such as the Library of Contemporary Philosophy,
+and the International Scientific Series. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as
+Republican and anti-clerical member of the Municipal Council of Paris.
+
+Bain (Alexander) LL.D. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818. He
+began life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College 1836-40, and
+graduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to contribute to the Westminster
+Review, and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose Logic
+he discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published The Senses and
+The Intellect, and in 1859 The Emotions and the Will, constituting
+together a systematic exposition of the human mind. From 1860 to
+1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of Aberdeen,
+his accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and provoking
+disorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree of
+LL.D. In addition to numerous educational works Dr. Bain published a
+Compendium of Mental and Moral Science (1868), Mind and Body (1875),
+and Education as a Science (1879), for the International Scientific
+Series. In 1882 he published James Mill, a Biography, and John Stuart
+Mill: a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. In 1881 he was elected
+Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed
+in 1884, in which year he published Practical Essays.
+
+Bainham (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, author
+of the Supplycacion of Beggars, an attack upon the clergy of the
+period. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other things
+denied transubstantiation, the confessional, and "the power of the
+keys." It was asserted that he had said that he would as lief pray
+to his wife as to "our lady," and that Christ was but a man. This
+he denied, but admitted holding the salvation of unbelievers. He was
+burnt 30 April, 1532.
+
+Baissac (Jules), French littérateur, b. Vans, 1827, author of several
+studies in philology and mythology. In 1878 he published Les Origines
+de la Religion in three volumes, which have the honor of being put
+upon the Roman Index. This was followed by l'Age de Dieu, a study
+of cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to
+publish Histoire de la Diablerie Chrétienne, the first part of which
+is devoted to the person and "personnel" of the devil.
+
+Bakunin (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Torshok
+(Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated at
+St. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he
+became embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841,
+studied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical
+writings under the name of Jules Elisard. In '43 he visited Paris and
+became a disciple of Proudhon. In '48 he was expelled from France
+at the demand of Russia, whose government set the price of 10,000
+silver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and became a member of the
+insurrectionary government. He was arrested and condemned to death,
+May '50, but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He
+escaped into Austria, was again captured and sentenced to death,
+but was handed over to Russia and deported to Siberia. After several
+years' penal servitude he escaped, travelled over a thousand miles
+under extreme hardship, reached the sea and sailed to Japan. Thence he
+sailed to California, thence to New York and London, where with Herzen
+he published the Kolokol. He took part in the establishment of the
+International Society, but being at issue with Karl Marx abandoned
+that body in 1873. He died at Berne 1 July 1876, leaving behind a
+work on God and the State, both being vigorously attacked. Laveleye
+writes of him as "the apostle of universal destruction."
+
+Ball (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated at
+Birkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather
+than teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University
+1866. Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan's service 1870-71. Received
+the order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the
+bursting of a mortar. Upon his return published Poems from Turkey
+(1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the National Reformer since 1878
+and since 1884 has been on the staff of the Freethinker. He has
+published pamphlets on Religion in Schools, the Ten Commandments
+and Mrs Besant's Socialism, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the
+Bible Handbook. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of
+Evolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages
+of Progress. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the
+Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?
+
+Ballance (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary, Antrim, Ireland,
+March 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist and started
+the Wanganui Herald. He entered Parliament in 1875 and became Colonial
+Treasurer in '78. With Sir Robert Stout he has been a great support
+to the Freethought cause in New Zealand.
+
+Baltzer (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. 1814, at
+Hohenleine in Saxony. He was educated as a Protestant minister, but
+resigned and founded at Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took
+part in the Parliament of Frankfort in '48; has translated the life
+of Apollonius of Tyana, and is the author of a history of religion
+and numerous other works. Died 24 June, 1887.
+
+Bancel (François Désiré). French politician, b. Le Mastre,
+2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly. After the coup d'état he retired to Brussels,
+where he became Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected
+deputy at Paris in opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work
+on Rationalism by Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on Mysteries, 1871,
+besides many political works. Died 23 June, 1871.
+
+Barbier (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin, Lubbock,
+and Tylor. Died 1883.
+
+Barbier d'Aucour (Jean). French critic and academician, b. Langres,
+1642. Most of his writings are directed against the Jesuits. Died
+Paris, 13 Sept. 1694.
+
+Barlow (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his volumes,
+Under the Dawn and Poems, Real and Ideal, he gives utterance to many
+Freethought sentiments.
+
+Barlow (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b. Reading,
+Connecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the
+revolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession,
+taking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published Advice to the
+Privileged Orders. In France he translated Volney's Ruins of Empires,
+and contributed to the political literature of the Revolution. Paine
+entrusted him with the MS. of the first part of the Age of Reason. His
+chief work is entitled the Columbiad, 1808. He was sent as minister
+to France, 1811, and being involved in the misfortunes following the
+retreat from Moscow, died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.
+
+Barni (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 June,
+1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the works
+of Kant into French. He contributed to La Liberté de Penser (1847-51)
+and to l'Avenir (1855). During the Empire he lived in Switzerland
+and published Martyrs de la Libre Pensée (1862), La Morale dans
+la Démocratie (1864), and a work on the French Moralists of the
+Eighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to the National Assembly,
+1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died at Mers, 4 July,
+1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.
+
+Barnout (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris 1816,
+published a Rational Calendar 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 he established
+a journal entitled L'Athée, the Atheist, which the clerical journals
+declared drew God's vengeance upon France. He is also author of a
+work on aerial navigation.
+
+Barot (François Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau 1830. He
+has been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary to
+Gustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and
+Contemporary Literature in England (1874).
+
+Barrett (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker parents, both
+grandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at Queenwood
+College, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford with honors
+in Natural Science and Mathematics, contributed to the National
+Reformer between 1865 and 1870, published an acute examination of
+Gillespie's argument, à priori, for the existence of God (1869),
+which in 1871 reached a second edition. He also wrote A New View
+of Causation (1871), and an Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics
+(1877). Mr. Barrett has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical
+Society, and edited a short-lived publication, The Present Day, 1886.
+
+Barrier (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, became
+professor of medicine at Lyons, wrote A Sketch of the Analogy of Man
+and Humanity (Lyons 1846), and Principles of Sociology (Paris 1867),
+and an abridgment of this entitled Catechism of Liberal and Rational
+Socialism. Died Montfort-L'Amaury 1870.
+
+Barrillot (François). French author, b. of poor parents at Lyons in
+1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to read from shop
+signs, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his songs and
+satires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to Pope Pius
+IX. on the OEcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean Populus, and a
+philosophical work entitled Love is God. Died at Paris, 11 Dec. 1874.
+
+Barthez (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11 Dec. 1734. A
+friend of D'Alembert, he became associate editor of the Journal des
+Savants and Encyclopédie Méthodique. He was made consulting physician
+to the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the Archbishop of
+Sens a number of works relating to the rites of his see he said,
+"These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me the sense
+[Sens] of ceremonies." His principal work is New Elements of the
+Science of Man. Died 15 Oct. 1806.
+
+Basedow (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational reformer,
+b. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic, became
+professor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753-1761, and at
+Altona, 1761-1768. While here he published Philalethea, the Grounds of
+Religion, and other heterodox works, which excited so much prejudice
+that he was in danger of being stoned. He devoted much attention to
+improving methods of teaching. Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.
+
+Baskerville (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley,
+Worcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at
+first a stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and
+devoted it to perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As
+a printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions
+of Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius,
+Terence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes
+once visited him and was "shocked at his infidelity" (!) He died
+8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had
+designed a monumental urn with this inscription: "Stranger, beneath
+this cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of
+mankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute
+to emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the
+wicked arts of priesthood." His will expresses the utmost contempt
+for Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a
+complete edition of Voltaire.
+
+Bassus (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of Seneca in
+the time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in the
+presence of death.
+
+Bate (Frederick), Socialist, author of The Student 1842, a drama
+in which the author's sceptical views are put forward. Mr. Bate
+was one of the founders of the social experiment at New Harmony,
+now Queenswood College, Hants, and engraved a view representing the
+Owenite scheme of community.
+
+Baudelaire (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April 1821,
+the son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He
+first became famous by the publication of Fleurs du Mal, 1857, in
+which appeared Les Litanies de Satan. The work was prosecuted and
+suppressed. Baudelaire translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe,
+a poet whom he resembled much in life and character. The divine
+beauty of his face has been celebrated by the French poet, Théodore
+de Banville, and his genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English
+poet, Algernon Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.
+
+Baudon (P. L.), French author of a work on the Christian Superstition,
+published at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop Dupanloup under
+the pseudonym of "Aristide."
+
+Bauer (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of Germany,
+b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of Berlin,
+in 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first attained
+celebrity by a review of the Life of Jesus by Strauss (1835). This
+was followed by his Journal of Speculative Theology and Critical
+Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament. He then proceeded
+to a Review of the Gospel History, upon the publication of which
+(1840) he was deprived of his professorship at Bonn. To this followed
+Christianity Unveiled (1843), which was destroyed at Zurich before
+its publication. This work continued his opposition to religion,
+which was carried still further in ironical style in his Proclamation
+of the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel the Atheist. Bauer's heresy
+deepened with age, and in his Review of the Gospels and History of
+their Origin (1850), to which Apostolical History is a supplement,
+he attacked the historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In
+his Review of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul (1852) he tries to
+show that the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been
+questioned, were not written by Paul, but are the production of the
+second century. In his Christ and the Cæsars he shows the influence
+of Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died
+near Berlin, 13 April, 1882.
+
+Bauer (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the
+preceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled
+Bruno Bauer and his Opponents (1842) was seized by the police. For
+his next publication, The Strife of Criticism with Church and State
+(1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written on
+English freedom, Capital, etc.
+
+Baume-Desdossat (Jacques François, de la), b. 1705, a Canon of
+Avignon who wrote La Christiade (1753), a satire on the gospels,
+in which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It was suppressed by
+the French Parliament and the author fined. He died 30 April, 1756.
+
+Baur (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological critic, b. 21
+June, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. He was educated
+at Tübingen, where in 1826 he became professor of Church history. Baur
+is the author of numerous works on dogmatic and historic theology, in
+which he subverts all the fundamental positions of Christianity. He was
+an Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important works are Christianity
+and the Church in the First Three Centuries and Paul: His Life and
+Works. These are translated into English. He acknowledges only four
+of the epistles of Paul and the Revelation as genuine products of
+the apostolic age, and shows how very far from simplicity were the
+times and doctrines of primitive Christianity. After a life of great
+literary activity he died at Tübingen, 2 Dec. 1860.
+
+Bayle (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at Carlat,
+France, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was converted
+to Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, 1669. His
+Romanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled to
+Switzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from Thoughts on the
+Comet, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism with
+those of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous Dictionnaire
+Critique, a work still of value for its curious learning and shrewd
+observation. In his journal Nouvelles de la République des Lettres
+he advocates religious toleration on the ground of the difficulty of
+distinguishing truth from error. His criticism of Maimbourg's History
+of Calvinism was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted
+him, and he was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second
+edition of his dictionary. He died at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. Bayle
+has been called the father of free discussion in modern times.
+
+Bayrhoffer (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 Oct.,
+1812, wrote The Idea and History of Philosophy (1838), took part in
+the revolution of '48, emigrated to America, and wrote many polemical
+works. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. 1888.
+
+Beauchamp (Philip). See Bentham and Grote.
+
+Beausobre (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted by
+Frederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre,
+the author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at
+Frankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the
+wise (Pyrrhonisme du Sage, Berlin, 1754), a work condemned to be burnt
+by the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote anonymously The Dreams of
+Epicurus, and an essay on Happiness (Berlin, 1758), reprinted with
+the Social System of Holbach in 1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.
+
+Bebel (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22
+Feb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since '63, he became
+distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to
+the German Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6
+March) to two years' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected
+in '74. His principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future
+which is translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on
+the Mohammedan Culture Period (1884) and on Christianity and Socialism.
+
+Beccaria (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan,
+15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on
+Crimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the
+criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.
+
+Beesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Worcestershire,
+1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854,
+and M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College,
+London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of
+Positive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political
+and social questions.
+
+Beethoven (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers,
+b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the
+age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many
+compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera "Fidelio,"
+two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas,
+and are characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense
+passion, and tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally
+deaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March,
+1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed
+for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican
+sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in
+the Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a
+"Freethinker," and says the remarkable mass in C. "might scarcely
+have proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove,
+in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: "Formal religion he
+apparently had none," and "the Bible does not appear to have been one
+of his favorite books." At the end of his arrangement of "Fidelio"
+Moscheles had written, "Fine. With God's help." To this Beethoven
+added, "O man, help thyself."
+
+Bekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland)
+20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity,
+and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly
+to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched
+(1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are
+denied. His book, which contains much curious information, raised
+a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the
+Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June,
+1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have "looked like
+the devil, though he did not believe in him."
+
+Belinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811,
+educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of
+Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works
+were issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61.
+
+Bell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He
+was employed in the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day,
+1852, and assisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over
+the signature "Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to
+devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his
+friends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January,
+1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired
+in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12
+Sept. 1887.
+
+Bell (William S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10
+Feb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for
+mixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In
+1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in
+Dec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought
+lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution,
+and some pamphlets.
+
+Bender (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology at Bonn,
+b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary,
+1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was incompleted
+and must be carried on by the Rationalists.
+
+Bennett (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New York
+Truthseeker, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At
+the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here
+he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the
+Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a
+drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him
+a Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to
+some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of
+his own. The result was the Truthseeker, which in January, 1876 became
+a weekly, and has since become one of the principal Freethought organs
+in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment
+for sending through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the
+marriage question. A tract, entitled An Open Letter to Jesus Christ,
+was read in court to bias the jury. A petition bearing 200,000
+names was presented to President Hayes asking his release, but was
+not acceded to. Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage
+round the world. He wrote A Truthseeker's Voyage Round the World,
+Letters from Albany Penitentiary, Answers to Christian Questions and
+Arguments, two large volumes on The Gods, another on the World's Sages,
+Infidels and Thinkers, and published his discussions with Humphrey,
+Mair, and Teed, and numerous tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.
+
+Bentham (Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political
+economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the
+publisher of Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation. Was educated
+at Westminster and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham
+is justly regarded as the father of the school of philosophical
+Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism;
+as a jurist he did much to disclose the defects of and improve our
+system of law. Macaulay says he "found jurisprudence a gibberish and
+left it a science." His most pronounced Freethought work was that
+written in conjunction with Grote, published as An Analysis of the
+Influence of Natural Religion, by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his
+numerous other works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science
+of Mortality, an exposition of utilitarianism; Church of Englandism
+and its Catechism Examined; Not Paul, but Jesus, published under the
+pseudonym of Gamaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for
+the purposes of science.
+
+Béranger (Jean Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet,
+b. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured
+for him imprisonment. He was elected to the Constituant Assembly
+1848. Béranger has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs
+breathe the spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised
+as impious. He died 16 July, 1857.
+
+Bergel (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders,
+Leipsic, 1881, and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882.
+
+Berger (Moriz), author of a work on Materialism in Conflict with
+Spiritualism and Idealism, Trieste, 1883.
+
+Bergerac de (Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano.
+
+Bergk (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June,
+1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both
+under his own name and pseudonyms. He published the Art of Thinking,
+Leipsic, 1802, conducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under
+the name of Frey the True Religion, "recommended to rationalists
+and destined for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics,
+etc." Died Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.
+
+Bergk (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. Leipsic,
+22 May, 1812, author of a good History of Greek Literature, 1872.
+
+Berigardus (Claudius), or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet), French
+physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a
+professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His
+Circulus Pisanus, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic
+work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses
+of the formation of the world. The work was forbidden and is very
+rare. His book entitled Dubitationes in Dialogum Galilæi, also brought
+on him a charge of scepticism. Died in 1664.
+
+Berkenhout (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731,
+the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he
+had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and
+in 1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on
+medical science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain
+and Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal
+work is entitled Biographia Literaria, a biographical history of
+English literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity
+of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his
+praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.
+
+Berlioz (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical composers,
+b. Isère, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his dramatic symphony
+of Romeo and Juliet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion
+of Honor. Among his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his
+Memoirs he relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn "by laughing at
+the Bible." Died Paris, 9 March, 1869.
+
+Bernard (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 July,
+1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the
+Institute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote
+La Science Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10
+Feb. 1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert
+calls him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.
+
+Bernier (Abbé). See Holbach.
+
+Bernier (François), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about
+1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, and he
+defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joli
+philsophe. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to
+India, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On his return he
+published an account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great
+Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.
+
+Bernstein (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic
+1812. His first work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published
+under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself
+to natural science and published works on The Rotation of Planets,
+Humboldt and the Spirit of the Time, etc. His essay on The Origin of
+the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was translated by a German
+lady and published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin,
+12 Feb. 1884.
+
+Berquin (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. Erasmus,
+his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred of
+the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was
+commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment
+was pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to
+the Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of
+the 17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to
+be burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon
+at the Place de la Grève. He died with great constancy and resolution.
+
+Bert (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17
+Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after
+being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869
+obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris,
+and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he
+offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in
+'72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised himself
+by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him
+Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French
+education on a Secular basis. His First Year of Scientific Instruction
+is almost universally used in the French primary schools. It has been
+translated into English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His
+strong anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published
+several scientific and educational works and attacked The Morality of
+the Jesuits, '80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at
+Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France
+and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow.
+
+Bertani (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a
+physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising
+the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy
+to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86.
+
+Berti (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. Author
+of many scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council and
+of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.
+
+Bertillon (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and physician,
+b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical study
+of the French population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with
+A. Hovelacque and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological
+Sciences ('83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b. '53),
+prosecute similar studies.
+
+Bertrand de Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician,
+b. Puy-en-Velay 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The
+Original Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work
+on Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organisation,
+1848. Has also written on Descartes as a Physiologist, 1869.
+
+Berwick (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company
+in 1828, retired in '52. Author of Awas-i-hind, or a Voice from the
+Ganges; being a solution of the true source of Christianity. By an
+Indian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the
+Universe, '70. Died about 1872.
+
+Besant (Annie) née Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Educated in
+Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned
+to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In "Holy Week"
+of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the week from the
+gospel. Their contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts
+as sin. In Dec. '67 she married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and
+wrote extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough
+caused doubts as to the goodness of God. A study of Greg's Creed
+of Christendom and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her
+scepticism. She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas
+Scott, for whom she wrote an Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth,
+"by the wife of a beneficed clergyman." This led to her husband
+insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter
+course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own
+resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in My Path
+to Atheism ('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote
+in the National Reformer over the signature of "Ajax." Next year she
+took to the platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to
+the front rank as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor
+of the National Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution
+were republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested
+with Mr. Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy. After a
+brilliant defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt
+motives, and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed
+in Feb. '78, and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a petition
+in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the
+ground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted
+the petition. In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University
+and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued
+many pamphlets to be found in Theological Essays and Debates. She
+wrote the second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with
+Christian evidence; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and
+the Evolution of Society. She has translated Jules Soury's Religion
+of Israel, and Jesus of the Gospels; Dr. L. Büchner on the Influence
+of Heredity and Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of
+Force and Matter. From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since
+'85 has given much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many
+Socialist pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member
+of the London School Board.
+
+Beverland (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew of Isaac
+Vossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and
+became an advocate, but devoted himself to literature. He was at the
+university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum
+Originale (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin
+of Adam and Eve was sexual inclination, caused a great outcry. It
+was burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his name struck from the
+rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other curious works and
+died about 1712.
+
+Bevington (Louisa S.), afterwards Guggenberger; English poetess and
+authoress of Key Notes, 1879; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82; wrote
+"Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock" in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and
+Dec. '79), and on "The Moral Demerits of Orthodoxy" in Progress,
+Sept. '84.
+
+Beyle (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous under the
+name of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier,
+merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being
+congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De l'Amour
+is his most notable work. He was an original and gifted critic and
+romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March,
+1842. Prosper Merimée has published his correspondence. One of his
+sayings was "Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas"--God's
+excuse is that he does not exist.
+
+Bianchi (Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man
+of letters, b. of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted
+several papers in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life
+of Father Paoli Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward
+he was in constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on
+the clergy in Il Republicano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to
+seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote
+a History of the Hebrews, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account
+of the Revolution. His principal works are the History of the Popes
+until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism
+of the Gospels, 1853, which has gone through several editions. Died
+16 May, 1862.
+
+Biandrata or Blandrata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer,
+b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier,
+1533. He was thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia,
+but contrived to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to
+Calvin. He left Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a
+leader of the Socinian party. He was assassinated 1591.
+
+Bichat (Marie François Xavier), a famous French anatomist and
+physiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the
+Physiology of Life and Death was translated into English. He died a
+martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.
+
+Biddle or Bidle (John), called the father of English Unitarianism,
+b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his
+M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester
+Grammar School, but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He
+was also imprisoned there for some time, and afterwards cited at
+Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet
+was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained
+in prison till 1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and
+was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to
+the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658,
+but after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was again seized,
+and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.
+
+Bierce (M. H.) see Grile (Dod).
+
+Billaud-Varenne (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Rochelle,
+23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; denounced
+the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy
+1 July, 1791, and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew
+from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying "Thou
+beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme Being." Was exiled 1 April,
+1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819.
+
+Bion, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian
+philosopher who flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave
+to a rhetorician, who afterwards gave him freedom and made him his
+heir. Upon this he went to Athens and applied himself to the study
+of philosophy. He had several teachers, but attached himself to
+Theodorus the Atheist. He was famous for his knowledge of music,
+poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved,
+as that "only the votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the
+temples, not those of the drowned" and "it is useless to tear our
+hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness."
+
+Birch (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4
+Jan. 1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at
+New Inn Hall. Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
+of Shakespeare, 1848; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
+of the Bible, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by "Rudolf
+Charles;" Paul an Idea, not a Fact; and the Real and Ideal. In the
+stormy time of '42 Mr. Birch did much to support the prosecuted
+publications. He brought out the Library of Reason and supported
+The Reasoner and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has
+resided much in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity
+and Freedom. He is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch
+has been a contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals,
+and has devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity,
+having many manuscripts upon the subject.
+
+Bithell (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, of pious
+parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of
+Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the
+service of the Rothschilds. Has written Creed of a Modern Agnostic,
+1883; and Agnostic Problems, 1887.
+
+Björnson (Björnstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His
+father was a Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national
+literature for Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged
+to leave his country and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been
+translated into English. In 1882 Björnson published at Christiania,
+with a short introduction, a resumé of C. B. Waite's History of the
+Christian Religion, under the title of Whence come the Miracles of the
+New Testament? This was the first attack upon dogmatic Christianity
+published in Norway, and created much discussion. The following year
+he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North
+American Review upon the "Christian Religion," with a long preface,
+in which he attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation
+was entitled Think for Yourself. The first edition rapidly sold out
+and a second one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing,
+repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had several controversies
+with the clergy.
+
+Blagosvyetlov (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus,
+1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection
+of Women he translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo
+(Cause). Died about 1885.
+
+Blanqui (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805,
+a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming
+a Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment
+under successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but
+his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to
+brutal treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He
+was soon again imprisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles
+on Monotheism in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70,
+Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned,
+but was liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by
+Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious book, Eternity
+and the Stars, in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of
+matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto "Ni Dieu
+ni maître"--Neither God nor master.
+
+Blasche (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April,
+1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He wrote
+Kritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief),
+Philosophische Unsterblichkeitslehre (Teaching of Philosophical
+Immortality), and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.
+
+Blignieres (Célestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic
+school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and
+religion, Paris 1857; The Positive Doctrine, 1867; Studies of Positive
+Morality, 1868; and other works.
+
+Blind (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied
+at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary leader
+among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and
+proscribed. In Sept. '48 he led the second republican revolution in
+the Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight year's
+imprisonment. In the spring of '49 he was liberated by the people
+breaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon,
+then president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and
+banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived
+in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history,
+and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her
+literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the
+name of Claude Lake. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and
+the New, and written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland
+in the Eminent Women series.
+
+Blount (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at Holloway 27
+April, 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared in his
+opinions, and helped him in his anti-religious work, Anima Mundi,
+1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In 1680 he
+published Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the Origin of Idolatry,
+and the two first books of Apollonius Tyanius, with notes, in which
+he attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was condemned and
+suppressed. Blount also published The Oracles of Reason, a number
+of Freethought Essays. By his Vindication of Learning and Liberty
+of the Press, and still more by his hoax on Bohun entitled William
+and Mary Conquerors, he was largely instrumental in doing away with
+the censorship of the press. He shot himself, it is said, because
+he could not marry his deceased wife's sister (August, 1693). His
+miscellaneous works were printed in one volume, 1695.
+
+Blumenfeld (J. C.), wrote The New Ecce Homo or the Self Redemption of
+Man, 1839. He is also credited with the authorship of The Existence of
+Christ Disproved in a series of Letters by "A German Jew," London,
+1841.
+
+Boerne (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b. Frankfort
+22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in which he had
+been bred, nominally for Protestantism, but really he had, like his
+friend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in favor of
+political liberty and translated Lammenais' Paroles d'un Croyant. Died
+12 Feb. 1837.
+
+Bodin (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He studied
+at Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the law,
+and became secretary to the Duc d'Alençon. His book De la Republique
+is highly praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of
+Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws." He wrote a work on demonomania, in
+which he seems to have believed, but in his Colloquium Heptaplomeron
+coloquies of seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a
+Pagan, a Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript,
+he put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at
+Laon in 1596.
+
+Boggis (John) is mentioned by Edwards in his Gangrena, 1645, as an
+Atheist and disbeliever in the Bible.
+
+Boichot (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820, entered
+the army. In '49 he was chosen representative of the people. After
+the coup d'état he came to England, returned to France in '54,
+was arrested and imprisoned at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived
+at Brussels, where he has written several works and is one of the
+council of International Freethinkers.
+
+Boindin (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and academician,
+b. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and resorted
+with other Freethinkers to the famous café Procope. There, in order to
+speak freely, they called the soul Margot, religion Javotte, liberty
+Jeanneton, and God M. de l'Etre. One day a spy asked Boindin, "Who
+is this M. de l'Etre with whom you seem so displeased?" "Monsieur,"
+replied Boindin, "he is a police spy." Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse
+was refused "Christian burial."
+
+Boissiere (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French writer, b. Valognes
+Dec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He compiled an analogical
+dictionary of the French language. Under the name of Sièrebois he
+has published the Autopsy of the Soul and a work on the foundations
+of morality, which he traces to interest. He has also written a book
+entitled The Mechanism of Thought, '84.
+
+Boissonade (J. A.), author of The Bible Unveiled, Paris, 1871.
+
+Boito (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose opera
+"Mefistofele," has created considerable sensation by its boldness.
+
+Bolingbroke (Henry Saint John) Lord, English statesman and philosopher,
+b. at Battersea, 1 Oct. 1672. His political life was a stormy
+one. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his Essay on Man
+avowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at Battersea
+12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who in 1754
+published his works, which included Essays Written to A. Pope, Esq.,
+on Religion and Philosophy, in which he attacks Christianity with
+both wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, believing in God
+but scornfully rejecting revelation. He much influenced Voltaire,
+who regarded him with esteem.
+
+Bonavino (Francesco Cristoforo) see Franchi (Ausonio).
+
+Boni (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. Editor of
+a standard Biography of Artists, published at Venice, 1840. He also
+wrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on Reason and Dogma, Siena,
+'66, and contributed to Stefanoni's Libero Pensiero. De Boni was
+elected deputy to the Italian Parliament. He has written on "Italian
+Unbelief in the Middle Ages" in the Annuario Filosofico del Libero
+Pensiero, '68.
+
+Boniface VIII., Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of Christendom,
+24 Dec. 1294. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of France charges
+were sworn on oath against Pope Boniface that he neither believed in
+the Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the Virgin Mary
+"was no more a virgin than my mother"; that he did not observe the
+fasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the cardinals, monks,
+and friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the Pope had said
+"God may do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I
+believe as every educated man does, the vulgar believe otherwise. We
+have to speak as they do, but we must believe and think with the
+few." Died 11 Oct. 1303.
+
+Bonnycastle (John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, about
+1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathematics and became
+Professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
+where he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private
+information assures me he was a Freethinker.
+
+Booms (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by trade,
+who wrote early in the eighteenth century, and on 1 Jan. 1714,
+was banished.
+
+Bonnot de Condillac (Etienne) see Condillac.
+
+Bonstetten (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept
+1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and
+England to finish his education. Among his works are Researches on
+the Nature and Laws of the Imagination, 1807; and Studies on Man,
+1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.
+
+Borde (Frédéric), editor of La Philosophie de l'Avenir, Paris, 1875,
+etc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.
+
+Born (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by the
+Jesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the
+Empress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works
+on Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and
+published with the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated
+satire entitled Monchalogia, or the natural history of monks.
+
+Bosc (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, 29
+Jan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose Memoirs he
+published. He wrote many works on natural history. Died 10 July, 1828.
+
+Boucher (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809; contributed to
+the Rationalist of Geneva, where he died 1882. Author of a work on
+Revelation and Rationalism, entitled Search for the Truth, Avignon,
+1884.
+
+Bougainville (Louis Antoine de) Count, the first French voyager
+who made the tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729. Died 31
+Aug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his travels.
+
+Bouillier (Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July 1813, has
+written several works on psychology, and contributed to la Liberté de
+Penser. His principal work is a History of the Cartesian Philosophy. He
+is a member of the Institute and writes in the leading reviews.
+
+Bouis (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited La Libre
+Pensée and wrote a satire on the Jesuits entitled Calottes et Soutanes,
+1870. Sent to New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he
+has since his return published a volume of political verses entitled
+Après le Naufrage, After the Shipwreck, 1880.
+
+Boulainvilliers (Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French historian and
+philosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical work is an
+account of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a defence of
+Spinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an analysis of
+Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at the end of Doubts
+upon Religion, Londres, 1767. A Life of Muhammad, the first European
+work doing justice to Islam, and a History of the Arabs also proceeded
+from his pen, and he is one of those to whom is attributed the treatise
+with the title of the Three Impostors, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.
+
+Boulanger (Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b. 11 Nov. 1722. Died
+16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as engineer, and
+afterwards became surveyor of public works. After his death his works
+were published by D'Holbach who rewrote them. His principal works
+are Antiquity Unveiled and Researches on the Origin of Oriental
+Despotism. Christianity Unveiled, attributed to him and said by
+Voltaire to have been by Damilavile, was probably written by D'Holbach,
+perhaps with some assistance from Naigeon. It was burnt by order of
+the French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. A Critical Examination of the
+Life and Works of St. Paul, attributed to Boulanger, was really made
+up by d'Holbach from the work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations
+on Elisha, Enoch and St. Peter, and some articles for the Encyclopédie.
+
+Bourdet (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. Author of
+several works on medicine and Positivist philosophy and education.
+
+Boureau-Deslands (A. F.) See Deslandes.
+
+Bourget (Paul), French littérateur, b. at Amiens in 1852. Has made
+himself famous by his novels, essays on contemporary psychology,
+studies of M. Rénan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but
+his methods are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His
+insight is most subtle, and his style is exquisite.
+
+Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycée
+Bonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and published an
+able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, 1866,
+for which the clergy turned him out of a professorship he held at
+Sainte-Barbe.
+
+Bovio (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the University
+of Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent
+Freethinker. Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio
+opposes the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between
+Church and State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience
+and has promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University
+of Rome. He has written a work on The History of Law, a copy of which
+he presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.
+
+Bowring (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and writer,
+b. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant
+Carpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles
+he maintained in the Westminster Review, of which he was editor,
+1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight's imprisonment
+he was released without trial. He published Bentham's Deontology
+(1834), and nine years after edited a complete collection of the
+works of Bentham. Returned to Parliament in '35, and afterwards was
+employed in important government missions. In '55 he visited Siam,
+and two years later published an account of The Kingdom and People
+of Siam. He translated Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of
+many countries; was an active member of the British Association and
+of the Social Science Association, and did much to promote rational
+views on the Sunday question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.
+
+Boyle (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the purpose of
+serving in R. Carlile's shop when the right of free publication was
+attacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted and tried as
+"a man with name unknown" for publishing a blasphemous and seditious
+libel. In his defence he ably asserted his right to hold and publish
+his opinions. He read portions of the Bible in court to prove he was
+justified in calling it obscene. Upon being sentenced, 27 May, 1822,
+to eighteen months' imprisonment and to find sureties for five years,
+he remarked "I have a mind, my lord, that can bear such a sentence
+with fortitude."
+
+Bradlaugh (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. Educated
+in Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his Sunday-school
+teachership and from his first situation through the influence of the
+Rev. J. G. Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In
+Dec. 1850 he entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here
+he met James Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which
+lasted for many years. He got his discharge, and in '53 returned to
+London and became a solicitor's clerk. He began to write and lecture
+under the nom de guerre of "Iconoclast," edited the Investigator, '59;
+and had numerous debates with ministers and others. In 1860 he began
+editing the National Reformer, which in '68-9 he successfully defended
+against a prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities
+against blasphemy. In '68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament,
+and in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle
+with the House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took
+his seat in 1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation
+into which he was plunged will become as historic as that of John
+Wilkes. Prosecuted in '76 for publishing The Fruits of Philosophy, he
+succeeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous
+debates, several of which are published. He has also written many
+pamphlets, of which we mention New Lives of Abraham, David, and
+other saints, Who was Jesus Christ? What did Jesus Teach? Has Man
+a Soul, Is there a God? etc. His Plea for Atheism reached its 20th
+thousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also published When were our
+Gospels Written?, 1867; Heresy, its Utility and Morality, 1870;
+The Inspiration of the Bible, 1873; The Freethinker's Text Book,
+part i., dealing with natural religion, 1876; The Laws Relating to
+Blasphemy and Heresy, 1878; Supernatural and Rational Morality,
+1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh commenced a commentary on the Bible,
+entitled The Bible, What is it? In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form,
+dealing only with the Pentateuch. In 1882 he published Genesis, Its
+Authorship and Authenticity. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become
+a conspicuous figure, and has introduced many important measures. In
+1888 he succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations
+permissible instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30
+April, 1856, has written on Mind Considered as a Bodily Function,
+1884. Died 2 Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
+b. 31 March, 1858, has written "Princess Vera" and other stories,
+"Chemistry of Home," etc.
+
+Brækstad (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept. 1845. Has made
+English translations from Björnson, Asbjörnsen, Andersen, etc., and
+has contributed to Harper's Magazine and other periodical literature.
+
+Brandes (Georg Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew,
+b. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills'
+Subjection of Women, and in the following year took a doctor's
+degree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is entitled the
+Main Current of Literature in the Nineteenth Century. His brother,
+Dr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish Parliament in 1881,
+despite his declaration that he did not believe either in the God of
+the Christians or of the Jews.
+
+Bray (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. 1811. He was
+brought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to Freethought. Early
+in life he took an active part in promoting unsectarian education. His
+first work (1835) was on The Education of the Body. This was followed
+by The Education of the Feelings, of which there were several
+editions. In 1836 he married Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell,
+and took the System of Nature and Volney's Ruins of Empires "to
+enliven the honeymoon." Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans ("George
+Eliot"), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to Italy. His works on
+The Philosophy of Necessity (1841) and Cerebral Psychology (1875)
+give the key to all his thought. He wrote a number of Thomas Scott's
+series of tracts: Illusion and Delusion, The Reign of Law in Mind as
+in Matter, Toleration with remarks on Professor Tyndall's "Address,"
+and a little book, Christianity in the Light of our Present Knowledge
+and Moral Sense (1876). He also wrote A Manual of Anthropology and
+similar works. In a postscript to his last volume, Phases of Opinion
+and Experience During a Long Life, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated
+that he has no hope or expectation or belief even in the possibility
+of continued individuality after death, and that as his opinions have
+done to live by "they will do to die by." He died 5 Oct. 1884.
+
+Bresson (Léopold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, 1817. Educated at
+the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and served on public
+works. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian Railway
+Company. Wrote Idées Modernes, 1880.
+
+Bridges (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, graduated
+B.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on Religion and
+Progress, contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and translated Comte's
+General View of Positivism (1865) and System of Positive Polity (1873).
+
+Bril (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. 1639. Died
+1700. His works were published at Amsterdam, 1705.
+
+Brissot (Jean Pierre) de Warville, active French revolutionist,
+b. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to the law, but took to
+literature. He wrote for the Courier de l'Europe, a revolutionary
+paper suppressed for its boldness, published a treatise on Truth,
+and edited a Philosophical Law Library, 1782-85. He wrote against the
+legal authority of Rome, and is credited with Philosophical Letters
+upon St. Paul and the Christian Religion, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784
+he was imprisoned in the Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second
+imprisonment he went to England and America, returning to France
+at the outbreak of the Revolution. He wrote many political works,
+became member of the Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party,
+protested against the execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph
+of the Mountain was executed with twenty-one of his colleagues,
+31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish,
+and an earnest lover of freedom in every form.
+
+Bristol (Augusta), née Cooper, American educator, b. Croydon, New
+Haven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850 became teacher and gained repute by
+her Poems. In Sept. 1880, she represented American Freethinkers at
+the International Conference at Brussels. She has written on Science
+and its Relations to Human Character and other works.
+
+Broca (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. A
+hard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In
+1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils
+Gratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated
+his treatise on Hybridity. He established The Review of Anthropology,
+published numerous scientific works and was made a member of the
+Legion of Honor. In philosophy he inclined to Positivism. Died Paris,
+9 July, 1880.
+
+Brooksbank (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he wrote
+in Carlile's Lion, and has since contributed to the Reasoner, the
+Pathfinder, and the National Reformer. He was an intimate friend
+of James Watson. He wrote A Sketch of the Religions of the Earth,
+Revelation Tested by Astronomy, Geography, Geology, etc., 1856, and
+some other pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age
+at Nottingham.
+
+Brothier (Léon), author of a Popular History of Philosophy, 1861,
+and other works in the Bibliothèque Utile. He contributed to the
+Rationalist of Geneva.
+
+Broussais (François Joseph Victor), French physician and philosopher,
+b. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in 1792 he served
+as volunteer in the army of the Republic. He studied medicine at
+St. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple of Bichat,
+he did much to reform medical science by his Examination of Received
+Medical Doctrines and to find a basis for mental and moral science in
+physiology by his many scientific works. Despite his bold opinions, he
+was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died poor at St. Malo 17
+Nov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in which he declares
+his disbelief in a creator and his being "without hope or fear of
+another life."
+
+Brown (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in Essex Co.,
+N.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he was expelled
+the church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. Dr. Brown
+edited the Herald of Freedom, Kansas. In 1856 his office was destroyed
+by a pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the river, and himself
+and others arrested but was released without trial. Dr. Brown has
+contributed largely to the Ironclad Age and other American Freethought
+papers, and is bringing out a work on the Origin of Christianity.
+
+Brown (Titus L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.). Studied
+at the Medical College of New York and graduated at the Homoeopathic
+College, Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where he had a large
+practice. He contributed to the Boston Investigator and in 1877 was
+elected President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug. 1887.
+
+Browne (Sir Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct. 1605. He
+studied medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his doctor's
+degree at Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich, where he had
+a good practice. His treatise Religio Medici, famous for its fine
+style and curious mixture of faith and scepticism, was surreptitiously
+published in 1642. It ran through several editions and was placed on
+the Roman Index. His Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar
+and Common Errors, appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular
+superstitions he showed he partook of others. This curious work
+was followed by Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, in which he treats
+of cremation among the ancients. To this was added The Garden of
+Cyrus. He died 19 Oct. 1682.
+
+Bruno (Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near Naples, about
+1548. He was christened Filippo which he changed to Filoteo, taking
+the name of Giordano when he entered the Dominican order. Religious
+doubts and bold strictures on the monks obliged him to quit Italy,
+probably in 1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no safe abiding
+place, and quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but refused to attend
+mass. In 1583 he visited England, living with the French ambassador
+Castelnau. Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip Sidney, he
+dedicated to him his Spaccio della Bestia Triomfante, a satire on all
+mythologies. In 1585 he took part in a logical tournament, sustaining
+the Copernican theory against the doctors of Oxford. The following year
+he returned to Paris, where he again attacked the Aristotelians. He
+then travelled to various cities in Germany, everywhere preaching
+the broadest heresy. He published several Pantheistic, scientific and
+philosophical works. He was however induced to return to Italy, and
+arrested as an heresiarch and apostate at Venice, Sept. 1592. After
+being confined for seven years by the Inquisitors, he was tried,
+and burnt at Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last moments a crucifix was
+offered him, which he nobly rejected. Bruno was vastly before his age
+in his conception of the universe and his rejection of theological
+dogmas. A statue of this heroic apostle of liberty and light, executed
+by one of the first sculptors of Italy, is to be erected on the spot
+where he perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the
+site in face of the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The
+list of subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced
+thinkers in Europe and America.
+
+Brzesky (Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See Liszinski.
+
+Bucali or Busali (Leonardo), a Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent,
+who became a follower of Servetus in the sixteenth century, and had
+to seek among the Turks the safety denied him in Christendom. He died
+at Damascus.
+
+Buchanan (George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn,
+Feb. 1506. Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to
+Paris at the age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became
+distinguished for his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his
+natural son. He composed his Franciscanus et Fratres, a satire on the
+monks, which hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to
+the vengeance of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist,
+Archbishop Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew's
+Castle, from whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found,
+as he said, Henry VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same
+stake for religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to
+the persecution of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of
+a patron at Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and
+immured for a year and a half in a monastery, where he translated
+the Psalms into Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he
+espoused the party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28
+Sept. 1582, leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems,
+satires, and political writings, the most important of which is a
+work of republican tendency, De Jure Regni, the Rights of Kings.
+
+Buchanan (Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was successively a
+schoolmaster, a Socialist missionary and a journalist. He settled in
+Manchester, where he published works on the Religion of The Past and
+Present, 1839; the Origin and Nature of Ghosts, 1840. An Exposure
+of Joseph Barker, and a Concise History of Modern Priestcraft also
+bear the latter date. At this time the Socialists were prosecuted for
+lecturing on Sunday, and Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the
+oath of supremacy, etc. After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for
+the Northern Star, and edited the Glasgow Sentinel. He died at the
+home of his son, the poet, at Bexhill, Sussex, 4 March, 1866.
+
+Buchanan (Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort, Kentucky,
+11 Dec. 1814. He graduated M.D. at Louisville University, 1842, and
+has been the teacher of physiology at several colleges. From 1849-56
+he published Buchanan's Journal of Man, and has written several works
+on Anthropology.
+
+Buchner (Ludwig). See Buechner.
+
+Buckle (Henry Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent, 24
+Nov. 1821. In consequence of his delicate health he was educated at
+home. His mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory,
+but a visit to the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He
+ever afterwards held travelling to be the best education. It was his
+ambition to write a History of Civilisation in England, but so vast was
+his design that his three notable volumes with that title form only
+part of the introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created a
+great sensation by its boldness. In the following year he championed
+the cause of Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the
+prosecution of infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East,
+in the hope of improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May,
+1862. Much of the material collected for his History has been published
+in his Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works, edited by Helen Taylor,
+1872. An abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.
+
+Buechner (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), German materialist,
+b. Darmstadt, 29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in Geissen, Strassburg
+and Vienna. In '55 he startled the world with his bold work on
+Force and Matter, which has gone through numerous editions and been
+translated into nearly all the European languages. This work lost
+him the place of professor which he held at Tübingen, and he has
+since practised in his native town. Büchner has developed his ideas
+in many other works such as Nature and Spirit (1857), Physiological
+Sketches, '61; Nature and Science, '62; Conferences on Darwinism,
+'69; Man in the Past, Present and Future, '69; Materialism its History
+and Influence on Society, '73; The Idea of God, '74; Mind in Animals,
+'80; and Light and Life, '82. He also contributes to the Freidenker,
+the Dageraad, and other journals.
+
+Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc), Count de, French naturalist,
+b. Montford, Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His Natural
+History in 36 volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind
+and his capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in
+seclusion, and attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his
+sentences were attacked by the Sorbonne. Hérault de Sêchelles says
+that Buffon said: "I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary
+to take out the word and substitute the power of nature." Died at
+Paris 16 April, 1788.
+
+Buitendijk or Buytendyck (Gosuinus van), Dutch Spinozist, who wrote an
+Apology at the beginning of the eighteenth century and was banished
+1716.
+
+Bufalini (Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787. In 1813 he
+published an essay on the Doctrine of Life in opposition to vitalism,
+and henceforward his life was a conflict with the upholders of that
+doctrine. He was accused of materialism, but became a professor at
+Florence and a member of the Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence
+31 March, 1875.
+
+Burdach (Karl Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12 June,
+1776. He occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works on
+physiology and anthropology did much to popularise those sciences,
+and the former is placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for its
+materialistic tendency. He died at Konigsberg, 16 July, 1847.
+
+Burdon (William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764. Graduated
+at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a clergyman,
+but want of faith made him decline that profession. His principal work
+is entitled Materials for Thinking. Colton largely availed himself of
+this work in his Lacon. It went through five editions in his lifetime,
+and portions were reprinted in the Library of Reason. He also addressed
+Three Letters to the Bishop of Llandaff, wrote a Life and Character of
+Bonaparte, translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the
+Memoirs of Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual
+subscription to the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.
+
+Burigny (Jean Levesque de), French writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became
+a member of the French Academy, wrote a treatise on the Authority
+of the Pope, a History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and
+is credited with the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the
+Christian Religion, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon,
+1766. Levesque de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier's
+Proofs of Christianity, which is published in Naigeon's Recueil
+Philosophique. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.
+
+Burmeister (Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15 Jan. 1807. In
+1827 he became a doctor at Halle. In '48 he was elected to the National
+Assembly. In 1850 he went to Brazil. His principal work is The History
+of Creation, 1843.
+
+Burmeister or Baurmeister (Johann Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist
+and colleague of Ronge. Born at Flensburg, 1805. He resided in
+Hamburg, and wrote in the middle of the present century under the
+name of J. P. Lyser.
+
+Burnet (Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through the
+interest of a pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the mastership
+of the Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his Telluris
+Theoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth, appeared in Latin, and
+was translated and modified in 1684. In 1692 Burnet published, both
+in English and in Latin, his Archæologiæ Philosophicæ, or the Ancient
+Doctrine of the Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile
+his theory with Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation;
+and a ludicrous dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great
+offence. In a popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying--
+
+
+                That all the books of Moses
+                Were nothing but supposes.
+
+
+He had to resign a position at court. In later life he wrote De Fide
+et Officiis Christianorum (on Christian Faith and Duties), in which
+he regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature,
+and rejects original sin and the "magical" theory of sacraments;
+and De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and
+Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment
+and shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself
+to avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for
+private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract
+entitled Hell Torments not Eternal was published in 1739.
+
+Burnett (James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge,
+was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession,
+became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His
+work on the Origin and Progress of Language (published anonymously
+1773-92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the
+animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on
+civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied
+to the human species. He also wrote on Ancient Metaphysics. He was
+a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and
+Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.
+
+Burnouf (Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He
+became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author
+of many works, including a translation of selections from the Novum
+Organum of Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas,
+a history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles
+in the Revue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work
+on the Science of Religions, 1878, in his Contemporary Catholicism,
+and Life and Thought, 1886.
+
+Burnouf (Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding;
+b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali
+language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially
+Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted
+for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He
+translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuable Introduction
+to the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.
+
+Burns (Robert), Scotland's greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25
+Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The
+life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His
+Freethought is evident from such productions as the "Holy Fair,"
+"The Kirk's Alarm," and "Holy Willie's Prayer," and many passages in
+private letters to his most familiar male friends. Died at Dumfries,
+21 July, 1796.
+
+Burr (William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y.,
+graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter
+to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary
+research. He is the anonymous author of Revelations of Antichrist, a
+learned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity,
+and seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century
+before the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:
+Thomas Paine was Junius, 1880: Self Contradictions of the Bible;
+Is the Bible a Lying Humbug? A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has
+also frequently contributed to the Boston Investigator, the New York
+Truthseeker, and the Ironclad Age of Indianapolis.
+
+Burton (Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author,
+b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church,
+he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India
+Company's service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon
+acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In '51 he returned to
+England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines
+unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the
+Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and
+dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened
+the lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of
+Brazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and
+since 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest
+work is a new translation of The Thousand Nights and a Night in 10
+vols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying
+"literal naturalism" from the Bible. Burton's knowledge of Arabic is
+so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would
+roll on the ground in fits of laughter.
+
+Butler (Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In
+early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting,
+and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became
+clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell's Generals, whom he has
+satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663
+and became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with
+its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity
+till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed
+the opinion that
+
+
+        "Religion is the interest of churches
+        That sell in other worlds in this to purchase."
+
+
+Buttmann (Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5
+Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited
+many of the Greek Classics, wrote on the Myth of the Deluge, 1819,
+and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.
+
+Buzot (François Léonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as
+an ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born
+at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after
+the suppression of his party June, 1793.
+
+Byelinsky (Vissarion G.) See Belinsky.
+
+Byron (George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded
+his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In
+1807 he published his Hours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find
+himself famous. His power was, however, first shown in his English
+Bards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He
+then travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in his
+Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815,
+but a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then
+resided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823
+he devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution,
+but was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His
+drama of Cain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance,
+and it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling
+is also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem, The Vision
+of Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In
+his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says:
+"I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing
+to do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life,
+without the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of
+your religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate,
+the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty," etc.
+
+Cabanis (Pierre Jean George), called by Lange "the father of the
+materialistic physiology," b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil
+of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last
+illness, of which he published an account 1791. He was also intimate
+with Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished
+Freethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the
+Council of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly
+medical, the chief being Des Rapports du Physique et du Morale de
+l'Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the
+brain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.
+
+Cæsalpinus (Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance,
+b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and
+Linnæus admits his obligations to his work, De Plantis, 1583. He also
+wrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the
+circulation of the blood. In a work entitled Demonum Investigatio,
+he contends that "possession" by devils is amenable to medical
+treatment. His Quæstionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva,
+1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to
+that of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.
+
+Cæsar (Caius Julius), the "foremost man of all this world," equally
+renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July,
+100 B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are
+well known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy,
+courage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope,
+"Cæsar the world's great master and his own." His military talents
+elevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against
+him a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated,
+15 March, 44 B.C. His Commentaries are a model of insight and clear
+expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of
+a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says:
+"His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any
+religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically
+interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and
+to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that
+there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it."
+
+Cahuac (John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer's Principles
+of Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the
+"Vice Society," but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted
+for selling the Republican, 1820.
+
+Calderino (Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445,
+in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor
+of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the
+Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.
+
+Calenzio (Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about
+1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the
+King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires,
+fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.
+
+Call (Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at
+Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about
+1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his
+preface to Reverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school,
+and has contributed largely to the Fortnightly and Westminster Reviews.
+
+Callet (Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27
+Oct. 1812; became editor of the Gazette of France till 1840. In 1848
+he was nominated Republican representative. At the coup d'état of 2
+Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was
+imprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again
+elected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief
+Freethought work is L'Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine
+of hell, 1861.
+
+Camisani (Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor
+of Languages in Milan. He has translated the Upas of Captain R. H. Dyas
+and other works.
+
+Campanella (Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria,
+5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much
+attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590
+his Philosophia Sensibus Demonstratio was printed at Naples. Being
+prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice,
+and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the
+Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was
+acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges
+of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples,
+and having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment
+in the prison of the Holy Office. He was put to the torture seven
+times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but
+he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for
+twenty-seven years, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of
+the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May,
+1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He
+was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He
+also visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that
+his Atheismus Triumphatus--Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better
+entitled Atheismus Triumphans--Atheism Triumphant--as the author puts
+his strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In his City of the Sun,
+Campanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a
+time when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says "The
+strength of Campanella's genius lay in his imagination." His "Sonnets"
+have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.
+
+Campbell (Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning
+of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at
+the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote
+a memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist
+missionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative
+movement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he
+was tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833-4. About 1849 he returned
+to Glasgow and wrote on the Sentinel. In 1867 he was presented with
+a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions
+in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.
+
+Campion (William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile's
+shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine's Age of Reason. After
+a spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years'
+imprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke,
+E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, the Newgate Monthly Magazine, to which
+he contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826,
+when he was removed to the Compter.
+
+Canestrini (Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, 1835. He studied
+at Vienna, and in '60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at
+Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed to the Annuario Filosofico del
+Libero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works
+of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written
+upon the Origin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan,
+'66-'70, and on the Theory of Evolution, Turin, '77. He was appointed
+Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua,
+where he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, '82.
+
+Cardano (Girolamo), better known as Jerome Cardan, Italian
+mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied
+medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on
+account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time
+compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his
+first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate
+cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the
+medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was
+arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of
+his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said,
+starved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite
+some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially
+by his work on Algebra, and in his works De Subtilitate Rerum and De
+Varietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality
+of natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused
+him of Atheism. Pünjer says "Cardanus deserves to be named along with
+Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy."
+
+Carducci (Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at
+the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca,
+27 July, 1836. As early as '49 he cried, Abasso tutti i re! viva la
+republica--Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into
+fame by his Hymn to Satan, '69, by which he intended the spirit of
+resistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits
+himself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of '57 he
+wrote his famous verse "Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia"--"This
+vile christianising century." In '60 he became professor of Greek
+in Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in '67 for
+an address to Mazzini. In '76 he was elected as republican deputy to
+the Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.
+
+Carlile (Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from
+Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831,
+delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the Isis,
+which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The Isis was dedicated
+to the young women of England "until superstition is extinct,"
+and contained Frances Wright's discourses, in addition to those
+by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till '61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with
+Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three
+children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is
+still living.
+
+Carlile (Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business
+during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two
+years' imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred,
+and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the Regenerator,
+a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.
+
+Carlile (Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English
+free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a
+tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six,
+when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like
+Wooler's Black Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin
+offered him the dangerous post of publisher of the Republican, which
+he accepted. He then published Southey's Wat Tyler, reprinted the
+political works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but
+which cost Carlile eighteen weeks' imprisonment. In 1818 he published
+Paine's Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to
+go on printing similar works, such as Palmer's Principles of Nature,
+Watson Refuted, Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six
+indictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16
+October. He read the whole of the Age of Reason in his defence, in
+order to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and
+sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years'
+imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business
+was kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities
+not to publish, he was kept in prison till 18 Nov. 1835, when he
+was liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited
+the Republican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited
+the Deist, the Moralist, the Lion (four volumes), the Prompter (for
+No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months' imprisonment),
+and the Gauntlet. Amongst his writings are An Address to Men of
+Science, The Gospel according to R. Carlile, What is God? Every
+Woman's Book, etc. He published Doubts of Infidels, Janus on Sion,
+Sepher Toldoth Jeshu, D'Holbach's Good Sense, Volney's Ruins, and
+many other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his
+body to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.
+
+Carlyle (Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the
+century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his
+father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early
+ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University
+of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure
+in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826,
+and wrote in the London Magazine and Edinburgh Review many masterly
+critical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German
+literature. In 1833-4 his Sartor Resartus appeared in Fraser's
+Magazine. In '34 he removed to London and began writing the French
+Revolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill,
+with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without
+complaint, and it was published in '37. He then delivered a course
+of lectures on "German Literature" and on "Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
+the Heroic in History," in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet
+"we are freest to speak of." His Past and Present was published in
+'43. In '45 appeared Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches. In
+'50 he published Latter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most
+distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year
+his Life of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His
+largest work is his History of the Life and Times of Frederick the
+Great, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in
+'65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his Biography of Carlyle, says,
+"We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his
+friend did in the Christian religion." ... "the special miraculous
+occurrences of sacred history were not credible to him."
+
+Carneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went
+early to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning
+logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other
+deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on
+the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention
+by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of
+a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and
+design. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero's Academics
+and De Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views
+seem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He died
+B.C. 129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His
+ethics were of elevated character.
+
+Carneri (Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3
+Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian
+Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work on Morality and
+Darwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also written Der Mensch als Selbstweck,
+"Humanity as its own proper object," 1877; Grundlegung der Ethik,
+Foundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and
+Happiness, Stuttgart, 1886.
+
+Carra (Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at
+Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and
+Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to
+France he became employed in the King's library and wrote a History
+of Moldavia and an Essay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused
+the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin
+club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI.,
+but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought
+sentiments are evident from his System of Reason, 1773; his Spirit
+of Morality and Philosophy, 1777; New Principles of Physic, 1782-3,
+and other works.
+
+Carrel (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve "the
+Junius of the French press," b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a
+soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish
+revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but
+escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry,
+edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established the Nation in
+conjunction with Thiers and Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms
+of high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing
+articles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de
+Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed,
+says M. Littré, he said "Point de prêtres, point d'église"--no
+priests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a History of the
+Counter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own
+country.
+
+Carus (Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has
+been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin's
+works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.
+
+Carus (Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic,
+3 Jan. 1789. He taught comparative anatomy at the university of that
+town, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also
+wrote Psyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846,
+and Nature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.
+
+Castelar y Ripoll (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz,
+8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his
+novel Ernesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he
+delivered lectures on "Civilisation during the first three centuries of
+Christendom." La Formula del Progresso contains a sketch of democratic
+principles. On the outbreak of the revolution of '68 he advocated
+a Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however
+offered to Amadeus of Savoy. "Glass, with care," was Castelar's verdict
+on the new dynasty, and in Feb. '73 Castelar drew up a Republican
+Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement
+to France he wrote a sketchy History of the Republican Movement in
+Europe. In '76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes,
+where he has continued to advocate Republican views. His Old Rome and
+New Italy, and Life of Lord Byron have been translated into English.
+
+Castelli (David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since
+1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior
+Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with
+notes, and written rationalistic works on Talmudic Legends, 1869;
+The Messiah According to the Hebrews, '74; the Bible Prophets, '82;
+and The History of the Israelites, 1887.
+
+Castilhon (Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in
+1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited the Journal of
+Jurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had
+some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in his Essay
+on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765;
+his Philosophical Almanack, 1767; and his History of Philosophical
+Opinions, 1769. Died 1793.
+
+Cattell (Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals,
+author of Search for the First Man; Against Christianity; The Religion
+of this Life, etc.
+
+Caumont (Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering
+from consumption, he wrote Judgment of a Dying Man upon Life,
+and humorous and familiar Conversations of a Sick Person with the
+Divinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.
+
+Cavalcante (Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence,
+1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He
+married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, "it is said
+his speculation has as their aim to prove there is no God. Dante places
+his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of
+the soul." Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published
+in 1813.
+
+Cavallotti (Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist,
+b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a
+pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament
+in 1873.
+
+Cayla (Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan
+(Lot) 1812. Became in '37 editor of the Emancipator of Toulouse,
+a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to the
+Siècle, the République Française and other journals, and published
+European Celebrities and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as
+The Clerical Conspiracy, '61; The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay,
+'64; Hell Demolished, '65; Suppression of Religious Orders, '70;
+and The History of the Mass,'74. He died 2 May, 1877.
+
+Cazelles (Emile), French translator of Bentham's Influence of Natural
+Religion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill's Subjection of Women
+and his Autobiography and Essays on Religion.
+
+Cecco d'Ascoli, i.e., Stabili (Francesco degli), Italian poet,
+b. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In
+1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the
+faith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused
+at Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His
+best known work is entitled Acerba, a sort of encyclopædia in rhyme.
+
+Cellarius (Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first
+avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages
+with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists
+acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity
+of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland,
+where he died 11 Oct. 1564.
+
+Celsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was
+a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False
+Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, called The True Word. The
+work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by
+his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high
+attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that
+his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.
+
+Cerutti (Giuseppe Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit,
+b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of
+the Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau, adopted the
+principles of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote
+and published a Philosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism,
+Christianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of
+Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem, Les Jardins
+de Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.
+
+Chaho (J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets,
+Basses-Pyrénées, 10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a Philosophy of
+Comparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited
+the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23
+Oct. 1858.
+
+Chaloner (Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks,
+1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond (Yorks),
+1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles's
+Judges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he "was as
+far from being a Puritan as the east is from the west," and that he
+"was of the natural religion." He wrote a pretended True and Exact
+Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire
+directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to
+the Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.
+
+Chambers (Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences,
+b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728,
+and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation
+gave rise to Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclopédie. Chambers also
+edited the Literary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were
+well known, and the Cyclopædia was placed upon the Index, but he was
+buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.
+
+Chamfort (Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in
+Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother,
+a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself
+necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his
+eulogy on Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary
+and wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy,
+being patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau,
+who called him une tête électrique. In 1790 he commenced a work called
+Pictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary
+of the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre,
+he desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13
+April, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection of Maxims,
+Thoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and
+knowledge of human nature.
+
+Chapman (John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the
+Westminster Review, of which he is proprietor.
+
+Chappellsmith (Margaret), née Reynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early
+in life she read the writings of Cobbett. In '36 she began writing
+political articles in the Dispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist
+and Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in '39,
+and in '42 she began business as a bookseller. In '37 she expressed
+a preference for the development theory before that of creation. In
+'50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith
+contributed many articles to the Boston Investigator.
+
+Charles (Rudolf). See Giessenburg.
+
+Charma (Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In '30 he was
+nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for
+his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers,
+and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical
+works, and an account of Didron's Histoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.
+
+Charron (Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was
+an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a Treatise on
+Wisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck
+says "the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to 'sensualisme'
+and even to materialism." Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.
+
+Chasseboeuf de Volney (Constantin François). See Volney.
+
+Chastelet du or Chatelet Lomont (Gabrielle Emilie le Tonnelier de
+Breteuil), Marquise, French savante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was
+learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English
+and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy
+entitled Institutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French
+translation of Newton's Principia. She lived some years with Voltaire
+at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to him Doubts on Revealed
+Religions, published in 1792. She also wrote a Treatise on Happiness,
+which was praised by Condorcet.
+
+Chastellux (François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and
+writer, b. Paris 1734. Wrote On Public Happiness (2 vols., Amst. 1776),
+a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to the Encyclopédie;
+one article on "Happiness," being suppressed by the censor because
+it did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.
+
+Chatterton (Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov,
+1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley
+in the fourteenth century and discovered by him in an old chest in
+Redcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London
+in hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of
+writing for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25
+Aug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.
+
+Chaucer (Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first
+English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to
+the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the
+expedition to France 1359-60, was captured by the French, and ransomed
+by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign
+missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he
+met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance,
+and in his Canterbury Pilgrims he boldly attacks the vices of the
+ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Chaumette (Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French
+revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was
+in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney's clerk. In early youth he
+received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution
+with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became
+popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with
+Proudhomme in the journal Les Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member
+of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show
+his little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur
+Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished
+the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for
+fallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books
+sent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded
+the Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day
+(under the ancien régime they were only open two hours per week),
+replaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put
+a graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor,
+and was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of
+the churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots
+"to efface all idea of the Deity," and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.
+
+Chaussard (Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris,
+8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and
+published patriotic odes, Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was
+preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor of belles
+lettres at Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.
+
+Chemin-Dupontes (Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of
+French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of
+which is entitled What is Theophilanthropy?
+
+Chenier (Marie André de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29
+Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient
+Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his
+genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and
+sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He
+took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte
+Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in the Journal de
+Paris. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the
+Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed
+the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was
+executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation
+of Lucretius, entitled Hermes, which warrants the affirmation of de
+Chênedolle, that "André Chénier était athée avec délices."
+
+Chenier (Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer,
+brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served
+two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His
+first successful drama, "Charles IX.," was produced in 1789, and was
+followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member
+of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his Nouveaux Saints
+(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many
+poems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.
+
+Chernuishevsky or Tchernycheiosky (Nikolai Gerasimovich),
+Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of
+St. Petersburg, translated Mill's Political Economy, and wrote on
+Superstition and the Principles of Logic, '59. His bold romance,
+What is to be Done? was published '63. In the following year he was
+sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties,
+he has become insane.
+
+Chesneau Du Marsais (César). See Dumarsais.
+
+Chevalier (Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol, 21 March,
+1806, is the author of an able book on "The Soul from the standpoint
+of Reason and Science," Paris, '61. He died at Amiens in 1865.
+
+Chies y Gomez (Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar,
+Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican,
+educated him without religion. In '65 Chies went to Madrid, and
+followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon
+after wrote for a Madrid paper La Discusion. He took an active part
+in the Revolution of '65, and at the proclamation of the Republic,
+'73, became civil governor of Valencia. In '81 he founded a newspaper
+El Voto Nacional, and since '83 has edited Las Dominicales del Libre
+Pensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost
+Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.
+
+Child (Lydia Maria) née Francis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass.,
+11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishing Hobomok, a Tale
+of Early Times, in '21. From '25 she kept a private school in Watertown
+until '28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with
+him, edited the Anti-Slavery Standard, '41, etc., and by her numerous
+writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She
+was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well
+known. Her principal work is The Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.;
+'55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by
+Wendell Phillips.
+
+Chilton (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was
+a bricklayer, but in '41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in
+starting the Oracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which
+he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles
+on the Theory of Development to the Library of Reason, and wrote in
+the Movement and the Reasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.
+
+Chubb (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near Salisbury, 29
+Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common
+people. Beginning by contending for the Supremacy of the Father, he
+gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus
+Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving
+behind two vols. which he calls A Farewell to his Readers, from which
+it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.
+
+Church (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis's
+Shakespeare, wrote Woman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to
+the Investigator when edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.
+
+Clapiers (Luc de). See Vauvenargues.
+
+Claretie (Jules Armand Arsène), French writer, b. Limoges, 3
+Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite Free Speech,
+'68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his work Camille
+Desmoulins, '75.
+
+Clarke (John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his
+opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile's shopmen. He
+was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17,
+vol. ix., of The Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which
+he read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to
+three years' imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior
+during life. He wrote while in prison, A Critical Review of the Life,
+Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness
+much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the
+Newgate Magazine and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and
+'39.
+
+Clarke (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to
+Victoria, '63; joined the staff of Melbourne Argus. In '76 was made
+assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of
+Australia, and written The Peripatetic Philosopher (a series of clever
+sketches), His Natural Life (a powerful novel), and some poems. An able
+Freethought paper, "Civilisation without Delusion," in the Victoria
+Review, Nov. '79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with
+Clarke's answer, which was suppressed, was published in '80. Died 1884.
+
+Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers' Catechism published at
+Paris in 1875.
+
+Clavel (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble,
+1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the
+nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.
+
+Clavel (F. T. B.), French author of a Picturesque History of
+Freemasonry, and also a Picturesque History of Religions, 1844,
+in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.
+
+Clayton (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher,
+b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of
+Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several
+publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the
+omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and
+stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty
+years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it
+is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter
+was decided.
+
+Cleave (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap
+political press. Started the London Satirist, and Cleave's Penny
+Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, '44. He published
+many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt's
+History of Priestcraft. In May, '40, he was sentenced to four months'
+imprisonment for selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy.
+
+Clemenceau (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician,
+b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris,
+he took his doctor's degree in '65. His activity as Republican
+ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted
+as correspondent on the Temps. He returned at the time of the war
+and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded La
+Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and
+Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was
+largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.
+
+Clemetshaw (C.), French writer, using the name Cilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864
+of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to
+the International Congress, London, of '87, and is editor of Le Danton.
+
+Clemens (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as
+"Mark Twain," b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In '55 he served
+as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used
+in sounding. In Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim's Progress,
+'69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with "sacred"
+subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.
+
+Clifford (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse,
+1671, and published anonymously a treatise of Human Reason, London,
+'74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author's
+name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was
+dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, "'twas no
+matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because
+it made every man's private fancy judge of religion." Clifford died 10
+Dec. 1677. In the Nouvelle Biographie Générale Clifford is amusingly
+described as an "English theologian of the order des Chartreux," who,
+it is added, was "prior of his order."
+
+Clifford (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist,
+of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age
+of fifteen he was sent to King's College, London, where he showed an
+early genius for mathematics, publishing the Analogues of Pascal's
+Theorem at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
+in '63. In '67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college,
+he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse
+expedition to the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed
+Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till
+his death. He was chosen F.R.S. '74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April,
+'75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he
+visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in '79 took a voyage to
+Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the
+first volume of his great mathematical work, Elements of Dynamic. Since
+his death have been published The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,
+and Lectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and
+Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought
+lectures and contributions to the Fortnightly and other reviews. He
+intended to form them into a volume on The Creed of Science. Clifford
+was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion
+which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.
+
+Cloots or Clootz (Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val
+de Grâce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a
+nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published the The Certainty
+of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber,
+an anagram of Bergier, whose Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity
+he parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris
+and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large
+fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke
+in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head
+of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation,
+and henceforward was styled "orator of the human race." He was, with
+Paine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen,
+and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He
+debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover
+in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He
+declared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of
+Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two
+and a half months' imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to
+the scaffold with the Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly,
+uttering materialist sentiments to the last.
+
+Clough (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was
+educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed
+himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, "He never became
+bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its
+dogmas as imperfect and untenable." In '48 he visited Paris, and the
+same year produced his Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation
+Pastoral. Between '49 and '52 he was professor of English literature
+in London University. In '52 he visited the United States, where
+he gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised
+the Dryden translation of Plutarch's Lives. Died at Florence, 13
+Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include
+an essay on Religious Tradition and some notable poems. He is the
+Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold's exquisite Monody.
+
+Cnuzius (Matthias). See Knutzen.
+
+Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, or collated opinions of
+reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.
+
+Cole (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the
+castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the
+mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, "but he would not recant." See Hamont.
+
+Colenso (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John's,
+Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his
+valuable Treatise on Algebra, '49, he became first Bishop of Natal,
+'54. Besides other works, he published The Pentateuch and Book of
+Joshua Critically Examined, 1862-79, which made a great stir, and
+was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared
+deposed. The Privy Council, March '65, declared this deposition
+"null and void in law." Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at
+the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.
+
+Colins (Jean Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de,
+Belgian Socialist and founder of "Collectivism," b. Brussels, 24
+Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied
+alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of
+the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate
+his opinions in the Philosophie de l'Avenir.
+
+Collins (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June,
+1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and
+became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He
+was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made
+him his executor. He wrote an Essay on Reason, 1707; Priestcraft
+in Perfection, 1710; a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, and a
+Discourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry,
+as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and
+that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural
+revelation. In 1719 he published An Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty,
+a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729 A Discourse
+on Liberty and Necessity. In 1724 appeared his Discourse on the
+Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed
+by The Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful
+disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited with A
+Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London,
+13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, "appears to have been
+an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to
+the use of a free library." Professor Fraser calls him "a remarkable
+man," praises his "love of truth and moral courage," and allows that in
+answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity
+he "states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force
+unsurpassed by any necessitarian." A similar testimony to Collins as
+a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.
+
+Colman (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent
+most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women's rights,
+and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in the
+Life of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to the Truthseeker
+and Boston Investigator.
+
+Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he
+was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master's teachings. He
+held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.
+
+Combe (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh,
+15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with
+Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of
+Owen's New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune
+to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He
+wrote Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systems and other
+works advocating Owenism.
+
+Combe (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh,
+27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George
+in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on the
+Principles of Physiology and the Management of Infancy. Died near
+Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.
+
+Combe (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh,
+21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with
+Spurzheim, and published Essays on Phrenology, 1819, and founded the
+Phrenological Journal. In '28 he published the Constitution of Man,
+which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of
+special providence and efficacy of prayer. In '33 he married a daughter
+of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral
+Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work was The Relations
+between Science and Religion, '57, in which he continued to uphold
+Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his
+friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him
+in '52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the
+cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.
+
+Combes (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written
+on Darwinism, '83, and other works popularising science.
+
+Commazzi (Gian-Battista), Count author of Politica e religione trovate
+insieme nella persona di Giesù Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols.,
+1706-7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was
+rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.
+
+Comparetti (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor
+Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome,
+and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces
+his Pagan partialities.
+
+Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier), French philosopher,
+mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at
+Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his
+mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon,
+agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based
+upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon ('25) Comte
+devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific
+thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to
+be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as
+the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In '25 he married, but the
+union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke
+down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention
+in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in '28 resumed his lectures,
+which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot,
+etc. In '30 he put forward the first volumes of his Course of Positive
+Philosophy, which in '42 was completed by the publication of the sixth
+volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet
+Martineau, '53. In '45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement
+to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having
+profoundely influenced Comte's life. In consequence of his opinions,
+he lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples--Mill,
+Molesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte
+published A General View of Positivism, '48, translated by Dr. Bridges,
+'65; A System of Positive Polity, '51, translated by Drs. Bridges,
+Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., '75-79; and A Positive Catechism, '54,
+translated by Dr. Congreve, '58. He also wrote on Positive Logic,
+which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive
+Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He
+resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates
+the sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of
+God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says "He belonged to that small class
+of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating
+than other men's truths." He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris,
+5 Sept. 1857.
+
+Condillac (Etienne Bonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble,
+about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much
+acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal being A Treatise on the
+Sensations, 1764; A Treatise on Animals, and An Essay on the Origin
+of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life
+is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.
+
+Condorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de),
+French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17
+Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept
+in girl's clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit's school,
+he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical
+thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated
+to Turgot a Profession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he
+was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual
+secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheistic Letters of a
+Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and
+in favor of American independence and against negro slavery. In
+1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he
+became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year,
+all orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of
+the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of
+the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to
+bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his
+fine Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding, he left,
+but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered,
+at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.
+
+Condorcet (Sophie de Grouchy Caritat, Marquise de), wife of above,
+and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She
+married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful
+women of her time. She shared her husband's sentiments and opinions
+and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait
+painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the
+fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith's Theory of the Moral
+Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy,
+addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married
+Gen. Arthur O'Connor.
+
+Confucius (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a
+Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about
+B.C. 551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his
+nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher,
+rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When
+past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding
+the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel,
+he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics
+of China. He died about B.C. 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the
+Lun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character,
+and did not include any religious dogmas.
+
+Congreve (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at
+Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of
+Wadham College 1844-54. In '55 he published his edition of Aristotle
+Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace
+Positivism. Translated Comte's Catechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858,
+and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head
+of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small
+"Church of Humanity."
+
+Connor (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family,
+1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John
+Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitled Evangelium Medici
+(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles
+on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died
+in London 27 Oct. 1698.
+
+Constant de Rebecque (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne,
+25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In
+1795 he entered Paris as a protégé of Mme. de Stael, and in 1799
+became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote
+on Roman Polytheism and an important work on Religion Considered in
+its Source, its Forms and its Developments (6 vols.; 1824-32). Died
+8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a
+sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor
+to Auguste Comte.
+
+Conta (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied
+in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy,
+Moldavia. In '77 he published in Brussels, in French, a theory of
+fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.
+
+Conway (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford
+co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry '50,
+but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and
+Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where
+he graduated in '54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until
+dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In '57 he preached in
+Cincinnati and there published The Natural History of the Devil, and
+other pamphlets. In '63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister
+of South Place from the close of '63 until his return to the States
+in '84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has
+also published The Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing
+Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; collected a Sacred Anthology from the
+various sacred books of the world 1873, which he used in his pulpit;
+has written on Human Sacrifices, 1876, and Idols and Ideals, 1877. His
+principal work is Demonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much
+information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title of
+Lessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on
+the Wandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged
+on a life of Thomas Paine.
+
+Cook (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son
+of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother
+by such questions as, "If God was omnipotent could he make what had
+happened not have happened." He was intended for the Church, but
+declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in '66, and
+took LL.D. in '75. In '77 he became editor of the Dublin University
+Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian
+doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title of The
+Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died
+July, 1886.
+
+Cooper (Anthony Ashley), see Shaftesbury.
+
+Cooper (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a schoolfellow
+of Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the battle of the
+Nile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and acquired some
+fame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 July, 1821, for
+which the report of the trial was dedicated to him by R. Carlile. He
+was a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he commenced. Died 19
+Sept. 1824.
+
+Cooper (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, 1723. Educated
+at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An enthusiastic
+disciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of "Philaretes" he
+contributed to Dodsley's Museum. In 1749 he published a Life of
+Socrates, for which he was coarsely attacked by Warburton. He wrote
+some poems under the signature of Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London,
+14 April, 1769.
+
+Cooper (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 Feb. 1791. He
+devoted over half a million dollars to the Cooper Institute, for
+the secular instruction and elevation of the working classes. Died
+4 April, 1883.
+
+Cooper (Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec. 1819,
+at Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of being
+brought up in a Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher
+in the Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and
+by seventeen became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a
+public discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were
+published--one on Original Sin sold twelve thousand copies--when he was
+scarcely eighteen. The Holy Scriptures Analysed (1832) was denounced
+by the Bishop of Exeter in the House of Lords. Cooper was dismissed
+from a situation he had held ten years, and in 1841 became a Socialist
+missionary in the North of England and Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845)
+he wrote Free Agency and Orthodoxy, and compiled the Infidel's Text
+Book. About '50 he came to London, lecturing with success at John
+Street Institution. In '54 he started the London Investigator, which
+he edited for three years. In it appears his lectures on "Science
+v. Theology," "Admissions of Distinguished Men," etc. Failing health
+obliged him to retire leaving the Investigator to "Anthony Collins"
+(W. H. Johnson), and afterwards to "Iconoclast" (C. Bradlaugh). At
+his last lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled
+his Infidel Text-Book into a work on The Bible and Its Evidences. He
+devoted himself to political reform until his death, 3 May, 1868.
+
+Cooper (Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher, politician,
+jurist and author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at Oxford, he
+afterwards studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar and lived
+at Manchester, where he wrote a number of tracts on "Materialism,"
+"Whether Deity be a Free Agent," etc., 1789. Deputed with James
+Watt, the inventor, by the Constitutional clubs to congratulate
+the Democrats of France (April, 1792), he was attacked by Burke
+and replied in a vigorous pamphlet. In '94 he published Information
+Concerning America, and in the next year followed his friend Priestly
+to Philadelphia, established himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He
+also conducted the Emporium of Arts and Sciences in that city. He was
+Professor of Medicine at Carlisle College, '12, and afterwards held
+the chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in South Carolina
+College, of which he became President, 1820-34. This position he was
+forced to resign on account of his religious views. He translated
+from Justinian and Broussais, and digested the Statutes of South
+Carolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a Freethinker,
+in politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many pamphlets. One on
+The Right of Free Discussion, and a little book on Geology and the
+Pentateuch, in reply to Prof. Silliman, were republished in London
+by James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, 1840. [1]
+
+[1] So varied was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that
+his works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different
+persons of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single
+gentlemen will be rolled into one.
+
+Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, poet and writer,
+b. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through Spain
+and Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became
+thereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a
+profound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and
+Calvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by
+Satan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he
+communed neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of
+Delft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero's De Officiis,
+and other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.
+
+Cordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe. See Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de).
+
+Corvin-Wiersbitski (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole of noble
+family, who traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b. Gumbinnen,
+12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met his friend
+Friedrich von Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went to Leipsic
+and entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the Dutch
+Revolution, 1841; the History of Christian Fanaticism, 1845, which
+was suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats in '48;
+was condemned to be shot 15 Sept. '49, but the sentence was commuted;
+spent six years' solitary confinement in prison; came to London,
+became correspondent to the Times; went through American Civil War,
+and afterwards Franco-Prussian War, as a special correspondent. He
+has written a History of the New Time, 1848-71. Died since 1886.
+
+Cotta (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, Thuringia,
+24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in Freiberg,
+where he was appointed professor in '42. His first production, The
+Dendroliths, '32, proved him a diligent investigator. It was followed
+by many geological treatises. Cotta did much to support the nebular
+hypothesis and the law of natural development without miraculous
+agency. He also wrote on phrenology. Died at Freiburg, 13 Sept 1879.
+
+Cotta (C. Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman,
+b. B.C. 124. In '75 he became Consul. On the expiration of his
+office he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had a high opinion of
+him and gives his sceptical arguments in the third book of his De
+Natura Deorum.
+
+Courier (Paul Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. He entered
+the army and became an officer of artillery, serving with distinction
+in the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, directed against
+the clerical restoration, which place him foremost among the literary
+men of the generation. His writings are now classics, but they brought
+him nothing but imprisonment, and he was apparently assassinated,
+10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the bigots would kill him.
+
+Coventry (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, Fellow
+of Magdalene College, author of Letters of Philemon to Hydaspus on
+False Religion (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.
+
+Coward (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at Wadham
+College, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards
+at London. Published, besides some medical works, Second Thoughts
+Concerning Human Soul, which excited much indignation by denying
+natural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered
+his work to be burnt. He died in 1725.
+
+Cox (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was educated at
+Rugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the Church,
+but has devoted himself to history and mythology. His most pretentious
+work is Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870). He has also written
+an Introduction to Comparative Mythology and several historical
+works. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with
+the authorship of the English Life of Jesus, published under the name
+of Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an heretical
+paper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a Life of Bishop
+Colenso, 2 vols, 1888.
+
+Coyteux (Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of a
+materialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on
+physiology, Paris, 1875, etc.
+
+Craig (Edward Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4
+Aug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre '19; helped to form
+the Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. In
+'31 he became editor of the Lancashire Co-operator. In Nov. of the same
+year he undertook the management of a co-operative farm at Rahaline,
+co. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an history, '72. Mr. Craig
+has edited several journals and contributed largely to Radical and
+co-operative literature. He has published a memoir of Dr. Travis and
+at the age of 84 he wrote on The Science of Prolonging Life.
+
+Cramer (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, 18
+Feb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy
+'36; ordained priest in '42; he resigned in '58. In religion he
+denies revelation and insists on the separation of Church and
+State. Among his works we mention Separation from the Church, a
+Freethinker's annotations on the reading of the Bible, Stockholm,
+1859. A Confession of Faith; Forward or Back? (1862). He has also
+written on the Punishment of Death (1868), and other topics.
+
+Cranbrook (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents about
+1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, became
+a teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent Church
+at Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies' College,
+Liverpool, some of his lectures there being published '57. In Jan. '65,
+he went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but his views being too broad
+for that congregation, he left in Feb. '67 but continued to give
+Sunday lectures until his death, 6 June, 1869. In '66 he published
+Credibilia: an Inquiry into the grounds of Christian faith and two
+years later The Founders of Christianity, discourses on the origin of
+Christianity. Other lectures on Human Depravity, Positive Religion,
+etc., were published by Thomas Scott.
+
+Cranch (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. Alexandria,
+Virginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, Cambridge,
+Mass. '35, but left the ministry in '42. He shows his Freethought
+sentiments in Satan, a Libretto, Boston, '74, and other works.
+
+Craven (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the Bible
+entitled Triumph of Criticism, published at Philadelphia, 1869.
+
+Cremonini (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, 1550, was
+professor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he died. A
+follower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of religion and
+his teaching the mortality of the soul. He was frequently ordered by
+the Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave currency
+to, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused. Like most
+of the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between religious
+and philosophic truth. Bayle says. "Il a passé pour un esprit fort,
+qui ne croyait point l'immortalité de l'âme." Larousse says, "On peut
+dire qu'il n'était pas chrétien." Ladvocat says his works "contain
+many things contrary to religion."
+
+Cross (Mary Ann). See Eliot (George).
+
+Crousse (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of
+Principles, or First Philosophy, 1839, and Thoughts, 1845.
+
+Curtis (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of Theology Displayed,
+1842. He has been credited with The Protestant's Progress to
+Infidelity. See Griffith (Rees). Died 1847.
+
+Croly (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New York, 3
+Nov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in '54, and was
+subsequently a reporter on the New York Herald. He became editor of
+the New York World until '72. From '71 to '73 he edited The Modern
+Thinker, an organ of the most advanced thought, and afterwards the
+New York Graphic. Mr. Croly has written a Primer of Positivism, '76,
+and has contributed many articles to periodicals. His wife, Jane
+Cunningham, who calls herself "Jennie June," b. 1831, also wrote in
+The Modern Thinker.
+
+Cross (Mary Ann), see Eliot (George).
+
+Crozier (John Beattie), English writer of Scottish border parentage,
+b. Galt, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a scholarship
+to the grammar school of the town, and thence won another scholarship
+to the Toronto University, where he graduated '72, taking the
+University and Starr medals. He then came to London determined to study
+the great problems of religion and civilisation. He took his diploma
+from the London College of Physicians in '73. In '77 he wrote his first
+essay, "God or Force," which, being rejected by all the magazines, he
+published as a pamphlet. Other essays on the Constitution of the World,
+Carlyle, Emerson, and Spencer being also rejected, he published them in
+a book entitled The Religion of the Future, '80, which fell flat. He
+then started his work Civilisation and Progress, which appeared in
+'85, and was also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices
+in '87, when it received a chorus of applause, for its clear and
+original thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography,
+after which he proposes to deal with the Social question.
+
+Cuffeler (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law,
+who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht
+towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on
+logic in three parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.,
+published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht,
+1684. It was without name but with the author's portrait.
+
+Cuper (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected to have
+been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting
+him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His
+work entitled Arcana Atheismi Revelata, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced
+as written in bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God
+could not be proved by the light of reason.
+
+Cyrano de Bergerac (Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March,
+1619. After finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth
+he devoted himself to literature. His tragedy "Agrippine" is full of
+what a bookseller called "belles impiétés," and La Monnoye relates that
+at its performance the pit shouted "Oh, the wretch! The Atheist! How
+he mocks at holy things!" Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi,
+Lamothe Le Vayer, Linière, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of
+a short fragment on Physic, a collection of Letters, and a Comic
+History of the States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano
+took the idea of this book from F. Godwin's Man in the Moon, 1583,
+and it in turn gave rise to Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Voltaire's
+Micromegas. Died Paris, 1655.
+
+Czolbe (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819,
+studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on
+the Principles of Physiology, '44. In '55 he published his New
+Exposition of Sensationalism, in which everything is resolved into
+matter and motion, and in '65 a work on The Limits and Origin of Human
+Knowledge. He was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at Königsberg,
+19 Feb. 1873. Lange says "his life was marked by a deep and genuine
+morality."
+
+D'Ablaing. See Giessenburg.
+
+Dale (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work
+on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the
+charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn,
+under the title of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan
+Priests, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress
+of Idolatry and Superstition, applied the historical method to his
+subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old and as
+extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708.
+
+Damilaville (Etienne Noël), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At
+first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who
+became his friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d'Alembert,
+Grimm, and d'Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, and in
+1767 published an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological
+Honesty. The book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and
+Holbach] was attributed by Voltaire, who called it Impiety Unveiled,
+and by La Harpe and Lalande to Damilaville. Voltaire called him
+"one of our most learned writers." Larousse says "he was an ardent
+enemy of Christianity." He has also been credited with a share in
+the System of Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768.
+
+Dandolo (Vincenzo) Count, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758,
+wrote Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on The New
+Men, in which he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful
+works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.
+
+Danton (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28
+Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred
+to study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him conspicuous
+at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the
+administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight
+of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension,
+and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm
+caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a
+member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the
+crisis of the struggle with Robespierre, Danton declined to strike
+the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said
+when interrogated by the judge, "My name is Danton, my dwelling will
+soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of
+history." He maintained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he
+perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called
+fils de Diderot. Carlyle calls him "a very Man."
+
+Dapper (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with history and
+geography, on which he produced important works. He had no religion
+and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia,
+etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of
+the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the
+City of Amsterdam, 1663. Died at Amsterdam 1690.
+
+Darget (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and became
+reader and private secretary to Frederick the Great (1745-52), who
+corresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.
+
+Darwin (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury,
+12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and
+Cambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing
+natural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by
+Humboldt's Personal Narrative, resolved to travel. He accompanied
+Captain Fitzroy in the "Beagle" on a voyage of exploration, '31-36,
+which he narrated in his Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World, which
+obtained great popularity. In '39 he married, and in '42 left London
+and settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined with the reading of
+Lamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on The Origin of Species
+by means of Natural Selection, '59, which made a great outcry and
+marked an epoch. Darwin took no part in the controversy raised by the
+theologians, but followed his work with The Fertilisation of Orchids,
+'62; Cross and Self Fertilisation of Plants, '67; Variations of
+Plants and Animals under Domestication, '65; and in '71 The Descent
+of Man and Selection in relation to Sex, which caused yet greater
+consternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued The
+Expression of the Emotions of Men and Animals. He also published
+works on the Movements of Plants, Insectivorous Plants, the Forms of
+Flowers, and Earthworms. He died 19 April, 1882, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey, despite his expressed unbelief in revelation. To
+a German student he wrote, in '79, "Science has nothing to do with
+Christ, except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes
+a man cautious in admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe
+that there ever has been any revelation." In his Life and Letters
+he relates that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see "that the
+Old Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the
+Hindoos." He rejected design and said "I for one must be content to
+remain an Agnostic."
+
+Darwin (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, grandfather
+of the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. 1731. Educated
+at Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician, first at Lichfield
+and afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with Rousseau, Watt and
+Wedgwood. His principal poem, The Botanic Garden was published in 1791,
+and The Temple of Nature in 1803. His principal work is Zoomania,
+or the laws of organic life (1794), for which he was accused of
+Atheism. He was actually a Deist. He also wrote on female education
+and some papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Died at Derby,
+18 April, 1802.
+
+Daubermesnil (François Antoine), French conventionalist. Elected
+deputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a member of the Council of
+Five Hundred. He was one of the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died
+at Perpignan 1802.
+
+Daudet (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at Nîmes, 13 May 1840, author
+of many popular romances, of which we mention L'Evangeliste, '82,
+which has been translated into English under the title Port Salvation.
+
+Daunou (Pierre Claude François), French politician and historian,
+b. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the congregation
+of the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the Revolution. The
+department of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas Paine to
+the Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at the
+Pantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt Tracy,
+Ginguené and Benj. Constant. Wrote Historical Essay on the Temporal
+Power of the Popes, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, 1840, noted for
+his benevolence.
+
+Davenport (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed to
+Carlile's Republican; wrote an account of the Life, Writings and
+Principles of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and published a
+volume of verse, entitled The Muses' Wreath (1827). Died at Highbury,
+London, 1846.
+
+Davenport (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a teacher. He
+wrote An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran, 1869; Curiositates
+Eroticoe Physiologæ, or Tabooed Subjects Freely Treated, and several
+educational works. Died in poverty 11 May, 1877.
+
+David of Dinant, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the twelfth
+century. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent
+III. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Chârtres, and his work
+Quaterini was condemned and burnt (1209). He only escaped the stake
+by rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was the author of
+a philosophical work De Tomis, "Of Subdivisions," in which he taught
+that all things were one. His system was similar to that of Spinoza.
+
+David (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. 1748,
+was made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became
+a member of the Convention, voted for the king's death and for the
+civic festivals, for which he made designs. On the restoration he
+was banished. Died at Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest
+enthusiast and a thorough Freethinker.
+
+Davidis or David (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. about
+1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an
+Antitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there
+was "as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other
+dead saints as to Jesus Christ." He was in consequence accused of
+Judaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, 1579.
+
+Davies (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in 1797
+published a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of The
+Scripturian's Creed, for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. The
+work was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at Manchester, 1839.
+
+Davidson (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted by the Vice
+Society in Oct. 1820, for selling the Republican and a publication
+of his own, called the Deist's Magazine. For observations made in
+his defence he was summoned and fined £100, and he was sentenced to
+two years' imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. He died 16 Dec. 1826.
+
+Debierre (Charles), French writer, author of Man Before History, 1888.
+
+De Dominicis. See Dominicis.
+
+De Felice (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, 1821,
+took part in the revolution of '43, and when Garibaldi landed in
+Sicily was appointed president of the provisional council of war. Has
+written on the reformation of elementary schools.
+
+De Greef (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of Appeal,
+b. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important Introduction to
+Sociology, 1886. Wrote in La Liberté, 1867-73, and now writes in La
+Societé Nouvelle.
+
+De Gubernatis (Angelo), Italian Orientalist and writer, b. Turin,
+7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and became doctor of
+philosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber at Berlin. Sig. de
+Gubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many important
+works, of which we mention his volumes on Zoological Mythology,
+which has been translated into English, '72: and on the Mythology of
+Plants. He has compiled and in large part written a Universal History
+of Literature, 18 vols. '82-85; edited La Revista Europea and the
+Revue Internationale, and contributed to many publications. He is a
+brilliant writer and a versatile scholar.
+
+De Harven (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, the
+anonymous author of a work on The Soul: its Origin and Destiny
+(Antwerp, 1879).
+
+Dekker (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and Freethinker of
+this century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In '39 he accompanied his
+father, a ship's captain, to the Malayan Archipelago. He became officer
+under the Dutch government in Sumatra, Amboina, and Assistant-Resident
+at Lebac, Java. He desired to free the Javanese from the oppression of
+their princes, but the government would not help him and he resigned
+and returned to Holland, '56. The next four years he spent, in poverty,
+vainly seeking justice for the Javanese. In '60 he published under the
+pen name of "Multatuli" Max Havelaar, a masterly indictment of the
+Dutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French
+and English. Then follow his choice Minnebrieven (Love Letters),
+'61; Vorstenschool (A School for Princes), and Millioenen Studiën
+(Studies on Millions). His Ideën, 7 vols. '62-79, are full of the
+boldest heresy. In most of his works religion is attacked, but in the
+Ideas faith is criticised with much more pungency and satire. He wrote
+"Faith is the voluntary prison-cell of reason." He was an honorary
+member of the Freethought Society, De Dageraad, and contributed to its
+organ. During the latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where
+he died 19 Feb. 1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.
+
+De Lalande (see Lalande).
+
+Delambre (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. Amiens,
+19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his master,
+an Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the
+Academy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of Astronomy
+at the Collége de France. He is the author of a History of Astronomy
+in five volumes, and of a number of astronomical tables and other
+scientific works He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of
+Sciences. Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at Père la Chaise. Cuvier
+pronouncing a discourse over his grave.
+
+De la Ramee. See Ramée.
+
+Delboeuf (Joseph Remi Léopold), Belgian writer, b. Liège, 30
+Sept. 1831; is Professor at the University of Liège, and has
+written Psychology as a Natural Science, its Present and its Future;
+Application of the Experimental Method to the Phenomena of the Soul,
+'73, and other works. In his Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry
+he suggests that even mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.
+
+Delbos (Léon), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish father and Scotch
+mother. Educated in Paris, Lycée Charlemagne. Is an M.A. of Paris and
+officier d'Académie. Speaks many languages, and is a good Arabic and
+Sanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the Franco-German
+War. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has written L'Athée,
+the Atheist, a Freethought romance '79, and in English The Faith in
+Jesus not a New Faith, '85. He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual,
+and is a decided Agnostic.
+
+Delepierre (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, 12 March,
+1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to England. His
+daughter married N. Truebner, who published his work L'Enfer, 1876,
+and many other bibliographical studies. Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.
+
+Delescluze (Louis Charles), French journalist and revolutionary,
+b. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in '34 for sedition. Implicated in
+a plot in '35, he took refuge in Belgium. In '48 he issued at Paris La
+Revolution Démocratique et Sociale, but was soon again in prison. He
+was banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to
+France in '53 was arrested. In '68 he published the Réveil, for
+which he was again fined and sentenced to prison for ten years. In
+'59 he was amnestied and imprisoned. He became head of the Commune
+Committee of Public Safety, and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.
+
+Deleyre (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near Bordeaux, 6
+Jan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, but changed
+his faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He contributed
+to the Encyclopédie, notably the article "Fanatisme," and published
+an analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint
+Evremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with
+ardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member
+of the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.
+
+Delisle de Sales. See Isoard Delisle (J. B. C.)
+
+Dell (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. Contributed
+to Progress, wrote Nature Pictures, '71, and The Dawning Grey, '85,
+a volume of vigorous verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and
+freethought. Died 31 Jan. 1888.
+
+Deluc (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. Paris,
+1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on La Libre Recherche.
+
+De Maillet. See Maillet (Benoît de).
+
+Democritus, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, Thrace,
+B.C. 460. He travelled to Egypt and over a great part of Asia,
+and is also said to have visited India. He is supposed to have
+been acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works were ascribed to
+him. Died B.C. 357. He taught that all existence consisted of atoms,
+and made the discovery of causes the object of scientific inquiry. He
+is said to have laughed at life in general, which Montaigne says
+is better than to imitate Heraclitus and weep, since mankind are
+not so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the forerunner of Epicurus,
+who improved his system.
+
+Demonax, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second century of
+the Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of him was
+written by Lucian.
+
+Demora (Gianbattista), director of the Libero Pensatore of Milan,
+and author of some dramatic works.
+
+Denis (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political economy
+and philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 April,
+1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to La
+Liberté, la Philosophie Positive, etc. Is one of the Council of the
+International Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Denslow (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on Modern
+Thinkers, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an introduction. He
+contributed a paper on the value of irreligion to the Religio
+Philosophic journal of America, Jan. '78, and has written in the
+Truthseeker and other journals.
+
+Denton (William F.), poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington,
+Durham, 8 Jan. 1823. After attaining manhood he emigrated to the
+United States, '48, and in '56 published Poems for Reformers. He was
+a prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology,
+geology, and Freethought. In '72 he published Radical Discourses
+on Religious Subjects (Boston, '72), and Radical Rhymes, '79. He
+travelled to Australasia, and died of a fever while conducting
+scientific explorations in New Guinea 26 Aug. 1883.
+
+De Paepe (César) Dr., Belgian Socialist, b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He
+was sent to the college of St. Michel, Brussels. He obtained the
+Diploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on the death of his father
+became a printer with Désiré Brismée (founder of Les Solidaires,
+a Rationalist society). Proudhon confided to him the correction of
+his works. He became a physician and is popular with the workmen's
+societies. He was one of the foremost members of the International and
+attended all its congresses, as well as those of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene,
+political economy, and psychology, collaborating in a great number of
+the most advanced journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic
+man, capable both as a speaker and writer.
+
+Depasse (Hector), French writer, b. at Armentières in 1843, is
+editor of La République Française, and member of the Paris Municipal
+Council. He has written a striking work on Clericalism, in which he
+urges the separation of Church and State, 1877; and is author of many
+little books on Contemporary Celebrities, among them are Gambetta,
+Bert, Ranc, etc.
+
+De Ponnat. See Ponnat (--de), Baron.
+
+De Pontan. See Ponnat.
+
+De Potter (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, b. Brussels, 11
+Nov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science, and has
+collaborated to La Ragione (Reason), '56, and La Philosophie de
+l'Avenir.
+
+De Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian politician and writer,
+father of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges, 26 April, 1786. In
+1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome. In '21 he wrote the
+Spirit of the Church, in 6 vols., which are put on the Roman Index. A
+strong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested
+more than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen
+months in '28. In Sept. '30 he became a member of the provisional
+government. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote
+a philosophical and anti-clerical History of Christianity, in 8 vols.,
+1836-37. He also wrote a Rational Catechism, 1854, and a Rational
+Dictionary, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died Bruges, 22 July, 1859.
+
+Deraismes (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, 15
+Aug. 1835. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote
+an appeal on behalf of her sex, Aux Femmes Riches, '65. The Masonic
+Lodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to become a member, and she
+was duly installed under the Grand Orient of France. The first female
+Freemason, was president of the Paris Anti-clerical Congress of 1881,
+and has written much in her journal, Le Républicain de Seine et Oise.
+
+De Roberty (Eugene). See Roberty.
+
+Desbarreaux (Jacques Vallée), Seigneur, French poet and sceptic,
+b. Paris, 1602, great-nephew of Geoffrey Vallée, who was burnt in
+1574. Many stories are related of his impiety, e.g. the well-known
+one of his having a feast of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des
+Barreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, "What an amount
+of noise over an omelette." It was said he recanted and wrote a poem
+beginning, "Great God, how just are thy chastisements." Voltaire,
+however, assigns this poem to the Abbé Levau. Died at Chalons,
+9 May, 1673.
+
+Descartes (René), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, 31 March,
+1596. After leaving college he entered the army in '16, and fought
+in the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, and in
+'29 settled in Holland. In '37 he produced his famous Discourses upon
+the Method of Reasoning Well, etc., and in '41 his Meditations upon
+First Philosophy. This work gave such offence to the clergy that he
+was forced to fly his country "parce qu'il y fait trop chaud pour
+lui." He burnt his Traite du Monde (Treatise on the World) lest
+he should incur the fate of Gallilei. Though a Theist, like Bacon,
+he puts aside final causes. He was offered an asylum by Christina,
+Queen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.
+
+Deschamps (Léger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, a French
+philosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the Order
+of Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of
+the Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau,
+d'Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. "Ce prêtre athée,"
+as Ad. Franck calls him, was the author of a treatise entitled La
+Vérité, ou le Vrai Système, in which he appears to have anticipated
+all the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from
+existing things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable
+work, which remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century,
+has been published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at
+Montreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.
+
+Deslandes (André François Boureau), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member
+of the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil
+of anonymity, the principal being A Critical History of Philosophy,
+3 vols(1737). His Pygmalion, a philosophical romance, was condemned by
+the parliament of Dijon, 1742. His Reflexions sur les grands hommes
+qui sont mort en Plaisantant (Amsterdam, 1732) was translated into
+English and published in 1745 under the title, Dying Merrily. Another
+work directed against religion was On the certainty of Human Knowledge,
+a philosophical examination of the different prerogatives of reason
+and faith (London, 1741). Died Paris, 11 April, 1757.
+
+Des Maizeaux (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, 1673. He
+studied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who introduced
+him to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. He edited
+the works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he wrote,
+as well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was his
+friend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he transferred
+to Collins's widow and they were burnt. He repented and returned the
+money, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He became Secretary of
+the Royal Society of London, where he died, 11 July, 1745.
+
+Desmoulins (Lucié Simplice Camille Benôit), French revolutionary
+writer, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a fellow-student of Robespierre
+at Paris, and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In
+July '89 he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille,
+and thus began the Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile
+Laridon-Duplessis. He edited Le Vieux Cordelier and the Révolutions
+de France et de Brabant, in which he stated that Mohammedanism was
+as credible as Christianity. He was a Deist, preferring Paganism to
+Christianity. Both creeds were more or less unreasonable; but, folly
+for folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying the Erymanthean boar
+to Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. He was executed
+with Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, who was an
+Atheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). Carlyle
+calls Desmoulins a man of genius, "a fellow of infinite shrewdness,
+wit--nay, humor."
+
+Des Periers (Jean Bonaventure), French poet and sceptic,
+b. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a convent,
+only to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in Lyons
+and assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as
+"Francoys Insigne." Attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois,
+he defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French version
+of the Psalms. He wrote the Cymbalum Mundi, a satire upon religion,
+published under the name of Thomas de Clenier à Pierre Tryocan,
+i.e., Thomas Incrédule à Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed
+and the printer, Jehan Morin, imprisoned. Des Periers fled and
+died (probably by suicide, to escape persecution) 1544. An English
+version of Cymbalum Mundi was published in 1712. P. G. Brunet, the
+bibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author of the
+famous Atheistic treatise, The Three Impostors.
+
+Destriveaux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, b. Liége,
+13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public right. Died
+Schaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.
+
+Destutt de Tracy (Antoine Louis de Claude) Count, French materialist
+philosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of Scotch origin. At
+first a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at the Revolution
+to despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, Condorcet,
+and Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an analysis
+of Dupuis' Origine de tous les Cultes (1804), edited Montesquieu and
+Cabanis, was made a member of the French Academy (1808), and wrote
+several philosophical works, of which the principal is Elements of
+Ideology. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died Paris, 9 March, 1836.
+
+Des Vignes (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. (1245-49). Mazzuchelli
+attributes to him the treatise De Tribus Impostoribus.
+
+Detrosier (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, the
+illegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a Frenchwoman. In
+his early years he was "for whole days without food." Self-educated,
+he established the first Mechanics' Institute in England at Hulme,
+gave Sunday scientific lectures, and published several discourses
+in favor of secular education. He became secretary of the National
+Political Union. He was a Deist. Like Bentham, who became his friend,
+he bequeathed his body for scientific purposes. Died in London,
+23 Nov. 1834.
+
+Deubler (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near Ischl,
+Upper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties,
+he became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as
+"the Peasant Philosopher." In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy,
+and was sentenced to two years' hard labor and imprisonment during
+pleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. '54, till Nov. '56 at Brünn,
+and afterwards at Olmutz, where he was released 24 March, 1857. He
+returned to his native place, and was visited by Feuerbach. In '70
+he was made Burgomaster by his fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.
+
+Deurhoff (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. Educated
+for the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the works of
+Descartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. Forced to
+leave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to Holland,
+where he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.
+
+De Wette. (See Wette M. L. de).
+
+D'Holbach. See Holbach (P. H. D. von), Baron.
+
+Diagoras, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as "the Atheist,"
+b. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said to have freed him from
+slavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he became an Atheist after
+being the victim of an unpunished perjury. He was accused (B.C. 411)
+of impiety, and had to fly from Athens to Corinth, where he died. A
+price was put upon the Atheist's head. His works are not extant,
+but several anecdotes are related of him, as that he threw a wooden
+statue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish of lentils, saying the
+god had a thirteenth task to perform; and that, being on his flight
+by sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his fellow-passengers say it
+was because an Atheist was on board, he pointed to other vessels
+struggling in the same storm without being laden with a Diagoras.
+
+Di Cagno Politi (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. Bari,
+1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern culture
+and on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed articles on
+Positivism to the Rivista Europea.
+
+Diderot (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. His
+father, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits,
+at the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for
+books, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he
+supported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published
+Philosophic Thoughts, which was condemned to be burnt. It did much
+to advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his Letters on the
+Blind occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its materialistic
+Atheism. Rousseau, who called him "a transcendent genius," visited
+Diderot in prison, where he remained three years. Diderot projected the
+famous Encyclopédie, which he edited with Alembert, and he contributed
+some of the most important articles. With very inadequate recompense,
+and amidst difficulties that would have appalled an ordinary editor,
+Diderot superintended the undertaking for many years (1751-65). He also
+contributed to other important works, such as Raynal's Philosophic
+History, L'Esprit, by Helvetius, and The System of Nature and other
+works of his friend D'Holbach. Diderot's fertile mind also produced
+dramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, 1784. Comte calls
+Diderot "the greatest thinker of the eighteenth century."
+
+Diercks (Gustav), German author of able works on the History of the
+Development of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881-2) and on Arabian Culture
+in Spain, 1887. Is a member of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Dilke (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, travelled
+in Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of Turgenev's
+Virgin Soil. He purchased and edited the Weekly Dispatch; was returned
+as M.P. for Newcastle in 1880, but, owing to ill health, resigned in
+favor of John Morley, and died at Algiers 12 March, 1883.
+
+Dinter (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, near
+Leipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His Bible for Schoolmasters is his best-known
+work. It sought to give rational notes and explanations of the Jew
+books, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 May, 1831.
+
+Dippel (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10
+Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His Papismus vapulans
+Protestantium (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of
+Giessen, and he had to flee for his life. Attempting to find out the
+philosopher's stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In 1705 he published
+his satires against the Protestant Church, Hirt und eine Heerde,
+under the name of Christianus Democritos. He denied the inspiration
+of the Bible, and after an adventurous life in many countries died
+25 April, 1734.
+
+Dobrolyubov (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. 1836, at
+Nijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St. Petersburg, he
+became a radical journalist. His works were edited in four vols. by
+Chernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.
+
+Dodel-Port (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, Thurgau,
+16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in '63 teacher in
+the Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from '64-'69 at Geneva,
+Zürich, and Munich, becoming privat docent in the University of
+Zürich, '70. In '75 he published The New History of Creation. In
+'78 he issued his world-famous Botanical Atlas, and was in '80 made
+Professor of Botany in the Zürich University and Director of the
+Botanical Laboratory. He has also written Biological Fragments (1885),
+the Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler, "the peasant philosopher"
+(1886), and has just published Moses or Darwin? a School Question,
+1889. Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society
+and Vice-President of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Dodwell (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, was
+b. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A.,
+9 Feb. 1726. In '42 he published a pamphlet entitled Christianity
+not Founded on Argument, which in a tone of grave irony contends that
+Christianity can only be accepted by faith. He was brought up to the
+law and was a zealous friend of the Society for the Promotion of Arts,
+Manufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.
+
+Doebereiner (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15
+Dec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where
+he added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and
+instructor to Goethe.
+
+Dolet (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. 1509. He
+studied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to fly
+from Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he established
+a printing-press and published some of his works, for which he was
+imprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and other
+advanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books
+to be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of
+Atheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and
+burnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd,
+he said: "Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba dolet."--Dolet grieves
+not, but the generous crowd grieves. His goods being confiscated,
+his widow and children were left to beggary. "The French language,"
+says A. F. Didot, "owes him much for his treatises, translations,
+and poesies." Dolet's biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him "le
+Christ de la pensée libre." Philosophy has alone the right, says
+Henri Martin, to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer,
+R. C. Christie, says he was "neither a Catholic nor a Protestant."
+
+Dominicis (Saverio Fausto de), Italian Positivist philosopher,
+b. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of Philosophy at Bari, and has
+written on Education and Darwinism.
+
+Dondorf (Dr. A.), See Anderson (Marie) in Supplement.
+
+Doray de Longrais (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. Manvieux,
+1736. Author of a Freethought romance, Faustin, or the Philosophical
+Age. Died at Paris, 1800.
+
+Dorsch (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10
+Jan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In '49 he went to America
+and settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of poems,
+some being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.
+
+Dorsey (J. M.), author of the The True History of Moses, and others,
+an attack on the Bible, published at Boston in 1855.
+
+Draparnaud (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 June, 1772,
+at Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural History. His
+discourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the Philosophy of
+the Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his scepticism. Died 1
+Feb. 1805.
+
+Draper (John William), scientist and historian, b. St. Helens,
+near Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was
+educated at London University. In '32 he emigrated to America,
+where he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New
+York University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the
+first who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works,
+notably on Human Physiology. His history of the American Civil War
+is an important work, but he is chiefly known by his History of the
+Intellectual Development of Europe and History of the Conflict of
+Religion and Science, which last has gone through many editions and
+been translated into all the principal languages. Died 4 Jan. 1882.
+
+Dreyfus (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the Evolution
+of Worlds and Societies, 1888.
+
+Droysen (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 July,
+1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the Hallische Jahrbücher; was
+Professor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena '51 and Berlin '59. Has edited
+Frederick the Great's Correspondence, and written other important
+works, some in conjunction with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15
+June, 1882.
+
+Drummond (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and author,
+b. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St. Mawes, Cornwall,
+1795. In the following year he became envoy to the court of Naples,
+and in 1801 ambassador to Constantinople. His principal work is
+Origines, or Remarks on the Origin of several Empires, States,
+and Cities (4 vols. 1824-29). He also printed privately The OEdipus
+Judaicus, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and learning,
+many legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an astronomical
+signification. It was reprinted in '66. Sir William Drummond also
+wrote anonymously Philosophical Sketches of the Principles of Society,
+1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.
+
+Duboc (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b. Hamburg, 10
+Oct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt and Giessen, is a clever journalist,
+and has translated the History of the English Press. Has written
+an Atheistic work, Das Leben Ohne Gott (Life without God), with the
+motto from Feuerbach "No religion is my religion, no philosophy my
+philosophy," 1875. He has also written on the Psychology of Love,
+and other important works.
+
+Dubois (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published The True
+Catechism of Believers--a work ordered by the Court of Assizes to
+be suppressed, and for which the author (Sept. '35) was condemned to
+six months' imprisonment and a fine of one thousand francs. He also
+wrote The Believer Undeceived, or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and
+Absurdity of Christianity; a work put on the Index in '36.
+
+Du Bois-Reymond (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French
+mother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for
+the Church, but left it to follow science, '37. Has become famous as
+a physiologist, especially by his Researches in Animal Electricity,
+'48-60. With Helmholtz he has done much to establish the new era
+of positive science, wrongly called by opponents Materialism. Du
+Bois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the brain and nervous
+system, and that "soul" has arisen as the gradual results of natural
+combinations, but in his Limits of the Knowledge of Nature, '72, he
+contends that we must always come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du
+Bois-Reymond has written on Voltaire and Natural Science, '68; La
+Mettrie, '75; Darwin versus Galiani, '78; and Frederick II. and
+Rousseau, '79. Since '67 he has been perpetual secretary of the
+Academy of Sciences, Berlin.
+
+Dubuisson (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, b. Lauat,
+1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the scaffold, 24
+March, 1794.
+
+Dubuisson (Paul), living French Positivist, author of Grand Types
+of Humanity.
+
+Du Chatelet Lomont. See Chastelet.
+
+Duclos (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 Feb. 1704. He
+was admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its secretary,
+1755. A friend of Diderot and d'Alembert. His Considerations sur les
+Moeurs is still a readable work. Died 27 March, 1772.
+
+Ducos (Jean François), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux in 1765. Elected
+to the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. 1791, demanded
+the complete separation of the State from religion. He shared the
+fate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last breath,
+"Vive la Republique!"
+
+Du Deffand (Marie), Marchioness, witty literary Frenchwoman,
+b. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent she preached
+irreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in Massillon, to
+whom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away saying "She
+is charming." Her house in Paris was for fifty years the resort of
+eminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for many years with
+Horace Walpole, D'Alembert and Voltaire. Many anecdotes are told of
+her; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke of the miracle of
+St. Denis walking when beheaded, she said "Il n'y a que le premier
+pas qui coûte." Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the curé of Saint Sulpice,
+who came to her death-bed, she said "Ni questions, ni raisons, ni
+sermons." Larousse calls her "Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais
+sceptique et materialiste."
+
+Dudgeon (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were published
+(privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.
+
+Dudnevant (A. L. A. Dupin), Baroness. See Sand (Georges).
+
+Duehring (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. 1833; studied
+law. He has, though blind, written many works on science and political
+economy, also a Critical History of Philosophy, '69-78, and Science
+Revolutionized, '78. In Oct. 1879, his death was maliciously reported.
+
+Dulaure (Jacques Antoine), French archæologist and historian,
+b. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788-90 he published six volumes
+of a description of France. He wrote many pamphlets, including one
+on the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected to the Convention in
+1792, he voted for the death of the King. Proscribed as a Girondist,
+Sept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was one of the Council of Five
+Hundred, 1796-98. Dulaure wrote a learned Treatise on Superstitions,
+but he is best known by his History of Paris, and his Short History
+of Different Worships, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism
+and phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.
+
+Dulaurens (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 March, 1719. He
+was brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. 1727. Published
+a satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to fly to
+Holland, where he lived in poverty. He edited L'Evangile de la Raison,
+a collection of anti-Christian tracts by Voltaire and others, and
+wrote L'Antipapisme révelé in 1767. He was in that year condemned
+to perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in the convent of
+Mariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, cynical and
+vivacious. He is also credited with the Portfolios of a Philosopher,
+mostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, 1770.
+
+Dulk (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. Konigsberg,
+17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for aiding
+in the Revolution of '48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. In '65
+he published Jesus der Christ, embodying rationalism in prose and
+verse. He has also written Stimme der Menschheit, 2 vols., '76,
+'80, and Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu, '84, besides numerous plays
+and pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.
+
+Dumont (Léon), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. Studied for
+the bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early embraced
+Darwinism, and wrote on Hæckel and the Theory of Evolution, '73. He
+wrote in La Revue Philosophique, and other journals. Died Valenciennes,
+17 Jan. 1877.
+
+Dumarsais (César Chesneau), French grammarian and philosopher,
+b. Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation
+of the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris,
+where he married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against
+the pretensions of Rome and contributed to the Encyclopédie. He is
+credited with An Analysis of the Christian Religion and with the
+celebrated Essai sur les Préjugés, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was
+probably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. Le Philosophe,
+published in L'Evangile de la Raison by Dulaurens, was written by
+Voltaire. Died 11 June, 1756. Dumarsais was very simple in character,
+and was styled by D'Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.
+
+Dumont (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 July,
+1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became
+secretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where
+he became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died
+Milan, 29 Sept. 1829.
+
+Duncker (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, 15
+Oct. 1811. His chief work, the History of Antiquity, 1852-57,
+thoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and profane
+history, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A translation in
+six volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an active part
+in the events of '48 and '50, and was appointed Director-General of
+the State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.
+
+Dupont (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of the
+National Convention, known as the Abbé Dupont, who, 14 Dec. 1792,
+declared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. Died
+at Paris in 1813.
+
+Dupont de Nemours (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. Paris, 14
+Dec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly, and was
+a Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.
+
+Dupuis (Charles François), French astronomer and philosopher,
+b. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the Church, which
+he left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, and wrote on
+the origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became a member of
+the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was chosen a member
+of the Convention. During the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at
+his own risk. He was afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and
+president of the legislative body. His chief work is on the Origin of
+Religions, 7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various
+faiths, including Christianity. This has been described as "a monument
+of the erudition of unbelief." Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. 1809.
+
+Dutrieux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 July,
+1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.
+
+Dutton (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. Educated
+by the Moravians. In 1795 he published a Vindication of the Age of
+Reason by Thomas Paine. He translated Kotzebue's Pizarro in Peru,
+1799, and edited the Dramatic Censor, 1800, and the Monthly Theatrical
+Reporter, 1815.
+
+Duvernet (Théophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at Ambert
+1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abbé, but mocked at
+religion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a political
+pamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he wrote a
+curious and rare romance, Les Devotions de Mme. de Bethzamooth. He
+wrote on Religious Intolerance, 1780, and a History of the Sorbonne,
+1790, but is best known by his Life of Voltaire (1787). In 1793
+he wrote a letter to the Convention, in which he declares that
+he renounces the religion "born in a stable between an ox and an
+ass." Died in 1796.
+
+Dyas (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of The Upas. He resided
+long in Italy and translated several of the works of C. Voysey.
+
+Eaton (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated at the
+Jesuits' College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the Bible, he did
+so, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In 1792 he was
+prosecuted for publishing Paine's Rights of Man, but the prosecution
+fell through. He afterwards published Politics for the People, which
+was also prosecuted, 1793, as was his Political Dictionary, 1796. To
+escape punishment, he fled to America, and lived there for three years
+and a half. Upon returning to England, his person and property were
+seized. Books to the value of £2,800 were burnt, and he was imprisoned
+for fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at his
+"Rationcinatory or Magazine for Truths and Good Sense," 8 Cornhill,
+in 1810, The True Sense and Meaning of the System of Nature. The Law
+of Nature had been previously translated by him. In '11 he issued
+the first and second parts of Paine's Age of Reason, and on 6 March,
+'12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy
+for issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen
+months' imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence evoked
+Shelley's spirited Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Eaton translated and
+published Freret's Preservative against Religious Prejudices, 1812,
+and shortly before his death, at Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again
+prosecuted for publishing George Houston's Ecce Homo.
+
+Eberhard (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 Aug. 1739,
+was brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in his New
+Apology for Socrates, 1772, was patronised by Frederick the Great,
+and appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he opposed
+the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a History of Philosophy,
+1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.
+
+Eberty (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author of some
+controversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.
+
+Echtermeyer (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, 1805. He
+studied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the Hallische
+Jahrbücher, which contained many Freethought articles, 1837-42. He
+taught at Halle and Dresden, where he died, 6 May, 1844.
+
+Edelmann (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, Saxony,
+9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians,
+but left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent
+of Spinozism. His principal works are his Unschuldige Wahrheiten,
+1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no religion is of
+importance, and Moses mit Aufgedecktem Angesicht (Moses Unmasked),
+1740, an attack on the Old Testament, which, he believed, proceeded
+from Ezra; Die Göttlichkeit der Vernunft (The Divinity of Reason),
+1741, and Christ and Belial. His works excited much controversy, and
+were publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, 1750. Edelmann was chased
+from Brunswick and Hamburg, but was protected by Frederick the Great,
+and died at Berlin, 15 Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot
+calls him a "fameux esprit fort."
+
+Edison (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10
+Feb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read,
+however, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He
+afterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator,
+studied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen,
+the telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an
+Agnostic and to pay no attention to religion.
+
+Eenens (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. Eenens
+was an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and
+anti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote La Vérité, a work on the
+Christian faith, 1859; Le Paradis Terrestre, '60, an examination of
+the legend of Eden, and Du Dieu Thaumaturge, '76. He used the pen
+names "Le Père Nicaise," "Nicodème Polycarpe" and "Timon III." Died
+at Brussels in 1883.
+
+Effen (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 Feb. 1684. Edited the
+Misanthrope, Amsterdam, 1712-16; translated Robinson Crusoe, Swift's
+Tale of a Tub, and Mandeville's Thoughts on Religion, 1722; published
+the Dutch Spectator, 1731-35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. 1735.
+
+Eichhorn (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and rationalist, b. 16
+Oct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature and afterwards
+Professor of Theology at Gottingen. He published Introductions to
+the Old and New Testaments and A Commentary on the Apocalypse, in
+which his criticism tends to uproot belief in the Bible as a divine
+revelation. He lectured every day for fifty-two years. Died 25 June,
+1827.
+
+"Elborch (Conrad von)," the pseudonym of a living learned Dutch writer,
+whose position does not permit him to reveal his true name. Born
+14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to De Dageraad (The Daybreak),
+under various pen-names, as "Fra Diavolo," "Denis Bontemps," "J. Van
+den Ende," etc. He has given, in '88, a translation of the rare and
+famous Latin treatise, De Tribus Impostoribus (On Three Impostors)
+[Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important bibliographic and
+historical introduction.
+
+"Eliot (George)," the pen-name of Mary Ann Lewes (née Evans) one of
+the greatest novelists of the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff,
+Warwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819. In '41 the family removed to Foleshill,
+near Coventry. Here she made the friendship of the household of
+Charles Bray, and changed her views from Evangelical Christianity
+to philosophical scepticism. Influenced by The Inquiry into the
+Origin of Christianity, by C. C. Hennell (Bray's brother-in-law),
+she made an analysis of that work. Her first literary venture was
+translating Strauss' Leben Jesu, published in 1846. After the death
+of her father ('49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent,
+and upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the
+Westminster Review, to which she contributed several articles. She
+translated Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity, '54, the only work
+published with her real name, and also translated from Spinoza's
+Ethics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer to George Henry Lewes, she
+linked her life with his in defiance of the conventions of society,
+July, '54. Both were poor, but by his advice she turned to fiction,
+in which she soon achieved success. Her Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam
+Bede, Mill on the Floss, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt, Middlemarch,
+Daniel Deronda, and Theophrastus Such have become classics. As a poet,
+"George Eliot" does not rank so high, but her little piece, "Oh,
+may I join the choir invisible," well expresses the emotion of the
+Religion of Humanity, and her Spanish Gipsy she allowed was "a mass
+of Positivism." Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married
+his friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died
+22 Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.
+
+Ellero (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. 1833,
+Counsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of Criminal
+Law in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on legal and
+social questions. His Scritti Minori, Scritti Politici and La Question
+Sociale have the honor of a place on the Roman Index.
+
+Elliotson (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. London,
+1791. He became physician at St. Thomas's Hospital in 1822, and made
+many contributions to medical science. By new prescriptions of quinine,
+creasote, etc., he excited much hostility in the profession. He was
+the first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He
+was also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk
+stockings, and to wear a beard. In '31 he was chosen Professor at
+University College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism,
+he resigned his appointments, '38. He was founder and President of the
+London Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works,
+edited the Zoist (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach's Physiology,
+and wrote an introduction to Engledue's Cerebral Physiology, defending
+materialism. Thackeray dedicated Pendennis to him, '50, and he received
+a tribute of praise from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.
+
+Eichthal (Gustave d'), French writer, b. of Jewish family, Nancy,
+22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was one of the
+founders of the Société d'Ethnologie, and published Les Evangiles, a
+critical analysis of the gospels, 2 vols, Paris, '63. This he followed
+by The Three Great Mediterranean Nations and Christianity and Socrates
+and our Time, '84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son published
+his Mélanges de Critique Biblique (Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism),
+in which there is an able study on the name and character of "Jahveh."
+
+Emerson (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and philosopher,
+b. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, and was
+brought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and ordained
+as a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the Church,
+he resigned in '32. In the next year he came to Europe, visiting
+Carlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving occasional
+lectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the Dial, a
+transcendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic pantheism, but without
+systematic philosophy, all his writings are most suggestive, and he
+is always the champion of mental freedom, self-reliance, and the free
+pursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27 April, 1882. Matthew Arnold
+has pronounced his essays "the most important work done in prose"
+in this century.
+
+Emerson (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near Darlington,
+14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous works on
+Mathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality attracted
+Carlyle, who said to Mrs. Gilchrist, "Emerson was a Freethinker who
+looked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have
+defended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy
+clamor and unreal stuff going on around him." Died 21 May, 1782. He
+compiled a list of Bible contradictions.
+
+Emmet (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was educated
+as a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his sympathy with
+the National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but returned in
+1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was executed 20
+Sept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving sentence,
+and on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is well
+known that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the daughter
+of Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.
+
+Engledue (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After taking his
+degree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and was elected
+President of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He returned
+to Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth Hospital and
+established public baths and washhouses. He contributed to the Zoist
+and published an exposition of materialism under the title of Cerebral
+Physiology, 1842, republished by J. Watson, 1857. Died Jan. 1859.
+
+English (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. Cambridge,
+Mass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and graduated
+at Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published Grounds of
+Christianity Examined, 1813. The work excited some controversy,
+and has been reprinted at Toronto, 1839. He joined the Egyptian
+service and became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius
+and a gift of languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with
+a Turkish ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation
+of Cherokees by disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a
+reply to his critics, entitled Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook,
+and two letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died
+at Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.
+
+Ense (Varnhagen von). See Varnhagen.
+
+Ensor (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated at
+Trinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was
+a friend of liberty in every country. Besides other political works
+he published, The Independent Man, 1806; On National Government,
+1810; A Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the
+Old and New Testaments, first printed as Janus on Sion, 1816, and
+republished 1835; and Natural Theology Examined, 1836, the last being
+republished in The Library of Reason. Bentham described him as clever
+but impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. 1843.
+
+Epicurus, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, B.C. 342. He repaired to
+Athens, B.C. 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he occupied
+himself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in which he
+established his school. Although much calumniated, he is now admitted
+to have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he had no
+belief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order not
+to offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted the
+atomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is the
+sovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, but
+permanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are
+lost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius,
+De Rerum Natura. Died B.C. 270, leaving many followers.
+
+"Erdan (Alexandre)," the pen-name of Alexandre Andre Jacob, a French
+writer, b. Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished
+prelate. Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon,
+and refused to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate
+of phonography. His work, La France Mystique (1855), in which he
+gives an account of French religious eccentricities, was condemned
+for its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to a year's
+imprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he took refuge in
+Italy. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.
+
+Ernesti (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4
+Aug. 1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed
+professor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he
+insisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died
+Leipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.
+
+Escherny (François Louis d') Count, Swiss litterateur, b. Neufchatel,
+24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in travel. At Paris he became
+the associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and particularly Rousseau, whom he
+much admired. He wrote Lacunes de la Philosophie (Amsterdam, 1783) and
+a work on Equality (1795), in which he displays his Freethought. Died
+at Paris, 15 July, 1815.
+
+Espinas (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, 1844. Has
+translated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer's Principles of Psychology,
+and has written studies on Experimental Philosophy in Italy, and on
+Animal Societies (1877).
+
+Espronceda (José), popular Spanish poet, b. Almendralejo (Estremadura)
+in 1810. After the War of Independence he went to Madrid and studied
+under Alberto Lista, the poet and mathematician. He became so obnoxious
+to the government by his radical principles that he was imprisoned
+about the age of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed
+several years in London and Paris, and was brought under the influence
+of Byron and Hugo. He fought with the people in the Paris Revolution
+of July, 1830. On the death of the Spanish King in '33 he returned
+to Madrid, but was again banished for too free expression of his
+opinions. He returned and took part in the revolutionary contest of
+'35-36. He was elected to the Cortes in '41, and appointed secretary
+of embassy to The Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are
+lyrical poems, which often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic,
+El Pelayo; and El Diablo-Mundo (the Devil-World), a fine poem, due
+to the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. Espronceda was a thorough
+sceptic. In his Song of the Pirate he asks, "Who is my God?--Liberty";
+and in his concluding lines to a star he says:
+
+
+                I unheedingly follow my path,
+                At the mercy of winds and of waves.
+                Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,
+                What care I if lost or saved.
+
+
+Estienne (Henri), the ablest of a family of learned French printers,
+known in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. At the age of
+eighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of Dionysius
+of Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a printing office of his
+own, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572 the Thesaurus Linguæ
+Græcæ. His Apologie pour Herodote (Englished as a World of Wonders)
+is designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed against
+priests and priestcraft. He was driven from place to place. Sir
+Philip Sidney highly esteemed him, and "kindly entertained him in
+his travaile." Died 1598. Garasse classes him with Atheists.
+
+Esteve (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy and an anonymous
+work on the Origin of the Universe explained from a Principle of
+Matter; Berlin, 1748.
+
+Ettel (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at Neuhof,
+Sternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish of his
+parents at the Theological Seminary Olmütz, which he left to study
+philosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. His
+Grundzuge der Natürlichen Weltanschauung (Sketch of a Natural View
+of the World), a Freethinker's catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth
+edition.
+
+Evans (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 March,
+1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set up
+as a printer, and published the Correspondent, the first American
+Freethought paper. He also published the Working Man's Advocate, Man,
+Young America, and the Radical. He labored for the transportation
+of mails on Sundays, the limitation of the right to hold lands,
+the abolition of slavery, and other reforms. His brother became one
+of the chief elders of the Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey,
+2 Feb. 1855.
+
+Evans (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of Robert
+Owen. He established The Potter's Examiner and Workman's Advocate,
+'43, and wrote in the Co-operative journals under the anagram of
+"Millway Vanes." Died 14 March, 1887.
+
+Evanson (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, Lancashire,
+21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of South
+Mimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts
+on the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury
+without obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the
+Litany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771,
+he was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity
+in the proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the
+Trinity. In 1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield
+on the Prophecies of the New Testament, in which he tried to show
+that either Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In the
+following year he resigned both his livings and took pupils. In
+1792 he published his principal work, The Dissonance of the Four
+Generally-Received Evangelists, in which he rejected all the gospels,
+except Luke, as unauthentic. This work involved him in a controversy
+with Dr. Priestley, and brought a considerable share of obloquy and
+persecution from the orthodox. Died 25 Sept. 1805.
+
+Eve'merus or Euhemerus, a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander
+the Great, who sought to rationalise religion, and treated the gods
+as dead heroes. He is usually represented as an Atheist.
+
+Eudes (Emile François Désiré), French Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He
+became a chemist, and was condemned, with Régnard, to three months'
+imprisonment for writing in La Libre Pensée, '67, of which he was
+director. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When
+the Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On
+his return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public
+meeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.
+
+Ewerbeck (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events of 1848,
+he lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet's Voyage en Icarie,
+and in an important work entitled Qu'est ce que La Religion? (What
+is Religion), '50, translated into French Feuerbach's "Essence of
+Religion," "Essence of Christianity," and "Death and Immortality." In
+a succeeding volume What is the Bible? he translated from Daumer,
+Ghillany, Luetzelberger and B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French
+an historical work on Germany and the Germans; Paris, 1851.
+
+Fabre D'Eglantine (Philippe François Nazaire), French revolutionist and
+playwriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. After some success as a poet
+and playwright he was chosen as deputy to the National Convention. He
+voted for the death of Louis XVI., and proposed the substitution of
+the republican for the Christian calendar, Sept. 1793. He was executed
+with his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.
+
+Fabricatore (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. His father
+Antonio had the honor of having a political work placed on the Index,
+1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought Council of 1869,
+and has written works on Dante, etc.
+
+Farinata. See Uberti (Farinata degli).
+
+Fauche (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May,
+1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays
+of Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to La
+Liberté de Penser. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.
+
+Fausto (Sebastiano), Da Longiano, Italian of the beginning of the 16th
+century, who is said to have projected a work The Temple of Truth,
+with the intention of overturning all religions. He translated the
+Meditations of Antoninus, also wrote observations on Cicero, 1566.
+
+Feer (Henri Léon), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 Nov. 1830, is
+chiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies, 1871-75.
+
+Fellens (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b. Bar-sur-Aube,
+1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.
+
+Fellowes (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at Oxford. He
+took orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually quitted the
+doctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions maintained in
+his work entitled The Religion of the Universe (1836). Dr. Fellowes
+was proprietor of the Examiner and a great supporter of the London
+University. Died 5 Feb. 1847.
+
+Fenzi (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. 1822. Educated
+by the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in '49 the Revista
+Britannica, writer on the journal L'Italiano, and has written a credo
+which is a non-credo.
+
+Feringa (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, 1840. Studied
+mathematics. A contributor to De Dageraad (The Daybreak) over the
+signature, "Muricatus"; he has written important studies, entitled
+Democratie en Wetenschap (Democracy and Science), 1871, also wrote
+in De Vrije Gedachte (Freethought).
+
+Fernau (Rudolf), Dr., German author of Christianity and Practical
+Life, Leipsic, 1868; The Alpha and Omega of Reason, Leipsic, 1870;
+Zoologica Humoristica, 1882; and a recent work on Religion as Ghost
+and God Worship.
+
+Feron (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. Councillor
+of the International Freethought Federation.
+
+Ferrari (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, 1811. A
+disciple of Romagnosi, a study of whose philosophical writings he
+published '35. He also published the works of Vico, and in '39 a work
+entitled Vico and Italy, and in the following year another on the
+Religious Opinions of Campanella. Attacked by the Catholic party,
+he was exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with
+Proudhon and a contributor to the Revue de Deux Mondes. In '42 he
+was made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but appointment was
+soon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a History of the
+Revolution of Italy, '55, and a work on China and Europe. His history
+of the Reason of the State, '60, is his most pronounced work. In '59,
+he was elected to the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of
+the most radical members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.
+
+Ferri (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly professor
+of criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua under
+Professor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence of
+Free Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian
+school of criminal law reform.
+
+Ferri (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. Studied
+in Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of History
+of Philosophy in Italy, Paris 1868; The Psychology of Pomponazzi, etc.
+
+Ferrière (Emile), French writer and licentiate of letters, b. Paris,
+1830; author of Literature and Philosophy, 1865; Darwinism, 1872,
+which has gone through several editions; The Apostles, a work
+challenging early Christian Morality, 1879; The Soul the Function
+of the Brain, a scientific work of popular character in two vols.,
+1883; and Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity,
+1884. All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferrière has
+also announced a work Jesus bar Joseph.
+
+Feuerbach (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a famous German jurist, was
+b. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied philology, but set himself to
+preach what his brother Ludwig taught. He wrote Theanthropos, a series
+of Aphorisms (Zurich, '38), and an able work on the Religion of the
+Future, '43-47; and Thoughts and Facts, Hamburg, '62. Died Nurenberg,
+24 Jan. 1880.
+
+Feuerbach (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the preceding, b. Landshut,
+Bavaria, 28 July 1804. He studied theology with a view to the Church,
+but under the influence of Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In '28
+he was made professor at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence
+of his first published work, Thoughts upon Death and Immortality,
+'30, in which he limited immortality to personal influence on the
+human race. After a wandering life he married in '37, and settled
+near Anspach. He published there a history of modern philosophy from
+Bacon to Spinoza. This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In '38
+he wrote on philosophy and Christianity, and in '41 his work called
+the The Essence of Christianity, in which he resolves theology
+into anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans,
+'53. He also wrote Principles of the Philosophy of the Future. After
+the revolution of '48 he was invited to lecture by the students of
+Heidelberg, and gave his course on The Essence of Religion, published
+in '51. In '57 he published Theogony from the Sources of Classical,
+Hebrew, and Christian Antiquity, and in '66 Theism, Freedom, and
+Immortality from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Died at Rechenberg,
+near Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872. His complete works were published at
+Leipsic in 1876. He was a deep thinker and lucid writer.
+
+Fichte (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German thinkers,
+b. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, Leipsic,
+and Wittenberg, embraced "determinism," became acquainted with Kant,
+and published anonymously, A Criticism of all Revelation. He obtained
+a chair of philosophy at Jena, where he developed his doctrines
+of science, asserting that the problem of philosophy is to seek
+on what foundations knowledge rests. He gave moral discourses in
+the lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of holding atheistical
+opinions. He was in consequence banished from Saxony, 1799. He appears
+to have held that God was not a personal being, but a system of
+intellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte took deep interest in
+the cause of German independence, and did much to rouse his countrymen
+against the domination of the French during the conquest which led to
+the fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications, in which he expounds
+his philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on The Vocation of Man,
+The Nature and Vocation of the Scholar, The Way Towards the Blessed
+Life, etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.
+
+"Figaro." See Larra (Mariano José de).
+
+Figuiera (Guillem), Provençal troubadour and precursor of the
+Renaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed against
+the priests and Court of Rome.
+
+Filangieri (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. Naples,
+18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work is
+La Scienza della Legislazione, 1780. In the fifth volume he deals
+with pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the Index. Died 21
+July, 1788.
+
+Fiorentino (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, Nicastro,
+1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at Spoletto,
+in '62 at Bologna, and in '71 at Naples. He was elected deputy
+to Parliament, Nov. '70. A disciple of Felice Tocco, he paid
+special attention to the early Italian Freethinkers, writing upon
+The Pantheism of Giordano Bruno, Naples, '61; Pietro Pomponazzi,
+Florence, '68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 vols., '72-74. He
+has also written on Strauss and Spinoza. In the Nuova Antologia he
+wrote on J. C. Vanini, and on Cæsalpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A
+friend of Bertrando Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in
+'83. Died 22 Dec. 1884.
+
+Fischart (Johann), German satirist called Mentzer, b. Strasbourg about
+1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of Rabelais, whom he
+in part translated, and are often directed against the Church. Died
+at Forbach in 1614.
+
+Fischer (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the freedom of
+the will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious,
+'72; Das Bewusstsein, '74. Died 1888.
+
+Fischer (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at Sandewald,
+Silesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was appointed
+Professor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are History of Modern
+Philosophy, '52-72; Life and Character of Spinoza; Francis Bacon,
+'56; and Lessing, '81.
+
+Fiske (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 March,
+1842. Graduated at Harvard, '63. In '69-71 was Lecturer on Philosophy
+at that University, and from '72-9 Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured
+largely, and has written Myths and Mythmakers, '72; Outlines of
+Cosmic Philosophy, 2 vols. '74; Darwinism, and other essays, '79;
+Excursions of an Evolutionist, '83; The Idea of God as Affected by
+Modern Knowledge, '85.
+
+Flaubert (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. The son
+of a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father's profession for
+literature. His masterpiece, Madame Bovary, published in '56 in the
+Revue de Paris, drew a prosecution upon that journal which ended
+in a triumph for the author. For his next great work, Salammbô,
+'62, an epic of Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian
+studies. His intellectual tendencies are displayed in The Temptation
+of Saint Anthony. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for
+his artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Théophile Gautier, Ivan
+Turgenev, Emile Zola and "George Sand." His correspondence with the
+last of these has been published. He distinctly states therein that
+on subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died
+at Rouen, 9 May, 1880.
+
+Flourens (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near Béziers, 15
+April, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences,
+after having published a work on the nervous system of vertebrates;
+he became perpetual secretary in '33. A work on Human Longevity and
+the Quantity of Life on the Globe was very popular. Died near Paris,
+6 Dec. 1867.
+
+Flourens (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris,
+4 Aug. 1838. In '63 he took his father's chair at the College of
+France, and his course on "Ethnography" attracted much attention. In
+the following year he published his work on The Science of Man. His
+bold heresy lost him his chair, and he collaborated on Larousse's
+Grand Dictionnaire. In '65 he left France for Crete, where for three
+years he fought in the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon
+his return he was arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He
+showed himself an ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish
+near Nanterre, 3 April, 1871.
+
+Fonblanque (Albany William), English journalist, b. London, 1793;
+the son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the
+Times, and contributed to the Westminster Review. In '30 he became
+editor of the Examiner, and retained his post until '47. His caustic
+wit and literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal
+views. A selection of his editorials was published under the title,
+England under Seven Administrations. Died 13 Oct. 1872.
+
+Fontanier (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place
+de Grève, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled Le Tresor
+Inestimable. Garasse, with little reason, calls him an Atheist.
+
+Fontenelle (Bernard le Bovier de), nephew of Corneille, called
+by Voltaire the most universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV.,
+b. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657. Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard,
+he was educated at the Jesuits' College. He went to Paris in 1674;
+wrote some plays and Dialogues of the Dead, 1683. In 1686 appeared
+his Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, and in the following
+year his History of Oracles, based on the work of Van Dale, for which
+he was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the Church
+Fathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in 1699,
+a post he held forty-two years. He wrote Doubts on the Physical
+System of Occasional Causes, and is also credited with a letter
+on the Resurrection of the Body, a piece on The Infinite, and a
+Treatise on Liberty; "but," says l'Abbé Ladvocat, "as these books
+contain many things contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are
+not his." Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short
+time before he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain,
+"I only feel," he replied, "a difficulty of existing."
+
+Foote (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11
+Jan. 1850. Was "converted" in youth, but became a Freethinker by
+reading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868, and was soon a
+leading member of the Young Men's Secular Association. He taught in the
+Hall of Science Sunday School, and became secretary of the Republican
+League. Devoting his time to propagating his principles, he wrote
+in the Secular Chronicle and National Reformer, and in '76 started
+the Secularist in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after
+the ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the
+Secular Review. In '79 Mr. Foote edited the Liberal, and in Sept. '81,
+started the Freethinker, which he still edits. In the following year
+a prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who attempted
+to connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued a
+Christmas number with an illustrated "Comic Life of Christ." For
+this a prosecution was started by the City authorities against him
+and his publisher and printer, and the trial came on first in March,
+'83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North refused to discharge the
+prisoners, and they were tried again on the 5th March; Judge North
+directing that a verdict of guilty must be returned, and sentencing
+Mr. Foote to one year's imprisonment as an ordinary criminal subject
+to the same "discipline" as burglars. "I thank you, my lord; your
+sentence is worthy of your creed," he remarked. On 24 April, '83,
+Mr. Foote was brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special
+jury on the first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which
+he was highly complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has
+debated with Dr. McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard,
+the Rev. H. Chapman, and others. Mr. Foote has written much,
+and lectures continually. Among his works we mention Heroes and
+Martyrs of Freethought (1876); God, the Soul, and a Future State;
+Secularism the True Philosophy of Life (1879); Atheism and Morality;
+The Futility of Prayer; Bible Romances; Death's Test, afterwards
+enlarged into Infidel Death-Beds; The God Christians Swear by; Was
+Jesus Insane? Blasphemy No Crime; Arrows of Freethought; Prisoner
+for Blasphemy (1884); Letters to Jesus Christ; What Was Christ? Bible
+Heroes; and has edited The Bible Hand-book with Mr. W. P. Ball, and
+the Jewish Life of Christ with the present writer, in conjunction
+with whom he has written The Crimes of Christianity. From 1883-87
+he edited Progress, in which appeared many important articles from
+his pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London Secular Federation,
+and a Vice-President of the National Secular Society.
+
+Fouillee (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pouëze, near Angers,
+18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably at
+Bordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two
+works on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor
+of Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained
+a thesis at the Sorbonne on Liberty and Determinism, which was
+violently attacked by the Catholics. This work has gone through
+several editions. M. Fonillée has also written an able History of
+Philosophy, 1875, Contemporary Social Science, and an important
+Critique of Contemporary Moral Systems (1883). He has written much
+in the Revue des Deux Mondes, and is considered, with Taine, Ribot,
+and Renan, the principal representative of French philosophy. His
+system is known as that of idèes-forces, as he holds that ideas are
+themselves forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.
+
+Forberg (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, 30
+Aug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent
+at Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte's philosophy, he wrote with
+Fichte in Niethammer's Philosophical Journal on "The Development
+of Religious Ideas," and an article on "The Ground of our Faith in
+Divine Providence," which brought on them a charge of Atheism, and
+the journal was confiscated by the Electorate of Saxony. Forberg held
+religion to consist in devotion to morality, and wrote An Apology
+for Alleged Atheism, 1799. In 1807 he became librarian at Coburg,
+and devoted himself to the classics, issuing a Manuel d'Erotologie
+Classique. Died Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.
+
+Forder (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to Woolwich,
+he became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He took part
+in the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, and was
+sent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In '77 he
+was appointed paid secretary to the National Secular Society, a post
+he has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of Messrs. Foote,
+Ramsey, and Kemp, in '83, Mr. Forder undertook charge of the publishing
+business. He has lectured largely, and written some pamphlets.
+
+Forlong (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. Lanarkshire,
+Scotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the Indian
+army '43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign '45-6, and in the second
+Burmese war. On the annexation of Barma he became head of the Survey,
+Roads and canal branches. In '58-9 he travelled extensively through
+Egypt, Palestine, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From '61-71 was
+a superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, North-west
+Provinces, and Rajputana, and '72-76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer
+to the Government of Oudh. He retired in '77 after an active service of
+33 years, during which he frequently received the thanks of the Indian
+and Home Governments. In his youth he was an active Evangelical,
+preaching to the natives in their own tongues. He has, however,
+given his testimony that during his long experience he has known no
+one converted solely by force of reasoning or "Christian evidences." A
+great student of Eastern religions, archæology, and languages, he has
+written in various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied
+the result of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes
+called Rivers of Life, setting forth the evolution of all religions
+from their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised
+developments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the
+movements of thought from 10,000 B.C. to the present time.
+
+Fourier (François Marie Charles), French socialist, b. Besançon, 7
+April, 1772. He passed some of the early years of his life as a common
+soldier. His numerous works amid much that is visionary have valuable
+criticisms upon society, and suggestions for its amelioration. He
+believed in the transmigration of souls. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.
+
+Fox (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near Wrentham,
+Suffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he became
+a Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place, Finsbury,
+where he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books
+besides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of
+toleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He
+gradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete
+rejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent
+and able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained
+his seat until his retirement in '61. He was a prominent worker for
+Radicalism, contributing to the Westminster Review, Weekly Dispatch,
+and Daily News. For some years he edited the Monthly Repository. His
+works, which include spirited Lectures to the Working Classes, and a
+philosophical statement of Religions Ideas, were published in twelve
+volumes, '65-68. Died 3 June, 1864.
+
+"Franchi (Ausonio)," the pen name of Francesco Cristoforo Bonavino,
+Italian ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church
+and ordained priest in '44, the practice of the confessional made
+him sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to
+believe in its dogmas, '49. In '52 he published his principal work,
+entitled The Philosophy of the Italian Schools. The following year
+he published The Religion of the Nineteenth Century. He established
+La Razione (Reason) and Il Libero Pensiero at Turin, '54-57; wrote
+on the Rationalism of the People, Geneva, '56, and became an active
+organiser of anti-clerical societies. In '66 he published a criticism
+of Positivism, and has since written Critical and Polemical Essays,
+3 vols. Milan, '70-72. In '68 was appointed Professor of Philosophy
+in the Academy of Milan by Terenzio Mamiani.
+
+Francis (Samuel), M.D., author of Watson Refuted, published by
+Carlile, 1819.
+
+Francois de Neufchateau (Nicolas Louis), Count, French statesman,
+poet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his youth he
+became secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his successor. He
+favored the Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly
+in '91. As Member of the Directory, '97, he circulated d'Holbach's
+Contagion Sacrée. He became President of the Senate, '14-16. He wrote
+numerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan. 1828.
+
+Franklin (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. Boston 17
+Jan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came to
+England and worked at his trade '24-26; returned to Philadelphia,
+where he published a paper and became known by his Poor Richard's
+Almanack. He founded the public library at Philadelphia, and
+made the discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric
+fluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was sent to
+England as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he spoke
+boldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with this
+country, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to France,
+and effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. '78,
+which secured the independence of the American colonies. Turgot summed
+up his services in the fine line Eripuit cælo fulmen, sceptrumque
+tyrannis. "He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre
+from kings." Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.
+
+Fransham (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a teacher of
+mathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed Paganism,
+writing several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died 1810.
+
+Frauenstaedt (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and disciple
+of Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He studied
+philosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at
+Frankfort in '47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made
+him his literary executor. Among Frauenstädt's works are Letters on
+Natural Religion, '58, The Liberty of Men and the Personality of God,
+'38; Letters on the Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '54, etc. Died at
+Berlin, 13 Jan. 1879.
+
+Frederick II. (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the thirteenth
+century and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was elected
+to the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, founded
+the Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of Aristotle
+and Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able men of
+his time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was
+twice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope
+(Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in '28. He made a treaty
+with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of Jerusalem. For
+some heretical words in his letter, in which he associates the names
+of Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported author of the famous
+work De Tribus Impostoribus. He addressed a series of philosophical
+questions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is said to have called
+the Eucharist truffa ista, and is credited also with the saying
+"Ignorance is the mother of devotion." Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.
+
+Frederick the Great (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was educated in
+a very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He ascended
+the throne and soon displayed his political and military ability. By
+a war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several deistical
+pieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying "every man
+must get to heaven his own way." He attracted to his court men like
+Lamettrie, D'Argens, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle,
+continued all his days Friedrich's chief thinker. In 1756 France,
+Austria, Sweden, and Russia united against him, but he held his own
+against "a world in arms." After a most active life Frederick died
+at Potsdam, 17 Aug. 1786. The Philosophical Breviary attributed to
+him was really written by Cérutti.
+
+Fredin (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published
+translation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll's writings. In
+'80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish Academy for an original
+poem.
+
+Freeke (William), b. about 1663, wrote A Brief but Clear Confutation
+of the Trinity, which being brought before the notice of the House of
+Lords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman,
+and the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General was fined £500.
+
+Freiligrath (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, 1810. In
+'35 he acquired notice by some poems. In '44 he published his
+profession of faith Mein Glaubensbekenntniss, and was forced to
+fly the country. In '48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the
+Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London,
+devoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a
+high place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart,
+18 March 1876.
+
+Fréret (Nicolas), French historical critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a
+pupil of Rollin, and was patronised by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished
+by his attainments in ancient history, philosophy and chronology,
+he became member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse
+on the "Origin of the Franks," he was incarcerated for four months in
+the Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat
+much from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic
+Letters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe on Natural and Revealed Religion,
+and perhaps of La Moisade, a criticism of the Pentateuch, translated
+by D. I. Eaton, as A Preservative against Religious Prejudices. The
+Letters to Eugenie, attributed to Fréret, were written by D'Holbach,
+and the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian
+Religion by J. Levesque de Burigny. A Critical Examination of the New
+Testament, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been wrongly
+attributed to Fréret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.
+
+Frey (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist
+and philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general,
+1839. Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he
+became teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the
+oppression and degradation of his country he went to New York in
+1866 where he established co-operative communities and also Russian
+colonies in Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to
+influence his countrymen. In '87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.
+
+Fries (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23
+Aug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of
+the Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a System
+of Metaphysics, 1824; a Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and
+Philosophical Æsthetics, Heidelberg '32; in which he resolves religion
+into poetry. He criticised Kant's proofs of God and immortality,
+and wrote a History of Philosophy. Died Jena, 10 Aug. 1843.
+
+Frothingham (Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26
+Nov. 1822. Graduated at Harvard, '43, and became Unitarian minister. In
+'60 he became pastor of the most radical Unitarian congregation in
+New York. In '67 he became first president of the Free Religious
+Association, but, becoming too advanced, resigned in '79 and came
+to Europe. Since his return to Boston, '81, he has devoted himself
+to literature. He has published The Religion of Humanity, N.Y.,
+'73; Life of Theodore Parker, '74; The Cradle of the Christ, '77;
+Life of Gerrit Smith, 78; and numerous sermons.
+
+Froude (James Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son of an
+Archdeacon of Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818, and
+educated at Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in '40,
+was elected fellow of Exeter College and received deacon's orders. At
+first, under the influence of the Romanising movement, he became
+a rationalist and abandoned his fellowship and clerical life. His
+Nemesis of Faith, '48, showed the nature of his objections. Mr. Froude
+devoted his abilities to a literary career, and fell under the
+influence of Carlyle. For many years he edited Fraser's Magazine,
+in which he wrote largely. His essays are collected under the title
+of Short Studies on Great Subjects, '71-83. His largest work is the
+History of England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the
+Spanish Armada, '56-76. His Life of Carlyle, '82, and publication
+of Carlyle's Reminiscenses provoked much controversy. His magical
+translation of Lucian's most characteristic Dialogue of the Gods
+is done with too much verve to allow of the supposition that the
+translator is not in sympathy with his author.
+
+Fry (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he was
+elected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was
+declared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was
+called to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted
+for Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence
+was passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote The Accuser
+Shamed, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking against
+"that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the Godhead." He
+also wrote The Clergy in their Colors, 1650.
+
+Fuller (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b. Cambridgeport,
+Massachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In '40-42 she edited the Dial. She
+also published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, '44. Among friends
+she counted Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, and Mazzini. She visited
+Europe and married at Rome the Marquis D'Ossoli. Returning she was
+shipwrecked and drowned off the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.
+
+Furnemont (Léon), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 April,
+1861. Entered the school of Mines Liége in '76, and founded the Circle
+of Progressive Students. Became president of International Congress
+of Students, '84, and represented Young Belgium at the funeral of
+Victor Hugo. Radical candidate at the Brussels municipal elections,
+he obtained 3,500 votes, but was not elected. He is a Councillor
+of the International Federation of Freethinkers and director of a
+monthly journal, La Raison, 1889.
+
+Gabarro (Bartolomé) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, Barcelona,
+27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college with a view to
+taking the clerical habit, he refused and went to America. After
+travelling much, he established a day school in Barcelona and founded
+an Anti-clerical League of Freethinkers pledged to live without
+priests. This induced much clerical wrath, especially when Dr. Gabarro
+founded some 200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For
+denouncing the assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel,
+sentenced to four years' imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere
+on the frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal La
+Tronada. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an important
+work on Pius IX. and History.
+
+Gabelli (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, 1830. Author
+of The Religious Question in Italy, '64, Man and the Moral Sciences,
+'69, in which he rejects all metaphysics and supernaturalism, and
+Thoughts, 1886.
+
+Gage (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New
+York, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active
+abolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in '45 she
+married Henry H. Gage. From '52 till '61 she wrote and spoke against
+slavery. In '72 she was made President of the National Woman's
+Suffrage Association. She is joint author of The History of Woman
+Suffrage with Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton, and with them considers
+the Church the great obstacle to woman's progress.
+
+Gagern (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. Educated at
+Berlin, travelled in '47 to Paris where he became acquainted with
+Humboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in the Pyrenees;
+served in the Prussian army, became a friend of Wislicenus and the
+free-religious movement. In '52 he went to Mexico; here he had an
+appointment under General Miramon. In the French-Mexican expedition
+he was taken prisoner in '63; released in '65 he went to New York. He
+was afterwards military attaché for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought
+appears in his memoirs entitled Dead and Living, 1884, and in his
+volume Sword and Trowel, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.
+
+Gall (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 March, 1758. He
+practised as a physician in Vienna, devoting much time to the study of
+the brain, and began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he
+was prohibited from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught
+their system in various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.
+
+Galton (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in
+1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King's College,
+London, and graduated at Cambridge, '24. In '48 and '50 he travelled in
+Africa. He wrote a popular Art of Travel, and has distinguished himself
+by many writings bearing on heredity, of which we name Hereditary
+Genius, '69, English Men of Science, '70. In his Inquiries into Human
+Faculty and Developement, '83, he gives statistical refutation of the
+theory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the British Association
+from '63-68, President of the Geographical Section in '62 and '72,
+and of the Anthropological Section in '77 and '85. He is President
+of the Anthropological Institute.
+
+Gambetta (Léon Michel), French orator and statesman, b. Cahors, 30
+Oct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished him to become
+one. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study for the
+law. In '59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of Delescluze
+(14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, made
+him famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, he
+became the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he proclaimed
+the Republic and organised the national defences, leaving Paris, then
+invested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he invigorated every
+department, and was the inspiration of the few successes won by the
+French. Gambetta preserved the Republic against all machinations,
+and compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the alternatives,
+"Se soumettre ou se demettre." He founded the Republique Française,
+and became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was a professed
+disciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open opponent of
+clericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were Freethinkers. Died
+31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of the largest
+gatherings ever witnessed.
+
+Gambon (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 March,
+1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the Journal des
+Ecoles. In '48 he was elected representative. The Empire drove him
+into exile, he returned at amnesty of '59. In '69 he refused to pay
+taxes. In '71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the last
+defenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in '82. Formed
+a League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. 1887.
+
+Garat (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator and
+writer, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of
+d'Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the
+Assembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As
+minister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He
+afterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,
+and president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.
+
+Garborg (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. Brought
+up as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the University of
+Christiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper Fedraheimen, written in
+the dialect of the peasantry. Held an appointment for some years
+in the Government Audit Office. In '81 he published a powerfully
+written tale, A Freethinker, which created a deal of attention. Since
+he has published Peasant Students, Tales and Legends, Youth, Men,
+etc. He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on
+the Norwegian press.
+
+Garcia-Vao (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and miscellaneous
+writer, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of Cardinal
+Cisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards studied
+at the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing several
+papers, he attached himself to the staff of Las Dominicales del Libre
+Pensiamento. Among his numerous works are a volume of poems, Echoes
+of a Free Mind, Love and the Monks, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman
+philosophy, etc. This promising student was stabbed in the back at
+Madrid, 18 December, 1886.
+
+Garde (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four little
+blasphemous books at Paris in 1537.
+
+Garibaldi (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4
+July, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a
+priest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a sailor's life. A trip to
+Rome made him long to free his country. He joined Mazzini's movement,
+"Young Italy," and being implicated in the Genoese revolt of '33,
+he fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he learnt he was
+sentenced to death. He went to South America and fought on behalf of
+the republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his beautiful and
+brave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures. Returning to
+Italy he fought against the Austrians in '48, and next year was the
+soul of resistance to the French troops, who came to restore Papal
+authority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he escaped
+with difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working for
+an Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In '54 he returned
+and bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In '59 he again fought the
+Austrians, and in May, '60, landed at Marsala, Sicily, took Palermo,
+and drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a Republican he saluted
+Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the cessation of Nice to
+France, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by Victor Emanuel's
+troops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he wrote his Rule
+of the Monk, a work exhibiting his love of liberty and hatred of
+the priesthood. In '64 he visited England, and was enthusiastically
+received. In '67 he again took part in an attempt to free Rome from
+the Papal government. In '71 he placed his sword at the service of
+the French Republic, and the only standard taken from the Germans was
+captured by his men. Elected Member of the Italian Parliament in his
+later years he did much to improve the city of Rome. In one of his
+laconic letters of '80, he says "Dear Friend,--Man has created God,
+not God man,--Yours ever, Garibaldi." He died 2 June, '82, and directed
+in his will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.
+
+Garrison (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet on The
+Absence of Design in Nature, 1876.
+
+Garth (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. Yorkshire,
+1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish dispensaries,
+and lashed the opposition in his poem The Dispensary. He was made
+physician to King George I. Died 18 June 1719.
+
+Gaston (H.), French author of a brochure with the title Dieu, voila,
+l'ennemi, God the enemy, 1882.
+
+Gattina (F. P. della). See Petruccelli.
+
+Gautama (called also Gotama, Buddha, and Sakyamuni), great Hindu
+reformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 B.C. Many
+legends are told of his birth and life. He is said to have been a
+prince, who, pained with human misery, left his home to dedicate
+himself to emancipation. His system was rather a moral discipline
+than a religion. Though he did not deny the Hindu gods he asserted
+that all beings were subject to "Karma," the result of previous
+actions. He said, "If a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the
+forest, and if he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul
+is grounded in true knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice
+for a hundred years." According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha
+died at Kusinagara, B.C. 543.
+
+Gautier (Théophile), exquisite French poet and prose writer, b. Tarbes,
+31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against priestcraft or
+superstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is Pagan. His
+romanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with "sacred themes"
+as well as conventional morality. Baudelaire called him an impeccable
+master of French literature, and Balzac said that of the two men who
+could write French, one was Théophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.
+
+Geijer (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and critic,
+b. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the Swedish
+Academy's first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a Conservative
+in religious, philosophical, and political matters he became through
+his historical researches an ardent adherent of the principles of the
+French revolution. His historical work and indictment against "The
+Protestant creed" was published in 1820 in a philosophical treatise,
+Thorild, which was prosecuted. His acquittal by an enlightened jury
+stayed religious prosecutions in Sweden for over sixty years. He
+died 23 April 1847. A monument was erected to him last year at the
+University of Upsala, where he was professor of history. His works
+have been republished.
+
+Geijerstam (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the
+Freethinking group of Young Sweden.
+
+Geismar (Martin von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of
+the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some of the works
+of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846-7. He also added pamphlets
+entitled Germany in the Eighteenth Century.
+
+Gellion-Danglar (Eugène), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became
+Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, was
+made sous préfect of Compiègne, '71, wrote History of the Revolution
+of 1830, and A Study of the Semites, '82.
+
+Gemistos (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan
+learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost
+his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court
+at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Palælogus in 1438,
+where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by
+which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of
+the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused
+him of Paganism. Died 1450.
+
+Genard (François), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote
+an irreligious work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age,
+with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in
+the Bastille, where it is believed he finished his days.
+
+Gendre (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15
+Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a
+gold medal. By reading the works of Büchner, Buckle, and Darwin
+she became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed
+to the Revue Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the
+Nouvelle Revue, etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under
+the title Etudes Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by
+Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.
+
+Gener (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member
+of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution
+of ideas entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, '80. This able work is
+dedicated to Renan and has a preface by Littré. The author has since
+translated it into Spanish.
+
+Genestet (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam,
+21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant
+minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal,
+2 July, 1861.
+
+Genin (François), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He
+became one of the editors of the National, of Paris, about '37, and
+wrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works
+on The Jesuits and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In
+'45 the French Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language
+of Molière. He edited Diderot, '47, and is known for his researches
+into the origin of the French language and literature. Died Paris,
+20 Dec. 1856.
+
+Genovesi (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1
+Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his
+substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself
+many attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is
+his Italian Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.
+
+Gensonne (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the
+Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the
+struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonné was one of the most active and
+eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues
+31 Oct. 1793.
+
+Gentilis (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples,
+about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558
+he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of
+sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,
+where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his
+innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland,
+where he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial
+he was condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne,
+26 (?) Sept. 1566. Ladvocat says "He died very impiously, saying he
+thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father,
+whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of
+the Son."
+
+Geoffrin (Marie Therèse, neé Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a
+patroness of learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She
+was a friend of Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot,
+and the encyclopædists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at
+Paris, 6 Oct. 1777.
+
+Gerhard (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at
+an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy,
+and Switzerland, and in '61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De
+Dageraad, and was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July,
+1886.
+
+Gerhard (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April,
+1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of
+De Dageraad.
+
+Germond (J. B. L.), editor of Marèchal's Dictionnaire des Athées,
+Brussels, 1833.
+
+Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.
+
+Ghillany (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18
+April, 1807. In '35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His
+principal work is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg,
+'42. He also wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first
+four centuries. Under the pseudonym of "Richard von der Alm" he wrote
+Theological Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of
+the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries
+upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.
+
+Giannone (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May,
+1676. He devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples,
+in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled
+to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was
+removed on his avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria
+and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone
+was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He
+found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed
+into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia,
+and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.
+
+Gibbon (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney,
+27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a
+Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting
+the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing
+the Decline and Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the
+appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application,
+his investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and
+political activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental
+work, bridging the old world and the new, is an historic exposure
+of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to
+Parliament in '74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy,
+in London, 16 Jan. 1794.
+
+Gibson (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May,
+1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought
+her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil
+War she organised Ladies' Soldiers' Aid Societies, and was elected
+chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln
+endorsed the appointment, which was questioned. She has written
+anonymously Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the
+Truthseeker, Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own
+signature and that of "Lilian."
+
+Giessenburg (Rudolf Charles d'Ablaing van), one of the most notable of
+Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever
+in youth, in '47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a
+bookseller under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and Günst,
+he started de Dageraad, and from '56-68 was one of the contributors,
+usually under his name "Rudolf Charles." He is a man of great
+erudition, has written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of
+Freethought); de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary
+in the Field of Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal
+of Inquiry); Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity);
+Curiositeiten van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has
+also published the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch
+and Brooksbank's work on Revelation. He was the first who published
+a complete edition of the famous Testament du Curé Jean Meslier in
+three parts ('64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other
+writers, and also Curieuse Gebruiken.
+
+Gilbert (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had
+printed at Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle
+des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du
+Christianisme. The book has neither the name of author or printer. It
+was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought
+in 1784 by the Duc de La Vallière for 120 livres. It was in form of a
+dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert
+married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.
+
+Gill (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University
+of that city. In '83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution
+of Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before
+Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his
+name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on
+the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop
+Laurence's Book of Enoch, 1883.
+
+Giles (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26
+Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he
+graduated B.A. as a double first-class in '28. He was appointed
+head-master of the City of London School, which post he left for
+the Church. The author of over 150 volumes of educational works,
+including the Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed
+Freethinker, intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on
+theology show his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850,
+Christian Records 1854. These two were published together in amended
+form in 1877. He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852,
+Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and
+Apostolic Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.
+
+Ginguene (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April,
+1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a
+teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais,
+and collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French
+Revolution. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the
+fall of Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His
+principal work is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11
+Nov. 1816.
+
+Gilliland (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little
+work on The Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.
+
+Gioja (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20
+Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a
+bureau of statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo
+he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and
+Rewards and The Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.
+
+Girard (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France,
+24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760;
+rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle
+in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest
+merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole
+of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels
+after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire,
+Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public improvements
+and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests to
+Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a college
+for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister
+of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or
+even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the
+institution are required to instruct the pupils in secular morality
+and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has
+been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.
+
+Glain (D. de Saint). See Saint Glain.
+
+Glennie (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and
+writer, author of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and
+transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter
+of which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and
+Osiris. He has also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion
+in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle,
+1875.
+
+Glisson (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham,
+Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there
+appointed Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He
+discovered Glisson's capsule in the liver, and was the first to
+attribute irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura
+substantiæ energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in
+considering matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account
+for the operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey,
+and Boerhaave called him "the most accurate of all anatomists that
+ever lived." Died in 1677.
+
+Godwin (Mary). See Wollstonecraft.
+
+Godwin (William), English historian, political writer and novelist,
+b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting
+minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton
+College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making
+the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his
+views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection
+of the supernatural. In '93 he published his republican work on
+Political Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful
+novel of Caleb Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, '96; wrote,
+in addition to several novels and educational works, On Population,
+in answer to Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, '24-28;
+Thoughts on Man, '31; Lives of the Necromancers, '34. Some Freethought
+essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius
+of Christianity Unveiled, were first published in '73. They comprise
+papers on such subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles,
+and character of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian
+religion. Died 7 April, 1836.
+
+Goethe (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany's greatest poet,
+b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his
+seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his
+mind with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several
+languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic
+University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed
+his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771,
+and in the same year composed his drama "Goetz von Berlichingen." He
+went to Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at
+once made him famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of
+Saxe-Weimar and loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy
+of distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and
+his own dramas, of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work
+is Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He
+declared himself "decidedly non-Christian," and said his objects of
+hate were "the cross and bugs." He was averse to abstractions and
+refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy
+he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular
+creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: "You look upon the gospel as
+it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not
+convince me that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives
+without a man, and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is
+more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of
+ancient and modern inspired men are equally beautiful." Goethe was
+opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits "stood in opposition
+to Christianity not merely on points of theological form, but to
+a certain extent on points of substance too." Goethe devoted much
+attention to science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis
+of plants on evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.
+
+Goldstuecker (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a
+Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn
+under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing
+himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and
+assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A
+democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of '49 and came
+to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his
+Sanskrit-English Dictionary. He contributed important articles on
+Indian literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athenæum
+and Chambers' Encyclopædia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.
+
+Goldziher (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg,
+1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is
+author of Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated
+by Russell Martineau, '77, and has written many studies on Semitic
+theology and literature.
+
+Gordon (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells,
+Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he
+supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished
+himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which
+recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and
+with whom he published Cato's Letters and a periodical entitled The
+Independent Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard's
+death, marrying that writer's widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and
+translated from Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All
+Ages. He also translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died
+28 July, 1750, leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial
+for Low Spirits and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.
+
+Gorlæus (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end
+of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account
+of his speculations in a work published after his death entitled
+Exercitationes Philosophicæ, Leyden 1620.
+
+Govea or Gouvea [Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet,
+b. 1505, studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal
+writings. Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers,
+as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin,
+5 March, 1565.
+
+Gratiolet (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July
+1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the
+brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.
+
+Graves (Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865,
+and The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue,
+but little value.
+
+Gray (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co.,
+New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote
+Elements of Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard,
+and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an
+Examination of Darwin's Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of
+Smithsonian Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge,
+Mass., 30 Jan. 1888.
+
+Green (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the
+Freethinker's Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.
+
+Greg (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated
+at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic studies
+and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester
+Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League,
+and author of one of its prize essays. In '40 he wrote on Efforts for
+the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In '50 he published his
+Creed of Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in
+1872 his Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in
+his life. He published also Essays on Political and Social Science,
+and was a regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works
+exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at
+Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.
+
+Grenier (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord,
+1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free will,
+'68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans,
+imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of
+Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.
+
+"Grile (Dod)," pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who
+wrote on the San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and
+Fiend's Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and
+published Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.
+
+Grimm (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in
+French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted
+with D'Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but
+afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans,
+and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary
+bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. In
+1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,
+and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia
+her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is
+chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published
+in seventeen vols. 1812-1813.
+
+Gringore (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised
+the pope and clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.
+
+Grisebach (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied
+law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at
+Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of
+which the best known is The New Tanhäuser, first published anonymously
+in '69, and followed by Tanhäuser in Rome, '75. Has also translated
+Kin Ku Ki Kuan, Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose
+bibliography he has compiled, 1888.
+
+Grote (George), the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent,
+17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for
+the employment of a banker and was put to business at the age of
+sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and became
+a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he
+married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in '22 his Analysis of
+the Influence of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under
+the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster
+Review. In '33 he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London
+and retained his seat till '41. He was chiefly known in Parliament
+for his advocacy of the ballot. In '46-'56 he published his famous
+History of Greece, which cost him the best years of his life; this was
+followed by Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review
+of J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,
+'61, showed he retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He
+died 18 June '71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Grote (Harriet) nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his
+opinions and wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.
+
+Gruen (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, Lüdenschied, Westphalia,
+studied at Bonn and Berlin. In '44 he came to Paris, was a friend
+to Proudhon and translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in
+'49 and condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till '62, when he was
+made professor at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the
+College of Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening
+News and he wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, '44, and Feuerbach,
+'71. A Culture History of the 16th-17th Centuries, and The Philosophy
+of the Present, '76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.
+
+Gruet (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for
+blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death
+papers were found in his possession directed against religion. They
+were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.
+
+Gruyer (Louis Auguste Jean François-Philippe), Belgian philosopher,
+b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy,
+1828, Tablettès Philosophiques, '42. Principles of Physical
+Philosophy, '45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter
+was eternal. Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.
+
+Guadet (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde),
+20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in
+'81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was
+elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins
+contributed to the destruction of his party, after which he took
+refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.
+
+Gubernatis (Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.
+
+Guépin (Ange), French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became
+M.D. in '28. After the revolution of July, '30, Dr. Guépin was made
+Professor at the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first
+scientific and philosophical congress, held there in '33. In '48 he
+became Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in '50 was deprived
+of his situation. In '54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth
+Century. After the fall of the Empire, M. Guépin became Prefet of La
+Loire Inférieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes,
+21 May, 1873, and was buried without any religious ceremony.
+
+Gueroult (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29
+Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote
+to the Journal des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and
+founded l'Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in '63,
+when he advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy,
+21 July, 1872.
+
+Guerra Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a
+poem on The Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of
+Jehovah, an assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of
+Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.
+
+Guerrini (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated
+at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine
+poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova
+Polemica he declares "Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio" ("First
+of all I say do not believe in God.")
+
+Gueudeville (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a
+Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness
+of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped
+to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature
+and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la
+Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels
+of La Hontan, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter
+criticism of Christian usages. He translated Erasmus's Praise of Folly
+(1713), More's Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and
+Vanity of Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.
+
+Guichard (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became
+Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He
+was exiled in '52, but again elected in '71. His principal work is
+La Liberté de Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris,
+11th Nov. 1884.
+
+Guild (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In '35 he became
+a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became turned
+Universalist. In '44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference,
+which went through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con,
+in which he gives the arguments for and against Christianity.
+
+Guirlando (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice
+for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.
+
+Gundling (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher,
+b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy
+of Morals, 1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German
+eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived
+all ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.
+
+Gunning (William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg,
+Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life
+History of our Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open
+Court. Died Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.
+
+Günst (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam,
+19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied
+at Berne, where he was promoted '47. Returning to Holland he became
+bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of
+the City Theatre. Günst contributed to many periodicals, and became
+a friend of Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of
+the Dutch Freethinkers, which he edited from '55 to '67. He usually
+contributed under pseudonyms as "Mephistho" or ([therefore]). He was
+for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,
+"Post Nubila Lux," and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of
+the Freemasons. He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken
+(Holy Water for the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche
+Inquisitie (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, '63); and Heidenen
+en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits,
+a comparison of their morals, '67). In his life and conversation he
+was frater gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.
+
+Guyau (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the
+age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian
+morality. In the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy
+at the Condorcet lycée at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of
+work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself
+with literature. His principal works are La Morale d'Epicure (the
+morality of Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878,
+La Morale Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), '79,
+crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,
+'81. Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of
+morality without obligation or sanction,) '84, and L'Irreligion de
+l'Avenir (the Irreligion of the Future) '87. M. Guyau was a follower of
+M. Fouillée, but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and
+originality. A chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone,
+31 March, 1888.
+
+Guyot (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote
+with Sigismond Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity,
+'73, and a work on morality in the Bibliothèque Matérialiste. Elected
+on the Municipal Council of Paris '74-78, he has since been a deputy
+to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has written
+the Principles of Social Economy, '84, and many works on that topic;
+has edited Diderot's La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l'homme
+and le Bien public.
+
+Gwynne (George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National
+Reformer, under the pen-name of "Aliquis." His reply to J. H. Newman's
+Grammar of Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by
+pen and purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.
+
+Gyllenborg (Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was
+one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor
+of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc.,
+among which may be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were
+Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.
+
+Haeckel (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam,
+16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at Würzburg, Berlin,
+and Vienna. In '59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples,
+and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between
+'66 and '75 he travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt,
+and later he visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account
+of his travels. He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his
+Natural History of Creation, '68, having gone through many editions,
+and been translated into English '76, as have also his Evolution
+of Man, 2 vols. '79, and Pedigree of Man, '83. Besides numerous
+monographs and an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel
+has published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on
+Freedom in Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by
+Professor Huxley, '79.
+
+Hagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year
+1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they
+received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen,
+and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby,
+where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also
+deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.
+
+Halley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime
+as "the Infidel Mathematician," b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656;
+educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets
+and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena
+where he prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, '79. He also
+found how to take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of
+Mercury or Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later
+he made observation on "Halley's comet," and in '83 published his
+theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir
+Isaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he
+commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he
+was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He
+then undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz:
+to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He
+lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who
+conceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in
+his Biographical Dictionary says, "It must be deeply regretted that
+he cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought
+it not beneath them to be Christians."
+
+Hammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.
+
+Hamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright,
+of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding
+"that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly,
+a human invention, a mere fable." He had previously been set in the
+pillory and had both his ears cut off.
+
+Hannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some
+time editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical
+Theology, '46; Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of Philosophical
+Studies, '72; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life
+by sensibility.
+
+Hanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia,
+b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in
+London, and wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took
+part in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he
+became Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief
+Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865,
+The Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters
+to and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by
+C.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.
+
+Hardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke,
+F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and
+in '86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent
+of the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school
+of Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific
+periodicals.
+
+Hardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26
+Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a
+member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the
+principal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for
+Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up
+a press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the
+publishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of
+Mr. Foote ('84), and Evolution and Creation ('87). He has contributed
+to the Agnostic Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain,
+Italy and Morocco ('89).
+
+Harriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied
+Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was
+noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says "He was a Deist." Died
+21 July 1621.
+
+Harrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831,
+educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He
+was called to the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor
+of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important
+articles in the high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning
+of History, Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other
+Literary Pieces, '86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte's Positive
+Polity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70,
+and of Newton Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine
+articles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters.
+
+Hartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist
+philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian
+army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the
+publication of his Philosophy of the Unconscious in '69, he became
+famous, though it was not translated into English until '84. He
+has since written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution
+of Christianity and The Religion of the Future, '75, The Crisis of
+Christianity in Modern Theology, '80, The Religious Consciousness of
+Mankind, '81, and Modern Problems, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned
+his attention to the philosophy of politics.
+
+Hartogh Heys van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer,
+b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden,
+and graduated doctor of law in '64 and doctor of natural philosophy in
+'66. In '66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a
+treatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time
+professor of chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at
+Delft, where he was made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled
+through Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the
+guest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of
+Man and Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations
+of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works
+of Ludwig Büchner and "Carus Sterne," from the German, and works from
+the French, besides writing several original essays on anthropology,
+natural history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely
+to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In '72 he visited the
+United States and the Pacific coast. Since '73 he has resided at
+Assen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could
+not take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of
+the Provincial Archæological Museum at Assen, and a member of the
+Dutch Literary Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India,
+and other scientific associations. For a long while he was a member
+of the Dutch Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became
+president. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works,
+such as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin
+of Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.
+
+Haslam (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April,
+1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a
+Socialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations,
+showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their
+doctrines, '38. This work went through several editions, and the
+publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to
+the Bishop of Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question
+whether or not the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who
+are the Infidels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since
+lived. In '85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.
+
+Hassell (Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years
+imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May,
+1824. He died in October 1826.
+
+Hattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a
+follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had
+several followers. Died 1706.
+
+Haureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the
+age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work
+on The Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced
+many important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy,
+'44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite
+Critical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50.
+
+Hauy (Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He
+devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the
+institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders
+of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till
+1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris
+18 March, 1822.
+
+Havet (Ernest August Eugène), French scholar and critic, b. Paris,
+11 April, 1813. In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature
+at the Normal School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence
+at the Collége de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de Jesus in
+the Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards
+published separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins,
+4 vols. 1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.
+
+Hawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about
+1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine and editor of
+the Adventurer. In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that
+author. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis,
+Carteret, and Cook for government, for which he received £6,000;
+but the work was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of
+Providence. His novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at
+Bromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773.
+
+Hawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the
+terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.
+
+Hebert (Jacques René), French revolutionist, b. Alençon 15 Nov. 1757,
+published the notorious Père Duchêsne, and with Chaumette instituted
+the Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined
+2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few
+days later.
+
+Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart,
+27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tübingen, but, becoming acquainted
+with Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopædia
+of the Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and
+two schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement
+of Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel
+said students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to
+have remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him,
+and he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg,
+and Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried
+beside Fichte.
+
+Heine (Heinrich), German poet and littérateur, b. of Jewish parents
+at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and
+Göttingen; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and
+Hegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and
+was baptised. The change was only formal. He satirised all forms
+of religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with
+favor and translated by himself into French. His other principal
+works are the Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany,
+The Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other
+poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris,
+where "the Voltaire of Germany" became more French than German. About
+1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed
+himself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After
+an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his
+"mattress grave," he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and
+most influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a
+Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the
+forces of reaction.
+
+Heinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician,
+b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn,
+and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne
+1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work
+on the Prussian Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to
+seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune
+and the Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but
+returned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again
+"the regicide" had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He
+wrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker),
+first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from
+'59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism,
+which appeared in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The
+Heroes of German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal,
+Six Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century,
+and What is Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.
+
+Hellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842,
+and in addition to many works on various countries has written an
+able Culture History, 1875.
+
+Helmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam
+31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics
+and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers
+in Europe. Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847),
+and Popular Scientific Lectures (1865-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects
+the design hypothesis.
+
+Helvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18
+Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a
+large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted
+by reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general
+to devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work
+On the Mind (De L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII,
+31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the
+hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said "he told
+everybody's secret." It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He
+also wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and
+Education. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest
+of Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, née Anne Catherine
+De Lingville, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her
+house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet,
+Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was
+known as the Société d'Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.
+
+Henault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century,
+son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to
+see Spinoza. Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three
+different systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet
+is on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.
+
+Henin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer,
+b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice,
+and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at
+Arcola, 26 Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
+1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of
+his Archives du Magnétisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of
+Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt
+in Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes
+committed in the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy
+of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.
+
+Hennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809,
+author of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity,
+first published in '38, a work which powerfully influenced "George
+Eliot," and a translation of which was introduced to German readers
+by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced "George Eliot"
+to translate Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian
+Theism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married
+at London in '39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.
+
+Herault de Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of
+noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and
+Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the
+Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made
+President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known
+as the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at
+the national festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmity
+of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins,
+5 April, 1794.
+
+Herbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was
+made professor of philosophy at Göttingen, and in 1808 became Kant's
+successor at Königsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously
+disposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was
+recalled to Göttingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.
+
+Herbert (Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery
+Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his
+travels. On his return he was made one of the king's counsellors,
+and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the
+Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself
+by romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in
+'31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of
+Parliament. His principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of
+which was to assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from
+revelation. He also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History
+of Henry VIII., etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.
+
+Hertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some
+years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three
+small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence
+in favour of State secularization.
+
+Hertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of
+the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at
+Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was
+arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished
+to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in '37. He was expelled
+from Russia in '42, visited Italy, joined the "Reds" at Paris in '48,
+took refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set
+up in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works
+prohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in
+large numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42;
+Letters on the Study of Nature, '45-46; Who's to Blame? '57; Memoirs
+of the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the
+magazine the Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son,
+Alessandro Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes,
+learnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, where
+he did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated
+Maudsley's Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis
+of human free will.
+
+Herwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31
+May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for
+Literature. His Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man)
+aroused attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop
+and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and
+Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.
+
+Hetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho,
+London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic
+of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He
+also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which
+was the germ both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He
+resisted the "taxes upon knowledge" by issuing unstamped The Poor Man's
+Guardian, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to
+"law," to try the power of "might" against "right," '31-35. For this
+he twice suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards
+published The Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing
+the taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence
+of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40,
+he was tried for "blasphemous libel" for publishing Haslam's Letters
+to the Clergy, and received four month's imprisonment. Hetherington
+published A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought
+works. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He
+died 24 Aug. 1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.
+
+Hetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland;
+was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of
+the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance
+on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.
+
+Heusden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several
+works, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer,
+etc.
+
+Hibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the
+imprisonment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his
+publications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had
+received a gift of £1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner
+should not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same
+amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly £1,000 in fitting up Carlile's
+shop in Fleet Street. He contributed "Theological Dialogues" to the
+Republican, and also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
+set up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns,
+'27, and also Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which
+he wrote a life of Plutarch and appended valuable essays "on the
+supposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar"; "various definitions
+of an important word" [God], and a catalogue of the principal
+modern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary
+of Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British
+Freethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James
+Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left £500 each. Died
+December 1834.
+
+Hedin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the "Andra Kammaren" [House
+of Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical
+candidate, '61. Edited the Aftonbladet, '74-76. Has written many
+radical works.
+
+Higgins (Godfrey), English archæologist, b. Skellow Grange, near
+Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar,
+but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's
+property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he
+reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was
+entitled Horæ Sabbaticæ, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In
+'29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and
+Celtic Druids, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure
+of priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the
+origin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily
+for about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,
+under the title of "Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of
+the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations,
+and Religions."
+
+Hillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at
+Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor
+at Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany,
+Karl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to
+France. He taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary
+to Heine. On the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a
+naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During
+the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was
+taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he
+translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to
+the Fortnightly Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes,
+North American Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the
+French in the second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence,
+18 Oct. 1884.
+
+Hins (Eugène), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal
+Athenæum, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the
+International, he edited L'Internationale, in which he laid stress
+on anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberté, and was
+one of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and
+La Libre-pensée of Brussels. He has written La Russie dé voilée au
+moyen de sa littérature populaire, 1883, and other works.
+
+Hippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen,
+Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law,
+and became in 1780 burgomaster of Königsberg. His writings, which were
+published anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg,
+23 April, 1796.
+
+Hittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences
+against Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for
+Pantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California,
+a History of San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York,
+1875), and St. Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883).
+
+Hoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July,
+1836. He studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar,
+and in '51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He
+afterwards resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one
+of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in
+the public schools.
+
+Hobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,
+1588. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,
+with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the
+acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650
+appeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following
+year his famous Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension,
+but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness,
+passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter
+years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire,
+Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.
+
+Hodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's
+System of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two
+years for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison
+he wrote The Commonwealth of Reason.
+
+Hoelderlin (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet,
+b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at
+Tübingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a
+fine romance (1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of
+thought. Died Tübingen, 7 June, 1843.
+
+Hoijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi,
+Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University '83,
+and teacher of philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his
+liberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he
+contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor
+of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.
+
+Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim
+Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich
+and generous he was the patron of the Encyclopædists. Buffon, Diderot,
+d'Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac,
+and other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin,
+and Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the
+German several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English,
+Mark Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many
+articles to the Encyclopédie. In 1765 he visited England, and from
+this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put
+out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam
+Christianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the
+Clergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was
+partly rewritten by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural
+History of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard
+and Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the
+French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published
+The History of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ,
+Letters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed
+to Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais],
+Religious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from
+the English. He also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland,
+and Collins's Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a
+work with the title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly
+conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the
+secret of their authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach
+escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The
+System of Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This
+text-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted
+by Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made
+a great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary
+under the title of Good Sense, attributed to the curé Meslier. In
+1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last
+important work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded
+upon Nature. D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to
+by many, was depicted in Rousseau's Nouvelle Héloise as the benevolent
+Atheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789.
+
+Holcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively
+a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies
+"Duplicity," 1781, and "The Road to Ruin," 1792, were very
+successful. He translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the
+Great, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he
+was indicted for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794,
+but was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.
+
+Holland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836,
+graduated at Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister
+at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has
+since written in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His
+principal work is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.
+
+Hollick (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was
+educated at the Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of
+the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion
+with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on "What is Christianity?" On
+the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works
+popularising medical science have had a large circulation.
+
+Hollis (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious
+Reasons for Scepticism, 1796; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed
+Religion, 1799; and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks
+26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an opulent dissenting family, was
+distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom,
+and by his beneficence.
+
+Holmes (William Vamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up
+from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced
+to two years' imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous
+and seditious libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain,
+and when in prison was told that "if hard labor was not expressed in
+his sentence, it was implied." On his release Holmes went to Sheffield
+and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.
+
+Holwell (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black
+Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon,
+went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah
+Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the
+"Black Hole," 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He
+succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England
+he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special
+providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to
+the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.
+
+Holyoake (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27
+Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of
+Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the
+abolition of the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk and danger had
+to be met--and he co-operated with his brother in the production of
+the Reasoner and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after
+this he printed and sub-edited the National Reformer, in which
+many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may
+be mentioned Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,
+Thoughts on Atheism, the Book of Esther, and Daniel the Dreamer. He
+also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride
+in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting
+its welfare. His amiable spirit endeared him to all who knew him. He
+died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed,
+in which he repudiated all belief in theology.
+
+Holyoake (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became
+mathematical teacher of the Mechanics' Institution. Influenced by Combe
+and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in '40 a Socialist missionary. In
+'42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in the Oracle of Reason,
+Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wrote The Spirit of
+Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech
+at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put
+the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. '42, he was sentenced to six months
+imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in his Last Trial by
+Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. '43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall
+the Movement, bearing the motto from Bentham, "Maximise morals,
+minimise religion." The same policy was pursued in The Reasoner,
+which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must
+notice the Logic of Death, '50, which went through numerous editions,
+and was included in his most important Freethought work, The Trial
+of Theism. In '49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In
+'51 he first used the term "Secularist," and in Oct. '52 the first
+Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In
+Jan. '53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,
+and again in Oct. '54. He purchased the business of James Watson,
+and issued many Freethought works, notably The Library of Reason--a
+series, The Cabinet of Reason, his own Secularism, The Philosophy of
+the People, etc. In '60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out
+to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge,
+and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a
+history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.
+
+Home (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was
+made known by his publication of Remarkable Decisions of the Court of
+Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He
+published Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion
+(1751), Elements of Criticism (1762), and Sketches of the History
+of Man, in which he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27
+Dec. 1782.
+
+Hon, Le (Henri). See Le Hon.
+
+Hooker (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He
+studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D '39. In '55 he
+became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from '65-85 sole
+director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of
+science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.
+
+Hope (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his
+anonymous Anastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an
+original work on The Origin and Prospects of Man '31. Died at London
+3 Feb. 1831.
+
+Houten (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837;
+he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In '69 he was
+chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on
+political economy. In '88 he wrote a book entitled Das Causalitätgesetz
+(The Law of Causality).
+
+Houston (George). Was the translator of d'Holbach's Ecce Homo, first
+published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph
+Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and
+was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards
+went to New York, where he edited the Minerva (1822). In Jan. 1827,
+he started The Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly
+Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He
+also republished Ecce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a
+"Free Press Association" and a Society of Free Inquirers.
+
+Hovelacque (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied
+law and made part of the groupe of la Pensée Nouvelle, with Asseline,
+Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca
+and published many articles in the Revue d'Anthropologie. He founded
+with Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The "Bibliothèque des sciences
+contemporains" and published therein La Linguistique. He also founded
+with the same the library of anthropological science and published in
+collaboration with G. Hervé a prècis of Anthropology and a study of
+the Negroes of Africa. He has also contributed to the Dictionary of
+Anthropology. For the "Bibliothèque Materialiste" he wrote a work on
+Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works
+of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language,
+and a work on the Avesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In '78 he was made a
+member of the municipal council of Paris, and in '81 was elected deputy
+to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.
+
+Howdon (John), author of A Rational Investigation of the Principles
+of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington,
+1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.
+
+Huber (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,
+1694. In a work on the System of Theologians, 1731, she opposed
+the dogma of eternal punishment. In '38 published Letters on the
+Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the
+same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections
+from the Spectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.
+
+Hudail (Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)
+
+Huet (Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He
+became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his
+Freethought left the church in '63, and became editor of various
+newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary
+value, and published Letters on the Bible, '57, etc. Died 1887.
+
+Hugo (Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besançon, 26
+Feb. 1802. Was first noted for his Odes, published in '21. His dramas
+"Hernani," '30, and "Marion Delorme," '31, were highly successful. He
+was admitted into the French Academy in '41, and made a peer in
+'45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of '48, and was
+elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis
+Napoleon, and after the coup d'état was proscribed. He first went to
+Brussels, where he published Napoleon the Little, a biting satire. He
+afterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of
+the Empire, producing The Legend of the Ages, '59, Les Miserables, '62,
+Toilers of the Sea, '69, and other works. After his return to Paris he
+produced a new series of the Legend of the Ages, The Pope, Religions
+and Religion, Torquemada, and other poems. He died 22 May, 1885,
+and it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon
+was secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his
+death a poem entitled The End of Satan has been published.
+
+Hugues (Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes,
+3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the
+influence of Hugo left the black business. In '71 he became head
+of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three
+years' imprisonment. In '81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the
+extreme left.
+
+Humboldt (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German
+naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under
+Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England
+with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general
+of mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico,
+and in 1804 returned with a rich collection of animals, plants and
+minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed
+the friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living
+distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions
+to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his
+celebrated Cosmos, the first volume of which appeared in '45 and the
+fourth in '58. To Varnhagen von Ense he wrote in 1841: "Bruno Bauer
+has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote,
+'Toutes les réligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes;
+un traité de moeurs partout le même et très pur, un rève géologique,
+et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier élément obtient
+le plus d'importance.'" Later on he says that Strauss disposes of
+"the Christian myths." Humboldt was an unwearied student of science,
+paying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to
+his essay On the Province of the Historian, because he considered it
+to acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which
+seemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle
+of life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.
+
+Humboldt (Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher,
+b. Potsdam, 22 June, 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in
+1789, and hailed the revolution with enthusiasm. In '92 he published
+Ideas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller
+and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took
+part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at
+the Congress of Vienna, '14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but
+finding the King averse, retired at the end of '19, and devoted himself
+to the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things
+he could not comprehend--orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He
+died 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.
+
+Hume (David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April,
+1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote his Treatise
+on Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest
+friendly or hostile. Hume's Essays Moral and Political appeared in
+1742, and in 1752 his Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals which
+of all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published his
+Natural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton
+in an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his
+History of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became
+secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was
+cordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing
+Rousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767,
+and in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After
+his death his Dialogues on Natural Religion were published, and also
+some unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul,
+etc. Hume's last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous
+Dr. Adam Smith, considered him "as approaching as nearly to the idea
+of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human
+frailty will permit."
+
+Hunt (James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the
+Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, '63. He
+was the author of the Negro's Place in Nature, a work on Stammering,
+etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.
+
+Hunt (James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate,
+Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at
+Christ's Hospital, London. He joined his brother John in editing
+first the Sunday News, 1805, and then the Examiner, 1808. They were
+condemned to pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for
+two years, 1812-14, for a satirical article, in which the prince
+regent was called an "Adonis of fifty." This imprisonment procured
+him the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing
+the Indicator he was associated in editing the Liberal. He wrote many
+choice books of poems and criticisms, and in his Religion of the Heart,
+'53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.
+
+Hutten (Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family
+Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda
+to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied
+humaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510,
+and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to
+Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His
+great object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and
+most of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and
+clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of
+Zurich drove him out of their territory and he died on the isle of
+Ufnau, Lake Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.
+
+Hutton (James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3
+June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated
+the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation
+on Light, Heat, and Fire, and in his Theory of the World, 1795,
+attributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote
+a work entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge,
+the opinions of which, says Chalmers, "abound in sceptical boldness
+and philosophical infidelity." Died 26 March 1797.
+
+Huxley (Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He
+studied medicine, and in '46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant
+naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of
+natural history. In '51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and
+in '54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In '60 he lectured on
+"The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals," and afterwards published
+Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863). In addition to numerous
+scientific works, Professor Huxley has written numerous forcible
+articles, addresses, etc., collected in Lay Sermons, '70; Critiques
+and Addresses, '73; and American Addresses, '79. A vigorous writer,
+his Hume in the "English Men of Letters" series is a model of clear
+exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles
+on the Evolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the
+Rev. Mr. Wace in the Nineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all
+his freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological
+fictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own
+life aims "The popularising of science and untiring opposition to
+that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England,
+as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong,
+is the deadly enemy of science."
+
+Hypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in
+the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished
+lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of
+her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by
+St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked,
+cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story
+of Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of
+St. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).
+
+Ibn Bajjat. See Avenpace.
+
+Ibn Massara. See Massara in Supplement.
+
+Ibn Rushd. See Averroes.
+
+Ibn Sabîn. See Sabin.
+
+Ibn Sina. See Avicenna.
+
+Ibn Tofail. See Abu Bakr.
+
+Ibsen (Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien,
+20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his
+attention to literature. In '52, through the influence of Ole Bull,
+he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a
+great deal. From '57 to '63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In
+the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an
+annual pension for his services to literature. His dramas, Brand,
+(Peer Gynt), Kejser og Galilær (Cæsar [Julian] and the Galilean),
+Nora, and Samfundets Stotler (the Pillars of Society), and Ghosts
+exhibit his unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in
+Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty,
+individuality, and education without superstition.
+
+Ilive (Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about
+1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751,
+and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in Some
+Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock's Sermons, and sentenced to
+two years' imprisonment, 15 June, 1756-10 June, 1758. He was confined
+in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets
+exposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for
+its improvement. He died in 1768.
+
+Imray (I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile's Republican and Lion,
+and published "Altamont," an atheistic drama, in 1828.
+
+Ingersoll (Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York,
+11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He
+studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In '62 he
+became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war,
+being taken prisoner. In '66 he was appointed attorney-general for
+Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, '76, he proposed
+Blaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In
+'77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted
+many important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for
+blasphemy in '86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in
+America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is
+well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against
+Christianity. He had published the Gods, Ghosts, Some Mistakes
+of Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, '83, and Prose Poems
+and Extracts, '84. Most of his lectures have been republished in
+England. We mention What must I do to be Saved? Hell, The Dying Creed,
+Myth and Miracle, Do I Blaspheme? Real Blasphemy. In the pages of the
+North American Review Col. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against
+Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.
+
+Inman (Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. 1820. Educated
+at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with
+the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by
+his work on Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he
+deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other
+nations. It was first published in '69. A second edition appeared in
+'73. He also wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed
+and Explained, '69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled
+Ancient Faiths and Modern, published at New York '76. Dr. Inman was
+for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
+Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His
+professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several
+medical works, including two volumes on the Preservation and
+Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.
+
+Iron (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.
+
+Isnard (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work
+on Spiritualism and Materialism, 1879.
+
+Isnard (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He
+was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, "The Law,
+behold my God. I know no other." He voted for the death of the
+King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of
+the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of
+Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died
+1830.
+
+Isoard (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval
+officer in '48 but arrested as socialist in '49. In '70 he was made
+sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux Jésuites.
+
+Isoard Delisle (Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales,
+French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the
+Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769
+he published the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to
+be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in
+prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription
+was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He
+went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published
+many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.
+
+Jacob (Andre Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)
+
+Jacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe,
+Chicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.
+
+"Jacobus (Dom)" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.
+
+Jacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2
+vols. Berlin 1874-76.
+
+Jacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought
+up to the law, in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused
+attention by his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written
+on Genesis of Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu
+and Muhammad, '80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity,
+'84, and several works of travel.
+
+Jantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first
+in 1826, the second in '28, have published together able Aperçus
+Philosophiques on Rènan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale
+Matérialiste, 1866.
+
+Jaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the
+Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm,
+b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden,
+furnished the Encyclopédie with many articles, and conducted the
+Bibliothèque Raisonnée. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.
+
+Jefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his
+descriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a
+Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart
+(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died
+Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.
+
+Jefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April
+1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became
+a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published
+his Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted
+and reported to Congress the "Declaration of Independence" which
+was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia
+from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the
+State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state
+from 1789-93, vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the
+United States 1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of
+which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his
+Dictionary of Biography says "In religion he was what is denominated a
+freethinker." He spoke in old age of "the hocus-pocus phantom of God,
+which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads." See his
+life by J. Parton.
+
+Johnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman,
+b. Bryant's Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington,
+studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky
+Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought
+with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress
+from 1807-19, and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29,
+and Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his
+report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor
+of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.
+
+Johnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10
+Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a "Free
+Church" at Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination,
+although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians
+and Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with
+S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental
+Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume
+on India appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover,
+19 Feb. 1882.
+
+Jones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin,
+25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover,
+who became his godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following
+year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes
+to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for
+making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment,
+during which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for
+Halifax in '47, and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He
+was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died
+26 Jan. 1869.
+
+Jones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French
+Revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding
+Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of
+acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for
+impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained
+till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament,
+June 21. On 26 Dec. '11 he was again convicted for "a seditious and
+blasphemous libel." He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free
+publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers
+Town, 4 April, 1838.
+
+Jones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork,
+Ireland, in March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and
+in '32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became "a social
+missionary," and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on
+"The Influence of Christianity" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at
+Manchester, in '39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation
+and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes
+between masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit
+of the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail,
+Newcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May,
+1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.
+
+Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa,
+b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and
+in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought
+many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count
+Falkenstein, saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished
+serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents,
+regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy,
+and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says "a mighty
+reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him,
+its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about,
+hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any
+inn or hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad
+and based or dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt,
+severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely
+ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich;
+bent to imitate him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich,
+'but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the
+second step without having taken the first.'" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.
+
+Jouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles
+1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of
+the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple,
+he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own
+day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.
+
+Julianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17
+Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine
+he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but
+returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He
+made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul
+and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience
+and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of
+which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,
+tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned
+of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363),
+comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while
+seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by
+the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.
+
+Junghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld,
+Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz
+studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for
+botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and
+was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There
+he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz,
+whence he escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the
+Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making
+a botanical and geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht
+en Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow
+pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God,
+religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the
+manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from
+the pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to
+the establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the
+Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and
+died 21 April, '64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and
+Shadow pictures have been several times reprinted.
+
+Kalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania,
+16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he
+studied under Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a
+political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild
+family. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a
+volume on Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67
+and '72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school
+of Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77,
+and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned
+work entitled Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's
+series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.
+
+Kames (Lord). See Home (Henry).
+
+Kant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Königsberg, 22
+April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he
+published his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied
+all knowledge of the "Thing itself," and overthrew the dogmatism of
+earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal
+censorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant
+effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate
+influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.
+
+Kapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as
+the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an
+important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms
+have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.
+
+Karneades. See Carneades.
+
+Keeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the
+Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of
+the canon, published at Chicago 1881.
+
+Keim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart,
+17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor of
+theology at Zürich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara
+('67-'72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity
+('78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His
+rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of
+his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.
+
+Keith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685,
+was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being
+confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and
+like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died
+Berlin, 25 May, 1778.
+
+Keith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie,
+Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was
+wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction
+in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the
+Empress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great
+as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him
+"a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the
+more he knows him, likes him the better." From their correspondence
+it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After
+brilliant exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and
+Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.
+
+Kenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts,
+about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of
+Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first
+poetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral
+(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In
+1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked
+Soame Jenyns's work on Christianity. He translated some of the works
+of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.
+
+Kerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western
+Pennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature
+'56, and elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the
+tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia,
+19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.
+
+Ket, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the
+rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted
+for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe
+says he was burnt for "divers detestable opinions against Christ
+our Saviour."
+
+Khayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur
+Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was
+distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his
+verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in
+English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to
+the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests,
+and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and
+the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, "I myself am Heaven and Hell."
+
+Kielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18
+Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His
+stories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his
+bold opinions.
+
+Kleanthes. See Cleanthes.
+
+Klinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19
+Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand
+Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the
+revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him "a true
+apostle of the Gospel of nature." Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.
+
+Kneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774,
+became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented
+a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New
+Testament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch
+and the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter,
+'29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series
+of lectures delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to
+Boston, and in April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest
+Freethought journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy
+for saying that he "did not believe in the God which Universalists
+did." He was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and
+fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts
+of Appeal in '36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland
+was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and
+soon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and
+Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,
+1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary,
+was published in two volumes in 1852.
+
+Knoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He
+was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against
+supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.
+
+Knowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton,
+Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which
+he was imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston
+Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with
+the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements
+of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.
+
+Knutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost
+his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Königsberg, where he
+studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering
+scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he
+preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who
+were called "Gewissener," from their acknowledging no other authority
+but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What
+became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his
+principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed
+churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond
+the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the
+place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also
+wrote two dialogues.
+
+Koerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became
+a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden
+of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold
+explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled
+to Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a
+work entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief
+things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of
+truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy,
+heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be
+followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.
+
+Kolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14
+Sept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at
+Munich 15 May, 1884.
+
+Koornhert (Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)
+
+Korn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague,
+26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of "F. Nork,"
+he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with
+profit. A list is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention
+Christmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36;
+Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth,
+'37; The Gods of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and
+New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,
+16 Oct. 1850.
+
+Krause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig
+22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische
+Zeitung and Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of
+"Carus Sterne," a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in
+'76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he
+established with Hæckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger,
+the monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This
+he conducted till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book
+on Erasmus Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary
+notice. As "Carus Sterne" he has also written essays entitled Prattle
+from Paradise, The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work
+in parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.
+
+Krekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March,
+1815. Went with parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In
+'42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county
+attorney. In '52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He
+served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of
+the constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of
+emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was
+appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced
+Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife
+not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died
+at Kansas 14 July, 1888.
+
+Krekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana
+13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became
+a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her
+services to the Freethought platform.
+
+Kropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow
+9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to
+Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went
+to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested
+in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped
+'76 and came to England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le Révolté was
+expelled. Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at
+Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in
+'86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated
+Herbert Spencer's "Biology" into Russian, died in Siberia in the
+autumn of 1886.
+
+Laas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has
+written three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also
+on Kant's Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and
+Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg,
+where he died 25 July, 1885.
+
+Labanca (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University
+of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of
+'48, and in '51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He
+has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive
+Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought,
+'86.
+
+Lachatre (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a "Library
+of Progress," in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition,
+and History of the Popes, '83.
+
+Lacroix (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph
+Krzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He
+wrote with Yves Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In '74 he
+was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In '77 he was sentenced
+to three months' imprisonment for calling Jesus "enfant adulterin"
+in Le Radical. In Feb. '81 he was elected president of the municipal
+council, and in '83 deputy to the French parliament.
+
+Laffitte (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823
+at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his
+executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of
+his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former
+apartment of Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The
+General History of Humanity, '59, and The Great Types of Humanity,
+'75-6. In '78 he founded La Revue Occidentale.
+
+Lagrange (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25
+Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is
+considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became
+a friend of D'Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he
+believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.
+
+La Hontan (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In
+his account of Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was
+translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in
+Hanover, 1715.
+
+Lainez (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same
+family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian
+life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.
+
+Laing (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of
+S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree
+'32; called to the bar '42; became secretary of the railway department
+of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall '52;
+helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In '60 he became
+finance minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought,
+'85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and
+new view of the universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, '87, he gives
+the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by
+Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In '88 he entered
+into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of
+Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.
+
+Lakanal (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied
+for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the
+Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792-5, and there protected
+the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to
+America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the
+University of Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of
+'30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.
+
+Lalande (Joseph Jèrome le Francais de), distinguished French
+astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits,
+he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In
+1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In
+1764 he published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined
+a memoir, which formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the
+idea of which he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded
+his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he
+concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande's
+observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande's
+instigation Sylvain Maréchal published his Dictionary of Atheists,
+to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Maréchal's
+death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than
+of being an astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by
+Prof. de Morgan "a perfect model of scientific bibliography." It was
+said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without
+receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.
+
+Lamarck (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist,
+b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army
+in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went
+to Paris, studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which
+opened to him the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the
+Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological
+Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History
+of Invertebrate Animals (1815-22) was justly celebrated. He became
+blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.
+
+Lamborelle (Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times,
+Brussels, 1874; The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience,
+Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post
+under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the
+council of the Belgian Freethought party.
+
+Lamettrie (Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher,
+b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated
+under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying
+under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon
+to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and
+Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with
+his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The
+boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he
+took refuge in Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the
+Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English
+of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748),
+a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the
+author's arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second
+edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D'Argens. Lamettrie
+held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it
+is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will
+religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the
+Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he
+published Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750),
+translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired
+by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great
+king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.
+
+La Mothe Le Vayer (François de). French sceptical philosopher,
+b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to
+the Duke of Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues
+after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his
+scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither
+of these contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606,
+probably a false date). Died 1672.
+
+Lancelin (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a
+constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction
+to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801-3, and a physico-mathematical
+theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.
+
+Land (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has
+written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of
+the philosopher's works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.
+
+Landesmann (Heinrich). See Lorm.
+
+Landor (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire,
+30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting
+a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a
+volume of poems in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he
+served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon
+from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to
+the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His
+reputation chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in
+which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor
+was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While
+nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments
+over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.
+
+Lanessan (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint André de
+Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and
+M.D. in '68. He was elected in '79 as Radical member of the Municipal
+Council of Paris, and re-elected in '81. In August of the same year
+he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded
+Le Reveil, edited the Marseillaise, and started the International
+Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine
+of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and has written
+vol. iii. of the "Materialists' Library," on the Evolution of Matter.
+
+Lanfrey (Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828,
+became known by a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the
+Eighteenth Century, '55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon
+I. '67-75. M. Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes,
+a work placed on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.
+
+Lang (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated
+at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation
+of the Odyssey with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and
+ballads. He has written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other
+pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth,
+'84, and Myth, Ritual and Religion, '87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor,
+Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.
+
+Lang (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology
+under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at Zürich, where he died,
+13 Jan. 1876.
+
+Lange (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald,
+near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in
+the gymnasium of Cologne, '52. In '53 he returned to Bonn as teacher
+of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became
+proprietor and editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various
+municipal offices. In '70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at
+Zürich, but resigned in '72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg,
+where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History
+of Materialism, which has been translated into English.
+
+Langsdorf (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author
+of God and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some
+mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.
+
+Lankester (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15
+May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul's School and Oxford. Has published
+many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel's History
+of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876
+he exposed the spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He
+is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of
+London.
+
+La Place (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers,
+b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor
+peasant. Through the influence of D'Alembert, La Place became professor
+of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary
+abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which
+he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition
+of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work
+on Celestial Mechanics, 1799-1825. Among his sayings were, "What we
+know is but little, what we know not is immense." "There is no need
+for the hypothesis of a God." Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.
+
+Larevelliere-Lepaux (Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu
+25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was
+elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He
+was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was
+doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself
+by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural
+religion. He wrote Reflections on Worship and the National Fêtes. He
+became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired,
+refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by
+Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.
+
+Larousse (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents,
+23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited
+many school books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
+XIXe. Siecle, 1864-77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may
+be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse's
+colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.
+
+Larra (Mariano José de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid,
+4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his
+education. He returned to Spain in '22. At eighteen he published
+a collection of poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico
+(The Satirical Goblin). In '31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor
+Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs
+and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He
+edited in the following year the Revista Española, signing his articles
+"Figaro." He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid
+edited El Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais'
+Paroles d'un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself,
+13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra's scepticism,
+adds, "Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All
+the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a
+cigarette paper!"
+
+Larroque (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He
+became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830-36,
+and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836-49. In
+the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas
+and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mention De l'Esclavage
+chez les Nations Chrétiennes, '57, in which he proves that Christianity
+did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination
+of the Christian Religion, '59, and a work on Religious Renovation,
+'59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were
+for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion
+and Politics, '78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.
+
+Lassalle (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social
+Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau,
+studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a
+follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, '46, was charmed
+with him. Humboldt called him "Wunderkind." In 1858 he published
+a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an
+insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but
+won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.
+
+Lastarria (José Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist,
+b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching
+and journalism, and in '38 was appointed teacher of civil law and
+literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals
+and literary societies. From '43 he has been at different times deputy
+to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has
+also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In '73 he founded the
+Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works,
+and his Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into
+French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.
+
+Lau (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Königsberg, 15 June
+1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled
+through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin,
+at Frankfort, Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man,
+which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was
+suppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official
+positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed
+atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.
+
+Laurent (François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July,
+1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In '35 he was made
+Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held,
+despite clerical protests, till his retirement in '80. A voluminous
+author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitled
+Studies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the
+separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858-60. He also
+wrote Letters on the Jesuits, '65. Died in 1887.
+
+Law (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the
+secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the
+Secular Chronicle, 1876-1879.
+
+Lawrence (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good
+Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted
+with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with
+English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of
+the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote
+in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English,
+a curious booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a
+poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the
+religions of the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died
+at London 26 Sept. 1841.
+
+Lawrence (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted
+M.R.C.S., 1805, in '13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later
+was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of
+Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man,
+which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his
+early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform;
+but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative
+practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.
+
+Layton (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray's Inn, being
+called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley's
+Confutation of Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual
+Observations in Man (1700).
+
+Leblais (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,
+1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism
+and Spiritualism (1865), to which Littré contributed a preface.
+
+Le Bovier de Fontenelle. See Fontenelle.
+
+Lecky (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March,
+1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are
+characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are
+A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe ('65),
+A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne ('69),
+and A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-87).
+
+Leclerc (Georges Louis). See Buffon.
+
+Leclerc de Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis
+XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay
+on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande,
+he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at
+Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.
+
+Leconte de Lisle (Charles Marie René), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon,
+23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took
+part in the revolution of '48, but has since devoted himself mainly
+to poetry, though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A
+Popular History of Christianity ('71). One of his finest poems is
+Kain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in
+'87, he gave umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking
+of Moses as "the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads."
+
+Lecount (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in
+the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the
+construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote
+a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A
+Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old
+Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington ('43). The
+author's name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as "the Rev. Peter Lecount."
+
+Leenhof (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became
+a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on
+Earth (1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was
+translated into German in 1706.
+
+Lefevre (André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became,
+at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin
+Pittoresque. He wrote much in La Libre Pensée and La Pensée Nouvelle;
+has translated Lucretius in verse ('76), and written Religions and
+Mythologies Compared ('77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy
+to the Library of Contemporary Science ('78); has written Man Across
+the Ages ('80) and the Renaissance of Materialism ('81). He has also
+edited the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire,
+and Diderot's La Religieuse ('86).
+
+Lefort (César), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method
+of modern science (Paris, 1864).
+
+Lefrancais de Lalande. See Lalande.
+
+Legate (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572,
+was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had
+many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him
+if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in
+the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. "Away,
+base fellow!" said His Majesty, "It shall never be said that one
+stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven
+years together." He was burnt at Smithfield by the King's writ, De
+Hæretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons
+so punished in England.
+
+Leguay de Premontval. See Premontval.
+
+Le Hon (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommeroeul (Hainault) 1809,
+was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of
+Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L'Homme
+Fossile en Europe, '66. Translated Professor Omboni's exposition of
+Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.
+
+Leidy (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9
+Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of
+Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American
+palæontology.
+
+Leigh (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions
+of the World, 1869.
+
+Leland (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited
+with Wakeman the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.
+
+Lemaire (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin,
+author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled
+Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.
+
+Lemonnier (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845,
+author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he
+evinces his freethought sentiments.
+
+Lenau (Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau,
+Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German,
+are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into
+insanity. Died Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.
+
+Lennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,
+30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish
+Utilitarian Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of
+250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he
+was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written
+several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In
+company with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ
+of Swedish freethought.
+
+Leontium, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She
+acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against
+Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and
+elegant manner.
+
+Leopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati
+(Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by
+his lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by
+eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are
+esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's
+short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the
+highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is
+among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.
+
+Lequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau,
+1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to
+the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the
+death of Louis XVI. "regretting that the safety of the state did not
+permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life." In 1792 he
+published Prejudices Destroyed, signed "Citizen of the World," in
+which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the
+Feasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.
+
+Lermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded
+the Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical
+dictionary of contemporary France, 1884-5.
+
+Lermontov (Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow,
+3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow
+University, from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military
+Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In
+'37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to
+the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English,
+'53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love,
+has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A
+Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.
+
+Leroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy,
+near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he
+invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In
+1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian,
+he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud
+L'Encyclopédie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George
+Sand the Revue Indépendante ('41), which became noted for its pungent
+attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In
+June '48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'état
+he returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.
+
+Leroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles,
+b. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclopédie. He defended the work
+of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical
+Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768),
+a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.
+
+Lespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May,
+1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and
+afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he
+wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of "Titus," and
+translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to
+America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange
+City (Iowa) 1881.
+
+L'Espinasse (Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French beauty and wit,
+b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protégé of Madame du Deffand, and
+gained the favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility
+and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.
+
+Lessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz,
+22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted
+with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbüttel he
+published Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of
+Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended
+that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy
+credence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the
+Wise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration
+and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly
+sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German
+emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.
+
+Lessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has
+translated some of the works of Darwin.
+
+Leucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.
+
+L'Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering
+the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44,
+but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the
+Iliad, he became convinced that the "cooking" process there described,
+has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas
+Scott's series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church
+History, Irenæus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues
+on Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.
+
+Levallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he
+became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Déisme et Christianisme, 1866.
+
+Lewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18
+April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6
+appeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher
+power. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales
+to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to
+Comte in his account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In
+'49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote
+till '54. In that year he began his association with "George Eliot"
+(q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he
+began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological,
+studies. In '64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On
+the foundation of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed
+editor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79,
+was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed
+his books to Dr. Williams's library.
+
+Lichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist,
+b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many
+thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.
+
+Lick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25
+Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune
+by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed
+large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other
+philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.
+
+Lilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied
+at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man;
+his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.
+
+Lincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,
+b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery,
+his election (Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation
+of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he "read Volney
+and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein
+he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but
+he never denied or regretted its composition." Mrs. Lincoln said,
+"Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those
+words." Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.
+
+Lindet (Robert Thomas), "apostate" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was
+elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He
+embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop
+of L'Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced
+his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place
+of religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died
+Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.
+
+Lindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied
+at Helsingfors University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is
+now a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many
+poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has
+published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy
+with the clergy.
+
+Lindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of
+pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European
+literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin,
+and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and
+April Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating
+from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer
+from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on
+a Stockholm daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in
+propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment
+for having translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He
+now edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.
+
+Lindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28
+Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained
+in several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from
+'63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.
+
+Liniere (François Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628;
+known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety
+he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her
+finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have
+undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.
+
+Linton (Eliza, née Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar
+of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely
+to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of
+fiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of
+the Family. In '72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson,
+Christian and Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher
+Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed
+largely to periodical literature.
+
+Linton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London,
+1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with
+the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press,
+and also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner
+tract on "The Worth of Christianity." He was one of the founders of
+the Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English
+Republic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a
+memoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to
+America, but has recently returned.
+
+Liscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists,
+b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became
+acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War
+at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature
+until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The
+Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and
+Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his
+works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.
+
+Lisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of
+Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).
+
+Liszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an
+Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated
+and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon
+and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was
+that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.
+
+Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher,
+b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of
+the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of
+the National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved
+the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte,
+and in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He
+translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary
+History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he
+applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal
+works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive
+Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his
+later vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie
+Positive. Littré also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy,
+'73; Literature and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy
+and Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in
+'63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in
+'71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in
+'75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion
+of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris,
+2 June 1881.
+
+Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English
+stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly
+self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became
+assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became
+an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.
+
+Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a
+good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he
+practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror
+of Faith. Died 1642.
+
+Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of
+thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected
+the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose
+twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many
+followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying
+with great courage.
+
+Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He
+holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline
+Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many
+critical works.
+
+Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836,
+has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to
+Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology
+of criminals.
+
+Longet (François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye,
+1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several
+medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.
+
+Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.
+
+Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of
+the house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople,
+1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt
+31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint
+Tranquebar, 1735.
+
+Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied
+law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of
+Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen
+associations. He edits La Réforme at Brussels, the ablest daily
+exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has
+lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.
+
+"Lorm (Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German
+pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many
+philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit,
+Vienna, '84.
+
+Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre
+Pensamiento, where he uses the signature "Demofilo." He has written
+Battles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and
+Galeote, etc.
+
+Lubbock (Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and statesman,
+b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into
+his father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in
+'56. By his archæological works he has most distinguished himself. He
+has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains,
+and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin
+of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).
+
+Lucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about
+B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised
+by his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the
+finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to
+have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full
+of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the
+grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.
+
+Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist
+b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He
+wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a
+work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In
+'56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.
+
+Lunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its
+Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.
+
+Luys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician
+at l'Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain
+and its Functions in the "International Scientific Series."
+
+Lyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14
+Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself
+to geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of
+Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important
+work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he
+accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.
+
+Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at
+Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left
+as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47),
+translated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as
+"Atticus," contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc.,
+published Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's
+Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong
+individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.
+
+Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became
+professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming
+obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was
+deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism,
+founded l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He
+was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero
+Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association
+of Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for
+Cremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24
+Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.
+
+Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker,
+b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in
+New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed
+to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.
+
+Macdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker,
+and now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with
+S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound
+Freethinker.
+
+McDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The
+Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.
+
+Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect,
+1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The
+Tubingen School, '63.
+
+Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich,
+who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote
+The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24,
+Pious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by
+W. D. Saull, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age
+of Mental Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad,
+a rare book. Died 1846.
+
+Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the
+Universe, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died
+1850.
+
+MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to
+London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his
+views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National
+Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet
+on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.
+
+Madach (Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at
+Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards
+lived at Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having
+given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61
+delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember
+Tragédiája (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as
+Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in
+this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.
+
+Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.
+
+Maillet (Benôit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April,
+1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at
+Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published "Telliamed"
+(the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land
+was originally covered with water and that every species of animal,
+man included, owes its origin to the sea.
+
+"Mainlaender" (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist,
+author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption,
+the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that
+"Mainländer" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of
+his work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place
+to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. "God is dead,
+and his death was the life of the world."
+
+Malherbe (François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in
+the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry
+IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many
+stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon
+his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others
+and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.
+
+Mallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible,
+its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).
+
+Malon (Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One
+of the founders of the International; he has written a work on that
+organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor
+on L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written
+on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.
+
+Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author
+of La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned
+and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's
+imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternité.
+
+Mandeville (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made
+a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published
+a poetical satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In
+1709, he published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on
+Religion the Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared
+his Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work
+was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was
+attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley
+in A Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the
+Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and
+Usefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.
+
+Mantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31
+Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled
+considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first
+book The Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology
+of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy,
+Love and other topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown
+god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian
+writers.
+
+Manzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied
+philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the
+doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il
+Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a
+Pathological Phenomenon, etc.
+
+Marchena (José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought
+up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers
+brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became
+a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai
+de Théologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Molière's Tartufe,
+and some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis' Origine de tous
+les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.
+
+Marechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750;
+was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of
+literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his
+place by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech
+(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In
+1781 he wrote Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of
+Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside
+that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the
+hands of the hangman, and Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He
+welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In
+1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men without God,
+and Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned
+work, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,
+Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of bold
+philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published
+his famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and
+interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared
+his For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His
+beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.
+
+Maret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March,
+1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical;
+was elected deputy in '81.
+
+Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at
+Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to
+religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.
+
+Marguetel de Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (C.)
+
+Mario (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the
+Tribune and Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married
+Jessie White, an English lady. In '60 he wrote a polemic against the
+papacy entitled Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.
+
+Marlow (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury,
+8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his
+degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according
+to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June,
+1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him
+for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed in
+Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said "How greatly
+is it all planned." Swinburne says "He is the greatest discoverer,
+the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature."
+
+Marr (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of Religious Excursions,
+1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.
+
+Marsais (Cesar Chesneau du). See Du Marsais.
+
+Marselli (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author
+of advanced works on the Science of History, Nature and Civilisation,
+the Origin of Humanity, the Great Races of Humanity, etc.
+
+Marston (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He
+became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of
+D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and
+sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his
+own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious
+service.
+
+Marsy (François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He
+brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in
+the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.
+
+Marten (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where
+he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and
+expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat
+6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles's
+judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal
+of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought
+to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words "and all
+fools." Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow
+Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him "sworn foe of
+Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better."
+
+Martin (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought
+up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She
+wrote the Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims
+of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy
+led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake
+and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the
+"crime" for which they were imprisoned. In '43 she published Baptism A
+Pagan Rite. This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no
+Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God's Gifts and Men's Duties,
+a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote
+on the Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died
+Oct. 1851.
+
+Martin (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin, 20
+Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for
+history. His History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838-53), is
+a monumental work of erudition. A confirmed Republican, he warmly
+opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the
+National Assembly, '71, and senator, '76. He was elected member of
+the Academy, '78. In addition to his historical works he contributed
+to le Siecle, la Liberté de penser, and l'Encyclopédie Nouvelle,
+etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.
+
+Martin (Louis), author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by Victor
+Hugo cette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist
+Socialist.
+
+Martin (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811,
+editor of the Morale Independante and member of the Institute of
+Geneva. For his True and False Catholics ('58), he was fined three
+thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published the
+Annuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the Roman
+Index. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.
+
+Martinaud (M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and wrote Letters
+of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop,
+Paris, 1868, in which he says, "Religion is the infancy of peoples,
+Atheism their maturity."
+
+Martineau (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from
+a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing
+Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature
+as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations
+of political economy. The Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and
+Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in
+'51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In
+'53 she issued a condensed account of Comte's philosophy. She wrote
+a History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace, and numerous
+other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Autobiography,
+published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.
+
+Masquerier (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1
+March, 1802. Wrote The Sataniad, established Greenpoint Gazette,
+and contributed to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.
+
+Massenet (Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical composer, b. Montard,
+12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie
+Magdeleine, and an opera, Herodiade.
+
+Massey (Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor parents at
+Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent
+to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen
+he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way,
+and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the
+men of '48, he started The Spirit of Freedom, '49. It cost him five
+situations in eleven months. In '53 his Ballad of Babe Christabel,
+with other Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine
+taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of
+Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his Book of Beginnings
+and Natural Genesis, '81-83, in which he shows the mythical nature of
+Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as
+Why Don't God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical
+Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming
+Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the title My
+Lyrical Life.
+
+Massey (James). See Tyssot. (S.)
+
+Massol (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March,
+1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in '30 and became a Saint
+Simonian. In '48 he wrote on Lamennais' La Réforme, and on the Voix
+du Peuple with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In
+'65 he established La Morale Independante with the object of showing
+morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.
+
+Maubert de Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20
+Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon
+army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal
+nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This
+he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this
+he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by
+Lord Bolingbroke. He published Lettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752,
+and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as
+a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died
+at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.
+
+Maudsley (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5
+Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated
+M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon
+reached eminence in his profession. From '69-'79 he was professor
+of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works on
+The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind ('67), Body and Mind ('70),
+Responsibility in Mental Disease ('73), and Body and Will ('83) have
+attracted much attention. His Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings
+('80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.
+
+Mauvillon (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in
+body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of
+Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the
+Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the
+French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux
+(Amsterdam, 1768) and The Only True System of the Christian Religion
+(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title of False Reasonings
+of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.
+
+Mazzini (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In '26 he
+graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics,
+becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the
+nation. Condemned to death in '33, he went to Switzerland and was
+expelled, then came to England in '37. In '48 he returned, and in March
+'49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled,
+after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He
+wrote in the Westminster Review and other periodicals and his works are
+numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished
+by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called
+Mazzini "a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity,
+humanity and nobleness of mind." Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was
+a Deist.
+
+Meissner (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written
+Ziska, an epic poem, The Son of Atta Troll, Recollections of Heine,
+etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.
+
+Meister (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6
+Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and
+became acquainted with D'Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short
+life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious
+Principles, 1762, and Natural Morality, 1787.
+
+Menard (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In
+'48-'49 he wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged
+to leave France. Has written on Morality before the Philosophers,
+'60, Studies on the Origin of Christianity, '67, and Freethinkers'
+Religious Catechism, '75.
+
+Mendoza (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of
+distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he
+studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university
+he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,
+Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent
+on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at
+his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his History
+of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through
+the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza's satires and burlesques
+were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and
+translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.
+
+Mendum (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston
+Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer,
+and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his
+imprisonment engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland
+left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the
+paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the
+founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of
+Freethought in that city.
+
+Mentelle (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11
+Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. His
+Précis de l'Histoire des Hébreux (1798), and Précis de l'Histoire
+Universelle are thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever
+existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion
+of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.
+
+Mercier (L. A.), author of La Libre Pensée, Brussels, 1879.
+
+Meredith (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of The Prophet of Nazareth
+(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, and Amphilogia,
+a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, '67.
+
+Meredith (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire,
+1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law,
+he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet
+with Poems ('51). Of his powerful novels we mention the Ordeal of
+Richard Feveril ('59), Emilia in England ('64), now Sandra Belloni,
+with Vittoria ('66) for a sequel. Rhoda Fleming, Beauchamp's Career
+('76), The Egoist ('79), The Tragic Comedians ('81) and Diana of
+the Crossways ('85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his
+writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of
+verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart
+from the throng of contemporary singers.
+
+Merimee (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808,
+author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General
+of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in '44. In his
+anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), '64,
+there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.
+
+Merritt (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June,
+1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed
+to the Reasoner, using the signature "Christopher." He wrote on Dirt
+and Pictures and Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died
+in London, 10 July, 1877.
+
+Meslier or Mellier (Jean), curé of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny,
+Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was
+discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated
+Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His
+property he left to his parishioners. Voltaire published it under
+the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier
+has been attributed the work entitled Le Bon Sens, written by Baron
+D'Holbach. Le Testament de Jean Meslier has been published in three
+volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles
+(R. C. d'Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas
+of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention
+to erect a statue to this "honest priest."
+
+Metchnikov (Léon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on
+Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in
+the Revue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.
+
+Metrodorus of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 B.C., a disciple
+and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles
+of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Died B.C. 277.
+
+Mettrie, see La Mettrie.
+
+Meunier (Amédée Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has
+done much to popularise science by his Scientific Essays, 1851-58,
+the Ancestors of Adam, '75, etc.
+
+Meyer (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of
+Spinoza, who published Exercitatio Paradoxa on the philosophical
+interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has
+been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch
+in 1667. He is also credited with Lucii Antistic Constantes, de
+jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli (Amst.), 1665. This work is also
+attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.
+
+Mialhe (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn), 1834. From
+'60-62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has
+organised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited L'Union
+des Libres-Penseurs, and has written Mémoires d'un libre Penseur
+(Nevers, 1888).
+
+Michelet (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became
+a Professor of History in 1821. Has written a History of France and
+of the French Revolution; The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, '43;
+The Priest, Woman and the Family, '44; The Sorceress, dealing with
+witchcraft in the Middle Ages, '62; The Bible of Humanity, '64. His
+lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and
+after the coup d'état he was deprived of his chair. All Michelet's
+works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he
+was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at
+Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.
+
+Michelet (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin,
+4 Dec. 1801. In '29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple
+of Hegel, he edited his master's works, '32. His principle work is A
+System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, '76-81. He has also written
+on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.
+
+Middleton (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters
+from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from
+Paganism, and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed
+to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow
+to hitherto received "Christian Evidences." He also wrote a classic
+Life of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.
+
+Mignardi (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un
+Nuovo Credente (Memoirs of a New Believer).
+
+Milelli (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family
+intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as
+may be seen in his Odi Pagane, '79, Canzonieri, '84, and other works.
+
+Mill (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose,
+6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his
+attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher
+in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor
+of the Literary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published,
+'17-'19, his History of British India. He contributed many articles to
+the fifth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. A friend of Bentham,
+he wrote largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward
+the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind,
+'39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading
+Bishop Butler's Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.
+
+Mill (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding,
+b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he
+became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to
+the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint
+editor in '35. His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally
+known. This was followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In
+'59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he
+defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent
+works were Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67;
+Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy '65; Dissertations
+and Discussions, '59-'75; and the Subjection of Women, '69. In '65
+he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in
+'68. In '67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the
+students an able address. Prof. Bain says "in everything characteristic
+of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He
+admitted neither its truth nor its utility." Died at Avignon, 8 May,
+1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on
+"Nature," "Theism," and "Religion."
+
+Mille (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at
+Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy,
+from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano,
+and after the latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Millé
+contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vütorul, edited by
+C. Pilitis.
+
+Milliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche
+(Côte d'Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the
+Proletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he
+was, after the coup d'état, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of
+'59. In '69 Millière started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of
+which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the
+National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although
+he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary,
+he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May,
+1871. He died crying "Vive l'Humanité."
+
+Mirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He
+translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the
+French Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a
+Critical Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name
+of Fréret), The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of
+a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection
+entitled Nouvelle libertés de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System
+of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud
+died 24 June, 1760.
+
+Mirabeau (Honoré Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman
+and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He
+inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper,
+and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767,
+but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom
+he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and
+employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his
+Erotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he
+was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials
+for his work on The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of
+the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being
+in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated
+the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the
+spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him
+"far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time." He died
+2 April, 1791. Among his last words were, "Envelop me with perfumes
+and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep."
+
+Miranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas
+1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free
+Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and
+became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend
+of Thomas Paine. In 1806-11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from
+the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon
+at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic
+of James Mill.
+
+Miron. See Morin (André Saturnin.)
+
+Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876)
+and Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also
+written in the National Reformer, using his initials only.
+
+Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian
+Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title
+Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in
+Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any bookseller who had
+the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens,
+and was republished in '81.
+
+Mittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich,
+5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became
+professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained
+a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in
+Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part
+in the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction
+of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.
+
+Mittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make
+money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by
+other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.
+
+Mocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian
+philosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva,
+1588, with the Peripatetic Question of Cæsalpinus and the books of
+Telesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum
+Philosophicarum.
+
+Moleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's
+Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated
+M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at
+Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator,
+and in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has
+written Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches,
+and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him "the father
+of the modern Materialistic movement."
+
+Molesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth
+baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was
+returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In
+'53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary
+for the Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the
+Westminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition
+of Hobbes was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to
+the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.
+
+Mommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30
+Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became
+Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by his
+History of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness
+in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world
+was improved by Christianity.
+
+Monboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James).
+
+Monge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught
+physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a
+member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence
+of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of
+the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator,
+created him Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many
+services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was
+deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and
+Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.
+
+Mongez (Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 June
+1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy
+of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said "he had
+the honor to be an Atheist." He was one of the most ardent members of
+the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.
+
+Monroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age,
+b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford,
+where he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the
+Rochford Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil
+War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some
+hard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published
+his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became
+more Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to
+Indianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards
+Monroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man,
+with a remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are
+poems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible
+Stories.
+
+Montaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family
+castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge
+at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous "Essays,"
+which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent
+spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in
+literature. Emerson says, "Montaigne is the frankest and honestest
+of all writers." Montaigne took as his motto: Que sçais-je? [What
+know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of
+custom. Buckle says, "Under the guise of a mere man of the world,
+expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a
+spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been
+the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning
+people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of
+the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.
+
+Monteil (Charles François Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire,
+26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During
+the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un
+Frère Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,
+and condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000
+francs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published
+at Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La République Française. In '80
+he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected
+in '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has
+compiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.
+
+Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer,
+b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was
+entitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of
+the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground
+that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the
+Spirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the
+positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery
+are written in a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced
+to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.
+
+Montgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh
+1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer,
+and afterwards attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and
+Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and
+published at Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted
+from the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On
+the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to
+Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written
+in the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and
+Mind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God,
+but that there is evidence to the contrary.
+
+Montgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first
+to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and
+La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26
+June 1810.
+
+Mook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied
+philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study
+medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to
+a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus,
+published at Zürich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in
+the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847,
+is a physician who has published some poems.
+
+Moor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu
+Pantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.
+
+Moreau (Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical
+and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and
+satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe
+and the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery,
+terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected,
+with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.
+
+Moreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a
+distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral
+Faculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological
+works.
+
+Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century,
+b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work called Code de la Nature,
+sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges
+that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.
+
+Morgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The
+Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for
+Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited
+Radicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks
+to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses "a more fabulous
+romantic writer than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of
+miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication
+of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny
+Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over
+the signature "Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology,
+1741. Lechler calls Morgan "the modern Marcion." Died at London,
+14 Jan. 1743.
+
+Morgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In
+1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm
+friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of
+Sketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals,
+'19. The Examiner says, "He was never at a loss for a witty or wise
+passage from Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843.
+
+Morin (André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28
+Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30
+he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48
+he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated
+vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the
+signature "Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pensée
+of Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was
+intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni,
+and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination
+of Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his
+True Value has gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique
+Religieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders
+of the Bibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several
+anti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into
+English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal
+Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing
+a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.
+
+Morison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters,
+b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In
+'63 he published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of
+the founders of the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as
+in the Athenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to
+Morley's "Men of Letters" Series. In '86 he published his striking work
+The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which
+shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and
+its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He
+collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would
+have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of
+a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did
+justice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until
+he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a
+brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George
+Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead,
+26 Feb. 1888.
+
+Morley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn,
+24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was
+J.C. Morison. He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review,
+edited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which
+appeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise,
+Voltaire, '72; Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclopædists
+'78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in
+that review. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall
+Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected
+to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by
+Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+
+Morselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena,
+1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide
+in the International Scientific Series, and a study on "The Religion
+of Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has
+translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.
+
+Mortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan
+(Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in
+'49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He
+has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written
+Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man,
+'64. The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution
+to the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man,
+'82. He contributed to the Revue Indépendante, Pensée Nouvelle,
+etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was
+elected Deputy in 1885.
+
+Moss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written
+numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of
+Freethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower
+Animals, Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to
+the Secular Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker,
+and other journals, and has had a written debate on "Was Jesus God
+or Man." A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from
+lecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been
+published, 1889.
+
+Mothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer.
+
+Mott (Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3
+Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society
+in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A
+strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist
+movement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention
+in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of
+Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights
+conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.
+
+Muhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder
+of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died
+about 849.
+
+Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.
+
+Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.
+
+Muhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar.
+
+Muller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed
+good articles to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of
+modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.
+
+Murger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue
+des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in
+"Winter Nights" he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds
+lui que j'ai lu Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes
+of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.
+
+Musset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11
+Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the
+Romantic school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Siècle,
+'36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among
+his finest works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to
+the Revue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in
+'52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.
+
+Naber (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July,
+1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium,
+and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal
+of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia
+(1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character
+of the Epistles attributed to Paul.
+
+Nachtigal (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23
+Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became
+private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and
+wrote an account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul
+General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.
+
+Naigeon (Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an
+art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became
+copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to
+Amsterdam to be printed. He contributed to the Encyclopédie, notably
+the articles Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe,
+or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This
+was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He
+took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in the
+Theologie Portative. He published the Recuéil Philosophique, 2 vols.,
+Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his
+Morale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays
+of Montaigne and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His
+principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in
+the Encyclopédie Méthodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National
+Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold
+the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of
+man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.
+
+Naquet (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834,
+became M.D. in '59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for
+belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue
+Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack
+on theism. In '69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family,
+which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment,
+a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil
+rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he
+has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new
+law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's
+energetic advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late
+has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.
+
+Nascimento (Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23
+Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière's
+Tartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life
+from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of
+"Filinto Elysio." Died 25 Feb. 1819.
+
+Navez (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pensée,
+of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Nelson (Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to
+be the author of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions,
+a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been
+taken from Paganism.
+
+Newcomb (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova
+Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was
+appointed computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior
+professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated
+with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many
+works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political
+Economy, 1885.
+
+Newman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London
+1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol
+College '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to
+comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then
+went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission,
+but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously
+undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical
+teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at
+London University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49,
+he states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he
+explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A
+History of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical,
+'58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of
+the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the
+Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History,
+'77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its
+Cradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.
+
+Neymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and
+colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.
+
+Nicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural
+philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon
+returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published
+useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted
+the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He
+also wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of
+Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and
+also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.
+
+Nicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March,
+1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted
+for founding "The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of
+Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.
+
+Nietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844,
+author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of
+Morgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.
+
+Nieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht,
+3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25,
+'77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in
+Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed
+to De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds
+(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist
+paper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and
+Freethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against
+Socialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason,
+The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one
+years' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and
+was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was
+liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.
+
+Noeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,
+1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been
+professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He
+has written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and
+a Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated
+into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.
+
+Noire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen,
+and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of
+Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist
+philosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends
+that language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in
+associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.
+
+Noorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an
+Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with
+the Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.
+
+Nordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He
+became a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels
+and made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our
+Civilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.
+
+Nork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).
+
+Nott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South
+Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish
+Race, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55;
+the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of
+disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile,
+31 March, 1873.
+
+Noun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.
+
+Noyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.
+
+Nunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He
+has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is
+a follower of Mill and Spencer.
+
+Nuytz (Louis André). See Andre-Nuytz.
+
+Nystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15
+Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund,
+'68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian
+war of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has
+established a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written
+a History of Civilisation.
+
+Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the
+eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a
+translation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an
+English version.
+
+Ochino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A
+popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to
+the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited
+to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached
+in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went
+to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about
+1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the
+Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He
+went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,
+and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of
+Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the
+special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.
+
+O'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near
+Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went
+to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried
+for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to
+distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet,
+whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the
+Journal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.
+
+O'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about
+1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin,
+but became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry
+into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element
+in religion, at New York, 1880.
+
+Oest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems
+published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.
+
+Offen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He
+emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of
+Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism
+and A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the
+Correspondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York,
+12 May, 1848.
+
+Offray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.
+
+O'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On
+the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks
+disparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was
+classed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.
+
+O'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author
+of Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers,
+published by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of
+short papers suggestive of religious Theism.
+
+Oken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg,
+2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became a privat-docent in
+that university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802,
+he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work
+on Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He
+was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From
+'17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became
+a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.
+
+Oliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.
+
+Omar Khayyam. See Khayyam.
+
+Omboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June,
+1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific
+works.
+
+Onimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near
+Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,
+and wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological
+Sciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition,
+and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the
+Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the
+Revue Positive and other periodicals.
+
+Oort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied
+theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many
+works, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated
+by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with
+Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.
+
+Orelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich,
+13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of
+Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed
+Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.
+
+Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an
+adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was
+popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint
+against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was
+passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.
+
+Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its
+Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict
+with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and
+mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the
+Son of God as Christian mythology."
+
+Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).
+
+Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular
+school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.
+
+Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated
+as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history,
+and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has
+contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other
+journals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the
+Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education,
+'82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity
+is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles
+of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural
+History in Brazil.
+
+O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at
+Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he
+"denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie
+of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the
+flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the
+Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the
+Apostolic see erronious."
+
+"Ouida," See Ramée (Louise de la).
+
+Ouvry (Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics
+of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several
+works on the land question.
+
+Overton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics,
+1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam,
+1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.
+
+Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14
+March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that
+he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter
+of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager
+at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and
+improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New
+Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he
+caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world
+were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In
+'24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the
+Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure,
+as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In
+'28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of
+Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's
+Journal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social
+System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind
+began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,
+17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in
+the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for
+his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.
+
+Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was
+educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's
+school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid
+in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the
+failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28,
+the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till
+'32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on
+the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he
+ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts
+of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;
+Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He
+was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he
+secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He
+became charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he
+strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a
+Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.
+
+Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark),
+26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of
+the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity
+(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz,
+1800). Died 20 May, 1824.
+
+Paepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.
+
+Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian
+jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at
+Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor
+of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes
+(1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal
+Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional
+Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner
+by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.
+
+Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of
+introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through
+many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited
+Life Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?,
+'67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He
+became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert
+Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges
+of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.
+
+Paget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon
+Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and
+Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has
+lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews,
+an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of
+Unbelief" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show
+a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.
+
+Pageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the
+Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.
+
+Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father
+was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He
+left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he
+married the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He
+was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a
+paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then
+in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine
+went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the
+Pennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal
+a strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776,
+advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything
+else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of
+the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's
+order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely
+to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was
+declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state
+of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to
+mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored
+to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution,
+he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In
+1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this
+he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he
+was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of
+the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison,
+where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time
+he wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed
+on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor
+points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas,
+and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As
+a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander
+by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own
+direction was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to
+have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.
+
+Pajot (François). See Liniere.
+
+Paleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and
+martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he
+went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of
+court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired
+to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on
+the Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor
+of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He
+had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of
+letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the
+flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to
+him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.
+
+Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin,
+22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,
+he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural
+History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled
+in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8
+Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him
+the founder of modern geology.
+
+Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He
+became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some
+satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his
+head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the
+Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.
+
+Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March,
+1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought
+up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while
+still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80
+he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club,
+for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the
+Freethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper
+with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was
+cremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering
+an eulogium.
+
+Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,
+1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but
+became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an
+attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society
+in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802,
+a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also
+wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer
+was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New
+York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.
+
+Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic,
+and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a
+moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the
+world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On
+Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis.
+Died in Athens 111 B.C.
+
+Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26
+Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert,
+Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire,
+whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out
+the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopédie
+Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur,
+1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.
+
+Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian
+Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.
+
+Papillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort,
+5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,
+'65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue
+des Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life,
+'73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.
+
+Paquet (Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29
+Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris,
+where he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to
+literature. Under the anagram of "Nérée Quépat" he has published La
+Lorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little
+philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist
+Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.
+
+Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11
+Aug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth,
+also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at
+Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert
+Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.
+
+Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30
+Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical
+brochures. After the coup d'état he took refuge in Belgium. In '71
+was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.
+
+Parfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of
+L'Arsenal de la Dévotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of
+superstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des Pélerinages, '77,
+and other pieces. Died 1881.
+
+Parisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoilée par
+la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems
+to have occasioned its suppression.
+
+Parker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24
+Aug. 1810. From his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence
+of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he
+studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the
+farm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June,
+'37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known
+as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete
+rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society
+was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame
+was established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion,
+'47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged
+De Wette's Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless
+opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own
+house. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his
+duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of
+13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.
+
+Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said
+to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy
+about 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are
+preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and
+considered nature eternal.
+
+Parny (Évariste Désiré de Forges de), Viscount. French poet,
+b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he
+chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole
+inspired his "Amatory Poems," and he afterwards wrote the audacious
+War of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His
+poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been
+named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy
+in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.
+
+Parton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken
+to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married
+Miss Willis, "Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including
+Lives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also
+written on Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided
+in New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.
+
+Parvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and
+Christian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was
+issued in 1746.
+
+Pasquier (Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at
+Paris. Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He
+defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked
+in a bitter satire, Catéchisme des Jésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.
+
+Passerano (Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last
+century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets
+written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and
+his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of
+Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving
+his goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil
+de Pièces curieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc.,
+which contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses),
+an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and
+comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem;
+also a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in
+1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a
+pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising
+the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.
+
+Pasteur (Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor
+in '47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received
+the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries
+in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion
+of honor in '53, he was made commander '68 and grand officer '78. His
+researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers
+have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He
+was elected to the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name
+as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.
+
+Pastoret (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Marquis, French statesman
+and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by
+the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an Elege de Voltaire. By
+his works on Zoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses
+Considered as Legislator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the
+infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned
+History of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817-37), in which he passes in
+review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became
+President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the
+erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the
+conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the
+19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of
+the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as
+deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of
+the French Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,
+and in '29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.
+
+Pater (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. 1839. B.A. at
+Oxford in '62, M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the
+Westminster Review, Macmillan, and the Fortnightly Review. In '73
+he published The Renaissance, and in '85 Marius the Epicurean, His
+Sensations and Ideas.
+
+Paterson (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After
+the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle of
+Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced
+27 Jan. 1843 to three months' imprisonment. His trial was reported
+under the title God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering
+God as the plaintiff and in quoting from "the Jew book" to show
+the plaintiff's bad character. When released he went to Scotland to
+uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to
+fifteen months' imprisonment for selling "blasphemous" publications
+at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6
+April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.
+
+Patin (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais
+31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His
+reputation is chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked
+superstition. Larousse says "C'était un libre penseur de la famille
+de Rabelais." Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.
+
+Patot. See Tyssot de Patot (S.)
+
+Pauw (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote
+philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians,
+Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his
+ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the
+uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.
+
+Peacock (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote
+many poems in the National Reformer, and in '67 published Hours of
+Reverie. Died 4 May, 1877.
+
+Peacock or Pecock (Reginald), the father of English rationalism,
+b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he
+was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph,
+1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good
+Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be
+accommodated to "the doom of reason." He questioned the genuineness
+of the Apostles' Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted
+from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned
+in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who
+visited him,
+
+
+            "Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan,
+            How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man."
+
+
+His books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in 1460. His influence
+doubtless contributed to the Reformation.
+
+Pearson (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled The Ethic of
+Freethought, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. '79, M.A. '82.
+
+Pechmeja (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he wrote a
+socialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, called
+Télèphe, 1784. Died 1785.
+
+Peck (John), American writer in the Truthseeker. Has published Miracles
+and Miracle Workers, etc.
+
+Pecqueur (A.), contributor to the Rationaliste of Geneva, 1864.
+
+Pelin (Gabriel), French author of works on Spiritism Explained and
+Destroyed, 1864, and God or Science, '67.
+
+Pelletan (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son of
+the following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lycée Louis
+le Grand. He wrote in La Tribune Française, and Le Rappel, and since
+'80 has conducted La Justice with his friend Clémenceau, of whom he
+has written a sketch.
+
+Pelletan (Pierre Clement Eugène), French writer,
+b. Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in
+La Presse, under the name of "Un Inconnu," articles distinguished
+by their love of liberty and progress. He also contributed to the
+Revue des Deux Mondes. In '52 he published his Profession of Faith
+of the Nineteenth Century, and in '57 The Law of Progress and The
+Philosophical Kings. From '53-'55 he opposed Napoleon in the Siècle,
+and afterwards established La Tribune Française. In '63 he was
+elected deputy, but his election being annulled, he was re-elected in
+'64. He took distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After
+the battle of Sedan he was made member of the Committee of National
+Defence, and in '76 of the Senate, of which he became vice-president
+in '79. In '78 he wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled Un
+Roi Philosophe, and in '83 Is God Dead? Died at Paris, 14 Dec. 1884.
+
+Pemberton (Charles Reece). English actor and author, b. Pontypool,
+S. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world and
+wrote The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice, which with other remains
+was published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.
+
+Pennetier (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the Museum of
+Natural History at Rouen. Author of a work on the Origin of Life,
+'68, in which he contends for spontaneous generation. To this work
+F. A. Pouchet contributed a preface.
+
+Perfitt (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the Pathfinder,
+'59-61. Preached at South Place Chapel. Wrote Life and Teachings of
+Jesus of Nazareth, '61.
+
+Periers (Bonaventure des). See Desperiers.
+
+Perot (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on Man
+and God, which has been translated into English, 1881, and Moral and
+Philosophical Allegories (Paris, 1883).
+
+Perrier (Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of Natural
+History, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on Natural
+History, and one on Transformisme, '88.
+
+Perrin (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on The Religion
+of Philosophy, or the Unification of Knowledge: a comparison of the
+chief philosophical and religious systems of the world, 1885.
+
+Perry (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced 1824 to
+three years' imprisonment in Newgate for selling Palmer's Principles
+of Nature. He became a chemist at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned
+Parliament for the prisoners for blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe,
+stating that his own imprisonment had not fulfilled the judge's hope
+of his recantation.
+
+Petit (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de Grève in 1665 as
+the author of some impious pieces.
+
+Petronius, called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at the Court
+of Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his veins and
+bled to death in A.D. 66, conversing meanwhile with his friends on the
+gossip of the day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning
+"Primus in orbe Deos fecit timor." Petronius is famous for his "pure
+Latinity." He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with the same excuse,
+his romance being a satire on Nero and his court.
+
+Petruccelli della Gattina (Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples,
+1816, has travelled much and written many works. He was deputy to
+the Naples Parliament in '48, and exiled after the reaction.
+
+Petrus de Abano. A learned Italian physician, b. Abano 1250. He
+studied at Paris and became professor of medicine at Padua. He wrote
+many works and had a great reputation. He is said to have denied the
+existence of spirits, and to have ascribed all miracles to natural
+causes. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as a heretic, a magician
+and an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was acquitted. He was
+accused a second time but dying (1320) while the trial was preparing,
+he was condemned after death, his body disinterred and burnt, and he
+was also burnt in effigy in the public square of Padua.
+
+Peypers (H. F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De Rijp, 2 Jan. 1856, studied
+medicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and
+good natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much
+to De Dageraad, and is at present one of the five editors of that
+Freethought monthly.
+
+Peyrard (François), French mathematician, b. Vial (Haute Loire)
+1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of those who (7
+Nov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An intimate
+friend of Sylvian Maréchal, Peyrard furnished him with notes for
+his Dictionnaire des Athées. He wrote a work on Nature and its Laws,
+1793-4, and proposed the piercing of the Isthmus of Suez. He translated
+the works of Euclid and Archimedes. Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.
+
+Peyrat (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. He
+wrote in the National and la Presse, and combated against the Second
+Empire. In '65 he founded l'Avenir National, which was several
+times condemned. In Feb. '71, he was elected deputy of the Seine,
+and proposed the proclamation of the Republic. In '76 he was chosen
+senator. He wrote a History of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception,
+'55; History and Religion, '58; Historical and Religious Studies, '58;
+and an able and scholarly Elementary and Critical History of Jesus,
+'64.
+
+Peyrere (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and brought up
+as a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of Condé, and
+became intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. His work entitled
+Præadamitæ, 1653, in which he maintained that men lived before Adam,
+made a great sensation, and was burnt by the hangman at Paris. The
+bishop of Namur censured it, and la Peyrère was arrested at Brussels,
+1656, by order of the Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of
+the Prince of Condé on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The
+following epitaph was nevertheless made on him:
+
+
+            La Peyrere ici gît, ce bon Israelite,
+            Hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite:
+            Quatre religions lui plurent à la fois:
+              Et son indifférence était si peu commune
+            Qu'après 80 ans qu'il eut à faire un choix
+              Le bon homme partit, et n'en choisit pas une.
+
+
+Died near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.
+
+Pfeiff (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. Editor
+of the free religious periodical, The Truthseeker, since 1882. He has
+also translated into Swedish some of the writings of Herbert Spencer.
+
+Pharmacopulo (A.P.) Greek translator of Büchner's Force and Matter, and
+corresponding member of the International Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Phillips (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b. London, 1767. He
+was hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher, republican, Sheriff of
+London (1807-8), and Knight. He compiled many schoolbooks, chiefly
+under pseudonyms, of which the most popular were the Rev. J. Goldsmith
+and Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen most in his Million of
+Facts. Died at Brighton 2 April, 1840.
+
+Phillippo (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near Thetford,
+Norfolk. A deist who wrote an Essay on Political and Religious
+Meditations, 1868.
+
+Pi-y Margall (Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican statesman,
+b. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the Ruins
+of Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has written many
+political works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has much
+admiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and
+philosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with
+Castelar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic,
+being Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.
+
+Pichard (Prosper). French Positivist, author of Doctrine of Reality,
+"a catechism for the use of people who do not pay themselves with
+words," to which Littré wrote a preface, 1873.
+
+Pierson (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 April,
+1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical
+congregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor
+at Heidelberg. He resigned his connection with the Church in '64. He
+has written many works of theological and literary value of which we
+mention his Poems '82, New Studies on Calvin, '83, and Verisimilia,
+written in conjunction with S. A. Naber, '86.
+
+Pigault-Lebrun (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French author,
+b. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of
+Boulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and Le Citateur,
+1803, a collection of objections to Christianity, borrowed in part
+from Voltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 Napoleon
+threatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It
+was suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently
+reprinted. Pigault-Lebrun became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon,
+and died at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.
+
+Pike (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, 1826,
+wrote My Religious Experience and What I found in the Bible, 1867.
+
+Pillsbury (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22
+Sep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till '35, when he entered
+Gilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in '38, studied a year
+at Andover, was congregational minister for one year, and then,
+perceiving the churches were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the
+ministry. He became an abolitionist lecturer, edited the Herald
+of Freedom, National Anti-Slavery Standard, and the Revolution. He
+also preached for free religious societies, wrote Pious Frauds, and
+contributed to the Boston Investigator and Freethinkers' Magazine. His
+principal work is Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles, 1883.
+
+Piron (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. His
+pieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of
+his profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being
+drunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even
+deity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried
+by his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written
+parodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book
+in the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered
+"Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin." Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1773.
+
+Pisarev (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and materialist,
+b. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the Scholastics of
+the nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July 1868. His works
+are published in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.
+
+Pitt (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman
+and orator, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. 1708. The services to his
+country of "the Great Commoner," as he was called, are well known,
+but it is not so generally recognised that his Letter on Superstition,
+first printed in the London Journal in 1733, entitles him to be ranked
+with the Deists. He says that "the more superstitious people are,
+always the more vicious; and the more they believe, the less they
+practice." Atheism furnishes no man with arguments to be vicious;
+but superstition, or what the world made by religion, is the greatest
+possible encouragement to vice, by setting up something as religion,
+which shall atone and commute for the want of virtue. This remarkable
+letter ends with the words "Remember that the only true divinity
+is humanity."
+
+Place (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 at
+Charing Cross. He early became a member of the London, Corresponding
+Society. He wrote to Carlile's Republican and Lion. A friend of
+T. Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and
+Hibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was
+connected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left
+many manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are
+now in the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist--see
+Reasoner, 26 March, '54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan. 1854.
+
+Platt (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author of
+popular works on Business, '75; Morality, '78; Progress, '80; Life,
+'81; God and Mammon, etc.
+
+Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, b. Verona,
+A.D. 22. He distinguished himself in the army, was admitted into the
+college of Augurs, appointed procurator in Spain, and honored with
+the esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote the history of his own
+time in 31 books, now lost, and a Natural History in 37 books, one
+of the most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean
+Atheism appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. A.D. 79,
+he observed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and landing to assist
+the inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious vapors.
+
+Plumacher (Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and authoress
+of a work on Pessimism in the Past and Future, Heidelberg, 1884. She
+has also defended her views in Mind.
+
+Plumer (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 June,
+1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on account
+of scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the Legislature
+eight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was governor
+of New Hampshire, 1812-18, wrote to the press over the signature
+"Cincinnatus," and published an Address to the Clergy, '14. He lived
+till 22 June, 1850.
+
+Plutarch. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheronæa in Boetia, about
+A.D. 50. He visited Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of
+Trajan. His Parallel Lives of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made
+him immortal. He wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works,
+including a treatise on Superstition. He condemned the vulgar notions
+of Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds popularly ascribed
+to the gods, that he would rather men said there was no Plutarch than
+traduce his character. In other words, superstition is more impious
+than Atheism. Died about A.D. 120.
+
+Poe (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe, who figured
+in the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His mother was
+an actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing Tamerlane and other
+Poems, '27, he enlisted in the United States Army, but was cashiered in
+'31. He then took to literary employment in Baltimore and wrote many
+stories, collected as the Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor. In
+'45 appeared The Raven and other Poems, which proved him the most
+musical and dextrous of American poets. In '48 he published Eureka,
+a Prose Poem, which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed
+his greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His
+personal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not
+unlike that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.
+
+Poey (Andrés), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of French and Spanish
+descent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the Modern Thinker, and is author
+of many scientific memoirs and a popular exposition of Positivism
+(Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on Darwinism and Comtism.
+
+Pompery (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A follower
+of Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism, '79, and a
+Life of Voltaire, '80.
+
+Pomponazzi (Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher,
+b. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua,
+where he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was
+appointed professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence
+with Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at
+Ferrara and Bologna. His treatise De Immortalitate Animæ, 1516, gave
+great offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the doctrine
+of the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the hangman at
+Venice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo's intercession with Pope Leo
+X. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure. Among his works
+is a treatise on Fate, Free Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive
+man, and was nicknamed "Peretto." He held that doubt was necessary
+for the development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation
+for upright conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525,
+and was buried at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.
+
+Ponnat (de), Baron, French writer, b. about 1810. Educated by
+Jesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and democrat and a friend
+of A. S. Morin, with whom he collaborated on the Rationaliste of
+Geneva. He wrote many notable articles in La Libre Pensée, Le Critique,
+and Le Candide, for writing in which last he was sentenced to one
+year's imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan,
+The Cross or Death, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the
+Ecumenical Council at Rome (Brussels, '62). His principal work is
+a history of the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church
+(Paris, '82). Died in 1884.
+
+Porphyry, Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia,
+233 A.D. His original name was Malchus or Melech--a "King." He was
+a pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that
+he was of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards
+rejected Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and
+intelligence; the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote
+(in Greek) a famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some
+fragments of which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It
+is certain he showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian
+writings, exposed their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between
+Peter and Paul, and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes.
+He wrote many other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and
+Pythagorus. Died at Rome about 305.
+
+Porzio (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when lecturing
+at Pisa, the students cried "What of the soul?" He frankly professed
+his belief that the human soul differed in no essential point from
+the soul of a lion or plant, and that those who thought otherwise
+were prompted by pity for our mean estate. These assertions are in
+his treatise De Mente Humanâ.
+
+"Posos (Juan de)," an undiscovered author using this pen-name,
+expressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary travels, published
+in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into German at Leipsic,
+1721.
+
+Post (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From '28 she was a leading
+advocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman's suffrage and
+religious reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan. 1889.
+
+Potter (Agathon Louis de). See De Potter (A. L.)
+
+Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See De Potter (L. A. J.)
+
+Potvin (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the
+Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the history of literature
+at Brussels. He wrote anonymously Poesie et Amour '58, and Rome and
+the Family. Under the name of "Dom Jacobus" he has written an able
+work in two volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of
+a Freethinker. He was president of "La Libre Pensée" of Brussels from
+'78 to '83, is director of the Revue de Belgique and has collaborated
+on the National and other papers.
+
+Pouchet (Felix Archimède), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26
+Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author
+of Mme. Bovary, and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of
+natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched
+science with many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and
+wrote many monographs and books of which the principal is entitled
+The Universe, '65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872.
+
+Pouchet (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the
+proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor
+of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In
+'80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has written on The
+Plurality of the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Siècle,
+and the Revue des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive.
+
+Pouchkine (A.), see Pushkin.
+
+Pougens (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the
+Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was
+blinded by small pox. He became an intimate friend of the philosophers,
+and, sharing their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though
+it ruined his fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited
+the posthumous works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of
+the French language. His Jocko, a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen
+sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his Philosophical Letters,
+1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja,
+Franklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.
+
+Poulin (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What
+is God? What is Man? a scientific solution of the religious problem
+(Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75,
+in which he maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that
+the only divinity is moral harmony.
+
+Poultier D'Elmolte (François Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31
+Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock
+at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of
+volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of
+the King. He conducted the journal, L'Ami des lois, and became
+one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay
+in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceaux Philosophiques in the
+Journal Encyclopédique; Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine;
+Discours Décadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures
+on the Nature and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821.
+
+Powell (B. F.), compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of
+Ancient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.
+
+Prades (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. Castel-Sarrasin, about
+1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless became intimate with
+Diderot and contributed the article Certitude to the Encyclopédie. On
+the 18th Nov. 1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the
+doctorate, remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by
+a French theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul,
+the origin of society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary
+to the dogmas of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the
+Gospels to those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great
+scandal. His opinions were condemned by Pope Benedict XIV., and he
+fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by
+d'Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to
+that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de Prades'
+work on ecclesiastical history, published as Abrége de l'Histoire
+ecclesiastique de Fleury, Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice
+at Glogau (Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.
+
+Prater (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to
+the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he
+wrote on the Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to
+the American People, and Literary Essays, '56. Died 20 July, 1885. He
+left the bulk of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep
+wound to be made in his arm to insure that he was dead.
+
+Preda (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation
+and Reason, published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of
+"Padre Pietro."
+
+Premontval (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Charenton, 16
+Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis
+Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He
+studied mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences
+at Berlin. He wrote Le Diogene de D'Alembert, or Freethoughts on
+Man, 1754, Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vues
+Philosophiques, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Théologie
+de L'Etre, in which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the
+existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.
+
+Priestley (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near
+Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way
+to broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the
+doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to
+his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the
+sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in
+his Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy
+these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord
+Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of
+an independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his
+History of the Corruptions of Christianity and History of the Early
+Opinions Concerning Jesus Christ, which involved him in controversy
+with Bishop Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with
+the French Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot,
+14 July, 1791. After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally
+goaded to seek an asylum in the United States, which he reached in
+1794. Even in America he endured some uneasiness on account of his
+opinions until Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.
+
+Pringle (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersoll in Canada,
+1880.
+
+Proctor (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March,
+1837. Educated at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge,
+where he became B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal
+Astronomical Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He
+maintained in '69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He
+wrote, lectured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty
+volumes, chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for
+a while a Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and
+science, and in a letter to the New York Tribune, Nov. '75, formally
+renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His
+remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns,
+and other Science Gleanings, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his
+heresy. In '81 he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable
+papers, notably one (Jan. '87), "The Beginning of Christianity." He
+entirely rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he
+considered largely a rechauffé of solar myths. In other articles
+in the Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the
+coincidence between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also
+with stories found in Josephus. The very last article he published
+before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll
+in his controversy with Gladstone in the North American Review. In
+'84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow
+fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.
+
+Proudhon (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker,
+b. Besançon, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a printer,
+and won a prize of 1,500 francs for the person "best fitted for a
+literary or scientific career." In '40 appears his memoir, What is
+Property? in which he made the celebrated answer "C'est le vol." In
+'43 the Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion,
+philosophy and logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical
+Contradictions, in which appeared his famous aphorism, "Dieu,
+c'est le mal." In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation
+of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon
+saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when
+President, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine
+of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while
+in prison. For his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church
+he was condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in
+'58. He took refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy,
+19 Jan. 1865. Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated,
+'66. Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations,
+but he lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works
+have been published in 26 vols.
+
+Protagoras, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to
+have been a disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before
+he studied philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He
+wrote in a book on the gods, "Respecting the gods, I am unable to
+know whether they exist or do not exist." For this he was impeached
+and banished, and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek
+Islands, and died about 411. He believed all things were in flux,
+and summed up his conclusions in the proposition that "man is the
+measure of all things, both of that which exists and that which does
+not exist." Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy "had
+the merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative
+nature of cognition."
+
+Prudhomme (Sully). See Sully Prudhomme.
+
+Pückler Muskau (Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer,
+b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations
+in a work entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by
+Tutti Frutti, '32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died
+4 Feb. 1871.
+
+Pushkin (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often
+called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he
+was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which
+circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des
+Dieux, and entitled the Gabrielade, the archangel being the hero. He
+was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire
+and Byron, put forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most
+popular is Eugene Onéguine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote
+some histories and founded the Sovremennik (Contemporary), 1836. In
+Jan. 1837 he was mortally wounded in a duel.
+
+Putnam (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a
+minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary
+to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected president in
+Oct. 1887. In '88 he started Freethought at San Francisco in company
+with G. Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus,
+Adami and Heva; romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings,
+and Gottlieb, and pamphlets on the Problem of the Universe, The New
+God, and The Glory of Infidelity.
+
+Putsage (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the
+Colins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on Determinism and
+Rational Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie
+de L'Avenir of Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels.
+
+Pyat (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4
+Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college
+at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and
+Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in
+many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris,
+'47. After '52 he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for
+the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded
+the journal le Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he protested
+against the treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and
+condemned to death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice,
+and has sat as deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice,
+3 Aug. 1889.
+
+Pyrrho. Greek philosopher, a native of Elis, in Peloponesus, founder of
+a sceptical school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been
+attracted to philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself
+to Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,
+and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian
+Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all
+things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his
+equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept
+house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He
+reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians
+honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his
+school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus
+and Empiricus.
+
+Quental. See Anthero de Quental.
+
+"Quepat (Nérée.") See Paquet (René).
+
+Quesnay (François), French economist, b. Mérey, 4 June 1694. Self
+educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his Tableau
+Economique, 1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral
+and social rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.
+
+Quinet (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He
+attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's The
+Philosophy of History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks
+on Catholicism, the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in
+the Revolution of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on
+The Genius of Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his
+historical work on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at
+Versailles, 27 March, 1875.
+
+Quintin (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the
+Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in
+1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and
+burnt at Tournay in 1530.
+
+Quris (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published some
+works on law and La Défense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864.
+
+Rabelais (François), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher,
+b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early age he joined the order
+of Franciscans, but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial
+temper, quitted the convent without the leave of his superior. He
+studied medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised
+at Lyons. His great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was
+denounced as heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their
+order but their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was
+appointed curé of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings
+show surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, "Beyond a
+doubt he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age."
+
+Radenhausen (Christian), German philosopher, b. Friedrichstadt, 3
+Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a lithographer, he resided
+at Hamburg, where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.),
+'70-72; Osiris, '74; The New Faith, '77; Christianity is Heathenism,
+'81; The True Bible and the False, '87; Esther, '87.
+
+Radicati (Alberto di), Count. See Passerano.
+
+Ragon (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, 1781. By
+profession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of Bureau to
+the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry,
+and The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the Ancient Mysteries,
+1844. Died at Paris, 1862.
+
+Ram (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seventeenth century,
+who was accused of Atheism.
+
+Ramaer (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland,
+2 Aug. 1812. From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He
+afterwards became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote
+on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also contributed largely
+to De Dageraad, often under the pseudonym of "Laçhmé." He had a noble
+mind and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16
+Feb. 1867.
+
+Ramee (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French extraction,
+Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of "Ouida," a little sister's
+mispronunciation of Louisa, she has published many popular novels,
+exhibiting her free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricotin,
+Folle Farine, Signa, Moths and A Village Commune. She has lived much
+in Italy, where the scenes of several novels are placed.
+
+Ramee (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth
+(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused
+of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the
+massacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.
+
+Ramsey (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a Freethinker
+early in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall of Science
+and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in
+business for himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82
+he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83,
+after a good defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment,
+and on Mr. Foote's release acted as printer of the paper.
+
+Ranc (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831,
+and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He
+took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied
+law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second
+Empire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He collaborated on
+La Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in
+'71, and Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other
+political works.
+
+Randello (Cosimo), Italian author of The Simple Story of a Great
+Fraud, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed
+against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.
+
+Rapisardi (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has
+translated Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The
+Last Prayer of Pius IX., '71, etc.
+
+Raspail (François Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras
+24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the
+Church. He became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the
+theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological
+dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815-24 gave
+lessons, and afterwards became a scientific lecturer. He took part
+in the Revolution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of
+Honor but he refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks
+he was frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat
+on the extreme left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.
+
+Rau (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied
+theology and became preacher to free congregations in Stuttgart and
+Mannheim. He wrote Gospel of Nature, A Catechism of the Religion of
+the Future, and other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.
+
+Rawson (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,
+b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and
+art, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage
+from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He
+has published many maps and typographical and philological works,
+and illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on
+the Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of
+Palestine, London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine,
+maintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel
+is non-historical.
+
+Raynal (Guillaume Thomas François) l'abbé, French historian and
+philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a
+priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,
+1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With
+the assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a
+philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies
+(4 vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious
+and political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was
+censured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May,
+1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near
+Paris, 6 March, 1796.
+
+Reade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of
+Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,
+26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart
+of Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book,
+and in '73, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied
+as Times correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects
+the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions
+and is still worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel,
+'60; The Veil of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his
+last work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death
+upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.
+
+Reber (George), American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas
+of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the
+frauds and follies of the early fathers.
+
+Reclus (Jean Jacques Elisée), French geographer and socialist, the
+son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15
+March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at
+Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and
+left France after the coup d'état of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57
+in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself
+to studying the social and political as well as physical condition of
+the countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du
+monde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the
+North during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was
+taken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent
+men in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted
+to banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris,
+and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal
+Geography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage
+without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface
+to Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works.
+
+Reddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,
+Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but
+wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself,
+and issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by
+Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.
+
+Reghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics,
+b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an
+able exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an
+Examination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the
+troubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at
+Brussels Aug. 1853.
+
+Regnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante
+(Nièvre), 20 March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de
+Critique Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could
+find no publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed
+scientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet
+and Clemenceau, the Revue Encyclopédique, which being suppressed
+on its first number, he started La Libre Pensée with Asseline,
+Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes
+a condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches
+on Cerebral Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to
+the anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of
+political science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815;
+and has translated Büchner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate
+to the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.
+
+Regnard (Jean François), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He
+went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an
+Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue
+with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French
+consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote
+a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer
+of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.
+
+Regnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21
+Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for
+its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained
+a canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22
+Oct. 1613.
+
+Reich (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav
+descent on his father's side, b. Olmütz, 6 March 1839. He studied at
+Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides
+editing the Athenæum of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain,
+'83. Of his works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of
+Humanity, '74; Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul,
+'84; The Emancipation of Women, '84.
+
+Reil (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland,
+20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine;
+after practising some years in his native town he went in 1787
+to Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin
+University. He wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical
+science, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the
+accusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle
+he was attacked by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.
+
+Reimarus (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22
+Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and
+Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector
+of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of
+the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on
+The Principle Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the
+Wolfenbüttel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg,
+1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.
+
+Reitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named
+after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New
+York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant
+church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker
+of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now
+editor of Der Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he "shall be a poor
+man and a Revolutionaire all my life."
+
+Remsburg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has
+written a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False
+Claims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine,
+and a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes
+and vices sanctioned by scripture, '85.
+
+Renan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Tréguier (Brittany)
+27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to
+study. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his
+studies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended
+profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics
+nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all
+thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48
+he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages,
+afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published
+his work on Averroës and Averroïsm. In '56 was elected member of
+the Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria;
+having in the meantime published a translation of Job and Song of
+Songs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In
+'61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of
+France, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his
+chair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain
+to attack him personally as a "French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus
+is part of a comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in
+8 vols., '63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ,
+The Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end
+of the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on
+Religious History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76),
+Spinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture
+on the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies
+of Religious History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made
+a great sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel,
+'87-89.
+
+Renand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique,
+on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels
+in 1861.
+
+Rengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought
+friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.
+
+Renard (Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne;
+author of Man, is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.
+
+Renouvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier,
+1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among
+his works are Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican
+Manual, '48; Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69;
+a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A
+Sketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.
+
+Renton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in
+Germany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The
+Logic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological
+estimate of that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last
+generation called Bishopspool, '83.
+
+Rethore (François), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of
+Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac,
+or Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's
+Classification of Sciences.
+
+Reuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12
+Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and
+Natural Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died
+at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.
+
+Revillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy,
+b. Saint-Laurent-les Mâcon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in
+'57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and
+published many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.
+
+Rey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed
+all the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's,
+and conducted the Journal des Savans.
+
+Reynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris,
+12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He
+was teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic
+School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.
+
+Reynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For
+a time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the
+Encyclopédie Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly
+of '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great
+success. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at
+Périgueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863.
+
+Reynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was
+brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher,
+but was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy
+at Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by
+Col. Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was
+a paltry fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator,
+Truthseeker, and Ironclad Age.
+
+Reynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many
+novels. Wrote Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.
+
+Rialle (J. Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He
+wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et
+de Philologie comparée, and has written on Comparative Mythology,
+dealing with fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.
+
+Ribelt (Léonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several
+political works and collaborator on La Morale Indépendante.
+
+Ribeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot)
+1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the
+Emancipation of Toulouse, and La Réforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo,
+he shared in his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.
+
+Ribot (Théodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Côtes du-Nord)
+1839; has written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of
+the views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology
+he has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy
+of Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will,
+3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue
+Philosophique.
+
+Ricciardi (Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte
+(Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of
+Camaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He
+says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In
+'32 he founded at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature,
+and art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned
+eight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he
+wrote in the Revue Indépendante, pointing out that the Papacy from
+its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the
+Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History
+of the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in
+'53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from
+1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the
+Ecumenical Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples,
+'69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the
+International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published
+an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend
+Mauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884.
+
+Richepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. Médéah
+(Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the
+Franco-German war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song
+of the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphèmes,
+which has gone through several editions.
+
+Richer (Léon), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was
+with A. Guéroult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and
+edits L'Avenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker
+to a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the
+emancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the
+Women's Rights congresses held in Paris.
+
+Rickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes
+of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he
+also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved
+by Sharpe.
+
+Riem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became
+a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a
+hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the
+Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.
+
+Ritter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into
+French Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments
+and Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian Baur and the Tübingen School.
+
+Roalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy
+prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold
+the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a
+manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed
+useful "whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy
+Scriptures and the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The
+Age of Reason, The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention
+of continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to
+two months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued
+the sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter
+Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.
+
+Robert (Pierre François Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of
+Brissot and Danton, b. Gimnée (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up
+to the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical
+society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism
+adapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the
+death of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Révolutions de Paris. Died
+at Brussels 1826.
+
+Robertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New
+York, 1835.
+
+Robertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He
+became journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on
+the National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt
+Whitman in the "Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method,
+'89, and has contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on
+Mithraism, March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued
+pamphlets on Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism,
+'85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.
+
+Roberty (Eugène de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth,
+b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81,
+and The Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of
+philosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled
+The Unknowable, '89.
+
+Robin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of the
+Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June,
+1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littré he
+refounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many
+important medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was
+struck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God,
+and it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same
+year he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He
+has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.
+
+Robinet (Jean Baptiste René), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June,
+1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish
+his curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint
+and to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the
+Secret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took
+part in the Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died
+at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.
+
+Robinet (Jean Eugène François), French physician and publicist,
+b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person
+and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of
+his executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth
+Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and
+Life of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65,
+The Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the
+Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the "Bibliothèque
+Utile," vol. 66, '81.
+
+Roell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a
+Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in
+1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.
+
+Rogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April,
+1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend
+mass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary
+movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in
+'65 was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos
+de Labienus (London, i.e. Zürich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote
+some excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71
+he assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but
+declined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself "Atheist." Is
+still living in Paris.
+
+Rokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the
+Viennese school in medicine, b. Königgrätz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804,
+studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of
+Doctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy,
+'42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878.
+
+Roland (Marie Jeanne), née Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March,
+1754. Fond of reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At
+a convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their
+writings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist,
+and deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with
+Agnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la
+Platiêre (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies
+of her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On
+the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre
+of a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her "the creature of Simplicity
+and Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and
+"the noblest of all living Frenchwomen." On the fall of her party
+she was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband,
+then in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself,
+15 Nov. 1793.
+
+Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father,
+Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the
+University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems,
+'84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places
+ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.
+
+Romagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist,
+b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work
+on penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are
+borrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of
+Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy,
+he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In
+'21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound
+Mind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure
+writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.
+
+Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the
+University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse
+which excited some commotion among the theologians.
+
+Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy
+to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In
+Sept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which
+was drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He
+advocated the Fêtes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed
+suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an
+eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.
+
+Ronge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde
+(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau,
+and became a Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold
+preaching soon led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing the
+worship of "the holy coat," exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves,
+made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free
+congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took
+refuge in England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In
+'61 he returned to Frankfort, and in '73 settled at Darmstadt. Died
+at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.
+
+Ronsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He
+became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of
+Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French
+Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.
+
+Roorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia
+(Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled
+about '64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed
+to the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland),
+23 Oct. 1887.
+
+Roquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French
+reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the
+Franciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon
+1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused
+of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this
+has been disputed.
+
+Rose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light
+to Lighten the Gentiles, 1881.
+
+Rose (Ernestine Louise) née Süsmond Potowsky, Radical reformer
+and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was
+a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold and inquiring
+disposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris
+during the Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she
+embraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here
+she married Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In
+May '36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the
+Republic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system,
+the formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against
+slavery in the slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition
+to give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one
+of the inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant
+champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses
+have been published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech
+at the Hartford Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to
+England where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public
+was at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in
+'76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face
+and head, and though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest
+in the Freethought cause.
+
+Roskoff (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30
+Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written
+works on Hebrew Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth,
+'60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69.
+
+Ross (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of
+poems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The
+Agnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures
+published under the pen name of "Saladin."
+
+Rosseau (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the
+name of L. Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of
+Jesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pensée, and was
+editor of l'Athée. Died 1870.
+
+Rossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents,
+London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student
+at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet
+artist he exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness,
+and splendour of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.
+
+Rossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of
+the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College,
+he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has
+acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being
+an edition of Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is
+Chairman of the Committee of the Shelley Society.
+
+Rossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March,
+1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many
+scientific works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among
+his writings are Man in the Mirror of Nature. '49-55. The History of
+the Earth, '68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.
+
+Roth (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig,
+1869; Jesuitism, '71.
+
+Rothenbuecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook
+of Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.
+
+Rotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman
+b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in
+1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his
+University in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by
+his liberal views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper
+and was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death,
+which occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World
+(9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views
+of history which had then appeared.
+
+Rousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June,
+1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported
+himself. In 1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for
+negative answer to the question "whether the re-establishment of the
+arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals." This success
+prompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music,
+the New Heloise (1759), a love story in the form of letters, which
+had great success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which
+he condemns other education than that of following nature. In this
+work occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding
+the supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament
+condemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled
+to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and
+Rousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that
+he returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England
+in Jan. 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with
+Hume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on
+condition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his
+Confessions, of which he had previously composed the first six books
+in England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent
+and eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his
+own life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died
+near Paris, 2 July, 1778.
+
+Rouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written
+several brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renversé, 1872,
+and Ci et ca, ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social
+progress. Writes in Malon's Revue Socialiste, and is one of the
+editors of Les Droits des Femmes.
+
+Roy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity,
+1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, '66. Has also translated
+Marx's Capital.
+
+Royer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830,
+of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our
+language and literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at
+Lausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared
+with Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In
+'62 she translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface
+and notes. In '64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas
+appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work
+is on The Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states
+the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian
+creed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites,
+'76; Two Hypotheses of Heredity, '77; The Good and the Moral Law,
+'81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de
+Philosophie, Positive, Revue d'Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted
+and spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings.
+
+Rüdt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and "apostle of unbelief,"
+b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he
+studied philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg
+University, '65-69. Dr. Rüdt became acquainted with Lassalle,
+and started a paper, Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for
+participation in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he
+lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to
+Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.
+
+Ruelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of
+The History of Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69.
+
+Ruge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Rügen), 13
+Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of
+the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in
+'30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the
+Hallische Jahrbücher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he
+started Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the
+Extreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote
+New Germany in "Cabinet of Reason" series, and translated Buckle's
+History of Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,
+where he died 30 Dec. 1880.
+
+Ruggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised
+by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which
+he issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an
+Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.
+
+Rumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress,
+and The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das
+Freire Wort (Basle, '56).
+
+Russell (John). See Amberley.
+
+Ryall (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union,
+1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason
+and The Movement. Died 1846.
+
+Rydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Jönköping, 18
+Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention The Last
+Athenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have
+been translated into English.
+
+Rystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and
+taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all
+matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty
+upon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time,
+he was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.
+
+Sabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about
+1218 of noble family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II.,
+replying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.
+
+Sadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied
+the resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine
+of predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and
+punishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees.
+
+Saga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for
+Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.
+
+Saigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern
+Physics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics
+of Voltaire, '74. Died 1875.
+
+Saillard (F.), French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris,
+'69), and The Organisation of the Republic, '83.
+
+Sainte Beuve (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters
+b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine,
+which he practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo's
+Odes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As
+a critic he made his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical
+Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal
+works are his History of Port Royal, '40-62; Literary Portraits,
+'32-39; and Causeries du Lundi, '51-57. In '45 he was elected to the
+Academy, and in '65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,
+comprehensive, and impartial.
+
+Saint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de,
+French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April,
+1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became
+major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal
+Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles
+II. He died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God,
+he replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,
+consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in
+3 vols. 1705.
+
+Saint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about
+1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant
+religion more freely; was captain in the service of the States,
+and assisted on the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused
+his system, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into
+French, under the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making
+much noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to
+Ceremonies Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses
+d'un Esprit Desintéressé, 1678.
+
+Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer,
+b. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches,
+published at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire
+published his Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of
+St. Hyacinthe.
+
+Saint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.
+
+Saint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean François de), French writer,
+b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he
+entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became
+a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He
+wrote some articles in the Encyclopédie, and many fugitive pieces and
+poems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured
+him admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and
+Bolingbroke, and Le Catéchisme Universel. His Philosophical Works
+were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.
+
+Sale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated
+at Canterbury. He was one of a society which undertook to publish a
+Universal History, and was also one of the compilers of the General
+Dictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran,
+with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one
+of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died
+14 Nov. 1736.
+
+Salieres (A.), contributor to l'Athée, 1870. Has written a work on
+Patriotism, 1881.
+
+Sallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent,
+b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was
+imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he
+attended Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He
+wrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he
+takes New Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically--the God
+who is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau
+(Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843.
+
+Salmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco,
+1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the
+Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic of
+'73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts,
+'78, and his own works were issued in 1881.
+
+Salt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851;
+educated at Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor
+to Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on
+Shelley, and a Life of James Thomson, "B.V.", 1889.
+
+Saltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June
+1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he
+published a sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of
+Disenchantment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer
+and Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy
+account of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle,
+'86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His
+brother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems
+(Philadelphia, '73.)
+
+Salverte (Anne Joseph Eusèbe Baconniere de), French philosopher,
+b. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle
+to a Reasonable Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793,
+contributed to Maréchal's Dictionnaire des Athées, published an eloge
+on Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the
+Death of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm
+partisans of liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not
+be recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his
+work on The Occult Sciences, '29, which was translated into English,
+'46. To the French edition of '56 Littré wrote a Preface. He died 27
+Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.
+
+Sand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards
+baroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and
+brought up by her grandmother at the Château de Nohant. Reading
+Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She
+remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an
+elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom
+after some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her
+whole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of
+'48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated
+Mazzini's Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant,
+8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was
+thought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better
+appreciation of her work and genius is making way.
+
+Sarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor
+of Le XIXe. Siècle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical
+articles.
+
+"Sarrasi," pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department
+of Tarn, 1837, author of L'Orient Devoilé, '80, in which he shows
+the mythical elements in Christianity.
+
+Saull (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established
+a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John
+Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the
+old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between
+astronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in
+Kensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.
+
+Saunderson (Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire),
+2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when
+but a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes,
+and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge
+University, explaining Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural
+Philosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said,
+"They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put
+in Saunderson, who believes in no God at all." Saunderson said that
+to believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.
+
+Sauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of
+the editors of L'Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and
+Education ('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions
+of the Jesuits ('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious
+Congregations Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died
+at Paris in 1883.
+
+Saville (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,
+b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign
+of James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test
+Acts. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious
+account of his opinions, which he probably tones down.
+
+Sawtelle (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of
+Ignorance, or the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself,
+Salem, Oregon, 1868.
+
+Sbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838;
+studied jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of
+Research, '66. In '70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task
+of the Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers
+held at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human
+Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino
+to Mazzini, '86.
+
+Schade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the
+immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions
+on the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775,
+where he died in 1795.
+
+Scherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April,
+1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva,
+but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to
+Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants,
+and in the Revue de Théologie et de Philosophie Chrétienne, '50-60,
+put forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also
+wrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some
+of his articles have been collected as Mélanges de Critique Religieuse,
+'60; and Mélanges d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in
+'71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.
+
+Scherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3
+Oct. 1817. Educated at Zürich and Tübingen, he wrote in '43 with his
+brother Thomas a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas,
+and in '57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became
+Professor of History and Literature at Zürich, and has written many
+able literary studies, including histories of German and English
+literature. Died at Zürich, 21 Nov. 1887.
+
+Schiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated
+at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at
+Berne, '54-63; of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has
+written many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as
+materialistic.
+
+Schiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and
+historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a
+minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of
+Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems,
+a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He
+died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.
+
+Schmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He
+travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at
+Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has
+illustrated its application in many directions, and published an able
+work on The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the "International
+Scientific Series." Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.
+
+Schmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth,
+25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Königsberg, first
+theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of "Max Stirner"
+he wrote a system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession
+(Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of
+Reaction in two parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth
+of Nations and Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin,
+25 June, 1856.
+
+Schneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has
+written some popular novels under the name of "Arthur Storch," and
+was one of the founders of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Schoelcher ( Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July
+1804. While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about
+'26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works
+on the subject. On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the
+Navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government
+enfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for
+Martinique '48 and '49. After 2 Dec. '51, he came to London, where he
+wrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned
+to France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In
+'71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected
+a life senator.
+
+Scholl (Aurélien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He
+began life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune,
+etc., and writes on l'Evénement. Has written several novels, and le
+Procès de Jésus Christ, '77.
+
+Scholl (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies
+of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became
+a minister '44, but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His
+first important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg,
+'52), and in '61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection
+of extracts from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In '70
+he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde
+Licht! which continued for many years. Has published many discourses,
+and written Truth from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Religion
+of Humanity, '79.
+
+Schopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig,
+22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a
+vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied
+at Göttingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of
+the East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to
+obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815
+he wrote his chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into
+English in '83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is
+the one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground
+Problems of Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection
+of essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena ('51). Died at Frankfort,
+21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of
+every form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms;
+they require darkness to shine in.
+
+Schroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June,
+1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion
+in '45. In '50, he went to America, living since '53 in Sauk City,
+and frequently lecturing there. In '81, he attended the International
+Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor
+to the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.
+
+Schroot (A.), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865),
+Natural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life
+(Hamburg, 1873).
+
+Schuenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April,
+1826. He joined the "Freie Gemeinde," and was expelled from Prussia
+in '48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part
+in democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason,
+but acquitted. In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing
+tours over the States settling at San Francisco.
+
+Schultze (Karl August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May,
+1846, studied at Jena, Göttingen and Münich, has written an able study
+on Fetishism, Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools,
+'72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant
+and Darwin, '75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in
+Jena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80,
+Philosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of
+Spiritualism, 1883.
+
+Schumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8
+July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He
+started a musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His
+lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a "profane"
+oratorio, Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions
+are illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.
+
+Schweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Königsberg, 12
+July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking
+part in the events of '48, after the reaction he went to
+Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life,
+also a Life of Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk's Irrgang des
+Leben's Jesu, 1884.
+
+Schweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort,
+12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after
+Lassalle's death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was
+sent to Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity,
+'62, The Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.
+
+Scot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of
+Witchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of
+witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished
+in 1886. Scot died in 1599.
+
+Scott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he
+travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X,
+of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted
+himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among
+the clergy and cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount
+Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds,
+F. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which
+were given away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence
+Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus
+'71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little
+known outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should
+secure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.
+
+Seaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25
+Aug. 1810. In '37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator,
+and during Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which
+he continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled
+strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always
+very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been published
+with the title Occasional Thoughts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he
+helped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of
+all Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration
+was delivered by Colonel Ingersoll.
+
+Sebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym
+of "Dr. Fabricus," published God, Man, and his latter end, a
+medico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to
+Mgr. Dupanloup, 1868-9.
+
+Sechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863,
+published Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The
+work made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into
+French by Victor Derély, and published in '84 with an introduction
+by M. G. Wyrouboff.
+
+Secondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu.
+
+Seeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London,
+1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he
+graduated in '57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in
+London University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the
+Life and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord
+Shaftesbury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of
+hell. In '69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and
+has since written some important historical works as well as Natural
+Religion ('82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.
+
+Segond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, author of
+a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of
+several medical works.
+
+Seidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the
+sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah,
+and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He
+wrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian
+Religion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament
+in the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter.
+
+Sellon (Edward), English archæologist, author of The Monolithic
+Temples of India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,
+1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.
+
+Semerie (Eugène), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming
+physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67
+published a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which
+he maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism
+to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This work was
+denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply
+to M. Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon
+and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited
+the Politique Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73,
+and The Law of the Three States, '75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.
+
+Semler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He
+was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical
+criticism there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New
+Testament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down
+the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.
+
+Serafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for
+Female Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce
+(Salerno, '73).
+
+Serveto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish
+martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he
+left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied
+medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject
+of the Trinity, against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus
+and Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both
+Catholics and Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his
+last work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic
+authorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to
+Naples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of
+Calvin, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,
+26 Oct. 1553.
+
+Seume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29
+Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,
+but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an
+adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to
+Syracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.
+
+Sextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who
+probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He
+left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in
+three books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.
+
+Shadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk,
+1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell's plays
+are not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died
+6 Dec. 1692.
+
+Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26
+Feb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole,
+and proposed granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His
+health suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the
+acquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets
+occasioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed,
+by his Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples,
+where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under
+the title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions,
+and did much to raise the character of English Deism.
+
+Shakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists,
+b. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his
+life are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he
+became an actor and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor
+of English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and
+retired to his native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas
+warrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green
+says, "Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life
+and death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the
+common theological solutions around him." His comprehensive mind
+disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in
+what the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the
+Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that
+he was an Atheist.
+
+Shaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought
+up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army,
+took part in some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the
+Methodist Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer
+sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March,
+'83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he
+publishes bold Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism,
+and has written The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The
+Bible Against Itself, etc.
+
+Shelley (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4
+Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here
+he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he
+was expelled from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley,
+also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and
+met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children
+had been born, they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife
+had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,
+but, in March, '17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on
+account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter
+to Lord Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge
+passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30
+Dec. '16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary
+Wollstonecraft. In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him,
+he left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron,
+composed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,
+Epipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty,
+the glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia,
+8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny,
+who knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last.
+
+Siciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina,
+19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism,
+Darwinism, and Modern Sociology, '79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a
+preface by J. Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85.
+
+Sidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl
+of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament,
+and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained
+abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was
+condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.
+
+Sierebois (P.). See Boissière.
+
+Siffle (Alexander François), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May,
+1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He
+wrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed
+to de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg,
+7 Oct. 1872.
+
+Sigward (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An
+active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican
+calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris '89,
+and is one of the editors of Le Danton.
+
+Simcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign
+Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the
+Fortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature "H. Lawrenny."
+
+Simon de Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth
+century. He said that "Three seducers," Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad,
+"have mystified mankind with their doctrines." He was said to have
+been punished by God for his impiety.
+
+Simon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May,
+1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished
+himself by bold erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament,
+1678, was suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical
+History of the New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe,
+11 April, 1712.
+
+Simonis.--A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for
+his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio,
+published at Cracow, 1588.
+
+Simpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put
+forward a Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and
+attributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the
+signature "Antitheos." Died about 1844.
+
+Sjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near
+Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet
+there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures
+at Stockholm.
+
+Skinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on
+Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was
+credited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published
+by Carlile in 1819.
+
+Slater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many
+years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the
+Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.
+
+Slenker (Elmina), née Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents,
+23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying
+the Bible, afterwards published at Boston, '70; she conducts the
+Children's Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed
+to most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way
+('78), Mary Jones, The Infidel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79),
+Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.
+
+Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799,
+graduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850,
+but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family,
+he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion,
+originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote
+The Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology,
+'67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.
+
+Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm,
+8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in
+his poems published under the name of "Sventröst."
+
+Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5
+Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562),
+and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland,
+and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3
+March, 1604.
+
+Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He
+edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished
+Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.
+
+Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued
+many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the
+Truthseeker.
+
+Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20
+Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of
+Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the
+Treasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he
+startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy
+entitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on
+mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.
+
+Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he
+became librarian at the Bibliothèque Nationale. He has contributed
+to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals,
+and has published important works on The Bible and Archæology, '72;
+Historical Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism,
+'78; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that
+Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated
+into English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from
+his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new
+direction in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary
+of the History of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World
+and of Life in Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary
+Psychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary
+History of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution,
+'79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.
+
+Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served
+with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social
+missionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol,
+for an article in which on "The Jew Book" he was tried for blasphemy
+14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months'
+imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he
+edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in
+England and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology
+for Atheism, '46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition
+Unveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground
+that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer
+to G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45,
+Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he
+went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.
+
+Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous
+work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of
+his opinions.
+
+Sozzini. See Socinus.
+
+Spaink (Pierre François), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862,
+and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen
+names "A. Th. Eist." and "F.R.S." Has translated Romanes' Scientific
+Evidences of Organic Evolution.
+
+Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he
+has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the
+Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.
+
+Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,
+1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and
+has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular
+History of the World's Development, which has gone through several
+editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers'
+Union.
+
+Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was
+articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He
+wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman
+met Mill, Lewes and "George Eliot." His first important work was
+Social Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of
+Psychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology,
+'64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form
+part of his "Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines
+of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to
+animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on
+Education '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals,
+'71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86,
+an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed
+against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State,
+'85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.
+
+Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents,
+Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and
+philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated
+by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly
+escaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired
+to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by
+polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained
+until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus,
+which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great
+thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as
+an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with
+Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly
+stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as
+among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague,
+21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The
+bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address
+from M. Rénan.
+
+Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19
+Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged
+Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from
+Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published
+many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at
+Boston, 14 May, 1887.
+
+Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.
+
+Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action,
+translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to
+England, went to America, Aug. '54.
+
+Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855,
+was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded
+theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the
+National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid
+sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican
+Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and
+in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation,
+and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress,
+Our Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam.,
+b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.
+
+Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future
+Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in
+which he criticises preceding religions.
+
+Stanton (Elizabeth, née Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New
+York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she
+was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights
+crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in
+Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony
+and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History
+of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American
+Review notably on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.
+
+Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of
+Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.
+
+Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the
+University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple
+of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able
+Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85,
+published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in
+the "International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family,
+in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan,
+etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of
+Ludwig Feuerbach.
+
+Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)
+
+Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In
+'59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by
+the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed
+to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of
+Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A
+critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately
+2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75;
+and wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome,
+etc. He translated Büchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus réduit,
+La Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions,
+and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.
+
+Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Züllichau, 21
+Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker
+through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy
+at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy,
+'78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.
+
+Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 May, 1823,
+has written many works on language and mythology.
+
+Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work,
+Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.
+
+"Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)
+
+Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3
+March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called
+to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when
+tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech
+was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted
+Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal
+Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is
+author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable
+legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably
+on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.
+
+Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding,
+b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A.,
+'57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the
+Cornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary
+of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the
+Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found
+in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written
+an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,
+'76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics,
+'82, besides many literary works.
+
+Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents,
+Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In
+'58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the
+Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he
+studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at
+Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected
+in his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the
+Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the
+Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus
+as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the
+Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has
+translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.
+
+"Sterne (Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).
+
+Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union,
+b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the
+American Freethought journals.
+
+Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before
+1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through
+India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London,
+20 Feb. 1822.
+
+"Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).
+
+Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich),
+b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he
+published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather
+Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work
+was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes
+him with German Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only
+the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.
+
+Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles),
+1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In
+'67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly
+in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been
+Minister of Education of the Colony.
+
+Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many
+years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and
+long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
+ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest
+advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent
+student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death,
+and sought to bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself
+influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in
+Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated
+Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The
+Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed,
+'71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the
+Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity,
+'75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood,
+4 Sept. 1884.
+
+Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg),
+27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was ordained in '30, and
+in '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated,
+'35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused
+much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the
+Zürich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they
+were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian
+indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines
+(2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an
+account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New
+Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of
+the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures
+on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the
+New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with
+the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of
+truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place,
+8 Feb. 1874.
+
+Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian
+Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent
+rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter
+was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists
+in Sweden.
+
+Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on
+astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote
+Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.
+
+Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of
+noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned
+it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry
+II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June
+1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus,
+he calmly declared himself an Atheist.
+
+Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besançon, 15 Jan,
+1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat,
+and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of
+Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris
+20 July, 1817.
+
+Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10
+Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris
+and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was
+elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the
+coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.
+
+Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin
+of the conception of God (London, 1859).
+
+Sully Prudhomme (Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16
+March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many
+volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of
+the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy
+of philosophical suggestion.
+
+Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode
+Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent
+in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church
+as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the
+forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery
+and Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols.,
+'86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.
+
+Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul,
+1886, and of several novels.
+
+Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals
+for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on
+Revealed Religion.
+
+Swinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London,
+5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he
+spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid
+reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and
+Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power,
+and provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he
+glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth
+of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other
+volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies,
+and prose miscellanies.
+
+Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841,
+of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for
+the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in
+'67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy,
+he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture
+at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic
+Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin,
+Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He
+contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during
+Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there
+established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My
+Religion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.
+
+Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol,
+5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in
+'62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his
+marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols.,
+completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies,
+and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.
+
+Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters,
+b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the
+Condorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In
+'56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which
+he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came
+to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which
+was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of
+Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote
+on English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made
+him D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy;
+his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.
+
+Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After
+entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution
+of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades
+unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in
+the National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at
+the Lycée Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on
+the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy,
+and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais
+and has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.
+
+Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote
+The Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.
+
+Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the
+Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.
+
+Taurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard,
+26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to
+think for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the
+eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation,
+he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the
+principal of which is Philosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the
+plague 28 Sept. 1606.
+
+Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,
+18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital,
+and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered
+St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and
+soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when
+he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He
+preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He
+then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started
+"The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and
+started "The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with
+discussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for
+blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty,
+and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham
+Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity,
+and his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins,
+evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a
+weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On
+his liberation they both went on "an infidel mission" about the
+country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where
+Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in
+The Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was
+sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol,
+and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died
+at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.
+
+Taylor (Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He
+devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic
+philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five
+books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries,
+Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against
+the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so
+thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth,
+1 Nov. 1835.
+
+Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance
+with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from
+the German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some
+repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms,
+1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his
+political and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter
+Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the
+Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was
+the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review,
+replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and the Critical Review when
+edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism
+of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.
+
+Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.
+
+"Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818
+edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of
+Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe
+is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo,
+'13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph
+Webb," 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in
+America; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same
+person.
+
+Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at
+Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning,
+optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in
+Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He
+opposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical
+principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the
+clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but
+this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.
+
+Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee,
+1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published
+1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.
+
+Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di
+Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son
+of Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.
+
+Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May,
+1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's
+work on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.
+
+Theodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled
+those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He
+resided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he
+said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.
+
+Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the
+alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of
+Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was
+received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,
+25 Sept. 1626.
+
+Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem
+of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the
+Nineteenth Century Club.
+
+Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to
+sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently
+manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a
+Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done
+much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has
+translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured
+on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritänkaren.
+
+Thomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23
+Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became
+a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he
+afterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he
+contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including
+his famous "City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic
+poem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with
+other poems in '80). "Vane's Story" with other poems was issued in
+'81, and "A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed in
+'84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited
+by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a
+volume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes "The Story of
+a Famous Old Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed
+much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.
+
+Thomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The
+Distribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward,
+'27, and in the Co-operative Magazine.
+
+Thorild (Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April,
+1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm,
+and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin,
+German, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In
+1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the
+liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution,
+and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a
+Sermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the
+rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far
+in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.
+
+Thulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist,
+b. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, "Realism." In '66 he
+published a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensée
+Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,
+La Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of
+the Paris Municipal Council.
+
+Tiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16
+Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in
+the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views
+in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has
+written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works
+have been translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of
+Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and
+Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.
+
+Tillier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,
+11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling
+pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,
+of which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His
+works were edited by F. Pyat.
+
+Tindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon,
+1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was
+induced to turn Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to
+Protestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work
+was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A
+defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of
+Commons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to
+which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733,
+and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of
+Gibson, Bishop of London.
+
+Toland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30
+Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early
+youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690,
+and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a
+sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian
+Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In
+1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious,
+which was "presented" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by
+the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,
+Sept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning
+Eikon Basilike, he referred to the "suppositious pieces under the
+name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons." For this he was
+denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor,
+in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and
+was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters
+to Serena (1704), which, says Lange, "handles the kernel of the
+whole question of Materialism." In 1709 he published Adeisidænon and
+Origines Judaicæ. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan
+Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He
+also wrote four pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which
+described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that
+of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher,
+at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.
+
+Tollemache (Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache,
+a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles
+in Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling,
+'84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison,
+'85; and Mr. Romanes's Catechism, '87.
+
+Tone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,
+1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship
+in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept
+relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the
+French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken
+prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.
+
+Topinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor
+of the Revue d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that
+subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.
+
+Toulmin (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The
+Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the
+Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.
+
+Tournai (Simon de). See Simon.
+
+Traina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of
+Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.
+
+Travis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself
+in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and
+literary executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's
+Journal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral
+Freedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed
+to the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.
+
+Trelawny (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in
+Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August,
+1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a
+daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son,
+'31; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13
+Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed
+beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the
+creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him "World-wide
+liberty's lifelong lover."
+
+Trenchard (John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire,
+1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner
+of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he
+wrote Cato's Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted
+The Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for
+Taunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but
+La Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died
+17 Dec. 1723.
+
+Trevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the
+Reasoner and National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind
+(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the
+National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.
+
+Trezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought
+up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him
+to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a
+Sceptic, '78; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is
+Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To
+the first number of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les
+Dieux s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work
+on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.
+
+Tridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur
+Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich,
+he became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in
+Le Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history
+Les Hébertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide,
+the precursor of La Libre Pensée, '66, in both of which the doctrines
+of materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International
+Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop
+Dupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in
+Le Candide and La Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the
+malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part
+of his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies
+of the Jewish religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70,
+he founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to
+the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration
+of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after
+the collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the
+most splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.
+
+Truebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After
+serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished
+himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy
+and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.
+
+Truelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in
+life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was
+secretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw
+in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he
+took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He
+published Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's
+complete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma
+and Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on
+Tyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In
+'78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment
+for publishing R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he
+was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.
+
+Trumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,
+b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the
+army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made
+him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years,
+and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted
+himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.
+
+Tschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a
+friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza,
+though he does not mention him. Died 1708.
+
+Tucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April,
+1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston.
+
+Turbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842,
+author of a work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts,
+1875.
+
+Turgenev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28
+Oct. 1818. In his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has
+depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival,
+near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.
+
+Turner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of
+William Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a
+Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.
+
+Tuuk (Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was
+converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the
+editors of De Dageraad.
+
+Twesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April,
+1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became
+magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal
+Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics
+and Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.
+
+Tylor (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist,
+b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study
+of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon
+the subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61;
+Researches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture;
+being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy,
+religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he
+traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written
+an excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study
+of Man and Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclopædia
+Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of
+the Anthropological Society.
+
+Tyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow,
+1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and
+afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland
+with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He
+contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles
+and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in
+the United States, and two years later was president of the British
+Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been
+published. In addition to other scientific works he has published
+popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.
+
+Tyrell (Henry). See Church.
+
+Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He
+became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of
+"Jacques Massé" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710,
+a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated
+into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.
+
+Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826;
+studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at
+Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History
+of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way
+distinctly an Atheist and Materialist."
+
+Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer,
+b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For
+his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the
+Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending
+his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and
+published in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.
+
+Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied
+at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and
+wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.
+
+Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York
+6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He
+fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held
+prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in
+conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at
+Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples
+and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and
+Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity
+on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of
+Freethought, New York, 1876.
+
+Vacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he
+replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For
+his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School
+of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute,
+'46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost
+his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy,
+'64, and La Religion, '69.
+
+Vacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of
+Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was
+director of Le Rappel.
+
+Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26
+Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he
+took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor
+of Paris.
+
+Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He
+became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes,
+1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and
+satirised Christianity.
+
+Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church,
+but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited
+the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism;
+its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died
+Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.
+
+Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a
+Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De
+Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."
+
+Valla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded
+some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to
+be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then
+confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and
+gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.
+
+Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La
+Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused
+of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.
+
+Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History
+of Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of
+Human Duty, '76, etc.
+
+Van Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and
+president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.
+
+Van Effen. See Effen.
+
+Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and
+martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied
+Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland,
+Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by
+his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the
+Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he
+visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released
+he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the
+Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was
+condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617;
+but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling
+Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut
+out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This
+was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France
+under Louis XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him
+to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him
+to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He
+sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"
+
+Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April,
+1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated
+on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberté
+de Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel
+des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but
+on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in
+'73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary
+of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature,
+1883-85.
+
+Varnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author,
+b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy,
+entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian
+diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt,
+and shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He
+vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.
+
+Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix,
+6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service
+with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to
+the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims,
+which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28
+May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously
+suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.
+
+Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote
+many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio
+Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in
+1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.
+
+Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874,
+and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.
+
+Vereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied
+at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has
+travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his
+Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn
+from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In
+his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows
+his free opinions.
+
+Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges,
+31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to
+the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the
+Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to
+the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné
+and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and,
+being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31
+Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks,
+Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there
+was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.
+
+Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre
+Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme
+Being.
+
+Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris,
+1869); collaborated La Libre Pensée, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop
+Dupanloup's Athéisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril
+Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.
+
+Vermersch (Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part
+in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.
+
+Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published
+Melanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.
+
+Veron (Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He
+wrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and
+l'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique
+in the "Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History
+of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliothèque Materialiste, '84; and La
+Morale, '84.
+
+Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came
+to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left
+the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siècle. In
+'41 he founded the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre
+Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many
+works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever,
+translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen,
+'71. Died 1883.
+
+Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He
+became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and
+published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in
+which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable
+laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.
+
+Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania,
+13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member
+of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological
+Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his
+reputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the
+Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he
+opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.
+
+Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg,
+30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but
+renounced theology and became professor of  and is Jahrbücher der
+Gegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking
+opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he
+was elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor
+at Zürich. His work on Æsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful,
+'46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New,
+'81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.
+
+Vitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian
+Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.
+
+Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied
+theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted
+himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of
+Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into
+English by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.
+
+Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian
+Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy,
+and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70,
+and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since
+'80 has been "sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85
+editor of the Neues Freireligiöses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In
+'88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time
+acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris
+Congress of Freethinkers, '89.
+
+Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded
+through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to
+earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition,
+are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple,
+which he edited.
+
+Vogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the
+son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became
+acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National
+Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor
+of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in
+Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by
+their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English
+and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written
+a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters,
+Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading
+Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.
+
+Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at
+Marburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor
+'63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion,
+'52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and
+the first Christian Ages, '82, etc.
+
+Volney (Constantin François Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher,
+b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers,
+he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783
+he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of
+his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on
+being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote
+and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins
+appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95
+he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become
+colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated
+with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat,
+April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the
+Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.
+
+Voltaire (François Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and
+philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he
+early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on
+the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and
+was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de
+Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord
+Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His
+Lettres Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732,
+gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About
+1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey,
+where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated
+to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at
+the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation
+of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help
+laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his
+life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through
+his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other
+man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism,
+and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage
+war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a
+thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned
+by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty
+different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction
+made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.
+
+Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than
+half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language
+at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to
+De Dageraad.
+
+Vosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law
+at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73),
+and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at
+Montreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.
+
+Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated
+B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and
+deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling
+and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow
+Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has
+also issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine
+and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.
+
+Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote
+several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School
+of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He
+was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.
+
+Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic,
+22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,
+but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where
+he produced his "Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of
+Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry,
+scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In
+philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at
+Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.
+
+Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29
+Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the
+Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed
+by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he
+issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200,
+a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.
+
+Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834,
+was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal
+Club. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.
+
+Walferdin (François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend
+of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and
+was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine
+edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that
+philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.
+
+Walker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and
+What is Blasphemy? 1843.
+
+Walker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls,
+Kansas.
+
+Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went
+to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In
+'77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,
+Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of
+which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85
+he was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction
+was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for
+Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.
+
+Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana,
+26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature
+of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri,
+to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel
+or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a
+Freethought University.
+
+Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18
+June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and
+was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian
+of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and
+fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works
+on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled
+Dynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.
+
+Ward (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a
+popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.
+
+Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an
+active part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,
+Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a
+"time store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled
+True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.
+
+Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth,
+Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian
+school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read
+from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead
+of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first
+Freethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere,
+and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been
+published. He now edits the Boston Investigator.
+
+Waters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir
+of Christian and extra Christian experience.
+
+Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks),
+21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in
+1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was
+arrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April,
+and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read
+Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the
+Republican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he
+issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to
+six months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
+left him £450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature,
+Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's
+works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.
+
+Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.
+
+Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted
+to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer
+and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had
+numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton,
+Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular
+Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He
+wrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published
+Christianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of
+Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.
+
+Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's
+Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.
+
+Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2
+Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted
+to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the
+Reasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He
+edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published
+several pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man,
+Is Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament,
+etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.
+
+Watts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse
+(first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.
+
+Webber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century
+wrote heretical works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction
+of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in
+boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin,
+Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.
+
+Weber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,
+1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while
+in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his
+satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20;
+Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos,
+or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died
+Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.
+
+Weitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He
+was a leader of "Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just,
+and published at Zürich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote
+Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America,
+where he died 25 Jan. 1871.
+
+Wellhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied
+theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle,
+and Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78,
+etc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the
+Encyclopædia Britannica.
+
+Westbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co.,
+Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40,
+and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60,
+and has since written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and
+Whither? In '88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American
+Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on
+teaching morality apart from religion.
+
+Westerman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active
+co-operator on De Dageraad.
+
+Westra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years
+been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, "De Dageraad."
+
+Wettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April,
+1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as
+a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine,
+The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National
+Secular Union.
+
+White (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7
+Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled
+in Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English
+literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State
+Senate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university
+which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The
+Warfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in
+the History of Civilisation, '85.
+
+Whitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y.,
+31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer,
+and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served
+as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with
+its noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as
+"the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet
+contributed." It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands
+at Seventy. This "good gray poet" has also written prose essays called
+Democratic Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.
+
+Wicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30
+Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in
+'85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution,
+etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante
+Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.
+
+Wieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near
+Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the
+Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the
+Gods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against
+immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,
+20 Jan. 1813. His last words were "To be or not to be."
+
+Wiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on
+the Elements of Natural Laws, 1863.
+
+Wiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of
+spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).
+
+Wigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10
+Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he
+issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other
+Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.
+
+Wightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of
+Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the
+last person burnt for heresy in England.
+
+Wihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16
+Jan. 1882.
+
+Wilbrandt (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has
+written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism,
+and published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno,
+1874, and also some novels.
+
+Wilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage,
+published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.
+
+Wilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah
+an able Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God,
+published at Bradford, 1853.
+
+Williams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a
+dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on
+Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction
+with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on
+the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a
+Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April,
+1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established
+the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.
+
+Willis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied
+at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to
+London, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College
+of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza,
+'70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and
+Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age,
+and A Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died
+at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.
+
+Wilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on
+Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.
+
+Wirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.
+
+Wislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20
+Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister,
+but in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended
+and founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the
+Light of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison
+for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New
+York. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Zürich, where he
+died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers,
+was published at Leipsic in '63.
+
+Wittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote
+on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.
+
+Wixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the "Children's Corner"
+in the Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought,
+temperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member
+of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where
+she resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator.
+
+Wollny (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic,
+1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.
+
+Wollstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April,
+1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began
+her literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She
+also wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke,
+and Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William
+Godwin, and died in childbirth.
+
+Wooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877;
+Career of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died
+Aug. 1885.
+
+Woolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied
+at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He
+published in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in
+favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began
+his Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible,
+homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold,
+and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for
+blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and
+a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.
+
+Wright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield
+Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College,
+'26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists,
+he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,
+and edited the Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and
+uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator,
+the Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His
+funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.
+
+Wright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess,
+b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in
+Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She
+visited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners
+in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled
+it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards
+joined Owen's experiment; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette,
+and afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was
+published at New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on
+religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted
+in founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.
+
+Wright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield
+co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator,
+he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The
+Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island,
+16 Aug. 1870.
+
+Wright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822,
+for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the
+course of which she was continually interrupted.
+
+Wundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),
+16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at
+Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at
+Heidelberg in '64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His
+principal works are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74;
+Manual of Human Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.
+
+Wuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was
+Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.
+
+Wyrouboff (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the
+Revue de Philosophie Positive with Littré, and edited it with him
+from 1867-83.
+
+Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded
+the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in
+which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.
+
+Ximines (Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26
+Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several
+plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.
+
+York (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a
+blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally
+Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California
+Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through
+the States.
+
+Yorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity,
+London, 1882.
+
+Youmans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y.,
+3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became
+M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding
+the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He
+popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the "International Scientific
+Series," and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which
+he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.
+
+Zaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La
+Créche, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic
+Man, '78; Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific
+Curiosities, '83.
+
+Zambrini (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated
+at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced
+a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.
+
+Zarco (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited
+El Siglo XIX and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of
+"Fortun." He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the
+reactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President
+of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.
+
+Zeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Würtemberg), 22
+Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tübingen and Berlin, became professor
+at Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for
+philosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has
+written a memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek
+Philosophy, '83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other
+important works.
+
+Zijde (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has
+been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen
+he wrote The Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many
+literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.
+
+Zimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England
+since '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer
+and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.
+
+Zola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April,
+1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon
+Macquart, he made himself the leader of the "naturalist" school,
+which claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as
+it is without the ideal.
+
+Zorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834,
+became a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the
+Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was
+prosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since
+been exiled for his Republicanism.
+
+Zouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh.
+
+Zuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June,
+1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of
+'48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal
+Law in the University of Pavia.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENT.
+
+
+Those which have already appeared are marked *
+
+
+Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin.
+
+Abu Abd'allah Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist
+b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of
+Empedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused of impiety, he
+left Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to Spain and
+collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent
+predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were
+publicly burned at Seville.
+
+* Acosta (Uriel), the name of his work was Examen Traditorum
+Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam.
+
+Acuna (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about
+1854. Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The Doll's
+House, and other educational works.
+
+* Adams (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and lecturer,
+the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a
+sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written
+in Secular Thought, the Truthseeker and the Freethinker's Magazine,
+and published rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In
+'89 he was elected President of the Canadian Secular Union.
+
+Admiraal (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede, 13 Oct. 1833. At first
+a schoolmaster, he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at
+Schoonhoven. He wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over
+the anagram "Aramaldi." In '67 he published The Religion of the
+People under the pseudonym "Bato van der Maas," a name he used in
+writing to many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble
+constitution. He died 12 Nov. 1878.
+
+Airoldi (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a poet
+and writer of talent.
+
+Albaida (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one of the
+founders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his principles;
+returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869.
+
+* Alchindus. Died about 864.
+
+* Aleardi had better be deleted. I am now told he was a Christian.
+
+Alfarabi. See Alpharabius.
+
+Algeri (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused
+of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil,
+pitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.
+
+Alkemade (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to
+De Dageraad, and also published a work containing many Bible
+contradictions, 1862; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name
+"Alexander de M."
+
+Allais (Denis de). See Vairasse.
+
+Allais (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847.
+
+Almquist (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor of
+philology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new
+ideas and Freethought.
+
+Altmeyer (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20
+Jan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an
+Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of Humanity,
+'36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877.
+
+Amari (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7
+July, 1806. In '32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote
+a standard History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of
+Garibaldi, he was made head of public instruction in the island. He
+took part in the anti-clerical council of '69. Died at Florence,
+July 1889.
+
+* Amaury de Chartres. According to L'Abbè Ladvocat his disciples
+maintained that the sacraments were useless, and that there was no
+other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell
+than ignorance and sin.
+
+Anderson (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2
+Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and
+was for some time editress of a periodical De Twintigste Eeuw (the
+twentieth century). She has also written some novels. She resides now
+at Würzburg, Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. As pen-name
+she formerly used that of "Mevrouw Quarlès" and now "Dr. Al. Dondorf."
+
+* Anthero de Quental. This name would be better under Quental.
+
+Apono. See Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano.
+
+* Aquila. Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of
+the Scriptures.
+
+Aranda (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman,
+b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and
+ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclopædists,
+and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He
+also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister
+to France. He was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799.
+
+Argilleres (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards a
+Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and
+his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561-2, for having eight years
+previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle
+in Bresse.
+
+* Arnould (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist
+Revue and La Societé Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Liberté,
+in which many a battle for Freethought has been fought.
+
+Ascarate (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of
+Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest
+Radical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of
+Krause. He has written Social Studies, Self-Government and Monarchy,
+and other political works.
+
+Aszo y Del Rio (Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist,
+b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important
+works on various branches of science. In his political works he
+advocated the abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.
+
+* Aubert de Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although
+accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza,
+which I have not been able to see.
+
+Auerbach (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction,
+b. Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published
+a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having
+previously published an historical romance on the same subject. Died
+Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882.
+
+* Aymon (Jean). La vie et L'Esprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye,
+1719) was afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three
+Impostors.
+
+* Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this enfant terrible of
+the German Aufklarung fill 120 volumes.
+
+* Bailey (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered much
+on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk
+erected a monument to his memory.
+
+* Bancel (Francis Désiré). In his work Les Harangues de l'Exil, 3
+vols., 1863, his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in
+La Revue Critique.
+
+Barnaud (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphiné. Lived during the latter half
+of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany,
+and to him is attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le
+Cabinet du Roy de France, which is largely directed against the clergy.
+
+Barreaux. See des Barreaux.
+
+Barth (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he
+attained reputation as orator to working men and took part in the
+revolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich,
+where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought.
+
+Bartrina, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died
+in 1880.
+
+Bedingfield (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823,
+wrote in National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight,
+'70. Died 14 Feb. 1876.
+
+* Berigardus (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.
+
+* Bertillon (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, April, '68,
+he said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died
+1883.
+
+* Berwick (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author
+of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the signature of
+"Presbyter Anglicanus."
+
+Blein (F. A. A.), Baron, French author of Essais Philosophiques,
+Paris, 1843.
+
+Blum (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He
+took an active part in progressive political and religious movements,
+and published the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he
+became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican
+party. He was one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna,
+and showed great bravery in the fights of the students with the
+troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.
+
+* Blumenfleld (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym.
+
+Bolin (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied
+at Helsingford, '52, and became Doctor of Philosophy in '66, and
+Professor in '73. He has written on the Freedom of the Will, The
+Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland;
+he has been repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical
+views on religious questions.
+
+Bolivar (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the
+University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas.
+
+Boppe (Herman C.), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A.
+
+Borsari (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work
+of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator
+of Freethought.
+
+Bostrom (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4
+Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant
+criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.
+
+Boucher (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste
+at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was
+published at Avignon, 1884.
+
+Bourneville (Magloire Désir), French deputy and physician,
+b. Garancières, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in '79
+was appointed physician to the asylum of Bicêtre. He was Municipal
+Councillor of Paris from '76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he
+was elected deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75;
+Hysteria in History, '76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the
+erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.
+
+Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee
+Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867;
+wrote in La Pensée Nouvelle, '68; is author of a large and able work
+on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has
+edited the posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870.
+
+* Bovio (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author
+of a dramatic piece, Cristo alla festa di Purim, and of a History
+of Law in Italy. Signor Bovio delivered the address at unveiling the
+monument to Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889.
+
+Boyer. See Argens.
+
+* Bradlaugh (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to
+repeal the Blasphemy Laws.
+
+Braga (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated
+at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a History of Portuguese
+Literature. Is one of the Republican leaders.
+
+Branting (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in '88
+to three months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social
+Democraten.
+
+Braun (Eugen), Dr. See F. W. Ghillany.
+
+Braun (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised
+many of the Bible stories. Died 1860.
+
+Brewer (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school
+books, and compiled a Dictionary of Miracles, 1884.
+
+Brismee (Desiré), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor
+of Le Drapeau he underwent eighteen months' imprisonment. The principle
+founder of Les Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that
+society, and his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards
+the history of Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of
+his Freethought orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died
+at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.
+
+* Brothier (Léon). Died about 1874.
+
+* Brown (G. W.) Dr. Brown's new work is published at Rockford,
+Illinois, and entitled Researches in Jewish History, including the rise
+and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity.
+
+* Bruno (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma
+of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that he
+died impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister
+of Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was
+stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore
+his martyrdom with great fortitude.
+
+Buen (Odon de), Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, of Madrid,
+b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of
+Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition From
+Christiania to Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He
+married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the
+Paris Freethought Conference, 1889.
+
+Calderon (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits
+La Justicia. Has written several books on law.
+
+Calderon (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of
+Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.
+
+Calderon (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846;
+professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels
+in Central America, and written largely on geological subjects.
+
+Calvo (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A
+pronounced Republican and Freethinker.
+
+* Canestrini (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.
+
+Cassels (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of
+Supernatural Religion, a critical examination of the worth of the
+Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three '79). Has written under his own name
+Eidolon and other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published
+A Reply to Dr. Lightfoot's Essays.
+
+Castro (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a
+priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and
+had a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.
+
+Cavia (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of
+the Liberal of Madrid.
+
+* Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the
+first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He served in the
+navy during the first China War, 1840-42. Published accounts of the
+siege of Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also "Ride over Rocky
+Mountains," which he accomplished with great hardships in '50. Was
+private secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in
+'54-'58. Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861.
+
+Cornette (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature
+at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in L'Avenir of
+Brussels and the Revue Socialite, he has published separate works
+on Freemasonry, 1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80; Freethought
+Darwinism, etc.
+
+Curros (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the
+Bishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems entitled
+Airs of my Country, but he was acquitted by the jury.
+
+Czerski (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12
+May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church,
+associated himself with Ronge, married, and was excommunicated. Has
+written several works against Roman Catholicism, and is still living
+at Schneidemükl-Posen.
+
+D'Ercole (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University
+of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds
+that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at
+variance both with reality and with themselves.
+
+Deschanel (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1819. He
+wrote in the Revue Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Liberté de
+Penser; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived
+of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went to Belgium. He has been Professor
+of Modern Literature at the College of France, and written many
+important works.
+
+Desnoiresterres (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters,
+b. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVII. and
+XVIII. Siècles, 1881, and Voltaire et la Société Française au
+XVIII. Siècle, an important work in eight vols.
+
+* Desraimes (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.
+
+Diogenes (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived
+in the fifth century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at
+Athens through his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to
+the State. He held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced
+to nothing; that the earth was round and had received its shape from
+whirling. He made no distinction between mind and matter.
+
+Donius (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work,
+De Natura Dominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit,
+to motion. The title of his second book is "Omnes operationes spiritus
+esse motum et semum."
+
+Dosamantes (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of works on
+Absolute Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees
+(mystics and materialists), '89.
+
+Druskowitz (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is
+Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley,
+Berlin, '84; a little book on Freewill, and The New Doctrines, '83.
+
+Dufay (Henri), author of La Legende du Christ, 1880.
+
+Duller (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He
+wrote a History of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People
+(Frankfort, '47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.
+
+* Du Marsais (César Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anonymous work
+on The World and its Antiquity and The Soul and its Immortality,
+Londres, 1751.
+
+* Fellowes (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6
+Feb. 1847.
+
+Figueras-y-Moracas (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator,
+b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican
+opinions. In '51 he was elected to the Cortes, was exiled in '66, but
+returned in '68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de Montpensiér in
+'69, and became President of the Spanish Republic 12 Feb. '73. Died
+poor in 1879, and was buried without religious ceremony, according
+to his wish.
+
+Fitzgerald (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge,
+Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in
+'30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation
+of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the
+Quatrains of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883.
+
+Galletti (Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated
+Feuerbach on Death and Immortality, and also translated from
+Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.
+
+Ganeval (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author
+of a work on Egypt and Jesus devant l'histoire n'a jamais vécu. The
+first part, published in '74, was prohibited in France, and the second
+part was published at Geneva in '79.
+
+Garrido (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic,
+Cadiz 1843, a work on Contemporary Spain, published at Brussels in
+'62, The Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious
+Persecutions, a work rendered into English in conjunction with
+C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.
+
+Gerling (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist
+to an Idealist, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi
+contributes a preface.
+
+Geroult de Pival, French librarian at Rouen; probably the author of
+Doutes sur la Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772.
+
+Goffin (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Liége and
+President of La Libre Pensée of Brussels, and one of the General
+Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23
+May, 1884.
+
+Goldhawke (J. H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the
+greater number of personages mentioned in the Old and New Testaments
+are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.
+
+Gorani (Giuseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with
+Beccaria, D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism,
+published anonymously, 1770; defended the French Revolution and was
+made a French citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.
+
+Govett (Frank), author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessimistic
+reply to Sir J. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Mr. Govett rejects the
+consolations of religion.
+
+Guimet (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist
+and philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of the inventor
+of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has visited most
+parts of the world and formed a collection of objects illustrating
+religions. These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he
+also founded a library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine
+museum which cost several million francs, he presented to his country,
+and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he
+began publishing Annales du Musée Guimet, in which original articles
+appear on Oriental Religions. He has also written many works upon his
+travels. He attended the banquet in connection with the International
+Congress of Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.
+
+Guynemer (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy,
+1852, and an anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many
+points of theology are discussed in alphabetical order.
+
+Hamerling (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March,
+1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Rome
+'66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translated
+Leopardis' poems '86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, 1889.
+
+Heyse (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin,
+15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to
+Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many
+popular plays and romances, of which we specially mention The Children
+of the World, '73, a novel describing social and religious life of
+Germany at the present day, and In Paradise, 1875.
+
+Hicks (L. E.) American geologist, author of A Critique of Design
+Arguments. Boston, 1883.
+
+Hitchman (William), English physician, b. Northleach, Gloucestershire,
+1819, became M.R.C.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established
+Freelight, and wrote a pamphlet, Fifty Years of Freethought. Died 1888.
+
+Hoeffding (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of
+Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since '83. Is
+absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on the newer
+philosophy in Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work
+special attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German
+editions have been published of his works Grundlage der humanen
+Ethik (Basis of Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umriss (Outlines
+of Psychology '87), and Ethik 1888.
+
+Holst (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish
+Society for Religious Liberty.
+
+Ignell (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought
+up as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated
+Renan's Life of Jesus, and did much to arouse opposition to orthodox
+Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.
+
+Jacobsen (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede,
+7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia,
+translating the Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his
+novels we may name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII. century,
+and Niels Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This
+able young writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.
+
+Kleist (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18
+Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795,
+quitted it in four years and took to study. Kant's Philosophy made
+him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian
+philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide
+together with a lady, near Potsdam, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly
+known by his dramas and a collection of tales.
+
+Letourneau (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray
+(Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pensée
+Nouvelle, and has published Physiology of the Passions, '68; Biology,
+'75, translated into English by W. Maccall; Science and Materialism,
+'79; Sociology based on Ethnography, '80; and the Evolution of
+Marriage and the Family, '85. He has also translated Büchner's Man
+According to Science, Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals,
+Haeckel's History of Creation, Letters of a Traveller in India,
+and Herzen's Physiology of the Will.
+
+Lippert (Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship,
+Berlin, 1881; The Universal History of Priesthoods, '83; and an
+important Culture History of Mankind, '86-7.
+
+Lloyd (William Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons,
+London 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New Testament side
+by side. He has also written The Age of Pericles, and several works
+on Shakespeare.
+
+Lucian, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on
+the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and
+Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He
+travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal
+works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed
+against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer,
+and torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance
+can be placed. On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has
+been supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that
+piece is genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving,
+and an enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his
+account of Alexander, the false prophet.
+
+Maglia (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June,
+1859, began writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards
+published L'Union Republicana. He founded the Freethinking group
+"El Independiente" and edits El Clamor Setabense and El Pueblo
+Soberano. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at Rome
+in '85, and in '89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned
+to six years' imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking
+Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.
+
+disciples, whom he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most
+eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averroës. Died Oct.-Nov. 931. His
+works were publicly burned at Seville.
+
+Mata (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University of
+Madrid. Author of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851; a Treatise on
+Human Reason, '58-64; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68.
+
+Mendizabal (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz,
+1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed
+to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious
+orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid,
+3 Nov. 1853.
+
+* Meredith (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool College, he
+became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh
+tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the
+claims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet
+of Nazareth he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels,
+but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889.
+
+Miralta (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer,
+b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one
+of the writers on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Memoirs
+of a Poor Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament
+Exposed. His work on The Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has
+greatly encouraged civil marriages.
+
+Moraita (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor
+of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of
+clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous History
+of Spain. In '84 he made a discourse at the University against
+the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his
+excommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students,
+against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the
+Spanish Freemasons.
+
+Moya (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was
+deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the
+infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.
+
+Nakens (José), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of El
+Motin, a Republican and Freethought paper of Madrid, in connection
+with which there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta--the
+Pick-axe.
+
+Nees Von Esenbeck (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist,
+b. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was
+Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, '31. He was leader of
+the free religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the
+political agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several
+works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858.
+
+Nyblaus (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has published
+some anti-Christian pamphlets.
+
+Offen (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to
+America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at
+Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the Free Discussion
+Society. He wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a
+critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848.
+
+Palmaer (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. Author of
+The Last Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died at Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.
+
+Panizza (Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a
+materialist work on The Philosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887.
+
+Perez Galdos (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. Canary
+Islands, lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention
+Gloria, which has been translated into English, and La Familia
+de Leon Roch, 1878, in which he stoutly attacks clericalism and
+religious intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales,
+and many historical novels.
+
+Regenbrecht (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. Brannsberg,
+1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of the free
+religious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.
+
+Robert (Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817. Became
+famous by his mordant style, his most celebrated works being The
+Rogues of Antonio, The Times of Mari Casania, The Skimmer of the
+Centuries. Died in 1870.
+
+Rupp (Julius), German reformer, b. Königsberg, 13 Aug. 1809. Studied
+philosophy and theology, and became in '42 a minister. He protested
+against the creeds, and became leader of the Free-religious movement
+in East Prussia.
+
+Ryberg (Y. E.), Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He has
+translated several of Mr. Bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular
+literature.
+
+Sachse (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At Magdeburg he
+did much to demolish the remains of theism in the Free-religious
+communities. Died 1883.
+
+Sales y Ferre (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839. Professor
+at the University of Seville. Has published several works on geology
+and prehistoric times.
+
+Schneider (Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim,
+1854. Author of The Human Will from the standpoint of the New
+Development Theory (Berlin, 1882), and other works.
+
+Schreiner (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in South
+Africa. Authoress of "The Story of an African Farm," 1883.
+
+Serre (... de la), author of an Examination of Religion, attributed to
+Saint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament
+of Paris.
+
+Suner y Capderila. Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. Became
+deputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses
+against Catholicism.
+
+Tocco (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. Catanzaro,
+12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and Bologna,
+and became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the
+Rivista Bolognese on Leopardi, and on "Positivism" in the Rivista
+Contemporanea. He has published works on A. Bain's Theory of Sensation,
+'72; Thoughts on the History of Philosophy, '77; The Heresy of the
+Middle Ages, '84; and Giordano Bruno, '86.
+
+Tommasi (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work on
+Evolution, Science, and Naturalism, Naples 1877, and a little pamphlet
+in commemoration of Darwin, '82.
+
+Tubino (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, 1838, took
+part in Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, and has contributed to the
+Rivista Europea.
+
+Tuthill (Charles A. H.), author of The Origin and Development of
+Christian Dogma, London, 1889.
+
+Vernial (Paul), French doctor and member of the Anthropological
+Society of Paris, author of a work on the Origin of Man, 1881.
+
+Wheeler (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 Jan., 1850. Converted
+from Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Has
+contributed to the National Reformer Secularist, Secular Chronicle,
+Liberal, Progress, and Freethinker which he has sub-edited since
+1882, using occasionally the signatures "Laon," "Lucianus" and other
+pseudonyms. Has published Frauds and Follies of the Fathers '88,
+Footsteps of the Past, a collection of essays in anthropology and
+comparative religion '86; and Crimes of Christianity, written in
+conjunction with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited Sepher
+Toldoth Jeshu. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge
+in the cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the
+service of Freethought.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of
+Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers
+of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations
+
+Author: Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+Release Date: November 30, 2010 [EBook #34513]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This book was produced from scanned images of public
+domain material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+<div class="front">
+<div class="titlePage">
+<div class="docTitle">
+<div class="mainTitle">A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All
+Ages and Nations.</div>
+</div>
+<div class="byline">By <span class="docAuthor">J. M.
+Wheeler.</span></div>
+<div class="docImprint">London:<br>
+Progressive Publishing Company,<br>
+28 Stonecutter Street, E.C.<br>
+<span class="docDate">1889.</span></div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1">
+<p class="firstpar xd20e132">London:</p>
+<p class="xd20e132">Printed and published by G. W. Foote, at 28
+Stonecutter Street, E.C. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e136" href=
+"#xd20e136" name="xd20e136">iii</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="div1">
+<h2 class="main">Preface.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar">John Stuart Mill in his &ldquo;Autobiography&rdquo;
+declares with truth that &ldquo;the world would be astonished if it
+knew how great a proportion of its brightest ornaments, of those most
+distinguished even in popular estimation for wisdom and virtue are
+complete sceptics in religion.&rdquo; Many of these, as Mill points
+out, refrain from various motives from speaking out. The work I have
+undertaken will, I trust, do something to show how many of the
+world&rsquo;s worthiest men and women have been Freethinkers.</p>
+<p>My Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who
+have rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation would
+rather be the task of an international society than of an individual.
+Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now inaccessible.
+Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom the world was not
+worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom in prison or at the
+stake. Some of the names of these are only known by the vituperation of
+their adversaries. I have done my best to preserve some trustworthy
+record of as many as possible.</p>
+<p>The only complete work with a similar design of which I have any
+knowledge, is the <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Ath&eacute;es anciens
+et modernes</i>, by Sylvain Mar&eacute;chal with its supplements by
+Jerome de Lalande the Astronomer, An. VIII. (1800)&ndash;1805. That
+work, which is now extremely <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e150"
+href="#xd20e150" name="xd20e150">iv</a>]</span>rare, gave scarcely any
+biographical details, and unfortunately followed previous orthodox
+atheographers, such as Buddeus, Reimmann, Hardouin, Garasse, Mersenne,
+in classing as Atheists those to whom the title was inapplicable. I
+have taken no names from these sources without examining the
+evidence.</p>
+<p>A work was issued by Richard Carlile in 1826, entitled <i>A
+Dictionary of Modern Anti-Superstionists</i>; or, &ldquo;an account,
+arranged alphabetically, of those who, whether called Atheists,
+Sceptics, Latitudinarians, Religious Reformers, or etc., have during
+the last ten centuries contributed towards the diminution of
+superstition. Compiled by a searcher after Truth.&rdquo; The compiler,
+as I have reason to know, was Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task
+adequate scholarship and leisure. It was, however, conceived on too
+extensive a scale, and in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only
+reached to the name of Annet. Julian Hibbert also compiled
+chronological tables of English Freethinkers, which were published in
+the <i>Reasoner</i> for 1855.</p>
+<p>Of the <i>Anti-Trinitarian Biography</i> of the Rev. Robert Wallace,
+or of the previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but
+little use. To include the names of all who reject some of the
+Christian dogmas was quite beside my purpose, though I have included
+those of early Unitarians and Universalists who, I conceive, exhibited
+the true spirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the
+<i lang="de">Freydenker Lexikon</i> of J. A. Trinius (1759) my
+obligations are slight, but should be acknowledged. To Bayle&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary</i>, Hoefer&rsquo;s <i>Nouvelle Biographie Generale</i>,
+Meyer&rsquo;s <i lang="de">Konversations Lexikon</i>, Franck&rsquo;s
+<i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques</i>, and to
+Larousse&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">Grand Dictionnaire Universel</i> I must
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e184" href="#xd20e184" name=
+"xd20e184">v</a>]</span>also express my indebtedness. In the case of
+disputed dates I have usually found Haydn&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of
+Biography</i> (1886) most trustworthy, but I have also consulted
+Oettinger&rsquo;s valuable <i lang="fr">Moniteur des Dates</i>.</p>
+<p>The particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available
+sources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives
+dealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and
+relation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works
+of authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full a
+list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive
+Freethought works; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone
+wishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only
+work of a bibliographical kind is the <i lang="fr">Guide du Libre
+Penseur</i>, by M. Alfred Verli&egrave;re, but his list is very far
+from complete even of the French authors, with whom it is almost
+entirely occupied. I should also mention <i lang="fr">La Lorgnette
+Philosophique</i>, by M. Paquet, as giving lively sketches, though not
+biographies, of some modern French Freethinkers.</p>
+<p>In the compilation of my list of names I have received assistance
+from my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for the
+opportunity of publication), Mr. W. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and Mr.
+F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers I
+am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and Mr.
+E. T. Craig, while Professor <span class="corr" id="xd20e202" title=
+"Source: Dal Volta">Dalla Volta</span>, of Florence, has kindly
+assisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my
+indebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose <i lang="it">Dizionario
+Biografico degli Scrittori Contemporanei</i><a id="xd20e207" name=
+"xd20e207"></a> I have found of considerable service. My thanks are
+also due to G. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the titles
+of all Freethought works in the British Museum. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e209" href="#xd20e209" name=
+"xd20e209">vi</a>]</span></p>
+<p>Some readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while
+omitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted
+many foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who,
+ostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be
+found in my purpose, which is to record the names of those who have
+contributed in their generation to the <i>advance</i> of Freethought.
+No one can be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than
+myself, but I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that
+&ldquo;though it be the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide
+wood, it is no discredit if he do not find it all&rdquo;; and the hope
+that what I have attempted some other will complete.</p>
+<p>The most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the
+claims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in
+this dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I
+designed it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and
+leave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of
+&ldquo;the good old cause&rdquo;; a history which has yet to be
+written, and for which, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe.</p>
+<p>Should this volume be received with an encouraging share of favor, I
+hope to follow it with a <i>History of Freethought in England</i>, for
+which I have long been collecting materials. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e222" href="#xd20e222" name=
+"xd20e222">7</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="body">
+<div class="div1">
+<h2 class="main">A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar"><b>Ab&aelig;lardus</b> (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher
+of philosophy at Paris, renowned for being loved by the celebrated
+Eloise. He was accused of teaching erroneous opinions, chiefly about
+the Creation and the Trinity, and was condemned by a council at
+Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140, at the instigation of St.
+Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent his last days as a monk at
+Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. &ldquo;Abelard,&rdquo; observes Hallam,
+&ldquo;was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the age of
+darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Abano</b> (Petrus de). See <a href="#petrusdeabano">Petrus, <i>de
+Abano</i></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Abauzit</b> (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian
+family which settled in the South of France early in the ninth century,
+b. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted
+with Bayle, attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by
+Voltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels,
+and an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority of
+that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His <i>Miscellanies</i> were
+translated in English by E. Harwood, 1774.</p>
+<p><b>Abbot</b> (Francis Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston,
+6 Nov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a
+Unitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned in
+1869. He started the <i>Index</i>, a journal of free religious inquiry
+and anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he
+edited 1870&ndash;80. In 1872 appeared his <i>Impeachment of
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e257" title=
+"Source: Christianty">Christianity</span></i>. In addition to his work
+on the <i>Index</i>, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great deal, and has
+contributed to the <i>North American Review</i> and other periodicals.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e266" href="#xd20e266" name=
+"xd20e266">8</a>]</span>He was the first president of the American
+National Liberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and
+defends his views in <i>Scientific Theism</i>, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Ablaing van Giessenburg</b> (R.C.) See <a href=
+"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p>
+<p id="abubakribnal-tufail"><b>Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail</b> (Abu
+J&rsquo;afar) <i>Al Isbili</i>. Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. at
+Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic tendency <i>Hai
+Ibn Yakdan</i>, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671, and into
+English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of <i>The Improvement of
+Human Reason</i>. Died at Morocco 1185.</p>
+<p><b>Abu-Fazil</b> (<span class="sc">Abu al Fadhl ibn Mubarak</span>,
+called <i>Al Hindi</i>), vizier to the great Emperor Akbar from 1572.
+Although by birth a Muhammadan, his investigations into the religions
+of India made him see equal worth in all, and, like his master, Akbar,
+he was tolerant of all sects. His chief work is the <i>Ayin Akbary</i>,
+a statistical account of the Indian Empire. It was <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e305" title="Source: trauslated">translated</span> by F.
+Gladwin, 1777. He was assassinated 1604.</p>
+<p><b>Abul-Abbas-Abdallah III.</b> (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside,
+caliph, son of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was
+a patron of science and literature, collected Greek and Hebrew
+manuscripts, and invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He
+wrote several treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug.
+833.</p>
+<p><b>Abul-Ola</b> (<span class="sc">Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn
+Sulaiman</span>), celebrated Arabian poet, b. at Maari, in Syria, Dec.,
+973. His free opinions gave much scandal to devout Moslems. He was
+blind through small-pox from the age of four years, but his poems
+exhibit much knowledge. He called himself &ldquo;the doubly imprisoned
+captive,&rdquo; in allusion to his seclusion and loss of sight. He took
+no pains to conceal that he believed in no revealed religion. Died May,
+1057, and ordered the following verse to be written on his
+tomb:&mdash;&ldquo;I owe this to the fault of my father: none owe the
+like to mine.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Abu Tahir</b> (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at
+Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of
+followers captured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He
+suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the
+head of thirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in
+943. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e323" href="#xd20e323" name=
+"xd20e323">9</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Achillini</b> (Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b.
+Bologna 29 Oct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote
+largely upon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were
+published at Venice, 1545.</p>
+<p><b>Ackermann</b> (Louise-Victorine, n&eacute;e <span class=
+"sc">Choquet</span>), French poetess, b. Paris 30 Nov. 1813. She
+travelled to Germany and there married (<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e336" title="Source: 1858">1853</span>) a young theologian, Paul
+Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his Christian faith,
+and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick William (afterwards
+Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four (1846). Both were
+friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann&rsquo;s poems (Paris
+1863&ndash;74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and
+Atheist. &ldquo;God is dethroned,&rdquo; says M. Caro of her poems
+(<i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 15 May, 1874). She professes
+hatred of Christianity and its interested professors. She has also
+published <i>Thoughts of a Solitary</i>. Sainte Beuve calls her
+&ldquo;the learned solitary of Nice.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Acollas</b> (Pierre Antoine Ren&eacute; Paul Emile), French
+jurisconsult and political writer, b. La Ch&acirc;tre 25 June, 1826,
+studied law at Paris. For participating in the Geneva congress of the
+International Society in 1867 he was condemned to one year&rsquo;s
+imprisonment. In 1871 he was appointed head of the law faculty by the
+Commune. He has published several manuals popularising the legal rights
+of the people, and has written on <i>Marriage its Past, Present, and
+Future</i>, 1880. Mrs. Besant has translated his monograph on <i>The
+Idea of God in the Revolution</i>, published in the <span lang=
+"fr">Droits de l&rsquo;Homme</span>.</p>
+<p><b>Acontius</b> (Jacobus&mdash;<i>Italian</i>, Giacomo Aconzio).
+Born at Trent early in sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in
+the Church of Rome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland
+in 1557. He subsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as
+a military engineer. To her he dedicated his <i>Strategems of
+Satan</i>, published at Basle 1565. This was one of the earliest
+latitudinarian works, and was placed upon the <i>Index</i>. It was also
+bitterly assailed by Protestant divines, both in England and on the
+Continent. An English translation appeared in 1648. Some proceedings
+were taken against Acontius before Bishop Grindall, of the result of
+which no account is given. Some passages of Milton&rsquo;s <i lang=
+"la">Areopagitica</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e374" href=
+"#xd20e374" name="xd20e374">10</a>]</span>may be traced to Acontius,
+who, Cheynell informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> says he is believed to have
+died shortly after 1566.</p>
+<p><b>Acosta</b> (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a
+Christianised Jew; he was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching
+maturity, rejected that faith. He went to Holland, where he published a
+work equally criticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was
+excommunicated by the Synagogue, fined and put in prison by the
+Amsterdam authorities, and his work suppressed. After suffering many
+indignities from both Jews and Christians, he committed suicide
+1647.</p>
+<p><b>Adams</b> (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one
+month&rsquo;s imprisonment for selling the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Adams</b> (Robert C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer.
+Author of <i>Travels in Faith from Tradition to Reason</i> (New York,
+1884), also <i>Evolution, a Summary of Evidence</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Adler</b> (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a
+Jewish rabbi, was b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at
+Columbia College, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature
+at Cornell University from &rsquo;74 to May &rsquo;76, when he
+established in New York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he
+discourses on Sundays. In 1877 he published a volume entitled <i>Creed
+and Deed</i>, in which he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has
+also contributed many papers to the Radical literature of America.</p>
+<p><b>&AElig;nesidemus.</b> A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first
+century. He adopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were
+in course of change, and argued against our knowledge of ultimate
+causes.</p>
+<p><b>Airy</b> (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b.
+Alnwick 27 July, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior
+wrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance
+astronomical science. His <i>Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures</i>
+1876, proves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Aitkenhead</b> (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who
+was indicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having
+called the Old Testament &ldquo;Ezra&rsquo;s Fables,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e423" href="#xd20e423" name=
+"xd20e423">11</a>]</span>and having maintained that God and nature were
+the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696, and hanged for blasphemy, 8
+Jan. 1697.</p>
+<p><b>Aitzema</b> (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum
+19 Nov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands,
+between 1621&ndash;68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at
+the Hague 23 Feb. 1669.</p>
+<p id="akbar"><b>Akbar</b> (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the
+emperors of Hindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide
+administration and improvement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration
+alike to Christians, Muhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith.
+He had the Christian gospels and several Brahmanical treatises
+translated into Persian. The result of his many conferences on religion
+between learned men of all sects, are collected in the <i>Dabistan</i>.
+Akbar was brought up as a Muhammadan, but became a Theist,
+acknowledging one God, but rejecting all other dogmas. Died Sept.
+1605.</p>
+<p><b>Alberger</b> (John). American author of <i>Monks, Popes, and
+their Political Intrigues</i> (Baltimore, 1871) and <i>Antiquity of
+Christianity</i> (New York, 1874).</p>
+<p><b>Albini</b> (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he
+studied medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many other
+physiological subjects.</p>
+<p><b>Alchindus.</b> <span class="sc">Yakub ibn Is&rsquo;hak ibn
+Subbah</span> (Ab&uacute; Y&uacute;suf) called <i>Al Kindi</i>, Arab
+physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the companions
+of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about 840. He was a
+rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies he was set down
+as a magician.</p>
+<p><b>Alciati</b> (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At
+first a Romanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually
+advanced to Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters to
+Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that Alciati
+deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but Bayle takes
+pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.</p>
+<p><b>Aleardi</b> (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e469" href="#xd20e469" name=
+"xd20e469">12</a>]</span>b. Verona, 4 Nov. 1812. He was engaged in a
+life-long struggle against the Austrian dominion, and his patriotic
+poems were much admired. In 1859 he was elected deputy to Parliament
+for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Alembert</b> (Jean le Rond d&rsquo;), mathematician and
+philosopher, b. at Paris 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of
+Canon Destouches and Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from
+a church near which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards
+resided for forty years with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the
+most tempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy
+of Sciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of
+Berlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the
+problem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation
+of the earth&rsquo;s axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose
+opinions he was in complete accord, in compiling the famous
+<i>Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, for which he wrote the preliminary
+discourse. In addition to this great work he published many historical,
+philosophical and scientific essays, and largely corresponded with
+Voltaire. His work on the Destruction of the Jesuits is a caustic and
+far-reaching production. In a letter to Frederick the Great, he says:
+&ldquo;As for the existence of a supreme intelligence, I think that
+those who deny it advance more than they can prove, and scepticism is
+the only reasonable course.&rdquo; He goes on to say, however, that
+experience invincibly proves the materiality of the &ldquo;soul.&rdquo;
+Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous essays were
+printed in Paris. His works prove d&rsquo;Alembert to have been of
+broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge.</p>
+<p><b>Alfieri</b> (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist,
+b. Asti, Piedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are
+justly celebrated, and in his <i>Essay on Tyranny</i> he shows himself
+as favorable to religious as to political liberty. Written in his
+youth, this work was revised at a more advanced age, the author
+remarking that if he had no longer the courage, or rather the fire,
+necessary to compose it, he nevertheless retained intelligence,
+independence and judgment enough to approve it, and to let it stand as
+the last of his literary productions. His attack is chiefly directed
+against Catholicism, but he does not spare Christianity. &ldquo;Born
+among a people,&rdquo; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e485" href=
+"#xd20e485" name="xd20e485">13</a>]</span>he says, &ldquo;slavish,
+ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the Christian
+religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience, and is
+unacquainted even with the name of liberty.&rdquo; Alfieri&rsquo;s
+tragedy of <i>Saul</i> has been prohibited on the English stage. Died
+Florence, 8 Oct. 1803.</p>
+<p><b>Alfonso X.</b>, surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon;
+b. in 1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy.
+He compiled a complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and had
+drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By his
+liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish literature.
+For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his independence towards
+the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical revenues, he has been
+stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed the well-known remark
+that had he been present at the creation of the world he would have
+proposed some <span class="corr" id="xd20e494" title=
+"Source: improvents">improvements</span>. Father Lenfant adds the pious
+lie that &ldquo;The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy when a
+thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to ashes.&rdquo;
+Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.</p>
+<p><b>Algarotti</b> (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic,
+b. at Venice, 11 Dec. 1712. A visit to England led him to write
+<i>Newtonianism for the Ladies</i>. He afterwards visited Berlin and
+became the friend both of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who
+appointed him his Chamberlain. Died with philosophical composure at
+Pisa, 3 May, 1764.</p>
+<p><b>Alger</b> (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts,
+30 Dec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the
+advanced type. His <i>Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future
+Life</i>, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot, is
+a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view.</p>
+<p><b>Allen</b> (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b.
+in Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College,
+Oxford, and graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of
+Logic in Queen&rsquo;s College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to
+&rsquo;77 he was its principal. Since then he has resided in England,
+and become known by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published
+works include <i>Physiological &AElig;sthetics</i> (1877), <i>The
+Evolutionist at Large</i> (1881), <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e522" href="#xd20e522" name="xd20e522">14</a>]</span><i>Nature
+Studies</i> (1883), <i>Charles Darwin</i> (1885), and several novels.
+Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle, and has
+written on <i>Force and Energy</i> (1888).</p>
+<p><b>Allen</b> (Ethan) <b>Col.</b>, American soldier, b. at
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e540" title=
+"Source: Lichfield">Litchfield</span>, Connecticut, 10 Jan. 1737. One
+of the most active of the revolutionary heroes, he raised a company of
+volunteers known as the &ldquo;Green Mountain Boys,&rdquo; and took by
+surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing 100 guns, 10
+May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and &pound;100 offered for his
+arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken prisoner and
+sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was eventually
+exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member of the
+state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition of
+Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 <i>Reason the
+only Oracle of Man</i>, the first publication in the United States
+openly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently
+reprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont, 13
+Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.</p>
+<p><b>Allsop</b> (Thomas). &ldquo;The favorite disciple of
+Coleridge,&rdquo; b. 10 April, 1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he
+lived till 1880. A friend of Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was
+implicated in the attempt of Orsini against Napoleon III. In his
+<i>Letters, Conversations and Recollections of Samuel Taylor
+Coleridge</i>, he has imported many of his Freethought views.</p>
+<p><b>Alm</b> (Richard von der). See <a href="#ghillany">Ghillany (F.
+W.)</a></p>
+<p id="alpharabius"><b>Alpharabius</b> (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn
+Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called <i>Al Farabi</i>, Turkish philosopher,
+termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest philosopher the Moslems ever had,
+travelled to Bagdad, mastered the works of Aristotle, and became master
+of Avicenna. Al Farabi is said to have taught the eternity of the world
+and to have denied the permanent individuality of the soul. His
+principal work is a sort of encyclop&aelig;dia. R&eacute;nan says he
+expressly rejected all supernatural revelation. Died at Damascus Dec.
+950, aged upwards of eighty.</p>
+<p><b>Amaury</b> or <b>Amalric de Chartres</b>, a heretic of the
+thirteenth century, was a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at
+Paris, where he gave lessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of
+<i>Physion</i>, condemned by a bull of Pope <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e577" href="#xd20e577" name=
+"xd20e577">15</a>]</span>Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have
+taught a kind of Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son
+must give place to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were
+burnt at Paris 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and
+placed in the flames.</p>
+<p id="amberley"><b>Amberley</b> (John <span class="sc">Russell</span>)
+Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell, b. 1843. Educated at Harrow,
+Edinburgh and Trinity College, Cambridge, where ill-health prevented
+him reading for honors. He entered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member
+for Nottingham. Lord Amberley contributed thoughtful articles to the
+<i>North British</i>, the <i>Fortnightly</i> and <i>Theological
+Reviews</i>, and will be remembered by his bold <i>Analysis of
+Religious Belief</i> (1876), in which he examines, compares and
+criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley left his son
+to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of great ability
+and force of character; but the will was set aside, on appeal to the
+Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding&rsquo;s heretical
+views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Amman</b> (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b. Lake
+Zurich 1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt,
+and afterwards published a curious book called <i>Voyage in the
+Promised Land</i>. Died at Zurich, 1658.</p>
+<p><b>Ammianus</b> (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth
+century, b. at Antioch. He wrote the Roman history from the reign of
+Nerva to the death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first
+thirteen are lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy.
+He served under Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of
+the period to that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him &ldquo;an accurate
+and faithful guide.&rdquo; Died about 395 <span class=
+"sc">A.D.</span></p>
+<p><b>Ammonius</b>, surnamed <span class="sc">Saccas</span> or the
+Porter, from his having been obliged in the early part of his life to
+adopt that calling, was born of Christian parents in Alexandria during
+the second century. He, however, turned Pagan and opened a school of
+philosophy. Among his pupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He
+undoubtedly originated the Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most
+serious opposition to Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died
+<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 243, aged over eighty years. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e622" href="#xd20e622" name=
+"xd20e622">16</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e626" title=
+"Source: Anaxagorus">Anaxagoras</span></b>, a Greek philosopher of the
+Ionic school, b. about 499 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, lived at
+Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> he was accused of Atheism for maintaining the eternity
+of matter and was banished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> It is related that, being asked how he
+desired to be honored after death, he replied, &ldquo;Only let the day
+of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys in the schools.&rdquo;
+He taught that generation and destruction are only the union and
+separation of elements which can neither be created nor
+annihilated.</p>
+<p id="andre-nuytz"><b>Andre-Nuytz</b> (Louis), author of <i>Positivism
+for All</i>, an elementary exposition of Positive philosophy, to which
+Littr&eacute; wrote a preface, 1868.</p>
+<p><b>Andrews</b> (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton,
+Mass., 22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent
+speaker, and the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His
+principle work is entitled <i>The Basic Outline of Universology</i> (N.
+Y., 1872). He also wrote <i>The Church and Religion of the Future</i>
+(1886). He was a prominent member and vice-president of the Liberal
+Club of New York, a contributor to the London <i>Times</i>, the New
+York <i>Truthseeker</i>, and many other journals. Died at New York, 21
+May, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Andrieux</b> (Louis). French deputy, b. Tr&eacute;voux 20 July,
+1840. Was called to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his
+political pleading. He took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples
+in 1869, and in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three
+months for his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the
+Republic he was nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal
+council of that city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of
+Deputies. In 1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in
+1881 and was elected deputy by his constituents at Lyons. He has
+written <i>Souvenirs of a Prefect of Police</i> (1885).</p>
+<p><b>Angelucci</b> (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near
+Tolentino 1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was
+banished from Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in
+Italy, he also made an excellent translation of the &AElig;neid of
+Virgil. Died Montagnana, 1600.</p>
+<p><b>Angiulli</b> (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e676" href="#xd20e676" name=
+"xd20e676">17</a>]</span>1837, author of a work on philosophy and
+Positive research, Naples 1868. He became professor of Anthropology at
+Naples in 1876, and edits a philosophical review published in that city
+since 1881.</p>
+<p id="annet"><b>Annet</b> (Peter). One of the most forcible writers
+among the English Deists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a
+schoolmaster and invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at
+school and corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on
+<i>Freethinking the Great Duty of Religion</i>, by P. A., minister of
+religion. This was followed by <i>the Conception of Jesus as the
+Foundation of the Christian Religion</i>, in which he boldly attacks
+the doctrine of the Incarnation as &ldquo;a legend of the
+Romanists,&rdquo; and <i>The Resurrection of Jesus Considered</i>
+(1744) in answer to Bishop Sherlock&rsquo;s <i>Trial of the
+Witnesses</i>. This controversy was continued in <i>The Resurrection
+Reconsidered</i> and <i>The Resurrection Defenders Stript of all
+Defence</i>. In <i>An Examination of the History and Character of St.
+Paul</i> he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and
+even questions the authenticity of his epistles. In <i>Supernaturals
+Examined</i> (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761
+he issued nine numbers of the <i>Free Inquirer</i>, in which he
+attacked the authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this
+he was brought before the King&rsquo;s Bench and sentenced to suffer
+one month&rsquo;s imprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the
+pillory, once at Charing Cross and once at the Exchange, with a label
+&ldquo;For Blasphemy,&rdquo; then to have a year&rsquo;s hard labor in
+Bridewell and to find sureties for good behavior during the rest of his
+life. It is related that a woman seeing Annet in the pillory said,
+&ldquo;Gracious! pilloried for blasphemy. Why, don&rsquo;t we blaspheme
+every day!&rdquo; After his release Annet set up a school at Lambeth.
+Being asked his views on a future life he replied by this apologue:
+&ldquo;One of my friends in Italy, seeing the sign of an inn, asked if
+that was the Angel.&rdquo; &ldquo;No,&rdquo; was the reply, &ldquo;do
+you not see it is the sign of a dragon.&rdquo; &ldquo;Ah,&rdquo; said
+my friend, &ldquo;as I have never seen either angel or dragon, how can
+I tell whether it is one or the other?&rdquo; Died 18 Jan. 1769. <i>The
+History of the Man after God&rsquo;s Own Heart</i> (1761) ascribed to
+Annet, was more probably written by Archibald Campbell. <i>The View of
+the Life of King David</i> (1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also
+falsely attributed to Annet. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e717"
+href="#xd20e717" name="xd20e717">18</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="antherodequental"><b>Anthero de Quental</b>, Portuguese writer,
+b. San Miguel 1843. Educated for the law at the University of Coimbra,
+he has published both poetry and prose, showing him to be a student of
+Hartmann, Proudhon and R&eacute;nan, and one of the most advanced minds
+in Portugal.</p>
+<p><b>Anthony</b> (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker
+family at South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a
+teacher, a temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent
+advocate of women&rsquo;s rights. Of the last movement she became
+secretary. In conjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury
+she conducted <i>The Revolutionist</i> founded in New York in 1868, and
+with Mrs. Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the <i>History
+of Woman&rsquo;s Suffrage</i>, 1881. Miss Anthony is a declared
+Agnostic.</p>
+<p><b>Antoine</b> (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and
+divinity of Jesus, and was strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April,
+1632.</p>
+<p><b>Antonelle</b> (Pierre Antoine) <i>Marquis d&rsquo;</i>, French
+political economist, b. Arles 1747. He embraced the revolution with
+ardor, and his article in the <i lang="fr">Journal des Hommes
+Libres</i> occasioned his arrest with Bab&oelig;uf. He was, however,
+acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.</p>
+<p><b>Antoninus</b> (Marcus Aurelius). See <a href=
+"#aurelius">Aurelius</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Apelt</b> (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3
+March, 1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the
+standpoint of reason, and wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near
+Gorlitz, 27 Oct. 1859.</p>
+<p><b>Aquila</b>, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselyte to
+Christianity, but afterwards left that religion. He published a Greek
+version of the Hebrew scriptures to show that the prophecies did not
+apply to Jesus (<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 128). The work is lost. He
+has been identified by E. Deutsch with the author of the Targum of
+Onkelos.</p>
+<p><b>Arago</b> (Dominique Fran&ccedil;ois Jean), French academician,
+politician, physicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was
+elected to the French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three.
+He made several optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated
+the undulatory theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and
+Freethinker, and took part in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e769"
+href="#xd20e769" name="xd20e769">19</a>]</span>the provisional
+Government of 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and
+refused to take the oath of allegiance after the <i lang="fr">coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> of December, 1851. Died 2 Oct. 1853. Humboldt
+calls him a &ldquo;zealous defender of the interests of
+Reason.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Ardigo</b> (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone
+(Cremona) 28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to
+philosophy. In 1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi,
+followed next year by <i>Psychology as a Positive Science</i>. Signor
+Ardigo has also written on the formation of the solar system and on the
+historical formation of the ideas of God and the soul. An edition of
+his philosophical works was commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one
+of the leaders of the Italian Positivists. His <i>Positivist Morals</i>
+appeared in Padua 1885.</p>
+<p id="argens"><b>Argens</b> (Jean Baptiste de <span class=
+"sc">Boyer</span>) <i>Marquis d&rsquo;</i>, French writer, b. at Aix,
+in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and served with
+distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great he invited
+d&rsquo;Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his
+chamberlains. Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to
+Aix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were
+published in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are <i lang=
+"fr">Lettres Juives, Lettres Chinoises</i> and <i lang="fr">Lettres
+Cabalistiques</i>, which were joined to <i lang="fr">La Philosophie du
+bon sens</i>. He also translated Julian&rsquo;s discourse against
+Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity of the World. Argens
+took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to that philosopher.</p>
+<p><b>Argental</b> (Charles Augustin de <span class=
+"sc">Ferriol</span>) <i>Count d&rsquo;</i>, French diplomat, b. Paris
+20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother of
+D&rsquo;Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship
+for Voltaire. He was said to be the author of <i lang=
+"fr">M&eacute;moires du Comte de Comminge and Anecdotes de la cour
+d&rsquo;Edouard</i>. Died 5 Jan. 1788.</p>
+<p><b>Aristophanes</b>, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with
+Socrates, Plato, and Euripides, b. about 444 <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> Little is known of his life. He wrote fifty-four
+plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned in a public
+assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost boldness he
+satirised <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e823" href="#xd20e823"
+name="xd20e823">20</a>]</span>not only the the political and social
+evils of the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology
+of the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes&rsquo;
+works under his pillow. Died about 380 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p>
+<p><b>Aristotle</b>, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was
+born at Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> He was
+employed by Philip of Macedon to instruct his son Alexander. His
+inculcation of ethics as apart from all theology, justifies his place
+in this list. After the death of Alexander, he was accused of impiety
+and withdrew to Chalcis, where he died <span class="sc">B.C.</span>
+322. Grote says: &ldquo;In the published writings of Aristotle the
+accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for sustaining
+their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that prayer and
+sacrifices to the gods were of no avail.&rdquo; His influence was
+predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante speaks
+of him as &ldquo;the master of those that know.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Arnold</b> of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against
+the papal authority and the temporal power, and the vices of the
+clergy. He was condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and
+retired from Italy. He afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his
+exertions against sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and
+burnt at Rome in 1155. Baronius calls him &ldquo;the patriarch of
+political heretics.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Arnold</b> (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of
+Rugby, b. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and
+Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the
+<i>Strayed Reveller, and other Poems</i>, signed A. In 1851 he married
+and became an inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared <i>Empedocles on
+Etna</i>, a poem in which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives
+much secular philosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at
+Oxford. In 1871 he published an essay entitled <i>St. Paul and
+Protestantism</i>; in 1873 <i>Literature and Dogma</i>, which, from its
+rejection of supernaturalism, occasioned much stir and was followed by
+<i>God and the Bible</i>. In 1877 Mr. Arnold published <i>Last Essays
+on Church and State</i>. Mr. Arnold has a lucid style and is abreast of
+the thought of his age, but he curiously unites rejection of
+supernaturalism, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e865" href=
+"#xd20e865" name="xd20e865">21</a>]</span>including a personal God,
+with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said in his own
+words to wander &ldquo;between two worlds, one dead, the other
+powerless to be born.&rdquo; Died 15 April, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Arnould</b> (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As
+journalist he wrote on <i lang="fr">l&rsquo;Opinion Nationale</i>, the
+<i>Rappel</i>, <i>Reforme</i> and other papers. In 1864 he published a
+work on Beranger, and in &rsquo;69 a <i>History of the Inquisition</i>.
+In Jan. 1870 he founded <i lang="fr">La Marseillaise</i> with H.
+Rochefort, and afterwards the <i lang="fr">Journal du Peuple</i> with
+Jules Valles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of
+the Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He has
+also written many novels and dramas.</p>
+<p><b>Arnould</b> (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov.
+1838, advocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a <i>History
+of the Church</i> 1874, and a little work on the <i>Philosophy of
+Liberalism</i> 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Arouet</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Marie). See <a href=
+"#voltaire">Voltaire</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Arpe</b> (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10
+May, 1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (<i>i.e.</i>,
+Rotterdam, 1712). A reply to La Monnoye&rsquo;s treatise on the book
+<i lang="la">De Tribus Impostoribus</i> is attributed to him. Died,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e918" title=
+"Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, 4 Nov. 1740.</p>
+<p><b>Arthur</b> (John) is inserted in Mar&eacute;chal&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionnaire des Ath&eacute;es</i> as a mechanic from near
+Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and republished the <i>Invocation
+to Nature</i> in the last pages of the <i>System of Nature</i>. Julian
+Hibbert inserted his name in his <i>Chronological Tables of
+Anti-Superstitionists</i>, with the date of death 1792.</p>
+<p><b>Asseline</b> (Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829,
+became an advocate in 1851. In 1866 he established <i lang="fr">La
+Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, a weekly journal of scientific materialism,
+and when that was suppressed <i lang="fr">La Pens&eacute;e
+Nouvelle</i>. He was one of the founders of the <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>. He wrote
+<i>Diderot and the Nineteenth Century</i>, and contributed to many
+journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected mayor of
+the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards one of the
+Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e953" href="#xd20e953" name=
+"xd20e953">22</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Assezat</b> (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was
+a son of a compositor on the <i lang="fr">Journal des Debats</i>, on
+which Jules obtained a position and worked his way to the editorial
+chair. He was secretary of the Paris Society of Anthropology,
+contributed to <i lang="fr">La Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, edited the
+<i>Man Machine</i> of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works of
+Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Assollant</b> (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20
+March, 1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.</p>
+<p><b>Ast</b> (Georg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29
+Dec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Landshut and
+Munich. Wrote <i>Elements of Philosophy</i>, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31
+Dec. 1841.</p>
+<p><b>Atkinson</b> (Henry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was
+educated at the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in
+the <i>Zoist</i>. In 1851 he issued <i>Letters on the Laws of
+Man&rsquo;s Nature and Development</i>, in conjunction with Harriet
+Martineau, to whom he served as philosophic guide. This work occasioned
+a considerable outcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the
+<i>National Reformer</i> and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec.
+1884, at Boulogne, where he had resided since 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Aubert de Verse</b> (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth
+century, who wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of
+blasphemy.</p>
+<p><b>Audebert</b> (Louise). French authoress of the <i>Romance of a
+Freethinker</i> and of an able <i>Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of
+Orleans</i>, 1868.</p>
+<p><b>Audifferent</b> (Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste
+Comte, was born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at
+Marseilles, and is the author of several medical and scientific
+works.</p>
+<p id="aurelius"><b>Aurelius</b> (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and
+Stoic philosopher, b. at Rome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated,
+and lived a laborious, abstemious life. On the death of his uncle
+Antoninus Pius, 161, the Senate obliged him to take the government, but
+he associated with himself L. Verus. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e1014" href="#xd20e1014" name="xd20e1014">23</a>]</span>On the
+death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed sole authority, which he
+exercised with wise discretion and great glory. Much of his time was
+employed in defending the northern frontiers of the empire against
+Teutonic barbarians. He had no high opinion of Christians, speaking of
+their obstinacy, and it is pretended many were put to death in the
+reign of one of the best emperors that ever ruled. If so we may be
+assured it was for their crimes. Ecclesiastical historians have
+invented another pious miracle in a victory gained through the prayers
+of the Christians. Antoninus held that duty was indispensable even were
+there no gods. His <i>Meditations</i>, written in the midst of a most
+active life, breathe a lofty morality, and are a standing refutation of
+the view that pure ethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March,
+180.</p>
+<p><b>Austin</b> (Charles), lawyer and disciple of <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e1023" title="Source: Bentbam">Bentham</span>, b. Suffolk 1799.
+At Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won,
+much to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions,
+the Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he was
+sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley &ldquo;I could have
+written a much better essay on the other side.&rdquo; He afterwards
+wrote on the other side in the <i>Westminster Review</i>. Successful as
+a lawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his
+influence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his
+heretical opinions. He says &ldquo;He inclined to Darwinism, because as
+he said, it is so antecedently probable; but, long before this theory
+broke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up.&rdquo;
+Died 21 Dec. 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Austin</b> (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March,
+1790. A friend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he
+shared, he is chiefly known by his profound works on jurisprudence.
+Died 17 Dec. 1859.</p>
+<p id="avempace"><b>Avempace</b>, <i>i.e.</i>, Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn
+Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called <i>Ibn al-Saigh</i> (the son of the
+goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and poet, b. at Saragossa, practised
+medicine at Seville 1118, which he quitted about 1120, and became
+vizier at the court of Fez, where he died about 1138. An admirer of
+Aristotle, he was one of the teachers of Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn
+Kh&acirc;k&acirc;n represents him as an infidel and Atheist, and says:
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1043" href="#xd20e1043" name=
+"xd20e1043">24</a>]</span>&ldquo;Faith disappeared from his heart and
+left not a trace behind; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did
+[the holy] name cross his lips.&rdquo; He is said to have suffered
+imprisonment for his heterodoxy.</p>
+<p><b>Avenel</b> (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828.
+One of the promoters of the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die
+G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>. His vindication of Cloots (1865) is a solid
+work of erudition. He became editor of <i lang="fr">la
+R&eacute;publique Fran&ccedil;aise</i> and edited the edition of
+Voltaire published by <i lang="fr">Le Si&egrave;cle</i>
+(1867&ndash;70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was,
+by his express wish, buried without religious ceremony.</p>
+<p id="averroes"><b>Averroes</b> (Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), <i>Abu
+al Walid</i>, Arabian philosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at
+Morocco 10 Dec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of
+Aristotle, and resolutely placed the claims of science above those of
+theology. He was prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the
+Muhammadan doctors, was spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the
+hour of prayer, and afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions,
+which incline towards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being
+condemned by the University of Paris in 1240. They were opposed by St.
+Thomas Aquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e1065" title=
+"Source: Rennaisance">Renaissance</span> through the Paduan school were
+again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.</p>
+<p id="avicenna"><b>Avicenna</b> (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called <i>Ibn
+Sina</i>), Arabian physician and philosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the
+district of Bokhara. From his early youth he was a wonderful student,
+and at his death 15 June, 1037, he left behind him above a hundred
+treatises. He was the sovereign authority in medical science until the
+days of Harvey. His philosophy was pantheistic in tone, with an attempt
+at compromise with theology.</p>
+<p><b>Aymon</b> (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphin&eacute; 1661. Brought
+up in the Church, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the
+Hague. He published <i>Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion</i>, and is
+said to have put forward a version of the <i>Esprit de Spinoza</i>
+under the famous title <i>Treatise of Three Impostors</i>. Died about
+1734.</p>
+<p><b>Bagehot</b> (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian
+parents, Langport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1092" href="#xd20e1092" name=
+"xd20e1092">25</a>]</span>at the same place 24 March, 1877. He was
+educated at London University, of which he became a fellow. For the
+last seventeen years of his life he edited the <i>Economist</i>
+newspaper. His best-known works are <i>The English Constitution</i>,
+<i>Lombard Street</i> and <i>Literary Studies</i>. In <i>Physics and
+Politics</i> (1872), a series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he
+applies Darwinism to politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very
+original thinker, who rejected historic Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Baggesen</b> (Jens Immanuel), Danish poet, b. K&ouml;sor,
+Zealand. 15 Feb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and
+Switzerland; at Berne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote
+popular poems both in Danish and German, among others <i>Adam and
+Eve</i>, a humorous mock epic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire.
+Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.</p>
+<p><b>Bahnsen</b> (Julius Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern,
+Schleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil, 1847. He
+fought against the Danes in &rsquo;49, and afterwards studied at
+T&uuml;bingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and
+Hartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written
+several works, among which we mention <i>The Philosophy of History</i>,
+Berlin, 1872, and <i>The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the
+Nature of the World</i> (2 vols), Berlin 1880&ndash;82.</p>
+<p><b>Bahrdt</b> (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25 Aug.
+1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor of
+biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered from
+place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called <i>New
+Revelations of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and
+Thinkers</i>, Berlin, 1787, and a <i>Catechism of Natural Religion</i>,
+Halle, 1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792.</p>
+<p><b>Bailey</b> (James Napier), Socialist, edited the <i>Model
+Republic</i>, 1843, the <i>Torch</i>, and the <i>Monthly Messenger</i>.
+He published <i>Gehenna: its Monarch and Inhabitants; Sophistry
+Unmasked</i>, and several other tracts in the &ldquo;Social
+Reformer&rsquo;s Cabinet Library,&rdquo; and some interesting <i>Essays
+on Miscellaneous Subjects</i>, at Leeds, 1842.</p>
+<p><b>Bailey</b> (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in
+1791. His essay on the <i>Formation and Publication of Opinions</i>
+appeared <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1164" href="#xd20e1164"
+name="xd20e1164">26</a>]</span>in 1821. He vigorously contends that man
+is not responsible for his opinions because they are independent of his
+will, and that opinions should not be the subject of punishment.
+Another anonymous Freethought work was <i>Letters from an Egyptian
+Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search of Religion</i>. This was at
+first issued privately 1839, but afterwards printed as a
+<i>Reasoner</i> tract. He also wrote <i>The Pursuit of Truth</i>, 1829,
+and a <i>Theory of Reasoning</i>, 1851. He was acquainted with both
+James and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the
+philosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving
+&pound;90,000 to his native town.</p>
+<p><b>Bailey</b> (William S.), editor of the <i>Liberal</i>, published
+in Nashville, Tennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death,
+March, 1886. In a slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of
+abolition.</p>
+<p><b>Baillie</b> (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff
+in one of the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the
+Glasgow Eclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best
+essay on Christianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara
+Hennell. In 1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether
+Jesus prophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of
+his followers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated
+in his <i>Prophet of Nazareth</i>. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself
+of his fortune (&pound;18,000) which was to be applied to the erection
+and endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative
+classes by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining
+only the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few
+years.</p>
+<p><b>Bailli&egrave;re</b> (Gustave-Germer), French scientific
+publisher, b. at Paris 26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted
+himself to bringing out scientific publications such as the <i>Library
+of Contemporary Philosophy</i>, and the <i>International Scientific
+Series</i>. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as Republican and anti-clerical
+member of the Municipal Council of Paris.</p>
+<p><b>Bain</b> (Alexander) <span class="corr" id="xd20e1207" title=
+"Source: LLD">LL.D</span>. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818.
+He began life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College
+1836&ndash;40, and graduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1210" href="#xd20e1210" name=
+"xd20e1210">27</a>]</span>contribute to the <i>Westminster Review</i>,
+and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose <i>Logic</i> he
+discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published <i>The Senses and The
+Intellect</i>, and in 1859 <i>The Emotions and the Will</i>,
+constituting together a systematic exposition of the human mind. From
+1860 to 1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of
+Aberdeen, his accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and
+provoking disorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree
+of <span class="corr" id="xd20e1225" title="Source: LLD">LL.D</span>.
+In <span class="corr" id="xd20e1228" title=
+"Source: additon">addition</span> to numerous educational works Dr.
+Bain published a <i>Compendium of Mental and Moral Science</i> (1868),
+<i>Mind and Body</i> (1875), and <i>Education as a Science</i> (1879),
+for the International Scientific Series. In 1882 he published <i>James
+Mill, a Biography</i>, and <i>John Stuart Mill: a Criticism, with
+Personal Recollections</i>. In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of the
+University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed in 1884, in which
+year he published <i>Practical Essays</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Bainham</b> (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish,
+author of the <i>Supplycacion of Beggars</i>, an attack upon the clergy
+of the period. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other
+things denied transubstantiation, the confessional, and &ldquo;the
+power of the keys.&rdquo; It was asserted that he had said that he
+would as lief pray to his wife as to &ldquo;our lady,&rdquo; and that
+Christ was but a man. This he denied, but admitted holding the
+salvation of unbelievers. He was burnt 30 April, 1532.</p>
+<p><b>Baissac</b> (Jules), French <i lang="fr">litt&eacute;rateur</i>,
+b. Vans, 1827, author of several studies in philology and mythology. In
+1878 he published <i lang="fr">Les Origines de la Religion</i> in three
+volumes, which have the honor of being put upon the Roman <i>Index</i>.
+This was followed by <i lang="fr">l&rsquo;Age de Dieu</i>, a study of
+cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to publish
+<i lang="fr">Histoire de la Diablerie Chr&eacute;tienne</i>, the first
+part of which is devoted to the person and &ldquo;personnel&rdquo; of
+the devil.</p>
+<p><b>Bakunin</b> (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b.
+Torshok (Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated
+at St. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he
+became embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841,
+studied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical
+writings under the name of Jules Elisard. In &rsquo;43 he visited Paris
+and became a disciple of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1281" href=
+"#xd20e1281" name="xd20e1281">28</a>]</span>Proudhon. In &rsquo;48 he
+was expelled from France at the demand of Russia, whose government set
+the price of 10,000 silver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and
+became a member of the insurrectionary government. He was arrested and
+condemned to death, May &rsquo;50, but his sentence was commuted to
+imprisonment for life. He escaped into Austria, was again captured and
+sentenced to death, but was handed over to Russia and deported to
+Siberia. After several years&rsquo; penal servitude he escaped,
+travelled over a thousand miles under extreme hardship, reached the sea
+and sailed to Japan. Thence he sailed to California, thence to New York
+and London, where with Herzen he published the <i>Kolokol</i>. He took
+part in the establishment of the International Society, but being at
+issue with Karl Marx abandoned that body in 1873. He died at Berne 1
+July 1876, leaving behind a work on <i>God and the State</i>, both
+being vigorously attacked. Laveleye writes of him as &ldquo;the apostle
+of universal destruction.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Ball</b> (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated
+at Birkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather than
+teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University 1866.
+Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan&rsquo;s service 1870&ndash;71. Received
+the order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the
+bursting of a mortar. Upon his return published <i>Poems from
+Turkey</i> (1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the <i>National
+Reformer</i> since 1878 and since 1884 has been on the staff of the
+<i>Freethinker</i>. He has published pamphlets on <i>Religion in
+Schools</i>, the <i>Ten Commandments</i> and <i>Mrs Besant&rsquo;s
+Socialism</i>, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the <i>Bible
+Handbook</i>. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of
+Evolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages of
+<i>Progress</i>. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the
+Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?</p>
+<p><b>Ballance</b> (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary,
+Antrim<span class="corr" id="xd20e1322" title="Not in source">,</span>
+Ireland, March 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist
+and started the <i>Wanganui Herald</i>. He entered Parliament in 1875
+and became Colonial Treasurer in &rsquo;78. With Sir Robert Stout he
+has been a great support to the Freethought cause in New Zealand.</p>
+<p><b>Baltzer</b> (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1332" href="#xd20e1332" name=
+"xd20e1332">29</a>]</span>1814, at Hohenleine in Saxony. He was
+educated as a Protestant minister, but resigned and founded at
+Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took part in the Parliament of
+Frankfort in &rsquo;48; has translated the life of Apollonius of Tyana,
+and is the author of a history of religion and numerous other works.
+Died 24 June, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Bancel</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois D&eacute;sir&eacute;). French
+politician, b. Le Mastre, 2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he
+was elected to the Legislative Assembly. After the <i lang="fr">coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> he retired to Brussels, where he became
+Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected deputy at Paris in
+opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work on Rationalism by
+Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on <i>Mysteries</i>, 1871, besides many
+political works. Died 23 June, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Barbier</b> (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin,
+Lubbock, and Tylor. Died 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Barbier d&rsquo;Aucour</b> (Jean). French critic and academician,
+b. Langres, 1642. Most of his writings are directed against the
+Jesuits. Died Paris, 13 Sept. 1694.</p>
+<p><b>Barlow</b> (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his
+volumes, <i>Under the Dawn</i> and <i>Poems, Real and Ideal</i>, he
+gives utterance to many Freethought sentiments.</p>
+<p><b>Barlow</b> (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b.
+Reading, Connecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the
+revolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession,
+taking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published <i>Advice to
+the Privileged Orders</i>. In France he translated Volney&rsquo;s
+<i>Ruins of Empires</i>, and contributed to the political literature of
+the Revolution. Paine entrusted him with the MS. of the first part of
+the <i>Age of Reason</i>. His chief work is entitled the
+<i>Columbiad</i>, 1808. He was sent as minister to France, 1811, and
+being involved in the misfortunes following the retreat from Moscow,
+died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.</p>
+<p><b>Barni</b> (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1
+June, 1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the
+works of Kant into French. He contributed to <i lang="fr">La
+Libert&eacute; de Penser</i> (1847&ndash;51) and to <i lang=
+"fr">l&rsquo;Avenir</i> (1855). During the Empire he lived in
+Switzerland and published <i lang="fr">Martyrs de <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1390" href="#xd20e1390" name=
+"xd20e1390">30</a>]</span>la Libre Pens&eacute;e</i> (1862), <i lang=
+"fr">La Morale dans la D&eacute;mocratie</i> (1864), and a work on the
+French Moralists of the Eighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to
+the National Assembly, 1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died
+at Mers, 4 July, 1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.</p>
+<p><b>Barnout</b> (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris
+1816, published a <i>Rational Calendar</i> 1859 and 1860. In May 1870
+he established a journal entitled <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Ath&eacute;e</i>, the Atheist, which the clerical journals
+declared drew God&rsquo;s vengeance upon France. He is also author of a
+work on aerial navigation.</p>
+<p><b>Barot</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau
+1830. He has been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary
+to Gustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and
+<i>Contemporary Literature in England</i> (1874).</p>
+<p><b>Barrett</b> (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker
+parents, both grandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at
+Queenwood College, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford
+with honors in <span class="corr" id="xd20e1418" title=
+"Source: National">Natural</span> Science and Mathematics, contributed
+to the <i>National Reformer</i> between 1865 and 1870, published an
+acute examination of Gillespie&rsquo;s argument, <i>&agrave;
+priori</i>, for the existence of God (1869), which in 1871 reached a
+second edition. He also wrote <i>A New View of Causation</i> (1871),
+and an <i>Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics</i> (1877). Mr. Barrett
+has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical Society, and edited a
+short-lived publication, <i>The Present Day</i>, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Barrier</b> (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815,
+became professor of medicine at Lyons, wrote <i>A Sketch of the Analogy
+of Man and Humanity</i> (Lyons 1846), and <i>Principles of
+Sociology</i> (Paris 1867), and an abridgment of this entitled
+<i>Catechism of Liberal and Rational Socialism</i>. Died
+Montfort-L&rsquo;Amaury 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Barrillot</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois). French author, b. of poor
+parents at Lyons in 1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to
+read from shop signs, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his
+songs and satires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to
+Pope Pius IX. on the &OElig;cumenical Council (1871), signed Jean
+Populus, and a philosophical work entitled <i>Love is God</i>. Died at
+Paris, 11 Dec. 1874. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1457" href=
+"#xd20e1457" name="xd20e1457">31</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Barthez</b> (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11
+Dec. 1734. A friend of D&rsquo;Alembert, he became associate editor of
+the <i lang="fr">Journal des Savants</i> and <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die M&eacute;thodique</i>. He was made consulting
+physician to the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the
+Archbishop of Sens a number of works relating to the rites of his see
+he said, &ldquo;These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me
+the sense [Sens] of ceremonies.&rdquo; His principal work is <i>New
+Elements of the Science of Man</i>. Died 15 Oct. 1806.</p>
+<p><b>Basedow</b> (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational
+reformer, b. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic,
+became professor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753&ndash;1761,
+and at Altona, 1761&ndash;1768. While here he published
+<i>Philalethea</i>, the <i>Grounds of Religion</i>, and other heterodox
+works, which excited so much prejudice that he was in danger of being
+stoned. He devoted much attention to improving methods of teaching.
+Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.</p>
+<p><b>Baskerville</b> (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley,
+Worcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at first a
+stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and devoted it to
+perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As a
+printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions of
+Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius,
+Terence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes
+once visited him and was &ldquo;shocked at his infidelity&rdquo; (!) He
+died 8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had
+designed a monumental urn with this inscription: &ldquo;Stranger,
+beneath this cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of
+mankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute to
+emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the wicked
+arts of priesthood.&rdquo; His will expresses the utmost contempt for
+Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a
+complete edition of Voltaire.</p>
+<p><b>Bassus</b> (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of
+Seneca in the time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in
+the presence of death.</p>
+<p><b>Bate</b> (Frederick), Socialist, author of <i>The Student</i>
+1842<span class="corr" id="xd20e1496" title="Not in source">,</span> a
+drama in which the author&rsquo;s sceptical views are put forward.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1499" href="#xd20e1499" name=
+"xd20e1499">32</a>]</span>Mr. Bate was one of the founders of the
+social experiment at New Harmony, now Queenswood College, Hants, and
+engraved a view representing the Owenite scheme of community.</p>
+<p><b>Baudelaire</b> (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April
+1821, the son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He
+first became famous by the publication of <i lang="fr">Fleurs du
+Mal</i>, 1857, in which appeared <i lang="fr">Les Litanies de
+Satan</i>. The work was prosecuted and suppressed. Baudelaire
+translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe, a poet whom he resembled
+much in life and character. The divine beauty of his face has been
+celebrated by the French poet, Th&eacute;odore de Banville, and his
+genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English poet, Algernon
+Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Baudon</b> (P. L.), French author of a work on the <i>Christian
+Superstition</i>, published at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop
+Dupanloup under the pseudonym of &ldquo;Aristide.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Bauer</b> (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of
+Germany, b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of
+Berlin, in 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first
+attained celebrity by a review of the <i>Life of Jesus</i> by Strauss
+(1835). This was followed by his <i>Journal of Speculative Theology</i>
+and <i>Critical Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament</i>. He
+then proceeded to a <i>Review of the Gospel History</i>, upon the
+publication of which (1840) he was deprived of his professorship at
+Bonn. To this followed <i>Christianity Unveiled</i> (1843), which was
+destroyed at Zurich before its publication. This work continued his
+opposition to religion, which was carried still further in ironical
+style in his <i>Proclamation of the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel
+the Atheist</i>. Bauer&rsquo;s heresy deepened with age, and in his
+<i>Review of the Gospels and History of their Origin</i> (1850), to
+which <i>Apostolical History</i> is a supplement, he attacked the
+historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In his <i>Review of
+the Epistles attributed to St. Paul</i> (1852) he tries to show that
+the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been questioned,
+were not written by Paul, but are the production of the second century.
+In his <i>Christ and the C&aelig;sars</i> he shows the influence of
+Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died near
+Berlin, 13 April, 1882. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1554" href=
+"#xd20e1554" name="xd20e1554">33</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bauer</b> (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the
+preceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled
+<i>Bruno Bauer and his Opponents</i> (1842) was seized by the police.
+For his next publication, <i>The Strife of Criticism with Church and
+State</i> (1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written
+on English freedom, Capital, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Baume-Desdossat</b> (Jacques Fran&ccedil;ois, de la), b. 1705, a
+Canon of Avignon who wrote <i lang="fr">La Christiade</i> (1753), a
+satire on the gospels, in which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It
+was suppressed by the French Parliament and the author fined. He died
+30 April, 1756.</p>
+<p><b>Baur</b> (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological
+critic, b. 21 June, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman.
+He was educated at T&uuml;bingen, where in 1826 he became professor of
+Church history. Baur is the author of numerous works on dogmatic and
+historic theology, in which he subverts all the fundamental positions
+of Christianity. He was an Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important
+works are <i>Christianity and the Church in the First Three
+Centuries</i> and <i>Paul: His Life and Works</i>. These are translated
+into English. He acknowledges only four of the epistles of Paul and the
+Revelation as genuine products of the apostolic age, and shows how very
+far from simplicity were the times and doctrines of primitive
+Christianity. After a life of great literary activity he died at
+T&uuml;bingen, 2 Dec. 1860.</p>
+<p><b>Bayle</b> (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at
+Carlat, France, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was
+converted to Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse,
+1669. His Romanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled
+to Switzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from <i>Thoughts on
+the Comet</i>, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism
+with those of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous <i lang=
+"fr">Dictionnaire Critique</i>, a work still of value for its curious
+learning and shrewd observation. In his journal <i lang="fr">Nouvelles
+de la R&eacute;publique des Lettres</i> he advocates religious
+toleration on the ground of the difficulty of distinguishing truth from
+error. His criticism of Maimbourg&rsquo;s <i>History of Calvinism</i>
+was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted him, and he
+was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second edition of his
+dictionary. He died <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1598" href=
+"#xd20e1598" name="xd20e1598">34</a>]</span>at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706.
+Bayle has been called the father of free discussion in modern
+times.</p>
+<p><b>Bayrhoffer</b> (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14
+Oct., 1812, wrote <i>The Idea and History of Philosophy</i> (1838),
+took part in the revolution of &rsquo;48, emigrated to America, and
+wrote many polemical works. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb.
+1888.</p>
+<p><b>Beauchamp</b> (Philip). See <a href="#bentham">Bentham</a> and
+<a href="#groteg">Grote</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Beausobre</b> (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted
+by Frederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre,
+the author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at
+Frankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the
+wise (<i lang="fr">Pyrrhonisme du Sage</i>, Berlin, 1754), a work
+condemned to be burnt by the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote
+anonymously <i>The Dreams of Epicurus</i>, and an essay on Happiness
+(Berlin, 1758), reprinted with the <i>Social System</i> of Holbach in
+1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.</p>
+<p><b>Bebel</b> (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22
+Feb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since &rsquo;63, he
+became distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was
+elected to the German Reichstag in &rsquo;71. In the following year he
+was condemned (6 March) to two years&rsquo; imprisonment for high
+treason. He was re-elected in &rsquo;74. His principal work is <i>Woman
+in the Past, Present and Future</i> which is translated by H. B. A.
+Walther, 1885. He has also written on the <i>Mohammedan Culture
+Period</i> (1884) and on <i>Christianity and Socialism</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Beccaria</b> (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b.
+at Milan, 15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his
+treatise on <i>Crimes and Punishments</i> (1769), a work which did much
+to improve the criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Beesly</b> (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham,
+Worcestershire, 1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took
+B.A. in 1854, and M.A. in &rsquo;57. Appointed Professor of History,
+University College, London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of
+Comte&rsquo;s <i>System of Positive Polity</i>, and has published
+several pamphlets on political and social questions. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1657" href="#xd20e1657" name=
+"xd20e1657">35</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Beethoven</b> (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical
+composers, b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and
+at the age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach.
+His many compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera
+&ldquo;Fidelio,&rdquo; two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos,
+overtures and sonatas, and are characterised by penetrating power, rich
+imagination, intense passion, and tenderness. When about the age of
+forty he became totally deaf, but continued to compose till his death
+at Vienna, 26 March, 1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem
+as Wagner showed for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His
+Republican sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his
+life in the <i>Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography</i>, speaks
+of him as a &ldquo;Freethinker,&rdquo; and says the remarkable mass in
+C. &ldquo;might scarcely have proceeded from an entirely orthodox
+thinker.&rdquo; Sir George Grove, in his <i>Dictionary of Music and
+Musicians</i>, says: &ldquo;Formal religion he apparently had
+none,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the Bible does not appear to have been one of
+his favorite books.&rdquo; At the end of his arrangement of
+&ldquo;Fidelio&rdquo; Moscheles had written, &ldquo;Fine. With
+God&rsquo;s help.&rdquo; To this Beethoven added, &ldquo;O man, help
+thyself.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Bekker</b> (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier
+(Friesland) 20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of
+divinity, and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and
+had to fly to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his <i>World
+Bewitched</i> (1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of
+demons are denied. His book, which contains much curious information,
+raised a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the
+Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June, 1698.
+Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have &ldquo;looked like
+the devil, though he did not believe in him.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="belinsky"><b>Belinsky</b> (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian
+critic, b. Pensa 1811, educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the
+Pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28
+May, 1848. His works were issued in 12 volumes, 1857&ndash;61.</p>
+<p><b>Bell</b> (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered
+in 1842. He was employed in the suppression of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1684" href="#xd20e1684" name=
+"xd20e1684">36</a>]</span>Thugee. He wrote the <i>Task of To-Day</i>,
+1852, and assisted the <i>Reasoner</i>, both with pen and purse,
+writing over the signature &ldquo;Undecimus.&rdquo; He contemplated
+selling his commission to devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but
+by the advice of his friends was deterred. He returned to India at the
+Mutiny. In January, 1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at
+Madras. He retired in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian
+affairs. Died 12 Sept. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Bell</b> (William S.), b. in <span class="corr" id="xd20e1696"
+title="Source: Alleghany">Allegheny</span> city, Pennsylvania, 10 Feb.
+1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for mixing
+politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In 1873 he
+preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in Dec.
+&rsquo;74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought
+lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution, and
+some pamphlets.</p>
+<p><b>Bender</b> (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology
+at Bonn, b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther
+centenary, 1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was
+incompleted and must be carried on by the Rationalists.</p>
+<p><b>Bennett</b> (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New
+York <i>Truthseeker</i>, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23
+Dec. 1818. At the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New
+Lebanon. Here he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost
+faith in the Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he
+started a drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works
+made him a Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in
+answer to some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a
+paper of his own. The result was the <i>Truthseeker</i>, which in
+January, 1876 became a weekly, and has since become one of the
+principal Freethought organs in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to
+thirteen months&rsquo; imprisonment for sending through the post a
+pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the marriage question. A tract, entitled
+<i>An Open Letter to Jesus Christ</i>, was read in court to bias the
+jury. A petition bearing 200,000 names was presented to President Hayes
+asking his release, but was not <span class="corr" id="xd20e1716"
+title="Source: acceeded">acceded</span> to. Upon his release his
+admirers sent him for a voyage round the world. He wrote <i>A
+Truthseeker&rsquo;s Voyage Round the World</i>, <i>Letters from Albany
+Penitentiary</i>, <i>Answers to <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e1728" href="#xd20e1728" name="xd20e1728">37</a>]</span>Christian
+Questions and Arguments</i>, two large volumes on <i>The Gods</i>,
+another on the <i>World&rsquo;s Sages, Infidels and Thinkers</i>, and
+published his discussions with Humphrey, Mair, and Teed, and numerous
+tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.</p>
+<p id="bentham"><b>Bentham</b> (Jeremy), writer on ethics,
+jurisprudence, and political economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle
+named Woodward was the publisher of Tindal&rsquo;s <i>Christianity as
+Old as the Creation</i>. Was educated at Westminster and Oxford, where
+he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham is justly regarded as the father of the
+school of philosophical Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great
+teacher of Utilitarianism; as a jurist he did much to disclose the
+defects of and improve our system of law. Macaulay says he &ldquo;found
+jurisprudence a gibberish and left it a science.&rdquo; His most
+pronounced Freethought work was that written in conjunction with Grote,
+published as <i>An Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion</i>,
+by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his numerous other works we can only
+mention <i>Deontology, or the Science of Mortality</i>, an exposition
+of utilitarianism; <i>Church of Englandism and its Catechism Examined;
+Not Paul, but Jesus</i>, published under the pseudonym of Gamaliel
+Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for the purposes of
+science.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e1755" title=
+"Source: Beranger">B&eacute;ranger</span></b> (Jean Pierre de),
+celebrated French lyrical poet, b. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on
+the Bourbons twice ensured for him imprisonment. He was elected to the
+Constituant Assembly 1848. B&eacute;ranger has been compared not
+inaptly to Burns. All his songs breathe the spirit of liberty, and
+several have been characterised as impious. He died 16 July, 1857.</p>
+<p><b>Bergel</b> (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of <i>Heaven and
+Its Wonders</i>, Leipsic, 1881, and <i>Mythology of the Ancient
+Hebrews</i>, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Berger</b> (Moriz), author of a work on <i>Materialism in
+Conflict with Spiritualism and Idealism</i>, Trieste, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Bergerac de</b> (Savinien Cyrano). See <a href=
+"#cyranodebergerac">Cyrano</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Bergk</b> (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz,
+27 June, 1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many
+works, both under his own name and <span class="corr" id="xd20e1787"
+title="Source: psuedonyms">pseudonyms</span>. He published the <i>Art
+of Thinking</i>, Leipsic, 1802, conducted the <i>Asiatic Magazine</i>,
+1806, and wrote under the name of <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e1796" href="#xd20e1796" name="xd20e1796">38</a>]</span>Frey the
+<i>True Religion</i>, &ldquo;recommended to rationalists and destined
+for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics, etc.&rdquo; Died
+Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.</p>
+<p><b>Bergk</b> (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b.
+Leipsic, 22 May, 1812, author of a good <i>History of Greek
+Literature</i>, 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Berigardus</b> (Claudius), or <b>Beauregard</b> (Claude
+Guillermet), French physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about
+1591. He became a professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went
+to Padua. His <i lang="la">Circulus Pisanus</i>, published in 1643, was
+considered an Atheistic work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the
+various hypotheses of the formation of the world. The work was
+forbidden and is very rare. His book entitled <i lang="la">Dubitationes
+in Dialogum Galil&aelig;i</i>, also brought on him a charge of
+scepticism. Died in 1664.</p>
+<p><b>Berkenhout</b> (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b.
+1731, the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life
+he had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and in
+1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on medical
+science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain and
+Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal work
+is entitled <i lang="la">Biographia Literaria</i>, a biographical
+history of English literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no
+opportunity of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud
+in his praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.</p>
+<p><b>Berlioz</b> (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical
+composers, b. Is&egrave;re, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his
+dramatic symphony of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> (1839), and was made
+chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Among his works is one on the
+<i>Infancy of Christ</i>. In his <i>Memoirs</i> he relates how he
+scandalised Mendelssohn &ldquo;by laughing at the Bible.&rdquo; Died
+Paris, 9 March, 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Bernard</b> (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12
+July, 1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the
+Institute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote <i>La
+Science Experimentale</i>, and other works on physiology. Died 10 Feb.
+1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert calls
+him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1848" href="#xd20e1848" name=
+"xd20e1848">39</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bernier</b> (Abb&eacute;). See <a href=
+"#holbach">Holbach</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Bernier</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French physician and traveller, b.
+Angers about 1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged,
+and he defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as
+<i lang="fr">le joli philsophe</i>. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt,
+and from thence to India, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On
+his return he published an account of his travels and of the Empire of
+the Great Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.</p>
+<p><b>Bernstein</b> (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents
+Dantzic 1812. His first work was a translation of the <i>Song of
+Songs</i>, published under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He
+devoted himself to natural science and published works on <i>The
+Rotation of Planets, Humboldt and the Spirit of the Time</i>, etc. His
+essay on <i>The Origin of the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob</i>
+was translated by a German lady and published by Thomas Scott of
+Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin, 12 Feb. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Berquin</b> (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489.
+Erasmus, his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred
+of the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was
+commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment was
+pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to the
+Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of the
+17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to be
+burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon at
+the Place de la Gr&egrave;ve. He died with great constancy and
+resolution.</p>
+<p><b>Bert</b> (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre,
+17 Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after
+being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869
+obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris,
+and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In &rsquo;70
+he offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in
+&rsquo;72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised
+himself by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made
+him Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised
+French education on a Secular basis. His <i>First Year of Scientific
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1887" href="#xd20e1887" name=
+"xd20e1887">40</a>]</span>Instruction</i> is almost universally used in
+the French primary schools. It has been translated into English by
+Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His strong anti-clerical views
+induced much opposition. He published several scientific and
+educational works and attacked <i>The Morality of the Jesuits</i>,
+&rsquo;80. In &rsquo;86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at
+Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. &rsquo;86. His body was brought over to
+France and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his
+widow.</p>
+<p><b>Bertani</b> (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became
+a physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising
+the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy
+to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Berti</b> (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816.
+Author of many scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council
+and of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Bertillon</b> (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and
+physician, b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical
+study of the French population, Paris &rsquo;74. He edits in
+conjunction with A. Hovelacque and others, the <i>Dictionary of the
+Anthropological Sciences</i> (&rsquo;83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b.
+&rsquo;51) and Alphonse (b. &rsquo;53), prosecute similar studies.</p>
+<p><b>Bertrand de Saint-Germain</b> (Guillaume Scipion), French
+physician, b. <span class="corr" id="xd20e1912" title=
+"Source: Puy-en Velay">Puy-en-Velay</span> 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D.
+1840, wrote on <i>The Original Diversity of Human Races</i> (1847), and
+a materialistic work on <i>Manifestation of Life and Intelligence
+through Organisation</i>, 1848. Has also written on <i>Descartes as a
+Physiologist</i>, 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Berwick</b> (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India
+Company in 1828, retired in &rsquo;52. Author of <i>Awas-i-hind</i>, or
+a Voice from the Ganges; being a solution of the true source of
+Christianity. By an Indian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on
+<i>The Forces of the Universe</i>, &rsquo;70. Died about 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Besant</b> (Annie) n&eacute;e Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847.
+Educated in Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but
+turned to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In &ldquo;Holy
+Week&rdquo; of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1938" href="#xd20e1938" name=
+"xd20e1938">41</a>]</span>week from the gospel. Their contradictions
+startled her but she regarded her doubts as sin. In Dec. &rsquo;67 she
+married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and wrote extensively. The torment
+a child underwent in whooping-cough caused doubts as to the goodness of
+God. A study of Greg&rsquo;s <i>Creed of Christendom</i> and
+Arnold&rsquo;s <i>Literature and Dogma</i> increased her scepticism.
+She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas Scott, for
+whom she wrote an <i>Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth</i>,
+&ldquo;by the wife of a beneficed clergyman.&rdquo; This led to her
+husband insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the
+latter course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her
+own resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in
+<i>My Path to Atheism</i> (&rsquo;77). Joined the National Secular
+Society, and in &rsquo;74 wrote in the <i>National Reformer</i> over
+the signature of &ldquo;Ajax.&rdquo; Next year she took to the platform
+and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to the front rank as a
+Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor of the <i>National
+Reformer</i>. Some lectures on the French Revolution were republished
+in book form. In April, &rsquo;77, she was arrested with Mr. Bradlaugh
+for publishing the <i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>. After a brilliant
+defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt motives,
+and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed in Feb.
+&rsquo;78, and the case was not renewed. In May, &rsquo;78, a petition
+in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the
+ground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted
+the petition. In &rsquo;80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London
+University and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in &rsquo;82. She has debated
+much and issued many pamphlets to be found in <i>Theological Essays and
+Debates</i>. She wrote the second part of the <i>Freethinkers&rsquo;
+Text Book</i> dealing with Christian evidence; has written on the
+<i>Sins of the Church</i>, 1886, and the <i>Evolution of Society</i>.
+She has translated Jules Soury&rsquo;s <i>Religion of Israel</i>, and
+<i>Jesus of the Gospels</i>; Dr. L. B&uuml;chner on the <i>Influence of
+Heredity</i> and <i>Mind in Animals</i>, and from the fifteenth edition
+of <i>Force and Matter</i>. From &rsquo;83 to &rsquo;88 she edited
+<i>Our Corner</i>, and since &rsquo;85 has given much time to Socialist
+propaganda, and has written many Socialist pamphlets. In Dec.
+&rsquo;88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member of the London School
+Board.</p>
+<p><b>Beverland</b> (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1998" href="#xd20e1998" name=
+"xd20e1998">42</a>]</span>of Isaac Vossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took
+the degree of doctor of law and became an advocate, but devoted himself
+to literature. He was at the university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise
+on Original Sin, <i>Peccatum Originale</i> (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in
+which he contends that the sin of Adam and Eve was sexual inclination,
+caused a great outcry. It was burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his
+name struck from the rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other
+curious works and died about 1712.</p>
+<p><b>Bevington</b> (Louisa S.), afterwards <span class=
+"sc">Guggenberger</span>; English poetess and authoress of <i>Key
+Notes</i>, 1879; <i>Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets</i>, &rsquo;82; wrote
+&ldquo;Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock&rdquo; in the <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i> (Oct. and Dec. &rsquo;79), and on &ldquo;The Moral Demerits
+of Orthodoxy&rdquo; in <i>Progress</i>, Sept. &rsquo;84.</p>
+<p id="beyle"><b>Beyle</b> (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous
+under the name of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter,
+soldier, merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life
+being congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, <i lang=
+"fr">De l&rsquo;Amour</i> is his most notable work. He was an original
+and gifted critic and romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at
+Paris, 23 March, 1842. Prosper Merim&eacute;e has published his
+correspondence. One of his sayings was &ldquo;Ce qui excuse Dieu,
+c&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;il n&rsquo;existe pas&rdquo;&mdash;God&rsquo;s
+excuse is that he does not exist.</p>
+<p><b>Bianchi</b> (Angelo), known as <span class=
+"sc">Bianchi-Giovini</span> (Aurelio) Italian man of letters, b. of
+poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted several papers in
+various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His <i>Life of Father Paoli
+Sarpi</i>, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward he was in
+constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on the clergy in
+<i lang="it">Il Republicano</i>, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had
+to seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote
+a <i>History of the Hebrews</i>, a monograph on <i>Pope Joan</i>, and
+an account of the Revolution. His principal works are the <i>History of
+the Popes</i> until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850&ndash;64)
+and a <i>Criticism of the Gospels</i>, 1853, which has gone through
+several editions. Died 16 May, 1862.</p>
+<p><b>Biandrata</b> or <span class="sc">Blandrata</span> (Giorgio),
+Italian anti-trinitarian reformer, b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in
+arts and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2063" href="#xd20e2063"
+name="xd20e2063">43</a>]</span>medicine at Montpellier, 1533. He was
+thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia, but contrived to
+escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to Calvin. He left Geneva
+in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a leader of the Socinian
+party. He was assassinated 1591.</p>
+<p><b>Bichat</b> (Marie Fran&ccedil;ois Xavier), a famous French
+anatomist and physiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work
+on the <i>Physiology of Life and Death</i> was translated into English.
+He died a martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.</p>
+<p><b>Biddle</b> or <span class="sc">Bidle</span> (John), called the
+father of English Unitarianism, b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire,
+14 Jan. 1615. He took his M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became
+master of the Gloucester Grammar School, but lost the situation for
+denying the Trinity. He was also imprisoned there for some time, and
+afterwards cited at Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence,
+and his pamphlet was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647.
+He was detained in prison till 1652, after which he published several
+pamphlets, and was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell
+banished him to the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned
+to London 1658, but after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was
+again seized, and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.</p>
+<p><b>Bierce</b> (M. H.) see <a href="#grile"><span class=
+"sc">Grile</span> (Dod)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Billaud-Varenne</b> (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La
+Rochelle, 23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament;
+denounced the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the
+monarchy 1 July, 1791, and wrote <i>Elements of Republicanism</i>,
+1793. Withdrew from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being,
+saying &ldquo;Thou beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme
+Being.&rdquo; Was exiled 1 April, 1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3
+June, 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Bion</b>, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A
+Scythian philosopher who flourished about 250 <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> He was sold as a slave to a rhetorician, who
+afterwards gave him freedom and made him his heir. Upon this he went to
+Athens and applied himself to the study of philosophy. He had several
+teachers, but attached himself to Theodorus the Atheist. He was famous
+for his knowledge of music, poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings
+of his are preserved, as that &ldquo;only the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2102" href="#xd20e2102" name=
+"xd20e2102">44</a>]</span>votive tablets of the preserved are seen in
+the temples, not those of the drowned&rdquo; and &ldquo;it is useless
+to tear our hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by
+baldness.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Birch</b> (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4 Jan.
+1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at New Inn
+Hall. Author of <i>An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of
+Shakespeare</i>, 1848; <i>An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
+of the Bible</i>, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by
+&ldquo;Rudolf Charles;&rdquo; <i>Paul an Idea, not a Fact</i>; and the
+<i>Real and Ideal</i>. In the stormy time of &rsquo;42 Mr. Birch did
+much to support the prosecuted publications. He brought out the
+<i>Library of Reason</i> and supported <i>The Reasoner</i> and
+<i>Investigator</i> with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has resided much
+in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity and Freedom. He
+is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch has been a
+contributor to <i>Notes and Queries</i> and other journals, and has
+devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity, having many
+manuscripts upon the subject.</p>
+<p><b>Bithell</b> (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821,
+of pious parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D.
+of Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In &rsquo;65 he entered
+the service of the Rothschilds. Has written <i>Creed of a Modern
+Agnostic</i>, 1883; and <i>Agnostic Problems</i>, 1887.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e2145" title=
+"Source: Bjornson">Bj&ouml;rnson</span></b> (Bj&ouml;rnstjerne),
+Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His father was a Lutheran
+clergyman. Has done much to create a national literature for Norway.
+For his freethinking opinions he was obliged to leave his country and
+reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been translated into English.
+In 1882 Bj&ouml;rnson published at Christiania, with a short
+introduction, a resum&eacute; of C. B. Waite&rsquo;s <i>History of the
+Christian Religion</i>, under the title of <i>Whence come the Miracles
+of the New Testament?</i> This was the first attack upon dogmatic
+Christianity published in Norway, and created much discussion. The
+following year he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll&rsquo;s
+article in the <i>North American Review</i> upon the &ldquo;Christian
+Religion,&rdquo; with a long preface, in which he attacks the State
+Church and Monarchy. The translation was entitled <i>Think for
+Yourself</i>. The first edition rapidly sold out and a <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2160" href="#xd20e2160" name=
+"xd20e2160">45</a>]</span>second one appeared. He has since, both in
+speech and writing, repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had
+several controversies with the clergy.</p>
+<p><b>Blagosvyetlov</b> (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the
+Caucasus, 1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose
+<i>Subjection of Women</i> he translated into Russian. He edited a
+magazine Djelo (Cause). Died about 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Blanqui</b> (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7
+Feb. 1805, a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist.
+Becoming a Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment
+under successive governments. In &rsquo;39 he was condemned to death,
+but his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to
+brutal treatment till the revolution of &rsquo;48 set him at liberty.
+He was soon again imprisoned. In &rsquo;65 he wrote some remarkable
+articles on Monotheism in <i>Le Candide</i>. After the revolution of 4
+Sept. &rsquo;70, Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was
+again imprisoned, but was liberated and elected member of the Commune,
+and arrested by Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious
+book, <i>Eternity and the Stars</i>, in which he argues from the
+eternity and infinity of matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took
+as his motto &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Ni Dieu ni
+ma&icirc;tre</span>&rdquo;&mdash;Neither God nor master.</p>
+<p><b>Blasche</b> (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9
+April, 1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He
+wrote <i lang="de">Kritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens</i> (Criticism
+of Modern Ghost Belief), <i lang="de">Philosophische
+Unsterblichkeitslehre</i> (Teaching of Philosophical Immortality), and
+other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.</p>
+<p><b>Blignieres</b> (C&eacute;lestin de), French Positivist, of the
+Polytechnic school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive
+philosophy and religion, Paris 1857; <i>The Positive Doctrine</i>,
+1867; <i>Studies of Positive Morality</i>, 1868; and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Blind</b> (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826.
+Studied at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary
+leader among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and
+proscribed. In Sept. &rsquo;48 he led the second republican revolution
+in the Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight
+year&rsquo;s imprisonment. In the spring of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2207" href="#xd20e2207" name=
+"xd20e2207">46</a>]</span>&rsquo;49 he was liberated by the people
+breaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon,
+then president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and
+banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since &rsquo;52 has
+lived in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history,
+and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her
+literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the name
+of <i>Claude Lake</i>. She has since translated Straus&rsquo;s <i>Old
+Faith and the New</i>, and written the volumes on George Eliot and
+Madame Roland in the <i>Eminent Women</i> series.</p>
+<p><b>Blount</b> (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at
+Holloway 27 April, 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared
+in his opinions, and helped him in his anti-religious work, <i>Anima
+Mundi</i>, 1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In
+1680 he published <i>Great is Diana of the Ephesians</i>, or the Origin
+of Idolatry, and the two first books of <i>Apollonius Tyanius</i>, with
+notes, in which he attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was
+condemned and suppressed. Blount also published <i>The Oracles of
+Reason</i>, a number of Freethought Essays. By his <i>Vindication of
+Learning and Liberty of the Press</i>, and still more by his hoax on
+Bohun entitled <i>William and Mary Conquerors</i>, he was largely
+instrumental in doing away with the censorship of the press. He shot
+himself, it is said, because he could not marry his deceased
+wife&rsquo;s sister (August, 1693). His miscellaneous works were
+printed in one volume, 1695.</p>
+<p><b>Blumenfeld</b> (J. C.), wrote <i>The New Ecce Homo or the Self
+Redemption of Man</i>, 1839. He is also credited with the authorship of
+<i>The Existence of Christ Disproved</i> in a series of Letters by
+&ldquo;A German Jew,&rdquo; London, 1841.</p>
+<p><b>Boerne</b> (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b.
+Frankfort 22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in
+which he had been bred, nominally for Protestantism, but really he had,
+like his friend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in
+favor of political liberty and translated Lammenais&rsquo; <i>Paroles
+d&rsquo;un Croyant</i>. Died 12 Feb. 1837.</p>
+<p><b>Bodin</b> (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He
+studied at Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the
+law, and became secretary to the Duc d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on. His
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2262" href="#xd20e2262" name=
+"xd20e2262">47</a>]</span>book <i>De la Republique</i> is highly
+praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of
+Montesquieu&rsquo;s &ldquo;Spirit of the Laws.&rdquo; He wrote a work
+on <span class="corr" id="xd20e2267" title=
+"Source: demonomaina">demonomania</span>, in which he seems to have
+believed, but in his <i lang="la">Colloquium Heptaplomeron</i>
+coloquies of seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a
+Pagan, a Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript,
+he put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at Laon
+in 1596.</p>
+<p><b>Boggis</b> (John) is mentioned by Edwards in his <i>Gangrena</i>,
+1645, as an Atheist and disbeliever in the Bible.</p>
+<p><b>Boichot</b> (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820,
+entered the army. In &rsquo;49 he was chosen representative of the
+people. After the <i lang="fr">coup d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> he came to
+England, returned to France in &rsquo;54, was arrested and imprisoned
+at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived at Brussels, where he has
+written several works and is one of the council of International
+Freethinkers.</p>
+<p><b>Boindin</b> (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and
+academician, b. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and
+resorted with other Freethinkers to the famous caf&eacute; Procope.
+There, in order to speak freely, they called the soul Margot, religion
+Javotte, liberty Jeanneton, and God M. de l&rsquo;Etre. One day a spy
+asked Boindin, &ldquo;Who is this M. de l&rsquo;Etre with whom you seem
+so displeased?&rdquo; &ldquo;Monsieur,&rdquo; replied Boindin,
+&ldquo;he is a police spy.&rdquo; Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse was
+refused &ldquo;Christian burial.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="boissiere"><b>Boissiere</b> (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French
+writer, b. Valognes Dec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He
+compiled an analogical dictionary of the French language. Under the
+name of Si&egrave;rebois he has published the <i>Autopsy of the
+Soul</i> and a work on the foundations of morality, which he traces to
+interest. He has also written a book entitled <i>The Mechanism of
+Thought</i>, &rsquo;84.</p>
+<p><b>Boissonade</b> (J. A.), author of <i>The Bible Unveiled</i>,
+Paris, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Boito</b> (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose
+opera &ldquo;Mefistofele,&rdquo; has created considerable sensation by
+its boldness.</p>
+<p id="bolingbroke"><b>Bolingbroke</b> (Henry <span class="sc">Saint
+John</span>) Lord, English statesman and philosopher, b. at Battersea,
+1 Oct. 1672. His political life <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e2320" href="#xd20e2320" name="xd20e2320">48</a>]</span>was a
+stormy one. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his <i>Essay
+on Man</i> avowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at
+Battersea 12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who
+in 1754 published his works, which included <i>Essays Written to A.
+Pope, Esq., on Religion and Philosophy</i>, in which he attacks
+Christianity with both wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist,
+believing in God but scornfully rejecting revelation. He much
+influenced Voltaire, who regarded him with esteem.</p>
+<p><b>Bonavino</b> (Francesco Cristoforo) see <a href=
+"#franchi"><span class="sc">Franchi</span> (Ausonio)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Boni</b> (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820.
+Editor of a standard <i>Biography of Artists</i>, published at Venice,
+1840. He also wrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on <i>Reason and
+Dogma</i>, Siena, &rsquo;66, and contributed to Stefanoni&rsquo;s
+<i lang="it">Libero Pensiero</i>. De Boni was elected deputy to the
+Italian Parliament. He has written on &ldquo;Italian Unbelief in the
+Middle Ages&rdquo; in the <i lang="it">Annuario Filosofico del Libero
+Pensiero</i>, &rsquo;68.</p>
+<p><b>Boniface VIII.</b>, Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of
+Christendom, 24 Dec. 1294. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of
+France charges were sworn on oath against Pope Boniface that he neither
+believed in the Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the
+Virgin Mary &ldquo;was no more a virgin than my mother&rdquo;; that he
+did not observe the fasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the
+cardinals, monks, and friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the
+Pope had said &ldquo;God may do the worst with me that he pleases in
+the future life; I believe as every educated man does, the vulgar
+believe otherwise. We have to speak as they do, but we must believe and
+think with the few.&rdquo; Died 11 Oct. 1303.</p>
+<p><b>Bonnycastle</b> (John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks,
+about 1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathematics and became
+Professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, where
+he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private
+information assures me he was a Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Booms</b> (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by
+trade, who wrote early in the <span class="corr" id="xd20e2365" title=
+"Source: eigthteenth">eighteenth</span> century, and on 1 Jan. 1714,
+was banished. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2368" href=
+"#xd20e2368" name="xd20e2368">49</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bonnot de Condillac</b> (Etienne) see <a href=
+"#condillac"><span class="sc">Condillac</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Bonstetten</b> (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept
+1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and
+England to finish his education. Among his works are <i>Researches on
+the Nature and Laws of the Imagination</i>, 1807; and <i>Studies on
+Man</i>, 1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.</p>
+<p><b>Borde</b> (Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric), editor of <i>La Philosophie
+de l&rsquo;Avenir</i>, Paris, 1875, etc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has
+written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Born</b> (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by
+the Jesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the
+Empress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works on
+Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and published
+with the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated satire
+entitled <i>Monchalogia</i>, or the natural history of monks.</p>
+<p><b>Bosc</b> (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris,
+29 Jan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose
+<i>Memoirs</i> he published. He wrote many works on natural history.
+Died 10 July, 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Boucher</b> (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809;
+contributed to the <i>Rationalist</i> of Geneva, where he died 1882.
+Author of a work on Revelation and Rationalism, entitled <i>Search for
+the Truth</i>, Avignon, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Bougainville</b> (Louis Antoine de) <i>Count</i>, the first
+French voyager who made the tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov.
+1729. Died 31 Aug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his
+travels.</p>
+<p><b>Bouillier</b> (Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July
+1813, has written several works on psychology, and contributed to
+<i lang="fr">la Libert&eacute; de Penser</i>. His principal work is a
+History of the Cartesian Philosophy.<a id="xd20e2433" name=
+"xd20e2433"></a> He is a member of the Institute and writes in the
+leading reviews.</p>
+<p><b>Bouis</b> (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited
+<i lang="fr">La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i> and wrote a satire on the
+Jesuits entitled <i lang="fr">Calottes et Soutanes</i>, 1870. Sent to
+New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he has since his
+return published a volume of political verses entitled <i lang=
+"fr">Apr&egrave;s le Naufrage</i>, After the Shipwreck, 1880.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2448" href="#xd20e2448" name=
+"xd20e2448">50</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Boulainvilliers</b> (Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French
+historian and philosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical
+work is an account of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a
+defence of Spinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an
+analysis of Spinoza&rsquo;s Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at
+the end of <i>Doubts upon Religion</i>, Londres, 1767. A <i>Life of
+Muhammad</i>, the first European work doing justice to Islam, and a
+<i>History of the Arabs</i> also proceeded from his pen, and he is one
+of those to whom is attributed the treatise with the title of the
+<i>Three Impostors</i>, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.</p>
+<p id="boulanger"><b>Boulanger</b> (Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b.
+11 Nov. 1722. Died 16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as
+engineer, and afterwards became surveyor of public works. After his
+death his works were published by D&rsquo;Holbach who rewrote them. His
+principal works are <i>Antiquity Unveiled</i> and <i>Researches on the
+Origin of Oriental Despotism</i>. <i>Christianity Unveiled</i>,
+attributed to him and said by Voltaire to have been by Damilavile, was
+probably written by D&rsquo;Holbach, perhaps with some assistance from
+Naigeon. It was burnt by order of the French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770.
+<i>A Critical Examination of the Life and Works of St. Paul</i>,
+attributed to Boulanger, was really made up by d&rsquo;Holbach from the
+work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations on Elisha, Enoch and St.
+Peter, and some articles for the <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Bourdet</b> (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818.
+Author of several works on medicine and Positivist philosophy and
+education.</p>
+<p><b>Boureau-Deslands</b> (A. F.) See <a href=
+"#deslandes">Deslandes</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Bourget</b> (Paul), French litt&eacute;rateur, b. at Amiens in
+1852. Has made himself famous by his novels, essays on <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e2499" title=
+"Source: contemtemporary">contemporary</span> psychology, studies of M.
+R&eacute;nan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but his methods
+are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His insight is
+most subtle, and his style is exquisite.</p>
+<p><b>Boutteville</b> (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the
+Lyc&eacute;e Bonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and
+published an able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural
+Morality, 1866, for which the clergy turned him out of a professorship
+he held at Sainte-Barbe. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2507" href=
+"#xd20e2507" name="xd20e2507">51</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bovio</b> (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the
+University of Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent
+Freethinker. Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio opposes
+the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between Church and
+State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience and has
+promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University of Rome. He
+has written a work on <i>The History of Law</i>, a copy of which he
+presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Bowring</b> (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and
+writer, b. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant
+Carpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles he
+maintained in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he was editor,
+1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight&rsquo;s
+imprisonment he was released without trial. He published
+Bentham&rsquo;s <i>Deontology</i> (1834), and nine years after edited a
+complete collection of the works of Bentham. Returned to Parliament in
+&rsquo;35, and afterwards was employed in important government
+missions. In &rsquo;55 he visited Siam, and two years later published
+an account of <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i>. He translated
+Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of many countries; was an active
+member of the British Association and of the Social Science
+Association, and did much to promote rational views on the Sunday
+question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Boyle</b> (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the
+purpose of serving in R. Carlile&rsquo;s shop when the right of free
+publication was attacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted
+and tried as &ldquo;a man with name unknown&rdquo; for publishing a
+blasphemous and seditious libel. In his defence he ably asserted his
+right to hold and publish his opinions. He read portions of the Bible
+in court to prove he was justified in calling it obscene. Upon being
+sentenced, 27 May, 1822, to eighteen months&rsquo; imprisonment and to
+find sureties for five years, he remarked &ldquo;I have a mind, my
+lord, that can bear such a sentence with fortitude.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Bradlaugh</b> (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833.
+Educated in Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his
+Sunday-school teachership and from his first situation <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2536" href="#xd20e2536" name=
+"xd20e2536">52</a>]</span>through the influence of the Rev. J. G.
+Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In Dec. 1850 he
+entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here he met James
+Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which lasted for many
+years. He got his discharge, and in &rsquo;53 returned to London and
+became a solicitor&rsquo;s clerk. He began to write and lecture under
+the <i>nom de guerre</i> of &ldquo;Iconoclast,&rdquo; edited the
+<i>Investigator</i>, &rsquo;59; and had numerous debates with ministers
+and others. In 1860 he began editing the <i>National Reformer</i>,
+which in &rsquo;68&ndash;9 he successfully defended against a
+prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities against
+blasphemy. In &rsquo;68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament, and
+in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle with the
+House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took his seat in
+1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation into which he
+was plunged will become as historic as that of John Wilkes. Prosecuted
+in &rsquo;76 for publishing <i>The Fruits of Philosophy</i>, he
+succeeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous
+debates, several of which are published. He has also written many
+pamphlets, of which we mention <i>New Lives of Abraham, David, and
+other saints</i>, <i>Who was Jesus Christ?</i> <i>What did Jesus
+Teach?</i> <i>Has Man a Soul, Is there a God?</i> etc. His <i>Plea for
+Atheism</i> reached its 20th thousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also
+published <i>When were our Gospels Written<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e2568" title="Not in source">?</span></i>, 1867<span class="corr"
+id="xd20e2572" title="Source: ?">;</span> <i>Heresy, its Utility and
+Morality</i>, 1870; <i>The Inspiration of the Bible</i>, 1873; <i>The
+Freethinker&rsquo;s Text Book</i>, part i., dealing with natural
+religion, 1876; <i>The Laws Relating to Blasphemy and Heresy</i>, 1878;
+<i>Supernatural and Rational Morality</i>, 1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh
+commenced a commentary on the Bible, entitled <i>The Bible, What is
+it?</i> In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form, dealing only with the
+Pentateuch. In 1882 he published <i>Genesis, Its Authorship and
+Authenticity</i>. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become a conspicuous
+figure, and has introduced many important measures. In 1888 he
+succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations permissible
+instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30 April, 1856, has
+written on <i>Mind Considered as a Bodily Function</i>, 1884. Died 2
+Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, b. 31 March,
+1858, has written &ldquo;Princess Vera&rdquo; and other stories,
+&ldquo;Chemistry of Home,&rdquo; etc. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e2600" href="#xd20e2600" name="xd20e2600">53</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Br&aelig;kstad</b> (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept.
+1845. Has made English translations from Bj&ouml;rnson,
+Asbj&ouml;rnsen, Andersen, etc., and has contributed to
+<i>Harper&rsquo;s Magazine</i> and other periodical literature.</p>
+<p><b>Brandes</b> (Georg Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew,
+b. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills&rsquo;
+<i>Subjection of Women</i>, and in the following year took a
+doctor&rsquo;s degree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is
+entitled the <i>Main Current of Literature in the Nineteenth
+Century</i>. His brother, Dr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish
+Parliament in 1881, despite his declaration that he did not believe
+either in the God of the Christians or of the Jews.</p>
+<p><b>Bray</b> (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan.
+1811. He was brought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to
+Freethought. Early in life he took an active part in promoting
+unsectarian education. His first work (1835) was on <i>The Education of
+the Body</i>. This was followed by <i>The Education of the
+Feelings</i>, of which there were several editions. In 1836 he married
+Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell, and took the <i>System of
+Nature</i> and Volney&rsquo;s <i>Ruins of Empires</i> &ldquo;to enliven
+the honeymoon.&rdquo; Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans
+(&ldquo;George Eliot&rdquo;), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to
+Italy. His works on <i>The Philosophy of Necessity</i> (1841) and
+<i>Cerebral Psychology</i> (1875) give the key to all his thought. He
+wrote a number of Thomas Scott&rsquo;s series of tracts: <i>Illusion
+and Delusion</i>, <i>The Reign of Law in Mind as in Matter</i>,
+<i>Toleration</i> with remarks on Professor Tyndall&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Address,&rdquo; and a little book, <i>Christianity in the Light
+of our Present Knowledge and Moral Sense</i> (1876). He also wrote <i>A
+Manual of Anthropology</i> and similar works. In a postscript to his
+last volume, <i>Phases of Opinion and Experience During a Long
+Life</i>, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated that he has no hope or
+expectation or belief even in the possibility of continued
+individuality after death, and that as his opinions have done to live
+by &ldquo;they will do to die by.&rdquo; He died 5 Oct. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Bresson</b> (L&eacute;opold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche,
+1817. Educated at the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and
+served on public works. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian
+Railway Company. Wrote <i lang="fr">Id&eacute;es Modernes</i>, 1880.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2667" href="#xd20e2667" name=
+"xd20e2667">54</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bridges</b> (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833,
+graduated B.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on
+<i>Religion and Progress</i>, contributed to the <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, and translated Comte&rsquo;s <i>General View of
+Positivism</i> (1865) and <i>System of Positive Polity</i> (1873).</p>
+<p><b>Bril</b> (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan.
+1639. <span class="corr" id="xd20e2688" title=
+"Source: died">Died</span> 1700. His works were published at Amsterdam,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e2691" title="Source: 4705">1705</span>.</p>
+<p><b>Brissot</b> (Jean Pierre) <span class="sc">de Warville</span>,
+active French revolutionist, b. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to
+the law, but took to literature. He wrote for the <i>Courier de
+l&rsquo;Europe</i>, a revolutionary paper suppressed for its boldness,
+published a treatise on Truth, and edited a Philosophical Law Library,
+1782&ndash;85. He wrote against the legal authority of Rome, and is
+credited with <i>Philosophical Letters upon St. Paul and the Christian
+Religion</i>, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784 he was imprisoned in the
+Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second imprisonment he went to
+England and America, returning to France at the outbreak of the
+Revolution. He wrote many political works, became member of the
+Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party, protested against the
+execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph of the Mountain was
+executed with twenty-one of his colleagues, 31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was
+a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish, and an earnest lover of freedom
+in every form.</p>
+<p><b>Bristol</b> (Augusta), n&eacute;e <span class="sc">Cooper</span>,
+American educator, b. Croydon, New Haven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850
+became teacher and gained repute by her <i>Poems</i>. In Sept. 1880,
+she represented American Freethinkers at the International Conference
+at Brussels. She has written on <i>Science and its Relations to Human
+Character</i> and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Broca</b> (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824.
+A hard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In
+1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils
+Gratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated
+his treatise on <i>Hybridity</i>. He established <i>The Review of
+Anthropology</i>, published numerous scientific works and was made a
+member of the Legion of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2731" href=
+"#xd20e2731" name="xd20e2731">55</a>]</span>Honor. In philosophy he
+inclined to Positivism. Died Paris, 9 July, 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Brooksbank</b> (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he
+wrote in Carlile&rsquo;s <i>Lion</i>, and has since contributed to the
+<i>Reasoner</i>, the <i>Pathfinder</i>, and the <i>National
+Reformer</i>. He was an intimate friend of James Watson. He wrote <i>A
+Sketch of the Religions of the Earth</i>, <i>Revelation Tested by
+Astronomy, Geography, Geology</i>, etc., 1856, and some other
+pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age at
+Nottingham.</p>
+<p><b>Brothier</b> (L&eacute;on), author of a <i>Popular History of
+Philosophy</i>, 1861, and other works in the <i lang=
+"fr">Biblioth&egrave;que Utile</i>. He contributed to the
+<i>Rationalist</i> of Geneva.</p>
+<p><b>Broussais</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Joseph Victor), French physician
+and philosopher, b. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in
+1792 he served as volunteer in the army of the Republic. He studied
+medicine at St. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple
+of Bichat, he did much to reform medical science by his <i>Examination
+of Received Medical Doctrines</i> and to find a basis for mental and
+moral science in physiology by his many scientific works. Despite his
+bold opinions, he was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died
+poor at St. Malo 17 Nov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in
+which he declares his disbelief in a creator and his being
+&ldquo;without hope or fear of another life.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Brown</b> (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in
+Essex Co., N.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he
+was expelled the church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell.
+Dr. Brown edited the <i>Herald of Freedom</i>, Kansas. In 1856 his
+office was destroyed by a pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the
+river, and himself and others arrested but was released without trial.
+Dr. Brown has contributed largely to the <i>Ironclad Age</i> and other
+American Freethought papers, and is bringing out a work on the Origin
+of Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Brown</b> (Titus L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.).
+Studied at the Medical College of New York and graduated at the
+Hom&oelig;opathic College, Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where
+he had a large practice. He contributed to the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2790" href="#xd20e2790" name=
+"xd20e2790">56</a>]</span><i>Boston Investigator</i> and in 1877 was
+elected President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug.
+1887.</p>
+<p><b>Browne</b> (Sir Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct.
+1605. He studied medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his
+doctor&rsquo;s degree at Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich,
+where he had a good practice. His treatise <i lang="la">Religio
+Medici</i>, famous for its fine style and curious mixture of faith and
+scepticism, was surreptitiously published in 1642. It ran through
+several editions and was placed on the Roman <i>Index</i>. His
+<i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors</i>,
+appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular superstitions he showed
+he partook of others. This curious work was followed by
+<i>Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial</i>, in which he treats of cremation
+among the ancients. To this was added <i>The Garden of Cyrus</i>. He
+died 19 Oct. 1682.</p>
+<p><b>Bruno</b> (Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near
+Naples, about 1548. He was christened Filippo which he changed to
+Filoteo, taking the name of Giordano when he entered the Dominican
+order. Religious doubts and bold strictures on the monks obliged him to
+quit Italy, probably in 1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no
+safe abiding place, and quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but
+refused to attend mass. In 1583 he visited England, living with the
+French ambassador Castelnau. Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip
+Sidney, he dedicated to him his <i lang="it">Spaccio della Bestia
+Triomfante</i>, a satire on all mythologies. In 1585 he took part in a
+logical tournament, sustaining the Copernican theory against the
+doctors of Oxford. The following year he returned to Paris, where he
+again attacked the Aristotelians. He then travelled to various cities
+in Germany, everywhere preaching the broadest heresy. He published
+several Pantheistic, scientific and philosophical works. He was however
+induced to return to Italy, and arrested as an heresiarch and apostate
+at Venice, Sept. 1592. After being confined for seven years by the
+Inquisitors, he was tried, and burnt at Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last
+moments a crucifix was offered him, which he nobly rejected. Bruno was
+vastly before his age in his conception of the universe and his
+rejection of theological dogmas. A statue of this heroic apostle of
+liberty and light, executed by one of the first sculptors of Italy, is
+to be erected on the spot where <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e2820" href="#xd20e2820" name="xd20e2820">57</a>]</span>he
+perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the site in face
+of the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The list of
+subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced thinkers
+in Europe and America.</p>
+<p><b>Brzesky</b> (Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See <a href=
+"#liszinski">Liszinski</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Bucali</b> or <span class="sc">Busali</span> (Leonardo), a
+Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent, who became a follower of Servetus
+in the sixteenth century, and had to seek among the Turks the safety
+denied him in Christendom. He died at Damascus.</p>
+<p><b>Buchanan</b> (George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn,
+Feb. 1506. Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to Paris at the
+age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became distinguished for
+his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his natural son. He
+composed his <i>Franciscanus et Fratres</i>, a satire on the monks,
+which hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to the
+vengeance of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist,
+Archbishop Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew&rsquo;s
+Castle, from whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found, as
+he said, Henry VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same stake
+for religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to the
+persecution of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of a
+patron at Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and
+immured for a year and a half in a monastery, where he translated the
+Psalms into Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he
+espoused the party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28 Sept.
+1582, leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems, satires,
+and political writings, the most important of which is a work of
+republican tendency, <i>De Jure Regni</i>, the <i>Rights of
+Kings</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Buchanan</b> (Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was
+successively a schoolmaster, a Socialist missionary and a journalist.
+He settled in Manchester, where he published works on the <i>Religion
+of The Past and Present</i>, 1839; the <i>Origin and Nature of
+Ghosts</i>, 1840. An Exposure of Joseph Barker, and a <i>Concise
+History of Modern Priestcraft</i> also bear the latter date. At this
+time the Socialists were prosecuted for lecturing on Sunday, and
+Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the oath of supremacy, etc.
+After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2863" href="#xd20e2863" name=
+"xd20e2863">58</a>]</span><i>Northern Star</i>, and edited the Glasgow
+<i>Sentinel</i>. He died at the home of his son, the poet, at Bexhill,
+Sussex, 4 March, 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Buchanan</b> (Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort,
+Kentucky, 11 Dec. 1814. He graduated M.D. at Louisville University,
+1842, and has been the teacher of physiology at several colleges. From
+1849&ndash;56 he published <i>Buchanan&rsquo;s Journal of Man</i>, and
+has written several works on Anthropology.</p>
+<p><b>Buchner</b> (Ludwig). See <a href="#buechner">Buechner</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Buckle</b> (Henry Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent,
+24 Nov. 1821. In consequence of his delicate health he was educated at
+home. His mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory, but
+a visit to the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He ever
+afterwards held travelling to be the best education. It was his
+ambition to write a <i>History of Civilisation in England</i>, but so
+vast was his design that his three notable volumes with that title form
+only part of the introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created
+a great sensation by its boldness. In the following year he championed
+the cause of Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the
+prosecution of infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East, in
+the hope of improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May, 1862.
+Much of the material collected for his History has been published in
+his <i>Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works</i>, edited by Helen Taylor,
+1872. An abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.</p>
+<p id="buechner"><b>Buechner</b> (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig),
+German materialist, b. Darmstadt, 29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in
+Geissen, Strassburg and Vienna. In &rsquo;55 he startled the world with
+his bold work on <i>Force and Matter</i>, which has gone through
+numerous editions and been translated into nearly all the European
+languages. This work lost him the place of professor which he held at
+T&uuml;bingen, and he has since practised in his native town.
+B&uuml;chner has developed his ideas in many other works such as
+<i>Nature and Spirit</i> (1857), <i>Physiological Sketches</i>,
+&rsquo;61; <i>Nature and Science</i>, &rsquo;62; <i>Conferences on
+Darwinism</i>, &rsquo;69; <i>Man in the Past, Present and Future</i>,
+&rsquo;69; <i>Materialism its History and Influence on Society</i>,
+&rsquo;73; <i>The Idea of God</i>, &rsquo;74; <i>Mind in Animals</i>,
+&rsquo;80; and <i>Light and Life</i>, &rsquo;82. He also contributes to
+the <i lang="de">Freidenker</i>, the <i lang="nl">Dageraad</i>, and
+other journals. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2937" href=
+"#xd20e2937" name="xd20e2937">59</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="buffon"><b>Buffon</b> (Georges Louis <span class=
+"sc">Leclerc</span>), <i>Count de</i>, French naturalist, b. Montford,
+Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His <i>Natural History</i>
+in 36 volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind and his
+capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in seclusion,
+and attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his sentences were
+attacked by the Sorbonne. H&eacute;rault de S&ecirc;chelles says that
+Buffon said: &ldquo;I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary
+to take out the word and substitute the power of nature.&rdquo; Died at
+Paris 16 April, 1788.</p>
+<p><b>Buitendijk</b> or <b>Buytendyck</b> (Gosuinus van), Dutch
+Spinozist, who wrote an Apology at the beginning of the eighteenth
+century and was banished 1716.</p>
+<p><b>Bufalini</b> (Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787.
+In 1813 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e2962" title=
+"Source: pubtished">published</span> an essay on the <i>Doctrine of
+Life</i> in opposition to vitalism, and henceforward his life was a
+conflict with the upholders of that doctrine. He was accused of
+materialism, but became a professor at Florence and a member of the
+Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence 31 March, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Burdach</b> (Karl Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12
+June, 1776. He occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works
+on physiology and anthropology did much to popularise those sciences,
+and the former is placed on the <i lang="la">Index Librorum
+Prohibitorum</i> for its materialistic tendency. He died at Konigsberg,
+16 July, 1847.</p>
+<p><b>Burdon</b> (William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764.
+Graduated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a
+clergyman, but want of faith made him decline that profession. His
+principal work is entitled <i>Materials for Thinking</i>. Colton
+largely availed himself of this work in his <i>Lacon</i>. It went
+through five editions in his lifetime, and portions were reprinted in
+the <i>Library of Reason</i>. He also addressed <i>Three Letters to the
+Bishop of Llandaff</i>, wrote a <i>Life and Character of Bonaparte</i>,
+translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the Memoirs of
+Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual subscription
+to the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.</p>
+<p><b>Burigny</b> (Jean <span class="sc">Levesque de</span>), French
+writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became a member of the French Academy,
+wrote a <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3002" href="#xd20e3002"
+name="xd20e3002">60</a>]</span>treatise on the Authority of the Pope, a
+History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and is credited with the
+<i>Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian
+Religion</i>, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon, 1766.
+Levesque de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier&rsquo;s
+<i>Proofs of Christianity</i>, which is published in Naigeon&rsquo;s
+<i lang="fr">Recueil Philosophique</i>. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.</p>
+<p><b>Burmeister</b> (Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15
+Jan. 1807. In 1827 he became a doctor at Halle. In &rsquo;48 he was
+elected to the National Assembly. In 1850 he went to Brazil. His
+principal work is <i>The History of Creation</i>, 1843.</p>
+<p><b>Burmeister</b> or <span class="sc">Baurmeister</span> (Johann
+Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist and colleague of Ronge. Born at
+Flensburg, 1805. He resided in Hamburg, and wrote in the middle of the
+present century under the name of J. P. Lyser.</p>
+<p><b>Burnet</b> (Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through
+the interest of a pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the
+mastership of the Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his
+<i lang="la">Telluris Theoria Sacra</i>, or Sacred Theory of the Earth,
+appeared in Latin, and was translated and modified in 1684. In 1692
+Burnet published, both in English and in Latin, his <i lang=
+"la">Arch&aelig;ologi&aelig; Philosophic&aelig;</i>, or the Ancient
+Doctrine of the Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile his
+theory with Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation; and a
+ludicrous dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great offence. In a
+popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying&mdash;</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line">That all the books of Moses</p>
+<p class="line">Were nothing but supposes.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="firstpar">He had to resign a position at court. In later life
+he wrote <i lang="la">De Fide et Officiis Christianorum</i> (on
+Christian Faith and Duties), in which he regards historical religions
+as based on the religion of nature, and rejects original sin and the
+&ldquo;magical&rdquo; theory of sacraments; and <i lang="la">De Statu
+Mortuorum et Resurgentium</i>, on the State of the Dead and
+Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment and
+shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself to
+avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for
+private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract
+entitled <i>Hell Torments not Eternal</i> was published in 1739.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3053" href="#xd20e3053" name=
+"xd20e3053">61</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="burnett"><b>Burnett</b> (James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch
+writer and judge, was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his
+profession, became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767.
+His work on the <i>Origin and Progress of Language</i> (published
+anonymously 1773&ndash;92), excited much derision by his studying man
+as one of the animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw
+light on civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was
+allied to the human species. He also wrote on <i>Ancient
+Metaphysics</i>. He was a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam
+Smith, Robertson, and Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.</p>
+<p><b>Burnouf</b> (Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug.
+1821. He became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of
+Nancy. Author of many works, including a translation of selections from
+the <i lang="la">Novum Organum</i> of Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an
+Introduction to the Vedas, a history of Greek Literature, Studies in
+Japanese, and articles in the <i lang="fr">Revue des deux Mondes</i>.
+His heresy is pronounced in his work on the <i>Science of
+Religions</i>, 1878, in his <i>Contemporary Catholicism</i>, and
+<i>Life and Thought</i>, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Burnouf</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), French Orientalist, cousin of the
+preceding; b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world
+the Pali language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose
+essentially Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are
+largely indebted for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the
+Zoroastrians. He translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a
+valuable <i>Introduction to the History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Died at
+Paris, 28 May, 1852.</p>
+<p><b>Burns</b> (Robert), Scotland&rsquo;s greatest poet, b. near Ayr,
+25 Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The
+life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His Freethought
+is evident from such productions as the &ldquo;Holy Fair,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Kirk&rsquo;s Alarm,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Holy Willie&rsquo;s
+Prayer,&rdquo; and many passages in private letters to his most
+familiar <i>male</i> friends. Died at Dumfries, 21 July, 1796.</p>
+<p><b>Burr</b> (William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville,
+N.Y., graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand
+reporter to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to
+literary research. He is the anonymous <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e3102" href="#xd20e3102" name="xd20e3102">62</a>]</span>author of
+<i>Revelations of Antichrist</i>, a learned book which exposes the
+obscurity of the origin of Christianity, and seeks to show that the
+historical Jesus lived almost a century before the Christian era. He
+has also written several pamphlets: <i>Thomas Paine was Junius</i>,
+1880: <i>Self Contradictions of the Bible</i>; <i>Is the Bible a Lying
+Humbug?</i> <i>A Roman Catholic Canard</i>, etc. He has also frequently
+contributed to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, the New York
+<i>Truthseeker</i>, and the <i>Ironclad Age</i> of <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e3129" title="Source: Indianopolis">Indianapolis</span>.</p>
+<p><b>Burton</b> (Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and
+author, b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the
+Church, he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India
+Company&rsquo;s service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon
+acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In &rsquo;51 he returned
+to England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines
+unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the
+Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and
+dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened the
+lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of Brazil. He
+has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and since 1872 at
+Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest work is a new
+translation of <i>The Thousand Nights and a Night</i> in 10 vols. Being
+threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying &ldquo;literal
+naturalism&rdquo; from the Bible. Burton&rsquo;s knowledge of Arabic is
+so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would
+roll on the ground in fits of laughter.</p>
+<p><b>Butler</b> (Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb.
+1612. In early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied
+painting, and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He
+became clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell&rsquo;s Generals, whom
+he has satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared
+in 1663 and became famous, but, although the king and court were
+charmed with its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and
+obscurity till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler
+expressed the opinion that</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line">&ldquo;Religion is the interest of churches</p>
+<p class="line">That sell in other worlds in this to
+purchase.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3148" href="#xd20e3148" name=
+"xd20e3148">63</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Buttmann</b> (Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5
+Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited
+many of the Greek Classics, wrote on the <i>Myth of the Deluge</i>,
+1819, and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June,
+1829.</p>
+<p><b>Buzot</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois L&eacute;onard Nicolas), French
+Girondin, distinguished as an ardent Republican and a friend and lover
+of Madame Roland. Born at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from
+starvation when hiding after the suppression of his party June,
+1793.</p>
+<p><b>Byelinsky</b> (Vissarion G.) See <a href=
+"#belinsky">Belinsky</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Byron</b> (George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He
+succeeded his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and
+Cambridge. In 1807 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e3171" title=
+"Source: pnblished">published</span> his <i>Hours of Idleness</i>, and
+awoke one morning to find himself famous. His power was, however, first
+shown in his <i>English Bards and Scotch Reviewers</i>, in which he
+satirised his critics, 1809. He then travelled on the Continent, the
+result of which was seen in his <i>Childe Harold&rsquo;s Pilgrimage</i>
+and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815, but a separation took place in
+the following year. Lord Byron then resided in Italy, where he made the
+acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823 he devoted his name and fortune to the
+cause of the Greek revolution, but was seized with fever and died at
+Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His drama of <i>Cain: a Mystery</i>, 1822,
+is his most serious utterance, and it shows a profound contempt for
+religious dogma. This feeling is also exhibited in his magnificent
+burlesque poem, <i>The Vision of Judgment</i>, which places him at the
+head of English satirists. In his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson,
+1811, he distinctly says: &ldquo;I do not believe in any revealed
+religion.... I will have nothing to do with your immortality; we are
+miserable enough in this life, without the absurdity of speculating
+upon another.... The basis of your religion is injustice; the Son of
+God, the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the
+guilty,&rdquo; etc.</p>
+<p><b>Cabanis</b> (Pierre Jean George), called by Lange &ldquo;the
+father of the materialistic physiology,&rdquo; b. Conac, 5 June, 1757.
+Became pupil of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in
+his last illness, of which he published an account <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3194" href="#xd20e3194" name=
+"xd20e3194">64</a>]</span>1791. He was also intimate with Turgot,
+Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished Freethinkers, and
+was elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred
+in the Revolution. His works are mostly medical, the chief being <i>Des
+Rapports du Physique et du Morale de l&rsquo;Homme</i>, in which he
+contends that thoughts are a secretion of the brain. Died Rueil, near
+Paris, 5 May, 1808.</p>
+<p><b>C&aelig;salpinus</b> (Andreas), Italian philosopher of the
+Renaissance, b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at
+Pisa, and Linn&aelig;us admits his obligations to his work, <i>De
+Plantis</i>, 1583. He also wrote works on metals and medicine, and
+showed acquaintance with the circulation of the blood. In a work
+entitled <i>Demonum Investigatio</i>, he contends that
+&ldquo;possession&rdquo; by devils is amenable to medical treatment.
+His <i>Qu&aelig;stionum Peripateticarum</i>, in five books, Geneva,
+1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to that
+of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.</p>
+<p><b>C&aelig;sar</b> (Caius Julius), the &ldquo;foremost man of all
+this world,&rdquo; equally renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and
+writer, b. 12 July, 100 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, of noble family.
+His life, the particulars of which are well known, was an extraordinary
+display of versatility, energy, courage, and magnanimity. He justified
+the well-known line of Pope, &ldquo;C&aelig;sar the world&rsquo;s great
+master and his own.&rdquo; His military talents elevated him to the
+post of dictator, but this served to raise against him a band of
+aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated, 15 March, 44
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> His <i>Commentaries</i> are a model of
+insight and clear expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the
+existence of a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude
+says: &ldquo;His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he
+himself had any religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the
+gods practically interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts
+of this life and to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for
+supposing that there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to
+expect it.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Cahuac</b> (John), bookseller, revised an edition of
+Palmer&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Nature</i>, 1819. For this he was
+prosecuted at the instance of the &ldquo;Vice Society,&rdquo; but the
+matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted for selling the
+<i>Republican</i>, 1820. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3236" href=
+"#xd20e3236" name="xd20e3236">65</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Calderino</b> (Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b.
+in 1445, in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was
+professor of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of
+the Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.</p>
+<p><b>Calenzio</b> (Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of
+Naples about 1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of
+Ferdinand, the King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number
+of satires, fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the
+Church.</p>
+<p><b>Call</b> (Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817.
+Educated at Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his
+curacy about 1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he
+recounts in his preface to <i>Reverberations</i>, 1876. Mr. Call is of
+the Positivist school, and has contributed largely to the
+<i>Fortnightly</i> and <i>Westminster Reviews</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Callet</b> (Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne,
+27 Oct. 1812; became editor of the <i>Gazette</i> of France till 1840.
+In 1848 he was nominated Republican representative. At the <i>coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> of 2 Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He
+returned to France, but was imprisoned for writing against the Empire.
+In 1871, Callet was again elected representative for the department of
+the Loire. His chief Freethought work is <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Enfer</i>, an attack upon the Christian doctrine of hell,
+1861.</p>
+<p><b>Camisani</b> (Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A
+Professor of Languages in Milan. He has translated the <i>Upas</i> of
+Captain R. H. Dyas and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Campanella</b> (Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo,
+Calabria, 5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too
+much attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590
+his <i lang="la">Philosophia Sensibus Demonstratio</i> was printed at
+Naples. Being prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence,
+Venice, and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of
+the Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was
+acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges of
+heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples, and
+having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the
+prison of the Holy Office. He <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3285"
+href="#xd20e3285" name="xd20e3285">66</a>]</span>was put to the torture
+seven times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours,
+but he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another
+for twenty-seven <span class="corr" id="xd20e3287" title=
+"Source: year">years</span>, during which he wrote some sonnets, a
+history of the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15
+May, 1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He
+was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He also
+visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that his <i lang=
+"la">Atheismus Triumphatus</i>&mdash;Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be
+better entitled <i lang="la">Atheismus Triumphans</i>&mdash;Atheism
+Triumphant&mdash;as the author puts his strongest arguments on the
+heterodox side. In his <i>City of the Sun</i>, Campanella follows Plato
+and More in depicting an ideal republic and a time when a new era of
+earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says &ldquo;The strength of
+Campanella&rsquo;s genius lay in his imagination.&rdquo; His
+&ldquo;Sonnets&rdquo; have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died
+Paris, 21 May, 1639.</p>
+<p><b>Campbell</b> (Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the
+beginning of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager
+at the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote a
+memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist missionary
+in England. He took an active part in the co-operative movement, and in
+the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he was tried and
+imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833&ndash;4. About 1849 he returned to
+Glasgow and wrote on the <i>Sentinel</i>. In 1867 he was presented with
+a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions
+in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Campion</b> (William), a shoemaker, who became one of R.
+Carlile&rsquo;s shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine&rsquo;s
+<i>Age of Reason</i>. After a spirited defence he was found guilty and
+sentenced to three years&rsquo; imprisonment. In prison he edited, in
+conjunction with J. Clarke, E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, the <i>Newgate
+Monthly Magazine</i>, to which he contributed some thoughtful papers,
+from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826, when he was removed to the Compter.</p>
+<p><b>Canestrini</b> (Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rer&ograve;,
+1835. He studied at Vienna, and in &rsquo;60 was nominated Professor of
+Natural History at Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed to
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3321" href="#xd20e3321" name=
+"xd20e3321">67</a>]</span>the <i lang="it">Annuario Filosofico del
+Libero Pensiero</i>, and is known for his popularisation of the works
+of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written upon
+the <i>Origin of Man</i>, which has gone through two editions, Milan,
+&rsquo;66&ndash;&rsquo;70, and on the <i>Theory of Evolution</i>,
+Turin, &rsquo;77. He was appointed Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and
+Comparative Physiology at Padua, where he has published a Memoir of
+Charles Darwin, &rsquo;82.</p>
+<p><b>Cardano</b> (Girolamo), better known as <span class="sc">Jerome
+Cardan</span>, Italian mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept.
+1501. He studied medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of
+Physicians on account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were
+at one time compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not
+strange that his first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the
+faculty. A fortunate cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to
+Scotland as the medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551.
+In 1563 he was arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released,
+although deprived of his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576,
+having, it is said, starved himself to verify his own prediction of his
+death. Despite some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science,
+especially by his work on Algebra, and in his works <i lang="la">De
+Subtilitate Rerum</i> and <i lang="la">De Varietate Rerum</i>, amid
+much that is fanciful, perceived the universality of natural law and
+the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused him of Atheism.
+P&uuml;njer says &ldquo;Cardanus deserves to be named along with
+Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural
+Philosophy.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Carducci</b> (Giosu&egrave;), Italian poet and Professor of
+Italian Literature at the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in
+the province of Lucca, 27 July, 1836. As early as &rsquo;49 he cried,
+<i lang="it">Abasso tutti i re! viva la republica</i>&mdash;Down with
+all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into fame by his <i>Hymn to
+Satan</i>, &rsquo;69, by which he intended the spirit of resistance. He
+has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits himself an
+ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of &rsquo;57 he wrote his
+famous verse &ldquo;Il secoletto vil che
+cristianeggia&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;This vile christianising
+century.&rdquo; In &rsquo;60 he became professor of Greek in Bologna
+University, being suspended for a short while in &rsquo;67 for an
+address to Mazzini. In &rsquo;76 he was elected as republican
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3356" href="#xd20e3356" name=
+"xd20e3356">68</a>]</span>deputy to the Italian Parliament for Lugo di
+Romagna.</p>
+<p><b>Carlile</b> (Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile,
+came from Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor,
+1831, delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the
+<i>Isis</i>, which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The <i>Isis</i>
+was dedicated to the young women of England &ldquo;until superstition
+is extinct,&rdquo; and contained Frances Wright&rsquo;s discourses, in
+addition to those by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till &rsquo;61. Mr.
+Bradlaugh lodged with Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in
+1849. She had three children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom
+the second is still living.</p>
+<p><b>Carlile</b> (Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his
+business during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced
+to two years&rsquo; imprisonment, 1821. She had three children,
+Richard, Alfred, and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the
+<i>Regenerator</i>, a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.</p>
+<p><b>Carlile</b> (Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an
+English free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was
+apprenticed to a tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he
+was twenty-six, when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling
+works like Wooler&rsquo;s <i>Black Dwarf</i>, which Government
+endeavored to suppress. Sherwin offered him the dangerous post of
+publisher of the <i>Republican</i>, which he accepted. He then
+published Southey&rsquo;s <i>Wat Tyler</i>, reprinted the political
+works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but which
+cost Carlile eighteen weeks&rsquo; imprisonment. In 1818 he published
+Paine&rsquo;s Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him
+to go on printing similar works, such as Palmer&rsquo;s <i>Principles
+of Nature</i>, <i>Watson Refuted</i>, <i>Jehovah Unveiled</i>, etc. By
+Oct. 1819, he had six indictments to answer, on two of which he was
+tried from 12 to 16 October. He read the whole of the <i>Age of
+Reason</i> in his defence, in order to have it in the report of the
+trial. He was found guilty and sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred
+pounds fine and three years&rsquo; imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol.
+During his imprisonment his business was kept on by a succession of
+shopmen. Refusing to find securities not to publish, he was kept in
+prison till 18 <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3401" href=
+"#xd20e3401" name="xd20e3401">69</a>]</span>Nov. 1835, when he was
+liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited the
+<i>Republican</i>, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited
+the <i>Deist</i>, the <i>Moralist</i>, the <i>Lion</i> (four volumes),
+the <i>Prompter</i> (for No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two
+months&rsquo; imprisonment), and the <i>Gauntlet</i>. Amongst his
+writings are <i>An Address to Men of Science</i>, <i>The Gospel
+according to R. Carlile</i>, <i>What is God?</i> <i>Every Woman&rsquo;s
+Book</i>, etc. He published <i>Doubts of Infidels</i>, <i>Janus on
+Sion</i>, <i>Sepher Toldoth Jeshu</i>, D&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>Good
+Sense</i>, Volney&rsquo;s <i>Ruins</i>, and many other Freethought
+works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his body to Dr. Lawrence for
+scientific purposes.</p>
+<p><b>Carlyle</b> (Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers
+of the century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where
+his father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing
+early ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the
+University of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his
+leisure in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct.
+1826, and wrote in the <i>London Magazine</i> and <i>Edinburgh
+Review</i> many masterly critical articles, notably on Voltaire,
+Diderot, Burns, and German literature. In 1833&ndash;4 his <i lang=
+"la">Sartor Resartus</i> appeared in <i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. In
+&rsquo;34 he removed to London and began writing the <i>French
+Revolution</i>, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill,
+with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without
+complaint, and it was published in &rsquo;37. He then delivered a
+course of lectures on &ldquo;German Literature&rdquo; and on
+&ldquo;Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History,&rdquo; in which
+he treats Mahomet as the prophet &ldquo;we are freest to speak
+of.&rdquo; His <i>Past and Present</i> was published in &rsquo;43. In
+&rsquo;45 appeared <i>Oliver Cromwell&rsquo;s Letters and Speeches</i>.
+In &rsquo;50 he published <i>Latter-Day Pamphlets</i>, which contains
+his most distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the
+following year his <i>Life of John Sterling</i>, in which his heresy
+clearly appears. His largest work is his <i>History of the Life and
+Times of Frederick the Great</i>, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of
+Edinburgh University in &rsquo;65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his
+<i>Biography of Carlyle</i>, says, &ldquo;We have seen him confessing
+to Irving that he did not believe as his friend did in the Christian
+religion.&rdquo; ... &ldquo;the special miraculous occurrences of
+sacred history were not credible to him.&rdquo; <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3489" href="#xd20e3489" name=
+"xd20e3489">70</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="carneades"><b>Carneades</b>, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene
+about B.C. 213. He went early to Athens, and attended the lectures of
+the Stoics, learning logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was
+chosen with other deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had
+been placed on the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted
+great attention by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the
+very idea of a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied
+providence and design. Many of his arguments are preserved in
+Cicero&rsquo;s <i>Academics</i> and <i>De Natura Deorum</i>. Carneades
+left no written works; his views seem to have been systematised by his
+follower Clitomachus. He died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 129.
+Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His ethics were
+of elevated character.</p>
+<p><b>Carneri</b> (Bartholom&auml;us von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3
+Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian
+Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work on <i>Morality and
+Darwinism</i>, Vienna, 1871. Has also written <i lang="de">Der Mensch
+als Selbstweck</i>, &ldquo;Humanity as its own proper object,&rdquo;
+1877; <i lang="de">Grundlegung der Ethik</i>, Foundation of Morals,
+1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and Happiness, Stuttgart,
+1886.</p>
+<p><b>Carra</b> (Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b.
+1743 at Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia,
+and Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning
+to France he became employed in the King&rsquo;s library and wrote a
+<i>History of Moldavia</i> and an <i>Essay on Aerial Navigation</i>. He
+warmly espoused the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators
+of the Jacobin club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of
+Louis XVI., but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His
+Freethought sentiments are evident from his <i>System of Reason</i>,
+1773; his <i>Spirit of Morality and Philosophy</i>, 1777; <i>New
+Principles of Physic</i>, 1782&ndash;3, and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Carrel</b> (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve
+&ldquo;the Junius of the French press,&rdquo; b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He
+became a soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the
+Spanish revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death,
+but escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry,
+edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established the <i>Nation</i> in
+conjunction with Thiers <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3542" href=
+"#xd20e3542" name="xd20e3542">71</a>]</span>and Mignet. J. S. Mill
+writes of him in terms of high praise. The leading journalist of his
+time, his slashing articles led to several duels, and in an encounter
+with Emile de Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his
+death-bed, says M. Littr&eacute;, he said &ldquo;<i lang="fr">Point de
+pr&ecirc;tres, point d&rsquo;&eacute;glise</i>&rdquo;&mdash;no priests
+nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a <i>History of the
+Counter-Revolution in England</i>, with an eye to events in his own
+country.</p>
+<p><b>Carus</b> (Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug.
+1825. Has been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has
+translated Darwin&rsquo;s works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.</p>
+<p><b>Carus</b> (Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b.
+Leipsic, 3 Jan. 1789. He taught <span class="corr" id="xd20e3559"
+title="Source: compatative">comparative</span> anatomy at the
+university of that town, and published a standard introduction to that
+subject. He also wrote <i>Psyche</i>, a history of the development of
+the human soul, 1846, and <i>Nature and Idea</i>, 1861. Died at
+Dresden, 28 July, 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Castelar y Ripoll</b> (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz, 8
+Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his novel
+<i>Ernesto</i>, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he
+delivered lectures on &ldquo;Civilisation during the first three
+centuries of Christendom.&rdquo; <i lang="es">La Formula del
+Progresso</i> contains a sketch of democratic principles. On the
+outbreak of the revolution of &rsquo;68 he advocated a Federal Republic
+in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however offered to Amadeus of
+Savoy. &ldquo;Glass, with care,&rdquo; was Castelar&rsquo;s verdict on
+the new <span class="corr" id="xd20e3578" title=
+"Source: dynesty">dynasty</span>, and in Feb. &rsquo;73 Castelar drew
+up a Republican Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain.
+Upon his retirement to France he wrote a sketchy <i>History of the
+Republican Movement in Europe</i>. In &rsquo;76 he returned to Spain
+and took part in the Cortes, where he has continued to advocate
+Republican views. His <i>Old Rome and New Italy</i>, and <i>Life of
+Lord Byron</i> have been translated into English.</p>
+<p><b>Castelli</b> (David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836.
+Since 1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior
+Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with
+notes, and written rationalistic works on <i>Talmudic Legends</i>,
+1869; <i>The Messiah According to the Hebrews</i>, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3601" href="#xd20e3601" name=
+"xd20e3601">72</a>]</span>&rsquo;74; the <i>Bible Prophets</i>,
+&rsquo;82; and <i>The History of the Israelites</i>, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Castilhon</b> (Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse
+in 1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited the <i>Journal
+of Jurisprudence</i>. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions
+had some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in his <i>Essay
+on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions</i>, Amsterdam, 1765;
+his <i>Philosophical Almanack</i>, 1767; and his <i>History of
+Philosophical Opinions</i>, 1769. Died 1793.</p>
+<p><b>Cattell</b> (Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular
+journals, author of <i>Search for the First Man</i>; <i>Against
+Christianity</i>; <i>The Religion of this Life</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Caumont</b> (Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845.
+Suffering from consumption, he wrote <i>Judgment of a Dying Man upon
+Life</i>, and humorous and familiar <i>Conversations of a Sick Person
+with the Divinity</i>. Died at Madeira, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Cavalcante</b> (Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b.
+Florence, 1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party.
+He married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, &ldquo;it
+is said his speculation has as their aim to prove <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e3652" title="Source: their">there</span> is no God. Dante
+places his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality
+of the soul.&rdquo; Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was
+published in 1813.</p>
+<p><b>Cavallotti</b> (Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and
+journalist, b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems;
+is a pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian
+parliament in 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Cayla</b> (Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b.
+Vigan (Lot) 1812. Became in &rsquo;37 editor of the <i>Emancipator</i>
+of Toulouse, a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to
+the <i lang="fr">Si&egrave;cle</i>, the <i lang="fr">R&eacute;publique
+Fran&ccedil;aise</i> and other journals, and published <i>European
+Celebrities</i> and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as <i>The
+Clerical Conspiracy</i>, &rsquo;61; <i>The Devil, his Grandeur and
+Decay</i>, &rsquo;64; <i>Hell Demolished</i>, &rsquo;65; <i>Suppression
+of Religious Orders</i>, &rsquo;70; and <i>The History of the
+Mass</i>,&rsquo;74. He died 2 May, 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Cazelles</b> (Emile), French translator of Bentham&rsquo;s
+<i>Influence of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3697" href=
+"#xd20e3697" name="xd20e3697">73</a>]</span>Natural Religion</i>,
+Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill&rsquo;s <i>Subjection of
+Women</i> and his <i>Autobiography</i> and <i>Essays on
+Religion</i>.</p>
+<p id="ceccodascoli"><b>Cecco d&rsquo;Ascoli</b>, <i>i.e.</i>,
+<span class="sc">Stabili</span> (Francesco degli), Italian poet, b.
+Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In 1324 he
+was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the faith,
+and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused at
+Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His best
+known work is entitled <i>Acerba</i>, a sort of encyclop&aelig;dia in
+rhyme.</p>
+<p><b>Cellarius</b> (Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the
+first avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages
+with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists
+acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity
+of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland,
+where he died 11 Oct. 1564.</p>
+<p><b>Celsus</b>, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century.
+He was a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the
+False Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, called <i>The True
+Word</i>. The work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages
+given by his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of
+high attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and
+that his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian
+faith.</p>
+<p><b>Cerutti</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e3738" title=
+"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted
+Jesuit, b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a
+defence of the Society. He afterwards became a friend of
+Mirabeau<span class="corr" id="xd20e3741" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> adopted the principles of 1789, wrote in
+defence of the Revolution, and wrote and published a <i>Philosophical
+Breviary</i>, or history of Judaism, Christianity, and Deism, which he
+attributed to Frederick of Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered
+from his poem, <i lang="fr">Les Jardins de Betz</i>, 1792. Died Paris,
+3 Feb. 1792.</p>
+<p><b>Chaho</b> (J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets,
+Basses-Pyr&eacute;n&eacute;es<span class="corr" id="xd20e3754" title=
+"Source: )">,</span> 10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a
+<i>Philosophy of Comparative Religion</i>, and a Basque dictionary. At
+Bayonne he edited the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was
+exiled. Died 23 Oct. 1858.</p>
+<p><b>Chaloner</b> (Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks,
+1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3764" href="#xd20e3764" name=
+"xd20e3764">74</a>]</span>(Yorks), 1645. Was a witness against
+Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles&rsquo;s Judges. In 1651 he was
+made Councillor of State. Wood says he &ldquo;was as far from being a
+Puritan as the east is from the west,&rdquo; and that he &ldquo;was of
+the natural religion.&rdquo; He wrote a pretended <i>True and Exact
+Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb</i>, 1657, being a satire
+directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to the
+Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.</p>
+<p><b>Chambers</b> (Ephraim), originator of the Cyclop&aelig;dia of
+Arts and Sciences, b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work
+appeared in 1728, and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A
+French translation gave rise to Diderot and D&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s
+<i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>. Chambers also edited the
+<i>Literary Magazine</i>, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were well
+known, and the Cyclop&aelig;dia was placed upon the <i>Index</i>, but
+he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May,
+1740.</p>
+<p><b>Chamfort</b> (S&eacute;bastien Roch Nicolas), French man of
+letters, b. in Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his
+mother, a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself
+necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his eulogy
+on Moli&egrave;re. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary and
+wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy, being
+patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau, who
+called him <i lang="fr">une t&ecirc;te &eacute;lectrique</i>. In 1790
+he commenced a work called <i>Pictures of the Revolution</i>. In the
+following year he became secretary of the Jacobin Club and National
+Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre, he desperately, but vainly,
+endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13 April, 1794, leaving behind
+numerous works and a collection of <i>Maxims, Thoughts, Characters, and
+Anecdotes</i>, which show profound genius and knowledge of human
+nature.</p>
+<p><b>Chapman</b> (John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the
+<i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he is proprietor.</p>
+<p><b>Chappellsmith</b> (Margaret), n&eacute;e <span class=
+"sc">Reynolds</span>, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early in life she read
+the writings of Cobbett. In &rsquo;36 she began writing political
+articles in the <i>Dispatch</i>, and afterwards became a Socialist and
+Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in &rsquo;39, and
+in &rsquo;42 she began <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3812" href=
+"#xd20e3812" name="xd20e3812">75</a>]</span><span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e3813" title="Source: buisness">business</span> as a bookseller.
+In &rsquo;37 she expressed a preference for the development theory
+before that of creation. In &rsquo;50 they emigrated to the United
+States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith contributed many articles to the
+<i>Boston Investigator</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Charles</b> (Rudolf). See <a href=
+"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Charma</b> (Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In
+&rsquo;30 he was nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was
+denounced for his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber
+of peers, and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many
+philosophical works, and an account of Didron&rsquo;s <i lang=
+"fr">Histoire de Dieu</i>. Died 5 Aug. 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Charron</b> (Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513.
+He was an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a
+<i>Treatise on Wisdom</i>, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by
+the Jesuits. Franck says &ldquo;the scepticism of Charron inclines
+visibly to &lsquo;sensualisme&rsquo; and even to materialism.&rdquo;
+Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.</p>
+<p><b>Chasseb&oelig;uf de Volney</b> (Constantin Fran&ccedil;ois). See
+<a href="#volney">Volney</a>.</p>
+<p id="chastelet"><b>Chastelet du</b> or <b>Chatelet Lomont</b>
+(Gabrielle Emilie <span class="sc">le Tonnelier de Breteuil</span>),
+Marquise, French <i lang="fr">savante</i>, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She
+was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English
+and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy
+entitled <i lang="fr">Institutions de Physique</i>. She afterwards made
+a good French translation of Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i>. She lived
+some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed
+to him <i>Doubts on Revealed Religions</i>, published in 1792. She also
+wrote a <i>Treatise on Happiness</i>, which was praised by
+Condorcet.</p>
+<p><b>Chastellux</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Jean de), Marquis. A soldier,
+traveller and writer, b. Paris 1734. Wrote <i>On Public Happiness</i>
+(2 vols., Amst. 1776), a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed
+to the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>; one article on
+&ldquo;Happiness,&rdquo; being suppressed by the censor because it did
+not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.</p>
+<p><b>Chatterton</b> (Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20
+Nov, 1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas
+Rowley in the fourteenth century and discovered <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3888" href="#xd20e3888" name=
+"xd20e3888">76</a>]</span>by him in an old chest in Redcliffe Church,
+attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London in hopes of rising
+by his talents, but after a bitter experience of writing for the
+magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25 Aug. 1770. Several
+of his poems betray deistic opinions.</p>
+<p><b>Chaucer</b> (Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and
+first English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached
+to the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the
+expedition to France 1359&ndash;60, was captured by the French, and
+ransomed by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some
+foreign missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy,
+where he met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the
+Renaissance, and in his <i>Canterbury Pilgrims</i> he boldly attacks
+the vices of the ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey.</p>
+<p><b>Chaumette</b> (Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French
+revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was
+in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney&rsquo;s clerk. In early
+youth he received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the
+revolution with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade,
+became popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated
+with Proudhomme in the journal <i lang="fr">Les Revolutions de
+Paris</i>. Nominated member of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the
+name of Anaxagoras to show his little regard for his baptismal saints.
+He was elected Procureur Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great
+activity. He abolished the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries,
+instituted workshops for fallen women, established the first
+lying-in-hospital, had books sent to the hospitals, separated the
+insane from the sick, founded the Conservatory of Music, opened the
+public libraries every day (under the <i lang="fr">ancien
+r&eacute;gime</i> they were only open two hours per week), replaced
+books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put a graduated
+tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor, and was the
+principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of the churches. He
+was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots &ldquo;to efface
+all idea of the Deity,&rdquo; and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3907" href="#xd20e3907" name=
+"xd20e3907">77</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Chaussard</b> (Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b.
+Paris, 8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola,
+and published patriotic odes, <i lang="fr">Esprit de Mirabeau</i>, and
+other works. He was preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became
+professor of <i lang="fr">belles lettres</i> at Orleans. Died 9 Jan.
+1823.</p>
+<p><b>Chemin-Dupontes</b> (Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders
+of French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of
+which is entitled <i>What is Theophilanthropy?</i></p>
+<p><b>Chenier</b> (Marie Andr&eacute; de), French poet, b.
+Constantinople, 29 Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a
+love for ancient Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon
+manifested his genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique
+simplicity and sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of
+Legation. He took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised
+Charlotte Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in the
+<i lang="fr">Journal de Paris</i>. He was committed to prison, and here
+met his ideal in the Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison,
+to her he addressed the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune
+Captive). He was executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other
+poems, an imitation of Lucretius, entitled <i>Hermes</i>, which
+warrants the affirmation of de Ch&ecirc;nedolle, that
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e3936" title=
+"Source: Andre">Andr&eacute;</span> Ch&eacute;nier <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e3939" title="Source: etait">&eacute;tait</span> ath&eacute;e
+avec d&eacute;lices</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Chenier</b> (Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous
+writer, brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He
+served two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature.
+His first successful drama, &ldquo;Charles IX.,&rdquo; was produced in
+1789, and was followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and
+was made member of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his
+<i lang="fr">Nouveaux Saints</i> (1801) satirised those who returned to
+the old faith. He wrote many poems and an account of French literature.
+Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.</p>
+<p id="chernuishevsky"><b>Chernuishevsky</b> or <b>Tchernycheiosky</b>
+(Nikolai Gerasimovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at
+the University of St. Petersburg, translated Mill&rsquo;s <i>Political
+Economy</i>, and wrote on <i>Superstition and the Principles of
+Logic</i>, &rsquo;59. His <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3964"
+href="#xd20e3964" name="xd20e3964">78</a>]</span>bold romance, <i>What
+is to be Done?</i> was published &rsquo;63. In the following year he
+was sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending
+cruelties, he has become insane.</p>
+<p><b>Chesneau Du Marsais</b> (C&eacute;sar). See <a href=
+"#dumarsais">Dumarsais</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Chevalier</b> (Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint
+Pol<span class="corr" id="xd20e3980" title="Not in source">,</span> 21
+March, 1806, is the author of an able book on &ldquo;The Soul from the
+standpoint of Reason and Science,&rdquo; Paris, &rsquo;61. He died at
+Amiens in 1865.</p>
+<p><b>Chies y Gomez</b> (Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de
+Pomar, Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican,
+educated him without religion. In &rsquo;65 Chies went to Madrid, and
+followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon
+after wrote for a Madrid paper <i lang="es">La Discusion</i>. He took
+an active part in the Revolution of &rsquo;65, and at the proclamation
+of the Republic, &rsquo;73, became civil governor of Valencia. In
+&rsquo;81 he founded a newspaper <i lang="es">El Voto Nacional</i>, and
+since &rsquo;83 has edited <i lang="es">Las Dominicales del Libre
+Pensamiento</i>, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the
+foremost Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as
+writes.</p>
+<p><b>Child</b> (Lydia Maria) n&eacute;e <span class=
+"sc">Francis</span>, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass., 11 Feb.
+1802. She early commenced writing, publishing <i>Hobomok, a Tale of
+Early Times</i>, in &rsquo;21. From &rsquo;25 she kept a private school
+in Watertown until &rsquo;28, when she married David Lee Child, a
+Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited the <i>Anti-Slavery Standard</i>,
+&rsquo;41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the
+opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to
+public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her principal work is
+<i>The Progress of Religious Ideas</i>, 3 vols.; &rsquo;55. Died
+Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell
+Phillips.</p>
+<p><b>Chilton</b> (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early
+life he was a bricklayer, but in &rsquo;41 he was concerned with
+Charles Southwell in starting the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>, which he set
+up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed
+some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to the <i>Library
+of Reason</i>, and wrote in the <i>Movement</i> and the
+<i>Reasoner</i>. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.</p>
+<p><b>Chubb</b> (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4032" href="#xd20e4032" name=
+"xd20e4032">79</a>]</span>Salisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the
+first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by
+contending for the <i>Supremacy of the Father</i>, he gradually
+relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ
+was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind
+two vols. which he calls <i>A Farewell to his Readers</i>, from which
+it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.</p>
+<p id="church"><b>Church</b> (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer,
+edited Tallis&rsquo;s <i>Shakespeare</i>, wrote <i>Woman and her
+Failings</i>, 1858, and contributed to the <i>Investigator</i> when
+edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.</p>
+<p><b>Clapiers</b> (Luc de). See <a href=
+"#vauvenargues">Vauvenargues</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Claretie</b> (Jules Armand Ars&egrave;ne), French writer, b.
+Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite
+<i>Free Speech</i>, &rsquo;68; his biographies of contemporary
+celebrities; and his work <i lang="fr">Camille Desmoulins</i>,
+&rsquo;75.</p>
+<p><b>Clarke</b> (John), brought up in the Methodist connection,
+changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of
+Carlile&rsquo;s shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a
+blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., of <i>The Republican</i>, and
+after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst passages
+in the Bible, was sentenced to three years&rsquo; imprisonment, and to
+find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in
+prison, <i>A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of
+Jesus</i>, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and
+Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the <i>Newgate Magazine</i>
+and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and &rsquo;39.</p>
+<p><b>Clarke</b> (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went
+to Victoria, &rsquo;63; joined the staff of <i>Melbourne Argus</i>. In
+&rsquo;76 was made assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has
+compiled a history of Australia, and written <i>The Peripatetic
+Philosopher</i> (a series of clever sketches), <i>His Natural Life</i>
+(a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper,
+&ldquo;Civilisation without Delusion,&rdquo; in the <i>Victoria
+Review</i>, Nov. &rsquo;79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The
+reply, with Clarke&rsquo;s answer, which was suppressed, was published
+in &rsquo;80. Died 1884. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4100" href=
+"#xd20e4100" name="xd20e4100">80</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Claude-Constant</b>, author of a Freethinkers&rsquo; Catechism
+published at Paris in 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Clavel</b> (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b.
+Grenoble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of
+the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational
+works.</p>
+<p><b>Clavel</b> (F. T. B.), French author of a <i>Picturesque History
+of Freemasonry</i>, and also a <i>Picturesque History of Religions</i>,
+1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.</p>
+<p><b>Clayton</b> (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and
+Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship
+of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several
+publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the
+omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and
+stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty
+years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it is
+said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was
+decided.</p>
+<p><b>Cleave</b> (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap
+political press. Started the <i>London Satirist</i>, and
+<i>Cleave&rsquo;s Penny Gazette of Variety</i>, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan.
+20, &rsquo;44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an
+abridgment of Howitt&rsquo;s <i>History of Priestcraft</i>. In May,
+&rsquo;40, he was sentenced to four months&rsquo; imprisonment for
+selling Haslam&rsquo;s <i>Letters to the Clergy</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Clemenceau</b> (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b.
+Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he
+took his doctor&rsquo;s degree in &rsquo;65. His activity as Republican
+ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as
+correspondent on the <i>Temps</i>. He returned at the time of the war
+and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded
+<i lang="fr">La Justice</i>, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan,
+Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the
+Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected
+President.</p>
+<p><b>Clemetshaw</b> (C.), French writer, using the name <span class=
+"sc">Cilwa</span>. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed
+to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London,
+of &rsquo;87, and is editor of <i>Le Danton</i>. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4159" href="#xd20e4159" name=
+"xd20e4159">81</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Clemens</b> (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known
+as &ldquo;Mark Twain,&rdquo; b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In
+&rsquo;55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from
+the phrase used in sounding. In <i>Innocents Abroad, or the New
+Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>, &rsquo;69, by which he made his name,
+there is much jesting with &ldquo;sacred&rdquo; subjects. Mr. Clemens
+is an Agnostic.</p>
+<p><b>Clifford</b> (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the
+Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise of <i>Human
+Reason</i>, London, &rsquo;74, which was reprinted in the following
+year with the author&rsquo;s name. A short while after its publication
+Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not
+knowing the author, &ldquo;&rsquo;twas no matter if all the copies were
+burnt and the author with them, because it made every man&rsquo;s
+private fancy judge of religion.&rdquo; Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In
+the <i lang="fr">Nouvelle Biographie G&eacute;n&eacute;rale</i>
+Clifford is amusingly described as an &ldquo;English theologian of the
+order des Chartreux,&rdquo; who, it is added, was &ldquo;prior of his
+order.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Clifford</b> (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and
+moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At
+the age of fifteen he was sent to King&rsquo;s College, London, where
+he showed an early genius for mathematics, publishing the <i>Analogues
+of Pascal&rsquo;s Theorem</i> at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity
+College, Cambridge, in &rsquo;63. In &rsquo;67 he was second wrangler.
+Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when
+he accompanied the eclipse expedition to the <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e4184" title="Source: Medeterranean">Mediterranean</span>. The
+next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London
+University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S.
+&rsquo;74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, &rsquo;75. In the following
+year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and
+Spain. He resumed work, but in &rsquo;79 took a voyage to Madeira,
+where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first
+volume of his great mathematical work<span class="corr" id="xd20e4187"
+title="Source: .">,</span> <i>Elements of Dynamic</i>. Since his death
+have been published <i>The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences</i>, and
+<i>Lectures and Essays</i>, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen
+and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought
+lectures and contributions to the <i>Fortnightly</i> and other reviews.
+He <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4203" href="#xd20e4203" name=
+"xd20e4203">82</a>]</span>intended to form them into a volume on <i>The
+Creed of Science</i>. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote
+of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very
+nearly wrecked another.</p>
+<p><b>Cloots</b> or <b>Clootz</b> (Johann Baptist, afterwards
+Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Gr&acirc;ce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near
+Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he
+published the <i>The Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism</i>,
+under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whose
+<i>Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity</i> he parodies. He
+travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of
+the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply
+to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal
+Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries,
+asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled
+&ldquo;orator of the human race.&rdquo; He was, with Paine, Priestley,
+Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was
+elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself,
+taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic
+party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no
+other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine
+were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months&rsquo;
+imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the
+H&eacute;bertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering
+materialist sentiments to the last.</p>
+<p><b>Clough</b> (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was
+educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed
+himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, &ldquo;He never
+became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to
+regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable.&rdquo; In &rsquo;48 he
+visited Paris, and the same year produced his <i>Bothie of
+Toper-na-Fuosich</i>: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between &rsquo;49 and
+&rsquo;52 he was professor of English literature in London University.
+In &rsquo;52 he visited the United States, where he gained the
+friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden
+translation of <i>Plutarch&rsquo;s Lives</i>. Died at Florence, 13 Nov.
+1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on
+Religious Tradition and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4232" href=
+"#xd20e4232" name="xd20e4232">83</a>]</span>some notable poems. He is
+the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s exquisite Monody.</p>
+<p><b>Cnuzius</b> (Matthias). See <a href="#knutzen">Knutzen</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Coke</b> (Henry), author of <i>Creeds of the Day</i>, or collated
+opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Cole</b> (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in
+the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before
+the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, &ldquo;but he would not
+recant.&rdquo; See <a href="#hamond">Hamont</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Colenso</b> (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St.
+John&rsquo;s, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring
+fame by his valuable <i>Treatise on Algebra</i>, &rsquo;49, he became
+first Bishop of Natal, &rsquo;54. Besides other works, he published
+<i>The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined</i>,
+1862&ndash;79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both
+Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy
+Council, March &rsquo;65, declared this deposition &ldquo;null and void
+in law.&rdquo; Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of
+the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Colins</b> (Jean Guillaume C&eacute;sar Alexandre Hippolyte)
+Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of &ldquo;Collectivism,&rdquo;
+b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social
+Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the
+natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number
+of disciples propagate his opinions in the <i>Philosophie de
+l&rsquo;Avenir</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Collins</b> (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21
+June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and
+became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He
+was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him
+his executor. He wrote an <i>Essay on Reason</i>, 1707; <i>Priestcraft
+in Perfection</i>, 1710; a <i>Vindication of the Divine Attributes</i>,
+and a <i>Discourse on Freethinking</i>, 1713. This last occasioned a
+great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free
+inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of
+supernatural revelation. In 1719 he published <i>An Inquiry Concerning
+Human Liberty</i>, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in
+1729 <i>A Discourse on Liberty <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4294"
+href="#xd20e4294" name="xd20e4294">84</a>]</span>and Necessity</i>. In
+1724 appeared his <i>Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the
+Christian Religion</i>, and this was followed by <i>The Scheme of
+Literal Prophecy Considered</i>, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and
+wrote with great ability. He is also credited with <i>A Discourse
+Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing</i>. Died at London, 13 Dec.
+1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, &ldquo;appears to have been an
+amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the
+use of a free library.&rdquo; Professor Fraser calls him &ldquo;a
+remarkable man,&rdquo; praises his &ldquo;love of truth and moral
+courage,&rdquo; and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the
+question of liberty and necessity he &ldquo;states the arguments
+against human freedom with a logical force unsurpassed by any
+necessitarian.&rdquo; A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and
+dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.</p>
+<p><b>Colman</b> (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has
+spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery,
+women&rsquo;s rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written
+Reminisences in the <i>Life of a Reformer of Fifty Years</i>, and
+contributed to the <i>Truthseeker</i> and <i>Boston
+Investigator</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Colotes</b>, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus,
+with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his
+master&rsquo;s teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to
+use fables.</p>
+<p><b>Combe</b> (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b.
+Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming
+acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the
+principle of Owen&rsquo;s New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his
+large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11
+Aug. 1827. He wrote <i>Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New
+Systems</i> and other works advocating Owenism.</p>
+<p><b>Combe</b> (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b.
+Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother
+George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on
+the <i>Principles of Physiology</i> and the <i>Management of
+Infancy</i>. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.</p>
+<p><b>Combe</b> (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b.
+Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted
+with Spurzheim, and published <i>Essays on Phrenology</i>, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4348" href="#xd20e4348" name=
+"xd20e4348">85</a>]</span>1819, and founded the <i>Phrenological
+Journal</i>. In &rsquo;28 he published the <i>Constitution of Man</i>,
+which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of
+special providence and efficacy of prayer. In &rsquo;33 he married a
+daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on
+Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work was <i>The
+Relations between Science and Religion</i>, &rsquo;57, in which he
+continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and
+essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a
+fortnight with him in &rsquo;52. He did more than any man of his time,
+save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor
+Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.</p>
+<p><b>Combes</b> (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has
+written on <i>Darwinism</i>, &rsquo;83, and other works popularising
+science.</p>
+<p><b>Commazzi</b> (Gian-Battista), Count author of <i lang=
+"it">Politica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Gies&ugrave;
+Cristo</i>, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706&ndash;7, in which he makes
+Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome
+and Vienna.</p>
+<p><b>Comparetti</b> (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835.
+Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies,
+Rome, and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he
+evinces his Pagan partialities.</p>
+<p><b>Comte</b> (Isidore Auguste Marie Fran&ccedil;ois Xavier), French
+philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan.
+1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he
+distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the
+acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a
+Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St.
+Simon (&rsquo;25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an
+original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some
+able judges, entitles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth
+century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz.
+In &rsquo;25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following
+year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which
+occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in
+&rsquo;28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like
+Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In &rsquo;30 he put forward
+the first volumes of his <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4381" href=
+"#xd20e4381" name="xd20e4381">86</a>]</span><i>Course of Positive
+Philosophy</i>, which in &rsquo;42 was completed by the publication of
+the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by
+Harriet Martineau, &rsquo;53. In &rsquo;45 Comte formed a passionate
+Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the
+following year, having profoundely influenced Comte&rsquo;s life. In
+consequence of his opinions, he lost his professorship, and was
+supported by his disciples&mdash;Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in
+England, assisting. Among other works, Comte published <i>A General
+View of Positivism</i>, &rsquo;48, translated by Dr. Bridges,
+&rsquo;65; <i>A System of Positive Polity</i>, &rsquo;51, translated by
+Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., &rsquo;75&ndash;79; and <i>A
+Positive Catechism</i>, &rsquo;54, translated by Dr. Congreve,
+&rsquo;58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow
+with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound
+and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and
+metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and substitutes the service of
+man for the worship of God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says &ldquo;He
+belonged to that small class of rare minds, whose errors are often more
+valuable and stimulating than other men&rsquo;s truths.&rdquo; He died
+of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.</p>
+<p id="condillac"><b>Condillac</b> (Etienne <span class="sc">Bonnot
+de</span>), French philosopher, b. Grenoble, about 1715. His life was
+very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols.,
+the principal being <i>A Treatise on the Sensations</i>, 1764; <i>A
+Treatise on Animals</i>, and <i>An Essay on the Origin of Human
+Knowledge</i>. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is
+gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.</p>
+<p><b>Condorcet</b> (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas <span class=
+"sc">Caritat</span>, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b.
+Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious
+mother, he was kept in girl&rsquo;s clothes until the age of 11. Sent
+to a Jesuit&rsquo;s school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he
+maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the
+next year he dedicated to Turgot a <i>Profession of Faith</i>. After
+some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he
+was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his
+atheistic <i>Letters of a Theologian</i>. He also wrote biographies of
+Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor of <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e4423" href="#xd20e4423" name="xd20e4423">87</a>]</span>American
+independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in
+the National Assembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his
+motion that, in the following year, all orders of nobility were
+abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the
+Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter
+with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife,
+at whose instigation he wrote his fine <i>Sketch of the Progress of the
+Human Mind</i> while in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of
+exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March,
+1794.</p>
+<p><b>Condorcet</b> (Sophie de Grouchy <span class="sc">Caritat</span>,
+Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme.
+Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of
+the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband&rsquo;s
+sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself
+by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison
+after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Theory of the Moral Sentiments</i>, which she accompanied with eight
+letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her
+only daughter married Gen. Arthur O&rsquo;Connor.</p>
+<p><b>Confucius</b> (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung,
+a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 551. He was distinguished by filial piety
+and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after
+began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled
+through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief
+minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name
+without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to
+editing the sacred classics of China. He died about <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the <i>Lun-Yu</i>,
+or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character, and did not
+include any religious dogmas.</p>
+<p><b>Congreve</b> (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819.
+Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was
+fellow of Wadham College 1844&ndash;54. In &rsquo;55 he published his
+edition of <i>Aristotle Politics</i>. He became a follower of Comte and
+influenced many to embrace Positivism. Translated <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4458" href="#xd20e4458" name=
+"xd20e4458">88</a>]</span>Comte&rsquo;s <i>Catechism of Positive
+Philosophy</i>, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is
+considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long
+conducted a small &ldquo;Church of Humanity.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Connor</b> (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic
+family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John
+Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitled <i>Evangelium
+Medici</i> (1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian
+miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He
+died in London 27 Oct. 1698.</p>
+<p><b>Constant de Rebecque</b> (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b.
+Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh.
+In 1795 he entered Paris as a <i>prot&eacute;g&eacute;</i> of Mme. de
+Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed
+Buonaparte and wrote on <i>Roman Polytheism</i> and an important work
+on <i>Religion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its
+Developments</i> (6 vols.; 1824&ndash;32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant
+professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been
+called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.</p>
+<p><b>Conta</b> (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov.
+1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the
+University of Jassy, Moldavia. In &rsquo;77 he published <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e4488" title="Source: a">in</span> Brussels, in French,
+a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of
+thought.</p>
+<p><b>Conway</b> (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg,
+Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist
+ministry &rsquo;50, but changing his convictions through the influence
+of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at
+Cambridge, where he graduated in &rsquo;54 and became pastor of a
+Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In
+&rsquo;57 he preached in <span class="corr" id="xd20e4495" title=
+"Source: Cincinatti">Cincinnati</span> and there published <i>The
+Natural History of the Devil</i>, and other pamphlets. In &rsquo;63 Mr.
+Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close
+of &rsquo;63 until his return to the States in &rsquo;84. Mr. Conway is
+a frequent contributor to the press. He has also published <i>The
+Earthward Pilgrimage</i>, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan&rsquo;s
+<i>Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress</i>; collected <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4507" href="#xd20e4507" name=
+"xd20e4507">89</a>]</span>a <i>Sacred Anthology</i> from the various
+sacred books of the world 1873<span class="corr" id="xd20e4513" title=
+"Source: .">,</span> which he used in his pulpit; has written on
+<i>Human Sacrifices</i>, 1876, and <i>Idols and Ideals</i>, 1877. His
+principal work is <i>Demonology and Devil Lore</i>, 1878, containing
+much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the
+title of <i>Lessons for the Day</i>, two vols., 1883, and has published
+a monograph on the <i>Wandering Jew</i>, a biography of Emerson, and is
+at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.</p>
+<p><b>Cook</b> (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept.
+1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his
+mother by such questions as, &ldquo;If God was omnipotent could he make
+what had happened not have happened.&rdquo; He was intended for the
+Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in
+&rsquo;66, and took LL.D. in &rsquo;75. In &rsquo;77 he became editor
+of the Dublin <i>University Magazine</i>, in which appeared some
+studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards
+published under the title of <i>The Fathers of Jesus</i>. Dr. Cook
+wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (Anthony Ashley), see <a href=
+"#shaftesbury">Shaftesbury</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a
+schoolfellow of Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the
+battle of the Nile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and
+acquired some fame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21
+July, 1821, for which the report of the trial was dedicated to him by
+R. Carlile. He was a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he
+commenced. Died 19 Sept. 1824.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts,
+1723. Educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An
+enthusiastic disciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of
+&ldquo;Philaretes&rdquo; he contributed to Dodsley&rsquo;s Museum. In
+1749 he published a <i>Life of Socrates</i>, for which he was coarsely
+attacked by Warburton. He wrote some poems under the signature of
+Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London, 14 April, 1769.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12
+Feb. 1791. He devoted over half a million dollars to the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4564" href="#xd20e4564" name=
+"xd20e4564">90</a>]</span>Cooper Institute, for the secular instruction
+and elevation of the working classes. Died 4 April, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec.
+1819, at Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of
+being brought up in a Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher
+in the Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and by
+seventeen became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a public
+discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were
+published&mdash;one on <i>Original Sin</i> sold twelve thousand
+copies&mdash;when he was scarcely eighteen. The <i>Holy Scriptures
+Analysed</i> (1832) was denounced by the Bishop of Exeter in the House
+of Lords. Cooper was dismissed from a situation he had held ten years,
+and in 1841 became a Socialist missionary in the North of England and
+Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845) he wrote <i>Free Agency</i> and
+<i>Orthodoxy</i>, and compiled the <i>Infidel&rsquo;s Text Book</i>.
+About &rsquo;50 he came to London, lecturing with success at John
+Street Institution. In &rsquo;54 he started the <i>London
+Investigator</i>, which he edited for three years. In it appears his
+lectures on &ldquo;Science <i>v.</i> Theology,&rdquo; &ldquo;Admissions
+of Distinguished Men,&rdquo; etc. Failing health obliged him to retire
+leaving the <i>Investigator</i> to &ldquo;Anthony Collins&rdquo; (W. H.
+Johnson), and afterwards to &ldquo;Iconoclast&rdquo; (C. Bradlaugh). At
+his last lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled his
+<i>Infidel Text-Book</i> into a work on <i>The Bible and Its
+Evidences</i>. He devoted himself to political reform until his death,
+3 May, 1868.</p>
+<p><b>Cooper</b> (Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher,
+politician, jurist and author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at
+Oxford, he afterwards studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar
+and lived at Manchester, where he wrote a number of tracts on
+&ldquo;Materialism,&rdquo; &ldquo;Whether Deity be a Free Agent,&rdquo;
+etc., 1789. Deputed with James Watt, the inventor, by the
+Constitutional clubs to congratulate the Democrats of France (April,
+1792), he was attacked by Burke and replied in a vigorous pamphlet. In
+&rsquo;94 he published <i>Information Concerning America</i>, and in
+the next year followed his friend Priestly to Philadelphia, established
+himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He also conducted the
+<i>Emporium of Arts and Sciences</i> in that city. He was Professor of
+Medicine at Carlisle College, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4611"
+href="#xd20e4611" name="xd20e4611">91</a>]</span>&rsquo;12, and
+afterwards held the chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in
+South Carolina College, of which he became President, 1820&ndash;34.
+This position he was forced to resign on account of his religious
+views. He translated from Justinian and Broussais, and digested the
+Statutes of South Carolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a
+Freethinker, in politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many
+pamphlets. One on <i>The Right of Free Discussion</i>, and a little
+book on <i>Geology and the Pentateuch</i>, in reply to Prof. Silliman,
+were republished in London by James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May,
+1840.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e4620src" href="#xd20e4620" name=
+"xd20e4620src">1</a></p>
+<p id="coornhert"><b>Coornhert</b> (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist,
+poet and writer, b. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through
+Spain and Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became
+thereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a
+profound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and
+Calvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by
+Satan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he
+communed neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of
+Delft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero&rsquo;s <i>De
+Officiis</i>, and other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.</p>
+<p><b>Cordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe.</b> See <a href=
+"#saint-hyacinthe">Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Corvin-Wiersbitski</b> (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole
+of noble family, who traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b.
+Gumbinnen, 12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met
+his friend Friedrich von Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went
+to Leipsic and entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the
+Dutch Revolution, 1841; the <i>History of Christian Fanaticism</i>,
+1845, which was suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats
+in &rsquo;48; was condemned to be shot 15 Sept. &rsquo;49, but the
+sentence was commuted; spent six years&rsquo; solitary confinement in
+prison; came to London, became correspondent to the <i>Times</i>; went
+through American Civil War, and afterwards Franco-Prussian <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4648" href="#xd20e4648" name=
+"xd20e4648">92</a>]</span>War, as a special correspondent. He has
+written a History of the New Time, 1848&ndash;71. Died since 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Cotta</b> (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach,
+Thuringia, 24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in
+Freiberg, where he was appointed professor in &rsquo;42. His first
+production, <i>The Dendroliths</i>, &rsquo;32, proved him a diligent
+investigator. It was followed by many geological treatises. Cotta did
+much to support the nebular hypothesis and the law of natural
+development without miraculous agency. He also wrote on phrenology.
+Died at <span class="corr" id="xd20e4657" title=
+"Source: Feirburg">Freiburg</span>, 13 Sept 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Cotta</b> (C. Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman,
+b. <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 124. In &rsquo;75 he became Consul. On
+the expiration of his office he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had
+a high opinion of him and gives his sceptical arguments in the third
+book of his <i lang="la">De Natura Deorum</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Courier</b> (Paul Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772.
+He entered the army and became an officer of artillery, serving with
+distinction in the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets,
+directed against the clerical restoration, which place him foremost
+among the literary men of the generation. His writings are now
+classics, but they brought him nothing but imprisonment, and he was
+apparently assassinated, 10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the
+bigots would kill him.</p>
+<p><b>Coventry</b> (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710,
+Fellow of Magdalene College, author of <i>Letters of Philemon to
+Hydaspus on False Religion</i> (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.</p>
+<p><b>Coward</b> (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at
+Wadham College, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards
+at London. Published, besides some medical works, <i>Second Thoughts
+Concerning Human Soul</i>, which excited much indignation by denying
+natural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered his
+work to be burnt. He died in 1725.</p>
+<p><b>Cox</b> (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was
+educated at Rugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the
+Church, but has devoted himself to history and mythology. His most
+pretentious work is <i>Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4695" href="#xd20e4695" name=
+"xd20e4695">93</a>]</span>(1870). He has also written an
+<i>Introduction to Comparative Mythology</i> and several historical
+works. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with
+the authorship of the <i>English Life of Jesus</i>, published under the
+name of Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an
+heretical paper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a
+<i>Life of Bishop Colenso</i>, 2 vols, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Coyteux</b> (Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of
+a materialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on
+physiology, Paris, 1875, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Craig</b> (Edward Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4
+Aug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre &rsquo;19; helped to
+form the Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation.
+In &rsquo;31 he became editor of the <i>Lancashire Co-operator</i>. In
+Nov. of the same year he undertook the management of a co-operative
+farm at Rahaline, co. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an
+history, &rsquo;72. Mr. Craig has edited several journals and
+contributed largely to Radical and co-operative literature. He has
+published a memoir of Dr. Travis and at the age of 84 he wrote on
+<i>The Science of Prolonging Life</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Cramer</b> (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland,
+18 Feb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy
+&rsquo;36; ordained priest in &rsquo;42; he resigned in &rsquo;58. In
+religion he denies revelation and insists on the separation of Church
+and State. Among his works we mention <i>Separation from the
+Church</i>, a Freethinker&rsquo;s annotations on the reading of the
+Bible, Stockholm, 1859. <i>A Confession of Faith; Forward or Back?</i>
+(1862). He has also written on the Punishment of Death (1868), and
+other topics.</p>
+<p><b>Cranbrook</b> (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents
+about 1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas,
+became a teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent
+Church at Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies&rsquo;
+College, Liverpool, some of his lectures there being published
+&rsquo;57. In Jan. &rsquo;65, he went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but
+his views being too broad for that congregation, he left in Feb.
+&rsquo;67 but continued to give Sunday lectures until his death, 6
+June, 1869. In &rsquo;66 he published <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e4735" href="#xd20e4735" name=
+"xd20e4735">94</a>]</span><i>Credibilia</i>: an Inquiry into the
+grounds of Christian faith and two years later <i>The Founders of
+Christianity</i>, discourses on the origin of Christianity. Other
+lectures on <i>Human Depravity</i>, <i>Positive Religion</i>, etc.,
+were published by Thomas Scott.</p>
+<p><b>Cranch</b> (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b.
+Alexandria, Virginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school,
+Cambridge, Mass. &rsquo;35, but left the ministry in &rsquo;42. He
+shows his Freethought sentiments in <i>Satan</i>, a Libretto, Boston,
+&rsquo;74, and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Craven</b> (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the
+Bible entitled <i>Triumph of Criticism</i>, published at Philadelphia,
+1869.</p>
+<p><b>Cremonini</b> (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara,
+1550, was professor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he
+died. A follower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of
+religion and his teaching the mortality of the soul. He was frequently
+ordered by the Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave
+currency to, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused.
+Like most of the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between
+religious and philosophic truth. Bayle says. &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Il
+a pass&eacute; pour un esprit fort, qui ne croyait point
+l&rsquo;immortalit&eacute; de l&rsquo;&acirc;me.&rdquo; Larousse says,
+&ldquo;On peut dire qu&rsquo;il <span class="corr" id="xd20e4768"
+title="Source: n&rsquo;etait">n&rsquo;&eacute;tait</span> pas
+chr&eacute;tien.</span>&rdquo; Ladvocat says his works &ldquo;contain
+many things contrary to religion.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Cross</b> (Mary Ann). See <a href="#eliot">Eliot
+(George)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Crousse</b> (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of
+<i>Principles, or First Philosophy</i>, 1839, and <i>Thoughts</i>,
+1845.</p>
+<p><b>Curtis</b> (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of <i>Theology
+Displayed</i>, 1842. He has been credited with <i>The
+Protestant&rsquo;s Progress to Infidelity</i>. See Griffith (Rees).
+Died 1847.</p>
+<p><b>Croly</b> (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New
+York<span class="corr" id="xd20e4806" title="Not in source">,</span> 3
+Nov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in &rsquo;54, and was
+subsequently a reporter on the <i>New York Herald</i>. He became editor
+of the <i>New York World</i> until &rsquo;72. From &rsquo;71 to
+&rsquo;73 he edited <i>The Modern Thinker</i>, an organ of the most
+advanced thought, and afterwards the <i>New York Graphic</i>. Mr. Croly
+has written a <i>Primer of Positivism</i>, &rsquo;76, and has
+contributed many <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4825" href=
+"#xd20e4825" name="xd20e4825">95</a>]</span>articles to periodicals.
+His wife, Jane Cunningham, who calls herself &ldquo;Jennie June,&rdquo;
+b. 1831, also wrote in <i>The Modern Thinker</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Cross</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e4834" title=
+"Source: Many">Mary</span> Ann), see <a href="#eliot">Eliot
+(George)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Crozier</b> (John Beattie), English writer of Scottish border
+parentage, b. Galt, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a
+scholarship to the grammar school of the town, and thence won another
+scholarship to the Toronto University, where he graduated &rsquo;72,
+taking the University and Starr medals. He then came to London
+determined to study the great problems of religion and civilisation. He
+took his diploma from the London College of Physicians in &rsquo;73. In
+&rsquo;77 he wrote his first essay, &ldquo;God or Force,&rdquo; which,
+being rejected by all the magazines, he published as a pamphlet. Other
+essays on the Constitution of the World, Carlyle, Emerson, and Spencer
+being also rejected, he published them in a book entitled <i>The
+Religion of the Future</i>, &rsquo;80, which fell flat. He then started
+his work <i>Civilisation and Progress</i>, which appeared in &rsquo;85,
+and was also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices in
+&rsquo;87, when it received a chorus of applause, for its clear and
+original thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography,
+after which he proposes to deal with the Social question.</p>
+<p><b>Cuffeler</b> (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of
+law, who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht
+towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on logic
+in three parts entitled <i>Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.</i>,
+published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht,
+1684. It was without name but with the author&rsquo;s portrait.</p>
+<p><b>Cuper</b> (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected
+to have been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of
+refuting him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble
+opposition. His work entitled <i lang="la">Arcana Atheismi
+Revelata</i>, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced as written in bad faith.
+Cuper maintained that the existence of God could not be proved by the
+light of reason.</p>
+<p id="cyranodebergerac"><b>Cyrano de Bergerac</b> (Savinien), French
+comic writer, b. Paris 6 March, 1619. After finishing his studies and
+serving in the army in his youth he devoted himself to literature. His
+tragedy &ldquo;Agrippine&rdquo; is full of what a bookseller called
+&ldquo;belles <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4869" href=
+"#xd20e4869" name=
+"xd20e4869">96</a>]</span>impi&eacute;t&eacute;s,&rdquo; and La Monnoye
+relates that at its performance the pit shouted &ldquo;Oh, the wretch!
+The Atheist! How he mocks at holy things!&rdquo; Cyrano knew personally
+Campanella, Gassendi, Lamothe Le Vayer, Lini&egrave;re, Rohault, etc.
+His other works consist of a short fragment on <i>Physic</i>, a
+collection of <i>Letters</i>, and a <i>Comic History of the States and
+Empires of the Moon and the Sun</i>. Cyrano took the idea of this book
+from F. Godwin&rsquo;s <i>Man in the Moon</i>, 1583, and it in turn
+gave rise to Swift&rsquo;s <i>Gulliver&rsquo;s Travels</i> and
+Voltaire&rsquo;s <i>Micromegas</i>. Died Paris, 1655.</p>
+<p><b>Czolbe</b> (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30
+Dec. 1819, studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural
+dissertation on the <i>Principles of Physiology</i>, &rsquo;44. In
+&rsquo;55 he published his <i>New Exposition of Sensationalism</i>, in
+which everything is resolved into matter and motion, and in &rsquo;65 a
+work on <i>The Limits and Origin of Human Knowledge</i>. He was an
+intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at K&ouml;nigsberg, 19 Feb. 1873.
+Lange says &ldquo;his life was marked by a deep and genuine
+morality.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>D&rsquo;Ablaing.</b> See <a href=
+"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Dale</b> (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638.
+His work on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle
+gave the charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra
+Behn, under the title of <i>The History of Oracles and the Cheats of
+Pagan Priests</i>, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on <i>The Origin and
+Progress of Idolatry and Superstition</i>, applied the historical
+method to his subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old
+and as extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov.
+1708.</p>
+<p><b>Damilaville</b> (Etienne No&euml;l), French writer, b. at
+Bordeaux, 1721. At first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service
+for Voltaire, who became his friend. He also made the friendship
+Diderot, d&rsquo;Alembert, Grimm, and d&rsquo;Holbach. He contributed
+to the <i>Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, and in 1767 published an attack on
+the theologians, entitled <i>Theological Honesty</i>. The book entitled
+<i>Christianity Unveiled</i> [see <a href="#boulanger">Boulanger</a>
+and <a href="#holbach">Holbach</a>] was attributed by Voltaire, who
+called it <i>Impiety Unveiled</i>, and by La Harpe and Lalande to
+Damilaville. Voltaire called him &ldquo;one of our most learned
+writers.&rdquo; Larousse says &ldquo;he was an ardent enemy of
+Christianity.&rdquo; He has also been credited with a share in the
+<i>System of Nature</i>. Died 15 Dec. 1768. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4946" href="#xd20e4946" name=
+"xd20e4946">97</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Dandolo</b> (Vincenzo) <i>Count</i>, Italian chemist, b. Venice,
+26 Oct. 1758, wrote <i>Principles of Physical Chemistry</i>, a work in
+French on <i>The New Men</i>, in which he shows his antagonism to
+religion, and many useful works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died
+Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Danton</b> (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur
+Aube, 28 Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he
+preferred to study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him
+conspicuous at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one
+of the administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the
+flight of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his
+suspension, and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In
+the alarm caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy.
+He was a member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public
+Safety. At the crisis of the struggle with Robespierre<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e4964" title="Not in source">,</span> Danton declined to
+strike the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he
+said when interrogated by the judge, &ldquo;My name is Danton, my
+dwelling will soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the
+Pantheon of history.&rdquo; He maintained his lofty bearing on the
+scaffold, where he perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism
+Danton was called <i lang="fr">fils de Diderot</i>. Carlyle calls him
+&ldquo;a very Man<span class="corr" id="xd20e4970" title=
+"Not in source">.</span>&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Dapper</b> (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with
+history and geography, on which he produced important works. He had no
+religion and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria,
+Babylonia, etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the
+orations of the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a
+<i>History of the City of Amsterdam</i>, 1663. Died at Amsterdam
+1690.</p>
+<p><b>Darget</b> (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and
+became reader and private secretary to Frederick the Great
+(1745&ndash;52), who corresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.</p>
+<p><b>Darwin</b> (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury,
+12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and
+Cambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing
+natural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by
+Humboldt&rsquo;s <i>Personal Narrative</i>, resolved to <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4992" href="#xd20e4992" name=
+"xd20e4992">98</a>]</span>travel. He accompanied Captain Fitzroy in the
+&ldquo;Beagle&rdquo; on a voyage of exploration, &rsquo;31&ndash;36,
+which he narrated in his <i>Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World</i>,
+which obtained great popularity. In &rsquo;39 he married, and in
+&rsquo;42 left London and settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined
+with the reading of Lamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on
+<i>The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection</i>, &rsquo;59,
+which made a great outcry and marked an epoch. Darwin took no part in
+the controversy raised by the theologians, but followed his work with
+<i>The Fertilisation of Orchids</i>, &rsquo;62; <i>Cross and Self
+Fertilisation of Plants</i>, &rsquo;67; <i>Variations of Plants and
+Animals under Domestication</i>, &rsquo;65; and in &rsquo;71 <i>The
+Descent of Man and Selection in relation to Sex</i>, which caused yet
+greater consternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued
+<i>The Expression of the Emotions of Men and Animals</i>. He also
+published works on the <i>Movements of Plants</i>, <i>Insectivorous
+Plants</i>, the <i>Forms of Flowers</i>, and <i>Earthworms</i>. He died
+19 April, 1882, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, despite his
+expressed unbelief in revelation. To a German student he wrote, in
+&rsquo;79, &ldquo;Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so
+far as the habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in
+admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe that there ever has
+been any revelation.&rdquo; In his <i>Life and Letters</i> he relates
+that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see &ldquo;that the Old
+Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the
+Hindoos.&rdquo; He rejected design and said &ldquo;I for one must be
+content to remain an Agnostic.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Darwin</b> (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher,
+grandfather of the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec.
+1731. Educated at Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician,
+first at Lichfield and afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with
+Rousseau, Watt and Wedgwood. His principal poem, <i>The Botanic
+Garden</i> was published in 1791, and <i>The Temple of Nature</i> in
+1803. His principal work is <i>Zoomania</i>, or the laws of organic
+life (1794), for which he was accused of Atheism. He was actually a
+Deist. He also wrote on female education and some papers in the
+<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. Died at Derby, 18 April, 1802.</p>
+<p><b>Daubermesnil</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Antoine), French
+conventionalist. Elected deputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a
+member <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5052" href="#xd20e5052" name=
+"xd20e5052">99</a>]</span>of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of
+the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died at Perpignan 1802.</p>
+<p><b>Daudet</b> (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at N&icirc;mes, 13 May
+1840, author of many popular romances, of which we mention <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Evangeliste</i>, &rsquo;82, which has been translated into
+English under the title <i>Port Salvation</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Daunou</b> (Pierre Claude Fran&ccedil;ois), French politician and
+historian, b. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the
+congregation of the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the
+Revolution. The department of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas
+Paine to the Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at
+the Pantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt
+Tracy, Ginguen&eacute; and Benj. Constant. Wrote <i>Historical Essay on
+the Temporal Power of the Popes</i>, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June,
+1840, noted for his benevolence.</p>
+<p><b>Davenport</b> (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed
+to Carlile&rsquo;s <i>Republican</i>; wrote an account of the Life,
+Writings and Principles of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and
+published a volume of verse, entitled <i>The Muses&rsquo; Wreath</i>
+(1827). Died at Highbury, London, 1846.</p>
+<p><b>Davenport</b> (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a
+teacher. He wrote <i>An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran</i>, 1869;
+<i>Curiositates Erotic&oelig; Physiolog&aelig;</i>, or Tabooed Subjects
+Freely Treated, and several educational works. Died in poverty 11 May,
+1877.</p>
+<p><b>David of Dinant</b>, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the
+twelfth century. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent
+III. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Ch&acirc;rtres, and his
+work <i lang="la">Quaterini</i> was condemned and burnt (1209). He only
+escaped the stake by rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was
+the author of a philosophical work <i>De Tomis</i>, &ldquo;Of
+Subdivisions,&rdquo; in which he taught that all things were one. His
+system was similar to that of Spinoza.</p>
+<p><b>David</b> (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug.
+1748, was made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became
+a member of the Convention, voted for the king&rsquo;s death and for
+the civic festivals, for which he made designs. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5105" href="#xd20e5105" name=
+"xd20e5105">100</a>]</span>On the restoration he was banished. Died at
+Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest enthusiast and a thorough
+Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Davidis</b> or <b>David</b> (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b.
+about 1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an
+Antitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there was
+&ldquo;as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other dead
+saints as to Jesus Christ.&rdquo; He was in consequence accused of
+Judaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June,
+1579.</p>
+<p><b>Davies</b> (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in
+1797 published a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of
+<i>The Scripturian&rsquo;s Creed</i>, for which he was prosecuted and
+imprisoned. The work was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at
+Manchester, 1839.</p>
+<p><b>Davidson</b> (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted
+by the Vice Society in Oct. 1820, for selling the <i>Republican</i> and
+a publication of his own, called the <i>Deist&rsquo;s Magazine</i>. For
+observations made in his defence he was summoned and fined &pound;100,
+and he was sentenced to two years&rsquo; imprisonment in Oakham Gaol.
+He died 16 Dec. 1826.</p>
+<p><b>Debierre</b> (Charles), French writer, author of <i>Man Before
+History</i>, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>De Dominicis.</b> See <a href="#dominicis">Dominicis</a>.</p>
+<p><b>De Felice</b> (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily,
+1821, took part in the revolution of &rsquo;43, and when Garibaldi
+landed in Sicily was appointed president of the provisional council of
+war. Has written on the reformation of elementary schools.</p>
+<p><b>De Greef</b> (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of
+Appeal, b. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important
+<i>Introduction to Sociology</i>, 1886. Wrote in <i>La
+Libert&eacute;</i>, 1867&ndash;73, and now writes in <i>La
+Societ&eacute; Nouvelle</i>.</p>
+<p id="degubernatis"><b>De Gubernatis</b> (Angelo), Italian Orientalist
+and writer, b. Turin, 7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and
+became doctor of philosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber
+at Berlin. Sig. de Gubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many
+important works, of which we mention his volumes on <i>Zoological
+Mythology</i>, which has been <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5170"
+href="#xd20e5170" name="xd20e5170">101</a>]</span>translated into
+English, &rsquo;72: and on the <i>Mythology of Plants</i>. He has
+compiled and in large part written a <i>Universal History of
+Literature</i>, 18 vols. &rsquo;82&ndash;85; edited <i>La Revista
+Europea</i> and the <i>Revue Internationale</i>, and contributed to
+many publications. He is a brilliant writer and a versatile
+scholar.</p>
+<p><b>De Harven</b> (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837,
+the anonymous author of a work on <i>The Soul: its Origin and
+Destiny</i> (Antwerp, 1879).</p>
+<p><b>Dekker</b> (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and
+Freethinker of this century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In &rsquo;39
+he accompanied his father, a ship&rsquo;s captain, to the Malayan
+Archipelago. He became officer under the Dutch government in Sumatra,
+Amboina, and Assistant-Resident at Lebac, Java. He desired to free the
+Javanese from the oppression of their princes, but the government would
+not help him and he resigned and returned to Holland, &rsquo;56. The
+next four years he spent, in poverty, vainly seeking justice for the
+Javanese. In &rsquo;60 he published under the pen name of
+&ldquo;Multatuli&rdquo; <i>Max Havelaar</i>, a masterly indictment of
+the Dutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French
+and English. Then follow his choice <i lang="nl">Minnebrieven</i> (Love
+Letters), &rsquo;61; <i lang="nl">Vorstenschool</i> (A School for
+Princes), and <i lang="nl"><span class="corr" id="xd20e5206" title=
+"Source: Millivenen">Millioenen</span> Studi&euml;n</i> (Studies on
+Millions). His <i lang="nl">Ide&euml;n</i>, 7 vols. &rsquo;62&ndash;79,
+are full of the boldest heresy. In most of his works religion is
+attacked, but in the <i>Ideas</i> faith is criticised with much more
+pungency and satire. He wrote &ldquo;Faith is the voluntary prison-cell
+of reason.&rdquo; He was an honorary member of the Freethought Society,
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and contributed to its organ. During the
+latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where he died 19 Feb.
+1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.</p>
+<p><b>De Lalande</b> (see <a href="#lalande">Lalande</a>).</p>
+<p><b>Delambre</b> (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b.
+Amiens, 19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his
+master, an Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by
+the Academy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of
+Astronomy at the Coll&eacute;ge de France. He is the author of a
+<i>History of Astronomy</i> in five volumes, and of a number of
+astronomical tables and other scientific works He was appointed
+perpetual secretary of the Academy of <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e5234" href="#xd20e5234" name="xd20e5234">102</a>]</span>Sciences.
+Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at P&egrave;re la Chaise. Cuvier
+pronouncing a discourse over his grave.</p>
+<p><b>De la Ramee.</b> See <a href="#ouida"><span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e5241" title="Source: Ramee">Ram&eacute;e</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Delb&oelig;uf</b> (Joseph Remi L&eacute;opold), Belgian writer,
+b. Li&egrave;ge, 30 Sept. 1831; is Professor at the University of
+Li&egrave;ge, and has written <i>Psychology as a Natural Science, its
+Present and its Future; Application of the Experimental Method to the
+Phenomena of the Soul</i>, &rsquo;73, and other works. In his
+<i>Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry</i> he suggests that even
+mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.</p>
+<p><b>Delbos</b> (L&eacute;on), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish
+father and Scotch mother. Educated in Paris, Lyc&eacute;e Charlemagne.
+Is an M.A. of Paris and <i lang="fr">officier
+d&rsquo;Acad&eacute;mie</i>. Speaks many languages, and is a good
+Arabic and Sanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the
+Franco-German War. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has
+written <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Ath&eacute;e</i>, the Atheist, a
+Freethought romance &rsquo;79, and in English <i>The Faith in Jesus not
+a New Faith</i>, &rsquo;85. He has contributed to the <i>Agnostic
+Annual</i>, and is a decided Agnostic.</p>
+<p><b>Delepierre</b> (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges,
+12 March, 1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to
+England. His daughter married N. Truebner, who published his work
+<i>L&rsquo;Enfer</i>, 1876, and many other bibliographical studies.
+Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Delescluze</b> (Louis Charles), French journalist and
+revolutionary, b. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in &rsquo;34 for
+sedition. Implicated in a plot in &rsquo;35, he took refuge in Belgium.
+In &rsquo;48 he issued at Paris <i lang="fr">La Revolution
+D&eacute;mocratique et Sociale</i>, but was soon again in prison. He
+was banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to
+France in &rsquo;53 was arrested. In &rsquo;68 he published the
+<i lang="fr">R&eacute;veil</i>, for which he was again fined and
+sentenced to prison for ten years. In &rsquo;59 he was amnestied and
+imprisoned. He became head of the Commune Committee of Public Safety,
+and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Deleyre</b> (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near
+Bordeaux, 6 Jan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits,
+but changed his faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He
+contributed to the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, notably the
+article <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5295" href="#xd20e5295"
+name="xd20e5295">103</a>]</span>&ldquo;Fanatisme,&rdquo; and published
+an analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint
+Evremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with
+ardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member
+of the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.</p>
+<p><b>Delisle de Sales.</b> See <a href="#isoarddelisle">Isoard Delisle
+(J. B. C.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Dell</b> (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832.
+Contributed to <i>Progress</i>, wrote <i>Nature Pictures</i>,
+&rsquo;71, and <i>The Dawning Grey</i>, &rsquo;85, a volume of vigorous
+verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and freethought. Died 31
+Jan. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Deluc</b> (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b.
+Paris, 1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on <i lang="fr">La Libre
+Recherche</i>.</p>
+<p><b>De Maillet.</b> See <a href="#maillet">Maillet (Beno&icirc;t
+de)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Democritus</b>, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera,
+Thrace, <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 460. He travelled to Egypt and
+over a great part of Asia, and is also said to have visited India. He
+is supposed to have been acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works
+were ascribed to him. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 357. He taught
+that all existence consisted of atoms, and made the discovery of causes
+the object of scientific inquiry. He is said to have laughed at life in
+general, which Montaigne says is better than to imitate Heraclitus and
+weep, since mankind are not so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the
+forerunner of Epicurus, who improved his system.</p>
+<p><b>Demonax</b>, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second
+century of the Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of
+him was written by Lucian.</p>
+<p><b>Demora</b> (Gianbattista), director of the <i lang="it">Libero
+Pensatore</i> of Milan, and author of some dramatic works.</p>
+<p><b>Denis</b> (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political
+economy and philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29
+April, 1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to
+<i lang="fr">La Libert&eacute;</i>, <i lang="fr">la Philosophie
+Positive</i>, etc. Is one of the Council of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers.</p>
+<p><b>Denslow</b> (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on
+<i>Modern Thinkers</i>, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an
+introduction. He contributed a paper on the value of irreligion
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5370" href="#xd20e5370" name=
+"xd20e5370">104</a>]</span>to the <i>Religio Philosophic</i> journal of
+America, Jan. &rsquo;78, and has written in the <i>Truthseeker</i> and
+other journals.</p>
+<p><b>Denton</b> (William<a id="xd20e5382" name="xd20e5382"></a> F.),
+poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington, Durham, 8 Jan. 1823.
+After attaining manhood he emigrated to the United States, &rsquo;48,
+and in &rsquo;56 published <i>Poems for Reformers</i>. He was a
+prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology,
+geology, and Freethought. In &rsquo;72 he published <i>Radical
+Discourses on Religious Subjects</i> (Boston, &rsquo;72), and
+<i>Radical Rhymes</i>, &rsquo;79. He travelled to Australasia, and died
+of a fever while conducting scientific explorations in New Guinea 26
+Aug. 1883.</p>
+<p id="depaepe"><b>De Paepe</b> (C&eacute;sar) Dr., Belgian Socialist,
+b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He was sent to the college of St. Michel,
+Brussels. He obtained the Diploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on
+the death of his father became a printer with D&eacute;sir&eacute;
+Brism&eacute;e (founder of Les Solidaires, a Rationalist society).
+Proudhon confided to him the correction of his works. He became a
+physician and is popular with the workmen&rsquo;s societies. He was one
+of the foremost members of the International and attended all its
+congresses, as well as those of the International Federation of
+Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene, political economy,
+and psychology, collaborating in a great number of the most advanced
+journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic man, capable both as
+a speaker and writer.</p>
+<p><b>Depasse</b> (Hector), French writer, b. at Armenti&egrave;res in
+1843, is editor of <i lang="fr">La R&eacute;publique <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e5403" title="Source: Francaise">Fran&ccedil;aise</span></i>,
+and member of the Paris Municipal Council. He has written a striking
+work on <i>Clericalism</i>, in which he urges the separation of Church
+and State, 1877; and is author of many little books on <i>Contemporary
+Celebrities</i>, among them are Gambetta, Bert, Ranc, etc.</p>
+<p><b>De Ponnat.</b> See <a href="#ponnat">Ponnat (&mdash;de),
+<i>Baron</i></a>.</p>
+<p><b>De Pontan.</b> See <a href="#ponnat">Ponnat</a>.</p>
+<p id="depotteral"><b>De Potter</b> (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist,
+b. Brussels, 11 Nov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science,
+and has collaborated to <i>La Ragione</i> (Reason), &rsquo;56, and
+<i>La Philosophie de l&rsquo;Avenir</i>.</p>
+<p id="depotterlaj"><b>De Potter</b> (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian
+politician and writer, father of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges,
+26 April, 1786. In 1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5442" href="#xd20e5442" name=
+"xd20e5442">105</a>]</span>In &rsquo;21 he wrote the <i>Spirit of the
+Church</i>, in 6 vols<span class="corr" id="xd20e5447" title=
+"Not in source">.</span>, which are put on the <i>Roman Index</i>. A
+strong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested more
+than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen months in
+&rsquo;28. In Sept. &rsquo;30 he became a member of the provisional
+government. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote
+a philosophical and anti-clerical <i>History of Christianity</i>, in 8
+vols., 1836&ndash;37. He also wrote a <i>Rational Catechism</i>, 1854,
+and a <i>Rational Dictionary</i>, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died
+Bruges, 22 July, 1859.</p>
+<p><b>Deraismes</b> (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e5467" title="Source: 1836">15 Aug.
+1835</span>. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote
+an appeal on behalf of her sex, <i lang="fr">Aux Femmes Riches</i>,
+&rsquo;65. The Masonic Lodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to
+become a member, and she was duly installed under the Grand Orient of
+France. The first female Freemason, was president of the Paris
+Anti-clerical Congress of 1881, and has written much in her journal,
+<i lang="fr">Le R&eacute;publicain de Seine et Oise</i>.</p>
+<p><b>De Roberty</b> (Eugene). See <a href="#roberty">Roberty</a>.</p>
+<p id="desbarreaux"><b>Desbarreaux</b> (Jacques Vall&eacute;e),
+<i lang="fr">Seigneur</i>, French poet and sceptic, b. Paris, 1602,
+great-nephew of Geoffrey Vall&eacute;e, who was burnt in 1574. Many
+stories are related of his impiety, <i>e.g.</i> the well-known one of
+his having a <span class="corr" id="xd20e5494" title=
+"Source: feasts">feast</span> of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des
+Barreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, &ldquo;What an
+amount of noise over an omelette.&rdquo; It was said he recanted and
+wrote a poem beginning, &ldquo;Great God, how just are thy
+chastisements.&rdquo; Voltaire, however, assigns this poem to the
+Abb&eacute; Levau. Died at Chalons, 9 May, 1673.</p>
+<p><b>Descartes</b> (Ren&eacute;), French philosopher, b. at La Haye,
+31 March, 1596. After leaving college he entered the army in &rsquo;16,
+and fought in the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy,
+and in &rsquo;29 settled in Holland. In &rsquo;37 he produced his
+famous <i>Discourses upon the Method of Reasoning Well</i>, etc., and
+in &rsquo;41 his <i>Meditations upon First Philosophy</i>. This work
+gave such offence to the clergy that he was forced to fly his country
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">parce qu&rsquo;il y fait trop chaud pour
+lui</span>.&rdquo; He burnt his <i lang="fr">Traite du Monde</i>
+(Treatise on the World) lest he should incur the fate of Gallilei.
+Though a Theist, like Bacon, he puts aside <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5513" href="#xd20e5513" name=
+"xd20e5513">106</a>]</span>final causes. He was offered an asylum by
+Christina, Queen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.</p>
+<p><b>Deschamps</b> (L&eacute;ger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps,
+a French philosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the
+Order of Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of
+the Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau,
+d&rsquo;Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. &ldquo;Ce
+pr&ecirc;tre ath&eacute;e,&rdquo; as Ad. Franck calls him, was the
+author of a treatise entitled <i lang="fr">La V&eacute;rit&eacute;, ou
+le Vrai Syst&egrave;me</i>, in which he appears to have anticipated all
+the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from existing
+things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable work, which
+remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century, has been
+published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at
+Montreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.</p>
+<p id="deslandes"><b>Deslandes</b> (Andr&eacute; Fran&ccedil;ois
+<span class="sc">Boureau</span>), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member of
+the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil of
+anonymity, the principal being <i>A Critical History of Philosophy</i>,
+3 vols(1737). His <i>Pygmalion</i>, a philosophical romance, was
+condemned by the parliament of Dijon, 1742. His <i lang="fr">Reflexions
+sur les grands hommes qui sont mort en Plaisantant</i> (Amsterdam,
+1732) was translated into English and published in 1745 under the
+title, <i>Dying Merrily</i>. Another work directed against religion was
+<i>On the certainty of Human Knowledge</i>, a philosophical examination
+of the different prerogatives of reason and faith (London, 1741). Died
+Paris, 11 April, 1757.</p>
+<p><b>Des Maizeaux</b> (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne,
+1673. He studied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who
+introduced him to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699.
+He edited the works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he
+wrote, as well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was
+his friend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he
+transferred to Collins&rsquo;s widow and they were burnt. He repented
+and returned the money, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He
+became Secretary of the Royal Society of London, where he died, 11
+July, 1745.</p>
+<p><b>Desmoulins</b> (Luci&eacute; Simplice Camille Ben&ocirc;it),
+French revolutionary writer, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a
+fellow-student <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5553" href=
+"#xd20e5553" name="xd20e5553">107</a>]</span>of Robespierre at Paris,
+and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In July &rsquo;89
+he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille, and thus began the
+Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile Laridon-Duplessis. He
+edited <i>Le Vieux Cordelier</i> and the <i lang=
+"fr">R&eacute;volutions de France et de Brabant</i>, in which he stated
+that Mohammedanism was as credible as Christianity. He was a Deist,
+preferring Paganism to Christianity. Both creeds were more or less
+unreasonable; but, folly for folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying
+the Erymanthean boar to Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs.
+He was executed with Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile,
+who was an Atheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13).
+Carlyle calls Desmoulins a man of genius, &ldquo;a fellow of infinite
+shrewdness, wit&mdash;nay, humor.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="desperiers"><b>Des Periers</b> (Jean Bonaventure), French poet
+and sceptic, b. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a
+convent, only to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e5565" title="Source: Dyons">Lyons</span>
+and assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as
+&ldquo;Francoys Insigne.&rdquo; Attached to the court of Marguerite of
+Valois, he defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French
+version of the Psalms. He wrote the <i lang="la">Cymbalum Mundi</i>, a
+satire upon religion, published under the name of Thomas de Clenier
+&agrave; Pierre Tryocan, <i>i.e.</i>, Thomas Incr&eacute;dule &agrave;
+Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed and the printer, Jehan Morin,
+imprisoned. Des Periers fled and died (probably by suicide, to escape
+persecution) <a id="xd20e5574" name="xd20e5574"></a>1544. An English
+version of <i lang="la">Cymbalum Mundi</i> was published in 1712. P. G.
+Brunet, the bibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author
+of the famous Atheistic treatise, <i>The Three Impostors</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Destriveaux</b> (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician,
+b. Li&eacute;ge, 13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public
+right. Died Schaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.</p>
+<p><b>Destutt de Tracy</b> (Antoine Louis de Claude) <i>Count</i>,
+French materialist philosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of
+Scotch origin. At first a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at
+the Revolution to despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette,
+Condorcet, and Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an
+analysis of Dupuis&rsquo; <i lang="fr">Origine de tous les Cultes</i>
+(1804), edited Montesquieu and Cabanis, was <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5597" href="#xd20e5597" name=
+"xd20e5597">108</a>]</span>made a member of the French Academy (1808),
+and wrote several philosophical works, of which the principal is
+<i>Elements of Ideology</i>. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died
+Paris, 9 March, 1836.</p>
+<p><b>Des Vignes</b> (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II.
+(1245&ndash;49). Mazzuchelli attributes to him the treatise <i>De
+Tribus Impostoribus</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Detrosier</b> (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796,
+the illegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a
+Frenchwoman. In his early years he was &ldquo;for whole days without
+food.&rdquo; Self-educated, he established the first Mechanics&rsquo;
+Institute in England at Hulme, gave Sunday scientific lectures, and
+published several discourses in favor of secular education. He became
+secretary of the National Political Union. He was a Deist. Like
+Bentham, who became his friend, he bequeathed his body for scientific
+purposes. Died in London, 23 Nov. 1834.</p>
+<p><b>Deubler</b> (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near
+Ischl, Upper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties, he
+became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as &ldquo;the
+Peasant Philosopher.&rdquo; In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy, and
+was sentenced to two years&rsquo; hard labor and imprisonment during
+pleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e5618" title="Source: &rsquo;34">&rsquo;54</span>, till Nov.
+&rsquo;56 at Br&uuml;nn, and afterwards at Olmutz, where he was
+released 24 March, 1857. He returned to his native place, and was
+visited by Feuerbach. In &rsquo;70 he was made Burgomaster by his
+fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Deurhoff</b> (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650.
+Educated for the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the
+works of Descartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza.
+Forced to leave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to
+Holland, where he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.</p>
+<p><b>De Wette.</b> (See Wette M. L. de).</p>
+<p><b>D&rsquo;Holbach.</b> See <a href="#holbach">Holbach (P. H. D.
+von), <i>Baron</i></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Diagoras</b>, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as
+&ldquo;the Atheist,&rdquo; b. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said
+to have freed him from slavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he
+became an Atheist after being the victim of an unpunished <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5645" href="#xd20e5645" name=
+"xd20e5645">109</a>]</span>perjury. He was accused (<span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> 411) of impiety, and had to fly from Athens to
+Corinth, where he died. A price was put upon the Atheist&rsquo;s head.
+His works are not extant, but several anecdotes are related of him, as
+that he threw a wooden statue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish
+of lentils, saying the god had a thirteenth task to perform; and that,
+being on his flight by sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his
+fellow-passengers say it was because an Atheist was on board, he
+pointed to other vessels struggling in the same storm without being
+laden with a Diagoras.</p>
+<p><b>Di Cagno Politi</b> (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b.
+Bari, 1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern
+culture and on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed
+articles on Positivism to the <i lang="it">Rivista Europea</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Diderot</b> (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713.
+His father, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits,
+at the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for
+books, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he
+supported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published
+<i>Philosophic Thoughts</i>, which was condemned to be burnt. It did
+much to advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his <i>Letters on
+the Blind</i> occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its
+materialistic Atheism. Rousseau, who called him &ldquo;a transcendent
+genius,&rdquo; visited Diderot in prison, where he remained three
+years. Diderot projected the famous <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, which he edited with Alembert, and he
+contributed some of the most important articles. With very inadequate
+recompense, and amidst difficulties that would have appalled an
+ordinary editor, Diderot superintended the undertaking for many years
+(1751&ndash;65). He also contributed to other important works, such as
+Raynal&rsquo;s <i>Philosophic History</i>, <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Esprit</i>, by Helvetius, and <i>The System of Nature</i>
+and other works of his friend D&rsquo;Holbach. Diderot&rsquo;s fertile
+mind also produced dramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July,
+1784. Comte calls Diderot &ldquo;the greatest thinker of the eighteenth
+century.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Diercks</b> (Gustav), German author of able works on the History
+of the Development of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881&ndash;2) <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5684" href="#xd20e5684" name=
+"xd20e5684">110</a>]</span>and on Arabian Culture in Spain, 1887. Is a
+member of the German Freethinkers&rsquo; Union.</p>
+<p><b>Dilke</b> (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge,
+travelled in Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of
+Turgenev&rsquo;s <i>Virgin Soil</i>. He purchased and edited the
+<i>Weekly Dispatch</i>; was returned as M.P. for Newcastle in 1880,
+but, owing to ill health, resigned in favor of John Morley, and died at
+Algiers 12 March, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Dinter</b> (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna,
+near Leipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His <i>Bible for <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e5702" title="Source: Schoolmsters">Schoolmasters</span></i> is
+his best-known work. It sought to give rational notes and explanations
+of the Jew books, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29
+May, 1831.</p>
+<p><b>Dippel</b> (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10
+Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His <i>Papismus vapulans
+Protestantium</i> (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e5713" title=
+"Source: Geissen">Giessen</span>, and he had to <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e5716" title="Source: fly">flee</span> for his life. Attempting to
+find out the philosopher&rsquo;s stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In
+1705 he published his satires against the Protestant Church, <i lang=
+"de">Hirt und eine Heerde</i>, under the name of Christianus
+Democritos. He denied the inspiration of the Bible, and after an
+adventurous life in many countries died 25 April, 1734.</p>
+<p><b>Dobrolyubov</b> (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b.
+1836, at Nijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St.
+Petersburg, he became a radical journalist. His works were edited in
+four vols. by Chernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Dodel-Port</b> (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen,
+Thurgau, 16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in &rsquo;63
+teacher in the Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from
+&rsquo;64&ndash;&rsquo;69 at Geneva, Z&uuml;rich, and Munich, becoming
+<i>privat docent</i> in the University of Z&uuml;rich, &rsquo;70. In
+&rsquo;75 he published <i>The New History of Creation</i>. In &rsquo;78
+he issued his world-famous <i>Botanical Atlas</i>, and was in &rsquo;80
+made Professor of Botany in the Z&uuml;rich University and Director of
+the Botanical Laboratory. He has also written <i>Biological
+Fragments</i> (1885), the <i>Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler</i>,
+&ldquo;the peasant philosopher&rdquo; (1886), and has just published
+<i>Moses or Darwin? a School <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5748"
+href="#xd20e5748" name="xd20e5748">111</a>]</span>Question</i>, 1889.
+Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society and
+Vice-President of the German Freethinkers&rsquo; Union.</p>
+<p><b>Dodwell</b> (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name,
+was b. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A., 9
+Feb. 1726. In &rsquo;42 he published a pamphlet entitled
+<i>Christianity not Founded on Argument</i>, which in a tone of grave
+irony contends that Christianity can only be accepted by faith. He was
+brought up to the law and was a zealous friend of the Society for the
+Promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.</p>
+<p><b>Doebereiner</b> (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15
+Dec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where he
+added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and
+instructor to Goethe.</p>
+<p><b>Dolet</b> (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug.
+1509. He studied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to
+fly from Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he
+established a printing-press and published some of his works, for which
+he was imprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and
+other advanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his
+books to be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of
+Atheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and
+burnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd,
+he said: &ldquo;Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba
+dolet.&rdquo;&mdash;Dolet grieves not, but the generous crowd grieves.
+His goods being confiscated, his widow and children were left to
+beggary. &ldquo;The French language,&rdquo; says A. F. Didot,
+&ldquo;owes him much for his treatises, translations, and
+poesies.&rdquo; Dolet&rsquo;s biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">le Christ de la pens&eacute;e
+libre</span>.&rdquo; Philosophy has alone the right, says Henri Martin,
+to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer, R. C. Christie,
+says he was &ldquo;neither a Catholic nor a Protestant.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="dominicis"><b>Dominicis</b> (Saverio Fausto de), Italian
+Positivist philosopher, b. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of
+Philosophy at Bari, and has written on <i>Education and Darwinism</i>.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5776" href="#xd20e5776" name=
+"xd20e5776">112</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Dondorf</b> (Dr. A.), See <a href="#anderson"><span class=
+"sc">Anderson</span> (Marie)</a> in Supplement.</p>
+<p><b>Doray de Longrais</b> (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b.
+Manvieux, 1736. Author of a Freethought romance, <i>Faustin, or the
+Philosophical Age</i>. Died at Paris, 1800.</p>
+<p><b>Dorsch</b> (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10
+Jan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In &rsquo;49 he went to
+America and settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of
+poems, some being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Dorsey</b> (J. M.), author of the <i>The True History of
+Moses</i>, and others, an attack on the Bible, published at Boston in
+1855.</p>
+<p><b>Draparnaud</b> (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3
+June, 1772, at Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural
+History. His discourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the
+Philosophy of the Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his
+scepticism. Died 1 Feb. 1805.</p>
+<p><b>Draper</b> (John <span class="corr" id="xd20e5813" title=
+"Source: Williams">William</span>), scientist and historian, b. St.
+Helens, near Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he
+was educated at London University. In &rsquo;32 he emigrated to
+America, where he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New
+York University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the
+first who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works,
+notably on <i>Human Physiology</i>. His history of the American Civil
+War is an important work, but he is chiefly known by his <i>History of
+the Intellectual Development of Europe</i> and <i>History of the
+Conflict of Religion and Science</i>, which last has gone through many
+editions and been translated into all the principal languages. Died 4
+Jan. 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Dreyfus</b> (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the
+Evolution of Worlds and Societies, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Droysen</b> (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6
+July, 1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the <i>Hallische
+Jahrb&uuml;cher</i>; was Professor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena
+&rsquo;51 and Berlin &rsquo;59. Has edited Frederick the Great&rsquo;s
+Correspondence, and written other important works, some in conjunction
+with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15 June, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Drummond</b> (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and
+author, b. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5840" href="#xd20e5840" name=
+"xd20e5840">113</a>]</span>Mawes, Cornwall, 1795. In the following year
+he became envoy to the court of Naples, and in 1801 ambassador to
+Constantinople. His principal work is <i>Origines</i>, or Remarks on
+the Origin of several Empires, States, and Cities (4 vols.
+1824&ndash;29). He also printed privately <i>The &OElig;dipus
+Judaicus</i>, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and
+learning, many legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an
+astronomical signification. It was reprinted in &rsquo;66. Sir William
+Drummond also wrote anonymously <i>Philosophical Sketches of the
+Principles of Society</i>, 1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Duboc</b> (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b.
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e5855" title=
+"Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, 10 Oct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt
+and Giessen, is a clever journalist, and has translated the <i>History
+of the English Press</i>. Has written an Atheistic work, <i lang=
+"de">Das <span class="corr" id="xd20e5863" title=
+"Source: Lieben">Leben</span> Ohne Gott</i> (Life without God), with
+the motto from Feuerbach &ldquo;No religion is my religion, no
+philosophy my philosophy,&rdquo; 1875. He has also written on the
+<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e5868" title=
+"Source: Physchology">Psychology</span> of Love</i>, and other
+important works.</p>
+<p><b>Dubois</b> (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published
+<i>The True Catechism of Believers</i>&mdash;a work ordered by the
+Court of Assizes to be suppressed, and for which the author (Sept.
+&rsquo;35) was condemned to six months&rsquo; imprisonment and a fine
+of one thousand francs. He also wrote <i>The Believer Undeceived</i>,
+or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and Absurdity of Christianity; a work
+put on the <i>Index</i> in &rsquo;36.</p>
+<p><b>Du Bois-Reymond</b> (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French
+mother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for the
+Church, but left it to follow science, &rsquo;37. Has become famous as
+a physiologist, especially by his <i>Researches in Animal
+Electricity</i>, &rsquo;48&ndash;60. With Helmholtz he has done much to
+establish the new era of positive science, wrongly called by opponents
+Materialism. Du Bois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the
+brain and nervous system, and that &ldquo;soul&rdquo; has arisen as the
+gradual results of natural combinations, but in his <i>Limits of the
+Knowledge of Nature</i>, &rsquo;72, he contends that we must always
+come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du Bois-Reymond has written on
+<i>Voltaire and Natural Science</i>, &rsquo;68; <i>La Mettrie</i>,
+&rsquo;75; <i>Darwin versus Galiani</i>, &rsquo;78; and <i>Frederick
+II. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5907" href="#xd20e5907" name=
+"xd20e5907">114</a>]</span>and Rousseau</i>, &rsquo;79. Since &rsquo;67
+he has been perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin.</p>
+<p><b>Dubuisson</b> (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary,
+b. Lauat, 1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the
+scaffold, 24 March, 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Dubuisson</b> (Paul), living French Positivist, author of
+<i>Grand Types of Humanity</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Du Chatelet Lomont.</b> See <a href=
+"#chastelet">Chastelet</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Duclos</b> (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12
+Feb. 1704. He was admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its
+secretary, 1755. A friend of Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert. His <i lang=
+"fr">Considerations sur les M&oelig;urs</i> is still a readable work.
+Died 27 March, 1772.</p>
+<p><b>Ducos</b> (Jean Fran&ccedil;ois), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux
+in 1765. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct.
+1791, demanded the complete separation of the State from religion. He
+shared the fate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last
+breath, &ldquo;<i lang="fr">Vive la Republique!</i>&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Du Deffand</b> (Marie), <i>Marchioness</i>, witty literary
+Frenchwoman, b. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent
+she preached irreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in
+Massillon, to whom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away
+saying &ldquo;She is charming.&rdquo; Her house in Paris was for fifty
+years the resort of eminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for
+many years with Horace Walpole, D&rsquo;Alembert and Voltaire. Many
+anecdotes are told of her; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke
+of the miracle of St. Denis walking when beheaded, she said
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">Il n&rsquo;y a que le premier pas qui
+co&ucirc;te.</span>&rdquo; Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the cur&eacute; of
+Saint Sulpice, who came to her death-bed, she said &ldquo;<span lang=
+"fr">Ni questions, ni raisons, ni sermons.</span>&rdquo; Larousse calls
+her &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais sceptique
+et materialiste.</span>&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Dudgeon</b> (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were
+published (privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.</p>
+<p><b>Dudnevant</b> (A. L. A. <span class="sc">Dupin</span>),
+<i>Baroness</i>. See <a href="#sand">Sand (Georges)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Duehring</b> (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan.
+1833; studied law. He has, though blind, written many works on science
+and political economy, also a <i>Critical History of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5982" href="#xd20e5982" name=
+"xd20e5982">115</a>]</span>Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;69&ndash;78, and
+<i>Science Revolutionized</i>, &rsquo;78. In Oct. 1879, his death was
+maliciously reported.</p>
+<p><b>Dulaure</b> (Jacques Antoine), French arch&aelig;ologist and
+historian, b. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788&ndash;90 he
+published six volumes of a description of France. He wrote many
+pamphlets, including one on the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected
+to the Convention in 1792, he voted for the death of the King.
+Proscribed as a Girondist, Sept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was
+one of the Council of Five Hundred, 1796&ndash;98. Dulaure wrote a
+learned <i>Treatise on Superstitions</i>, but he is best known by his
+<i>History of Paris</i>, and his <i>Short History of Different
+Worships</i>, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism and
+phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Dulaurens</b> (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27
+March, 1719. He was brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov.
+1727. Published a satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to
+fly to Holland, where he lived in poverty. He edited <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Evangile de la Raison</i>, a collection of anti-Christian
+tracts by Voltaire and others, and wrote <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Antipapisme r&eacute;vel&eacute;</i> in 1767. He was in
+that year condemned to perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in
+the convent of Mariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic,
+cynical and vivacious. He is also credited with the <i>Portfolios of a
+Philosopher</i>, mostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne,
+1770.</p>
+<p><b>Dulk</b> (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b.
+Konigsberg, 17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for
+aiding in the Revolution of &rsquo;48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt.
+In &rsquo;65 he published <i lang="de">Jesus der Christ</i>, embodying
+rationalism in prose and verse. He has also written <i lang="de">Stimme
+der <span class="corr" id="xd20e6023" title=
+"Source: Menscheit">Menschheit</span></i>, 2 vols., &rsquo;76,
+&rsquo;80, and <i>Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu</i>, &rsquo;84, besides
+numerous plays and pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Dumont</b> (L&eacute;on), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837.
+Studied for the bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early
+embraced Darwinism, and wrote on <i>H&aelig;ckel and the Theory of
+Evolution</i>, &rsquo;73. He wrote in <i>La Revue Philosophique</i>,
+and other journals. Died Valenciennes, 17 Jan. 1877. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6039" href="#xd20e6039" name=
+"xd20e6039">116</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="dumarsais"><b>Dumarsais</b> (C&eacute;sar <span class=
+"sc">Chesneau</span>), French grammarian and philosopher, b.
+Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation of
+the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris, where he
+married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against the
+pretensions of Rome and contributed to the <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>. He is credited with <i>An Analysis of the
+Christian Religion</i> and with the celebrated <i lang="fr">Essai sur
+les Pr&eacute;jug&eacute;s</i>, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was
+probably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. <i lang="fr">Le
+Philosophe</i>, published in <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Evangile de la
+Raison</i> by Dulaurens, was written by Voltaire. Died 11 June, 1756.
+Dumarsais was very simple in character, and was styled by
+D&rsquo;Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.</p>
+<p><b>Dumont</b> (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18
+July, 1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became
+secretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where
+he became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died
+Milan, 29 Sept. 1829.</p>
+<p><b>Duncker</b> (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin,
+15 Oct. 1811. His chief work, the <i>History of Antiquity</i>,
+1852&ndash;57, thoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and
+profane history, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A
+translation in six volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an
+active part in the events of &rsquo;48 and &rsquo;50, and was appointed
+Director-General of the State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Dupont</b> (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of
+the National Convention, known as the Abb&eacute; Dupont, who, 14 Dec.
+1792, declared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention.
+Died at Paris in 1813.</p>
+<p><b>Dupont de Nemours</b> (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b.
+Paris, 14 Dec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly,
+and was a Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.</p>
+<p><b>Dupuis</b> (Charles Fran&ccedil;ois), French astronomer and
+philosopher, b. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the
+Church, which he left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande,
+and wrote on the origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became
+a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was
+chosen a member of the Convention. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e6087" href="#xd20e6087" name="xd20e6087">117</a>]</span>During
+the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at his own risk. He was
+afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and president of the
+legislative body. His chief work is on the <i>Origin of Religions</i>,
+7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various faiths,
+including Christianity. This has been described as &ldquo;a monument of
+the erudition of unbelief.&rdquo; Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept.
+1809<span class="corr" id="xd20e6092" title="Source: ,">.</span></p>
+<p><b>Dutrieux</b> (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19
+July, 1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Dutton</b> (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767.
+Educated by the Moravians. In 1795 he published a <i>Vindication of the
+Age of Reason by Thomas Paine</i>. He translated Kotzebue&rsquo;s
+<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e6107" title=
+"Source: Pizraro">Pizarro</span> in Peru</i>, 1799, and edited the
+<i>Dramatic Censor</i>, 1800, and the <i>Monthly Theatrical
+Reporter</i>, 1815.</p>
+<p><b>Duvernet</b> (Th&eacute;ophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at
+Ambert 1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abb&eacute;, but
+mocked at religion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a
+political pamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he
+wrote a curious and rare romance, <i lang="fr">Les Devotions de Mme. de
+Bethzamooth</i>. He wrote on <i>Religious Intolerance</i>, 1780, and a
+<i>History of the Sorbonne</i>, 1790, but is best known by his <i>Life
+of Voltaire</i> (1787). In 1793 he wrote a letter to the Convention, in
+which he declares that he renounces the religion &ldquo;born in a
+stable between an ox and an ass.&rdquo; Died in 1796.</p>
+<p><b>Dyas</b> (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of <i>The
+Upas</i>. He resided long in Italy and translated several of the works
+of C. Voysey.</p>
+<p><b>Eaton</b> (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated
+at the Jesuits&rsquo; College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the
+Bible, he did so, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In
+1792 he was prosecuted for publishing Paine&rsquo;s <i>Rights of
+Man</i>, but the prosecution fell through. He afterwards published
+<i>Politics for the People</i>, which was also prosecuted, 1793, as was
+his <i>Political Dictionary</i>, 1796. To escape punishment, he fled to
+America, and lived there for three years and a half. Upon returning to
+England, his person and property were seized. Books to the value of
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6153" href="#xd20e6153" name=
+"xd20e6153">118</a>]</span>&pound;2,800 were burnt, and he was
+imprisoned for fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at
+his &ldquo;<span class="corr" id="xd20e6155" title=
+"Source: Ratiocinato ry">Rationcinatory</span> or Magazine for Truths
+and Good Sense,&rdquo; 8 Cornhill, in 1810, <i>The True Sense and
+Meaning of the System of Nature</i>. The <i>Law of Nature</i> had been
+previously translated by him. In &rsquo;11 he issued the first and
+second parts of Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age of Reason</i>, and on 6 March,
+&rsquo;12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy
+for issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen
+months&rsquo; imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence
+evoked Shelley&rsquo;s spirited <i>Letter to Lord Ellenborough</i>.
+Eaton translated and published Freret&rsquo;s <i>Preservative against
+Religious Prejudices</i>, 1812, and shortly before his death, at
+Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again prosecuted for publishing George
+Houston&rsquo;s <i>Ecce Homo</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Eberhard</b> (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31
+Aug. 1739, was brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in
+his <i>New Apology for Socrates</i>, 1772, was patronised by Frederick
+the Great, and appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he
+opposed the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a <i>History of
+Philosophy</i>, 1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.</p>
+<p><b>Eberty</b> (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author
+of some controversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Echtermeyer</b> (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda,
+1805. He studied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the
+<i>Hallische Jahrb&uuml;cher</i>, which contained many Freethought
+articles, 1837&ndash;42. He taught at Halle and Dresden, where he died,
+6 May, 1844.</p>
+<p><b>Edelmann</b> (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels,
+Saxony, 9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians,
+but left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent of
+Spinozism. His principal works are his <i lang="de">Unschuldige
+Wahrheiten</i>, 1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no
+religion is of importance, and <i lang="de">Moses mit Aufgedecktem
+Angesicht</i> (Moses Unmasked), 1740, an attack on the Old Testament,
+which, he believed, proceeded from Ezra; <i lang="de">Die <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e6211" title=
+"Source: Gottlichkeit">G&ouml;ttlichkeit</span> der Vernunft</i> (The
+Divinity of Reason), 1741, and <i>Christ and Belial</i>. His works
+excited much controversy, and were publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May,
+1750. Edelmann was chased from Brunswick and <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e6218" title="Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, but was protected
+by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6222" href="#xd20e6222" name=
+"xd20e6222">119</a>]</span>Frederick the Great, and died at Berlin, 15
+Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot calls him a
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr">fameux esprit fort</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Edison</b> (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10
+Feb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read,
+however, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He
+afterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator,
+studied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen, the
+telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an
+Agnostic and to pay no attention to religion.</p>
+<p><b>Eenens</b> (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811.
+Eenens was an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and
+anti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote <i lang="fr">La
+V&eacute;rit&eacute;</i>, a work on the Christian faith, 1859; <i lang=
+"fr">Le Paradis Terrestre</i>, &rsquo;60, an examination of the legend
+of Eden, and <i lang="fr">Du Dieu Thaumaturge</i>, &rsquo;76. He used
+the pen names &ldquo;Le P&egrave;re Nicaise,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Nicod&egrave;me Polycarpe&rdquo; and &ldquo;Timon III.&rdquo;
+Died at Brussels in 1883.</p>
+<p id="effen"><b>Effen</b> (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11
+Feb. 1684. Edited the <i>Misanthrope</i>, Amsterdam, 1712&ndash;16;
+translated <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, Swift&rsquo;s <i>Tale of a Tub</i>,
+and Mandeville&rsquo;s <i>Thoughts on Religion</i>, 1722; published the
+<i>Dutch Spectator</i>, 1731&ndash;35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept.
+1735.</p>
+<p><b>Eichhorn</b> (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and
+rationalist, b. 16 Oct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature
+and afterwards Professor of Theology at Gottingen. He published
+<i>Introductions to the Old and New Testaments</i> and <i>A Commentary
+on the Apocalypse</i>, in which his criticism tends to uproot belief in
+the Bible as a divine revelation. He lectured every day <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e6273" title="Source: for for">for</span> fifty-two
+years. Died 25 June, 1827.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Elborch</b> (Conrad von),&rdquo; the pseudonym of a living
+learned Dutch writer, whose position does not permit him to reveal his
+true name. Born 14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to <i lang="nl">De
+Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak), under various pen-names, as &ldquo;Fra
+Diavolo,&rdquo; &ldquo;Denis Bontemps,&rdquo; &ldquo;J. Van den
+Ende,&rdquo; etc. He has given, in &rsquo;88, a translation of the rare
+and famous Latin treatise, <i lang="la">De Tribus Impostoribus</i> (On
+Three Impostors) [Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important
+bibliographic and historical introduction. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6287" href="#xd20e6287" name=
+"xd20e6287">120</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="eliot">&ldquo;<b>Eliot</b> (George),&rdquo; the pen-name of Mary
+Ann Lewes (<i>n&eacute;e</i> Evans) one of the greatest novelists of
+the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff, Warwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819.
+In &rsquo;41 the family removed to Foleshill, near Coventry. Here she
+made the friendship of the household of Charles Bray, and changed her
+views from Evangelical Christianity to philosophical scepticism.
+Influenced by <i>The Inquiry into the Origin of Christianity</i>, by C.
+C. Hennell (Bray&rsquo;s brother-in-law), she made an analysis of that
+work. Her first literary venture was translating Strauss&rsquo;
+<i lang="de">Leben Jesu</i>, published in 1846. After the death of her
+father (&rsquo;49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent, and
+upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the
+<i>Westminster Review</i>, to which she contributed several articles.
+She translated Feuerbach&rsquo;s <i>Essence of Christianity</i>,
+&rsquo;54, the only work published with her real name, and also
+translated from Spinoza&rsquo;s Ethics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer
+to George Henry Lewes, she linked her life with his in defiance of the
+conventions of society, July, &rsquo;54. Both were poor, but by his
+advice she turned to fiction, in which she soon achieved success. Her
+<i>Scenes of Clerical Life</i>, <i>Adam Bede</i>, <i>Mill on the
+Floss</i>, <i>Silas Marner</i>, <i>Romola</i>, <i>Felix Holt</i>,
+<i>Middlemarch</i>, <i>Daniel Deronda</i>, and <i>Theophrastus Such</i>
+have become classics. As a poet, &ldquo;George Eliot&rdquo; does not
+rank so high, but her little piece, &ldquo;Oh, may I join the choir
+invisible,&rdquo; well expresses the emotion of the Religion of
+Humanity, and her <i>Spanish Gipsy</i> she allowed was &ldquo;a mass of
+Positivism.&rdquo; Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married
+his friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died 22
+Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.</p>
+<p><b>Ellero</b> (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct.
+1833, Counsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of
+Criminal Law in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on
+legal and social questions. His <i lang="it">Scritti Minori</i>,
+<i lang="it">Scritti Politici</i> and <i lang="it">La Question
+Sociale</i> have the honor of a place on the Roman <i>Index</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Elliotson</b> (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b.
+London, 1791. He became physician at St. Thomas&rsquo;s Hospital in
+1822, and made many contributions to medical science. By new
+prescriptions of quinine, creasote, etc., he excited much <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6360" href="#xd20e6360" name=
+"xd20e6360">121</a>]</span>hostility in the profession. He was the
+first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He was
+also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk stockings,
+and to wear a beard. In &rsquo;31 he was chosen <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e6362" title="Source: Prosessor">Professor</span> at University
+College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism, he resigned
+his appointments, &rsquo;38. He was founder and President of the London
+Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works, edited
+the <i>Zoist</i> (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach&rsquo;s
+<i>Physiology</i>, and wrote an introduction to Engledue&rsquo;s
+<i>Cerebral Physiology</i>, defending materialism. Thackeray dedicated
+<i>Pendennis</i> to him, &rsquo;50, and he received a tribute of praise
+from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.</p>
+<p><b>Eichthal</b> (Gustave d&rsquo;), French writer, b. of Jewish
+family, Nancy, 22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was
+one of the founders of the Soci&eacute;t&eacute; d&rsquo;Ethnologie,
+and published <i>Les Evangiles</i>, a critical analysis of the gospels,
+2 vols, Paris, &rsquo;63. This he followed by <i>The Three Great
+Mediterranean Nations and Christianity</i> and <i>Socrates and our
+Time</i>, &rsquo;84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son
+published his <i lang="fr">M&eacute;langes de Critique Biblique</i>
+(Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism), in which there is an able study
+on the name and character of &ldquo;Jahveh.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Emerson</b> (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and
+philosopher, b. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers,
+and was brought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and
+ordained as a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the
+Church, he resigned in &rsquo;32. In the next year he came to Europe,
+visiting Carlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving
+occasional lectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the
+<i>Dial</i>, a transcendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic
+pantheism, but without systematic philosophy, all his writings are most
+suggestive, and he is always the champion of mental freedom,
+self-reliance, and the free pursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27
+April, 1882. Matthew Arnold has pronounced his essays &ldquo;the most
+important work done in prose&rdquo; in this century.</p>
+<p><b>Emerson</b> (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near
+Darlington, 14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous
+works on Mathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality
+attracted Carlyle, who said to Mrs. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e6406" href="#xd20e6406" name=
+"xd20e6406">122</a>]</span>Gilchrist, &ldquo;Emerson was a Freethinker
+who looked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have
+defended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy
+clamor and unreal stuff going on around him.&rdquo; Died 21 May, 1782.
+He compiled a list of Bible contradictions.</p>
+<p><b>Emmet</b> (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was
+educated as a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his
+sympathy with the National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but
+returned in 1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was
+executed 20 Sept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving
+sentence, and on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is
+well known that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the
+daughter of Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.</p>
+<p><b>Engledue</b> (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After
+taking his degree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and
+was elected President of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He
+returned to Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth
+Hospital and established public baths and washhouses. He contributed to
+the <i>Zoist</i> and published an exposition of materialism under the
+title of <i>Cerebral Physiology</i>, 1842, republished by J. Watson,
+1857. Died Jan. 1859.</p>
+<p><b>English</b> (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b.
+Cambridge, Mass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and
+graduated at Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published <i>Grounds
+of Christianity Examined</i>, 1813. The work excited some controversy,
+and has been reprinted at Toronto<span class="corr" id="xd20e6429"
+title="Not in source">, 1839</span>. He joined the Egyptian service and
+became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius and a gift of
+languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with a Turkish
+ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation of Cherokees by
+disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a reply to his
+critics, entitled <i>Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook</i>, and two
+letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died at
+Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Ense</b> (Varnhagen von). See <a href=
+"#varnhagenvonense">Varnhagen</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ensor</b> (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated
+at Trinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was
+a friend of liberty in every country. Besides <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6446" href="#xd20e6446" name=
+"xd20e6446">123</a>]</span>other political works he published, <i>The
+Independent Man</i>, 1806; <i>On National Government</i>, 1810; <i>A
+Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the Old and New
+Testaments</i>, first printed as <i>Janus on Sion</i>, 1816, and
+republished 1835; and <i>Natural Theology Examined</i>, 1836, the last
+being republished in <i>The Library of Reason</i>. Bentham described
+him as clever but impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec.
+1843.</p>
+<p><b>Epicurus</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> 342. He repaired to Athens, <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he
+occupied himself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in
+which he established his school. Although much <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e6477" title="Source: culminated">calumniated</span>, he is now
+admitted to have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he
+had no belief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order
+not to offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted
+the atomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is
+the sovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation,
+but permanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are
+lost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius,
+<i lang="la">De Rerum Natura</i>. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span>
+270, leaving many followers.</p>
+<p id="erdan">&ldquo;<b>Erdan</b> (Alexandre),&rdquo; the pen-name of
+Alexandre Andre <span class="sc">Jacob</span>, a French writer, b.
+Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished prelate.
+Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon, and refused
+to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate of
+phonography. His work, <i lang="fr">La France Mystique</i> (1855), in
+which he gives an account of French religious eccentricities, was
+condemned for its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to
+a year&rsquo;s imprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he
+took refuge in Italy. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Ernesti</b> (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4 Aug.
+1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed
+professor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he
+insisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died
+Leipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.</p>
+<p><b>Escherny</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Louis d&rsquo;) <i>Count</i>, Swiss
+litterateur, b. Neufchatel, 24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in
+travel. At Paris he became the associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6509" href="#xd20e6509" name=
+"xd20e6509">124</a>]</span>particularly Rousseau, whom he much admired.
+He wrote <i lang="fr">Lacunes de la Philosophie</i> (Amsterdam, 1783)
+and a work on <i>Equality</i> (1795), in which he displays his
+Freethought. Died at Paris, 15 July, 1815.</p>
+<p><b>Espinas</b> (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin,
+1844. Has translated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer&rsquo;s <i>Principles
+of Psychology</i>, and has written studies on <i>Experimental
+Philosophy in Italy</i>, and on <i>Animal Societies</i> (1877).</p>
+<p><b>Espronceda</b> (Jos&eacute;), popular Spanish poet, b.
+Almendralejo (Estremadura) in 1810. After the War of Independence he
+went to Madrid and studied under Alberto Lista, the poet and
+mathematician. He became so obnoxious to the government by his radical
+principles that he was imprisoned about the age of fifteen, and
+banished a few years later. He passed several years in London and
+Paris, and was brought under the influence of Byron and Hugo. He fought
+with the people in the Paris Revolution of July, 1830. On the death of
+the Spanish King in &rsquo;33 he returned to Madrid, but was again
+banished for too free expression of his opinions. He returned and took
+part in the revolutionary contest of &rsquo;35&ndash;36. He was elected
+to the Cortes in &rsquo;41, and appointed secretary of embassy to The
+Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are lyrical poems, which
+often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic, <i lang="es">El
+Pelayo</i>; and <i lang="es">El Diablo-Mundo</i> (the Devil-World), a
+fine poem, due to the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e6540" title="Source: Esproceda">Espronceda</span> was a
+thorough sceptic. In his <i>Song of the Pirate</i> he asks, &ldquo;Who
+is my God?&mdash;Liberty&rdquo;; and in his concluding lines to a star
+he says:</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line">I unheedingly follow my path,</p>
+<p class="line">At the mercy of winds and of waves.</p>
+<p class="line">Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,</p>
+<p class="line">What care I if lost or saved.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="firstpar"><b>Estienne</b> (Henri), the ablest of a family of
+learned French printers, known in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528.
+At the age of eighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of
+Dionysius <span class="corr" id="xd20e6559" title=
+"Source: and">of</span> Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a
+printing office of his own, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572
+the <i lang="la">Thesaurus Lingu&aelig; Gr&aelig;c&aelig;</i>. His
+<i lang="fr">Apologie pour Herodote</i> (Englished as a World of
+Wonders) is designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed
+against priests and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6568" href=
+"#xd20e6568" name="xd20e6568">125</a>]</span>priestcraft. He was driven
+from place to place. Sir Philip Sidney highly esteemed him, and
+&ldquo;kindly entertained him in his travaile.&rdquo; Died 1598.
+Garasse classes him with Atheists.</p>
+<p><b>Esteve</b> (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the
+beginning of the eighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy
+and an anonymous work on the <i>Origin of the Universe explained from a
+Principle of Matter</i>; Berlin, 1748.</p>
+<p><b>Ettel</b> (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at
+Neuhof, Sternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish
+of his parents at the Theological Seminary Olm&uuml;tz, which he left
+to study philosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas.
+His <i lang="de">Grundzuge der <span class="corr" id="xd20e6583" title=
+"Source: Naturlichen">Nat&uuml;rlichen</span> Weltanschauung</i>
+(Sketch of a Natural View of the World), a Freethinker&rsquo;s
+catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth edition.</p>
+<p><b>Evans</b> (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25
+March, 1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set
+up as a printer, and published the <i>Correspondent</i>, the first
+American Freethought paper. He also published the <i>Working
+Man&rsquo;s Advocate</i>, <i>Man</i>, <i>Young America</i>, and the
+<i>Radical</i>. He labored for the transportation of mails on Sundays,
+the limitation of the right to hold lands, the abolition of slavery,
+and other reforms. His brother became one of the chief elders of the
+Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey, 2 Feb. 1855.</p>
+<p><b>Evans</b> (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of
+Robert Owen. He established <i>The Potter&rsquo;s Examiner and
+Workman&rsquo;s Advocate</i>, &rsquo;43, and wrote in the Co-operative
+journals under the anagram of &ldquo;Millway Vanes.&rdquo; Died 14
+March, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Evanson</b> (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington,
+Lancashire, 21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of
+South Mimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts
+on the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury
+without obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the
+Litany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771, he
+was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity in the
+proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the Trinity. In
+1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield on the Prophecies
+of the New Testament, in which he tried to show that either
+Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6617" href="#xd20e6617" name=
+"xd20e6617">126</a>]</span>the following year he resigned both his
+livings and took pupils. In 1792 he published his principal work,
+<i>The Dissonance of the Four Generally-Received Evangelists</i>, in
+which he rejected all the gospels, except Luke, as unauthentic. This
+work involved him in a controversy with Dr. Priestley, and brought a
+considerable share of <span class="corr" id="xd20e6622" title=
+"Source: obliquy">obloquy</span> and persecution from the orthodox.
+Died 25 Sept. 1805.</p>
+<p><b>Eve&rsquo;merus</b> or <b>Euhemerus</b> ( <span class="trans"
+title=" Eu&#275;meros"><span class="Greek" lang=
+"el">&Epsilon;&#8016;&#8053;&mu;&epsilon;&rho;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span></span>),
+a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander the Great, who sought to
+rationalise religion, and treated the gods as dead heroes. He is
+usually represented as an Atheist.</p>
+<p><b>Eudes</b> (Emile Fran&ccedil;ois D&eacute;sir&eacute;), French
+Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He became a chemist, and was condemned,
+with R&eacute;gnard, to three months&rsquo; imprisonment for writing in
+<i lang="fr">La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, &rsquo;67, of which he was
+director. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When
+the Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On his
+return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public
+meeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Ewerbeck</b> (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events
+of 1848, he lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet&rsquo;s
+<i lang="fr">Voyage en Icarie</i>, and in an important work entitled
+<i lang="fr">Qu&rsquo;est ce que La Religion?</i> (What is Religion),
+&rsquo;50, translated into French Feuerbach&rsquo;s &ldquo;Essence of
+Religion,&rdquo; &ldquo;Essence of Christianity,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Death and Immortality.&rdquo; In a succeeding volume <i>What is
+the Bible?</i> he translated from Daumer, Ghillany, Luetzelberger and
+B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French an historical work on Germany
+and the Germans; Paris, 1851.</p>
+<p><b>Fabre D&rsquo;Eglantine</b> (Philippe Fran&ccedil;ois Nazaire),
+French revolutionist and playwriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755.
+After some success as a poet and playwright he was chosen as deputy to
+the National Convention. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., and
+proposed the substitution of the republican for the Christian calendar,
+Sept. 1793. He was executed with his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Fabricatore</b> (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824.
+His father Antonio had the honor of having a political work placed on
+the <i>Index</i>, 1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e6672" title="Source: Coucil">Council</span>
+of 1869, and has <span class="corr" id="xd20e6675" title=
+"Source: writen">written</span> works on Dante, etc. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6678" href="#xd20e6678" name=
+"xd20e6678">127</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Farinata</b>. See <span class="sc">Uberti</span> (Farinata
+degli).</p>
+<p><b>Fauche</b> (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May,
+1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays of
+Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to <i lang=
+"fr">La Libert&eacute; de Penser</i>. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.</p>
+<p id="fausto"><b>Fausto</b> (Sebastiano), <span class="sc">Da
+Longiano</span>, Italian of the beginning of the 16th century, who is
+said to have projected a work <i>The Temple of Truth</i>, with the
+intention of overturning all religions. He translated the
+<i>Meditations of Antoninus</i>, also wrote observations on Cicero,
+1566.</p>
+<p><b>Feer</b> (Henri L&eacute;on), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27
+Nov. 1830, is chiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies,
+1871&ndash;75.</p>
+<p><b>Fellens</b> (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b.
+Bar-sur-Aube, 1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Fellowes</b> (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at
+Oxford. He took orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually
+quitted the doctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions
+maintained in his work entitled <i>The Religion of the Universe</i>
+(1836). Dr. Fellowes was proprietor of the <i>Examiner</i> and a great
+supporter of the London University. Died 5 Feb. 1847.</p>
+<p><b>Fenzi</b> (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct.
+1822. Educated by the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in
+&rsquo;49 the <i>Revista Britannica</i>, writer on the journal
+<i>L&rsquo;Italiano</i>, and has written a credo which is a
+non-credo.</p>
+<p><b>Feringa</b> (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April,
+1840. Studied mathematics. A contributor to <i lang="nl">De
+Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak) over the signature,
+&ldquo;Muricatus&rdquo;; he has written important studies, entitled
+<i lang="nl">Democratie en Wetenschap</i> (Democracy and Science),
+1871, also wrote in <i lang="nl">De <span class="corr" id="xd20e6749"
+title="Source: Vrye">Vrije</span> Gedachte</i> (Freethought).</p>
+<p><b>Fernau</b> (Rudolf), Dr., German author of <i>Christianity and
+Practical Life</i>, Leipsic, 1868; <i>The Alpha and Omega of
+Reason</i>, Leipsic, 1870; <i lang="la">Zoologica Humoristica</i>,
+1882; and a recent work on <i>Religion as Ghost and God
+Worship</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Feron</b> (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841.
+Councillor of the International Freethought Federation.</p>
+<p><b>Ferrari</b> (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6777" href="#xd20e6777" name=
+"xd20e6777">128</a>]</span>1811. A disciple of Romagnosi, a study of
+whose philosophical writings he published &rsquo;35. He also published
+the works of Vico, and in &rsquo;39 a work entitled <i>Vico and
+Italy</i>, and in the following year another on the <i>Religious
+Opinions of Campanella</i>. Attacked by the Catholic party, he was
+exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with Proudhon
+and a contributor to the <i lang="fr">Revue de Deux Mondes</i>. In
+&rsquo;42 he was made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but
+appointment was soon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a
+<i>History of the Revolution of Italy</i>, &rsquo;55, and a work on
+<i>China and Europe</i>. His history of the <i>Reason of the State</i>,
+&rsquo;60, is his most pronounced work. In &rsquo;59, he was elected to
+the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of the most radical
+members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Ferri</b> (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly
+professor of criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua
+under Professor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence
+of Free Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian
+school of criminal law reform.</p>
+<p><b>Ferri</b> (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826.
+Studied in Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of
+<i>History of Philosophy in Italy</i>, Paris 1868; <i>The Psychology of
+Pomponazzi</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e6814" title=
+"Source: Ferriere">Ferri&egrave;re</span></b> (Emile), French writer
+and licentiate of letters, b. Paris, 1830; author of <i>Literature and
+Philosophy</i>, 1865; <i>Darwinism</i>, 1872, which has gone through
+several editions; <i>The Apostles</i>, a work challenging early
+Christian Morality, 1879; <i>The Soul the Function of the Brain</i>, a
+scientific work of popular character in two vols., 1883; and
+<i>Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity</i>, 1884.
+All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferri&egrave;re has
+also announced a work <i>Jesus bar Joseph</i>.</p>
+<p id="feuerbachfh"><b>Feuerbach</b> (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a
+famous German jurist, was b. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied
+philology, but set himself to preach what his brother Ludwig taught. He
+wrote <i>Theanthropos</i>, a series of Aphorisms (Zurich, &rsquo;38),
+and an able work on the <i>Religion of the Future</i>,
+&rsquo;43&ndash;47; and <i>Thoughts and Facts</i>, Hamburg, &rsquo;62.
+Died Nurenberg, 24 Jan. 1880. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6849"
+href="#xd20e6849" name="xd20e6849">129</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Feuerbach</b> (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the <a href=
+"#feuerbachfh">preceding</a>, b. Landshut, Bavaria, 28 July 1804. He
+studied theology with a view to the Church, but under the influence of
+Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In &rsquo;28 he was made professor
+at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence of his first published
+work, <i>Thoughts upon Death and Immortality</i>, &rsquo;30, in which
+he limited immortality to personal influence on the human race. After a
+wandering life he married in &rsquo;37, and settled near Anspach. He
+published there a history of modern philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza.
+This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In &rsquo;38 he wrote on
+philosophy and Christianity, and in &rsquo;41 his work called the
+<i>The Essence of Christianity</i>, in which he resolves theology into
+anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans, &rsquo;53. He
+also wrote <i>Principles of the Philosophy of the Future</i>. After the
+revolution of &rsquo;48 he was invited to lecture by the students of
+Heidelberg, and gave his course on <i>The Essence of Religion</i>,
+published in &rsquo;51. In &rsquo;57 he published <i>Theogony from the
+Sources of Classical, Hebrew, and Christian Antiquity</i>, and in
+&rsquo;66 <i>Theism, Freedom, and Immortality from the Standpoint of
+Anthropology</i>. Died at Rechenberg, near Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872.
+His complete works were published at Leipsic in 1876. He was a deep
+thinker and lucid writer.</p>
+<p><b>Fichte</b> (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German
+thinkers, b. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena,
+Leipsic, and Wittenberg, embraced &ldquo;determinism,&rdquo; became
+acquainted with Kant, and published anonymously, <i>A Criticism of all
+Revelation</i>. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Jena, where he
+developed his doctrines of science, asserting that the problem of
+philosophy is to seek on what foundations knowledge rests. He gave
+moral discourses in the lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of
+holding atheistical opinions. He was in consequence banished from
+Saxony, 1799. He appears to have held that God was not a personal
+being, but a system of intellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte
+took deep interest in the cause of German independence, and did much to
+rouse his countrymen against the domination of the French during the
+conquest which led to the fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications,
+in which he expounds his philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on
+<i>The Vocation of Man</i>, <i>The Nature <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e6888" href="#xd20e6888" name="xd20e6888">130</a>]</span>and
+Vocation of the Scholar</i>, <i>The Way Towards the Blessed Life</i>,
+etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Figaro</b>.&rdquo; See <a href="#larra"><span class=
+"sc">Larra</span> (Mariano Jos&eacute; de)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Figuiera</b> (Guillem), Proven&ccedil;al troubadour and precursor
+of the Renaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed
+against the priests and Court of Rome.</p>
+<p><b>Filangieri</b> (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b.
+Naples, 18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work
+is <i lang="it">La Scienza della Legislazione</i>, 1780. In the fifth
+volume he deals with pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the
+<i>Index</i>. Died 21 July, 1788.</p>
+<p><b>Fiorentino</b> (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa,
+Nicastro, 1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at
+Spoletto, in &rsquo;62 at Bologna, and in &rsquo;71 at Naples. He was
+elected deputy to Parliament, Nov. &rsquo;70. A disciple of Felice
+Tocco, he paid special attention to the early Italian Freethinkers,
+writing upon <i>The Pantheism of Giordano Bruno</i>, Naples, &rsquo;61;
+Pietro Pomponazzi, Florence, &rsquo;68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2
+vols., &rsquo;72&ndash;74. He has also written on Strauss and Spinoza.
+In the <i lang="it">Nuova Antologia</i> he wrote on J. C. Vanini, and
+on C&aelig;salpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A friend of Bertrando
+Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in &rsquo;83. Died 22
+Dec. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Fischart</b> (Johann), German satirist called <i>Mentzer</i>, b.
+Strasbourg about 1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of
+Rabelais, whom he in part translated, and are often directed against
+the Church. Died at Forbach in 1614.</p>
+<p><b>Fischer</b> (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the
+freedom of the will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann&rsquo;s <i>Philosophy
+of the Unconscious</i>, &rsquo;72; <i lang="de">Das <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e6945" title="Source: Bewusstein">Bewusstsein</span></i>,
+&rsquo;74. Died 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Fischer</b> (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at
+Sandewald, Silesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was
+appointed Professor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are
+<i>History of Modern Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;52&ndash;72; <i>Life and
+Character of Spinoza</i>; <i>Francis Bacon</i>, &rsquo;56; and
+<i>Lessing</i>, &rsquo;81.</p>
+<p><b>Fiske</b> (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30
+March, 1842. Graduated at Harvard, &rsquo;63. In &rsquo;69&ndash;71 was
+Lecturer on Philosophy at that University, and from &rsquo;72&ndash;9
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6968" href="#xd20e6968" name=
+"xd20e6968">131</a>]</span>Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured largely,
+and has written <i>Myths and Mythmakers</i>, &rsquo;72; <i>Outlines of
+Cosmic Philosophy</i>, 2 vols. &rsquo;74; <i>Darwinism, and other
+essays</i>, &rsquo;79; <i>Excursions of an Evolutionist</i>, &rsquo;83;
+<i>The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge</i>, &rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Flaubert</b> (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821.
+The son of a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father&rsquo;s
+profession for literature. His masterpiece, <i>Madame Bovary</i>,
+published in &rsquo;56 in the <i lang="fr">Revue de Paris</i>, drew a
+prosecution upon that journal which ended in a triumph for the author.
+For his next great work, <i>Salammb&ocirc;</i>, &rsquo;62, an epic of
+Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian studies. His
+intellectual tendencies are displayed in <i>The Temptation of Saint
+Anthony</i>. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for his
+artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Th&eacute;ophile Gautier, Ivan
+Turgenev, Emile Zola and &ldquo;George Sand.&rdquo; His correspondence
+with the last of these has been published. He distinctly states therein
+that on subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died
+at Rouen, 9 May, 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Flourens</b> (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near
+B&eacute;ziers, 15 April, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the
+Academy of Sciences, after having published a work on the nervous
+system of vertebrates; he became perpetual secretary in &rsquo;33. A
+work on <i>Human Longevity and the Quantity of Life on the Globe</i>
+was very popular. Died near Paris, 6 Dec. 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Flourens</b> (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris, 4
+Aug. 1838. In &rsquo;63 he took his father&rsquo;s chair at the College
+of France, and his course on &ldquo;Ethnography&rdquo; attracted much
+attention. In the following year he published his work on <i>The
+Science of Man</i>. His bold heresy lost him his chair, and he
+collaborated on Larousse&rsquo;s <i>Grand Dictionnaire</i>. In
+&rsquo;65 he left France for Crete, where for three years he fought in
+the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon his return he was
+arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He showed himself an
+ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish near Nanterre, 3
+April, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Fonblanque</b> (Albany William), English journalist, b. London,
+1793; the son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the
+<i>Times</i>, and contributed to the <i>Westminster Review</i>. In
+&rsquo;30 he became editor of the <i>Examiner</i>, and retained his
+post <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7032" href="#xd20e7032" name=
+"xd20e7032">132</a>]</span>until &rsquo;47. His caustic wit and
+literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal views. A
+selection of his editorials was published under the title, <i>England
+under Seven Administrations</i>. Died 13 Oct. 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Fontanier</b> (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place
+de Gr&egrave;ve, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled <i lang=
+"fr">Le Tresor Inestimable</i>. Garasse, with little reason, calls him
+an Atheist.</p>
+<p id="fontenelle"><b>Fontenelle</b> (Bernard <span class="sc">le
+Bovier de</span>), nephew of Corneille, called by Voltaire the most
+universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV., b. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657.
+Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard, he was educated at the
+Jesuits&rsquo; College. He went to Paris in 1674; wrote some plays and
+<i>Dialogues of the Dead</i>, 1683. In 1686 appeared his
+<i>Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds</i>, and in the following
+year his <i>History of Oracles</i>, based on the work of Van Dale, for
+which he was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the
+Church Fathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in
+1699, a post he held forty-two years. He wrote <i>Doubts on the
+Physical System of Occasional Causes</i>, and is also credited with a
+letter on the <i>Resurrection of the Body</i>, a piece on <i>The
+Infinite</i>, and a <i>Treatise on Liberty</i>; &ldquo;but,<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e7074" title="Not in source">&rdquo;</span> says
+l&rsquo;Abb&eacute; Ladvocat, &ldquo;as these books contain many things
+contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are not his.&rdquo;
+Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short time before
+he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain, &ldquo;I only
+feel,&rdquo; he replied, &ldquo;a difficulty of existing.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Foote</b> (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11
+Jan. 1850. Was &ldquo;converted&rdquo; in youth, but became a
+Freethinker by reading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868,
+and was soon a leading member of the Young Men&rsquo;s Secular
+Association. He taught in the Hall of Science Sunday School, and became
+secretary of the Republican League. Devoting his time to propagating
+his principles, he wrote in the <i>Secular Chronicle</i> and
+<i>National Reformer</i>, and in &rsquo;76 started the
+<i>Secularist</i> in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after the
+ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the
+<i>Secular Review</i>. In &rsquo;79 Mr. Foote edited the
+<i>Liberal</i>, and in Sept. &rsquo;81, started the <i>Freethinker</i>,
+which he still <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7100" href=
+"#xd20e7100" name="xd20e7100">133</a>]</span>edits. In the following
+year a prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who
+attempted to connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued
+a Christmas number with an illustrated &ldquo;Comic Life of
+Christ.&rdquo; For this a prosecution was started by the City
+authorities against him and his publisher and printer, and the trial
+came on first in March, &rsquo;83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North
+refused to discharge the prisoners, and they were tried again on the
+5th March; Judge North directing that a verdict of guilty must be
+returned, and sentencing Mr. Foote to one year&rsquo;s imprisonment as
+an ordinary criminal subject to the same &ldquo;discipline&rdquo; as
+burglars. &ldquo;I thank you, my lord; your sentence is worthy of your
+creed,&rdquo; he remarked. On 24 April, &rsquo;83, Mr. Foote was
+brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special jury on the
+first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which he was highly
+complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has debated with Dr.
+McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard, the Rev. H. Chapman,
+and others. Mr. Foote has written much, and lectures continually. Among
+his works we mention <i>Heroes and Martyrs of Freethought</i> (1876);
+<i>God, the Soul, and a Future State</i>; <i>Secularism the True
+Philosophy of Life</i> (1879); <i>Atheism and Morality</i>; <i>The
+Futility of Prayer</i>; <i>Bible Romances</i>; <i>Death&rsquo;s
+Test</i>, afterwards enlarged into <i>Infidel Death-Beds</i>; <i>The
+God Christians Swear by</i>; <i>Was Jesus Insane? Blasphemy No
+Crime</i>; <i>Arrows of Freethought</i>; <i>Prisoner for Blasphemy</i>
+(1884); <i>Letters to Jesus Christ</i>; <i>What Was Christ? Bible
+Heroes</i>; and has edited <i>The Bible Hand-book</i> with Mr. W. P.
+Ball, and the <i>Jewish Life of Christ</i> with the present writer, in
+conjunction with whom he has written <i>The Crimes of Christianity</i>.
+From 1883&ndash;87 he edited <i>Progress</i>, in which appeared many
+important articles from his pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London
+Secular Federation, and a Vice-President of the National Secular
+Society.</p>
+<p><b>Fouillee</b> (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pou&euml;ze,
+near Angers, 18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably
+at Bordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two
+works on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor of
+Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained a thesis
+at the Sorbonne on <i>Liberty and Determinism</i>, which was violently
+attacked by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7166" href="#xd20e7166"
+name="xd20e7166">134</a>]</span>the Catholics. This work has gone
+through several editions. M. Fonill&eacute;e has also written an able
+<i>History of Philosophy</i>, 1875, <i>Contemporary Social Science</i>,
+and an important <i>Critique of Contemporary Moral Systems</i> (1883).
+He has written much in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, and is
+considered, with Taine, Ribot, and Renan, the principal representative
+of French philosophy. His system is known as that of <i lang=
+"fr">id&egrave;es-forces</i>, as he holds that ideas are themselves
+forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.</p>
+<p><b>Forberg</b> (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz,
+30 Aug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent at
+Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte&rsquo;s philosophy, he wrote with
+Fichte in Niethammer&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical Journal</i> on &ldquo;The
+Development of Religious Ideas,&rdquo; and an article on &ldquo;The
+Ground of our Faith in Divine Providence,&rdquo; which brought on them
+a charge of Atheism, and the journal was confiscated by the Electorate
+of Saxony. Forberg held religion to consist in devotion to morality,
+and wrote <i>An Apology for Alleged Atheism</i>, 1799. In 1807 he
+became librarian at Coburg, and devoted himself to the classics,
+issuing a <i>Manuel d&rsquo;Erotologie Classique</i>. Died
+Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.</p>
+<p><b>Forder</b> (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to
+Woolwich, he became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He
+took part in the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers,
+and was sent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In
+&rsquo;77 he was appointed paid secretary to the National Secular
+Society, a post he has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of
+Messrs. Foote, Ramsey, and Kemp, in &rsquo;83, Mr. Forder undertook
+charge of the publishing business. He has lectured largely, and written
+some pamphlets.</p>
+<p><b>Forlong</b> (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b.
+Lanarkshire, Scotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the
+Indian army &rsquo;43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign
+&rsquo;45&ndash;6, and in the second <span class="corr" id="xd20e7205"
+title="Source: Barmese">Burmese</span> war. On the annexation of Barma
+he became head of the Survey, Roads and canal branches. In
+&rsquo;58&ndash;9 he travelled extensively through Egypt, Palestine,
+Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From &rsquo;61&ndash;71 was a
+superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7208" href="#xd20e7208" name=
+"xd20e7208">135</a>]</span>North-west Provinces, and Rajputana, and
+&rsquo;72&ndash;76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer to the Government
+of Oudh<span class="corr" id="xd20e7210" title="Source: ,">.</span> He
+retired in &rsquo;77 after an active service of 33 years, during which
+he frequently received the thanks of the Indian and Home Governments.
+In his youth he was an active Evangelical, preaching to the natives in
+their own tongues. He has, however, given his testimony that during his
+long experience he has known no one converted solely by force of
+reasoning or &ldquo;Christian evidences.&rdquo; A great student of
+Eastern religions, arch&aelig;ology, and languages, he has written in
+various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied the result
+of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes called
+<i>Rivers of Life</i>, setting forth the evolution of all religions
+from their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised
+developments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the
+movements of thought from 10,000 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> to the
+present time.</p>
+<p><b>Fourier</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Marie Charles), French socialist, b.
+Besan&ccedil;on, 7 April, 1772. He passed some of the early years of
+his life as a common soldier. His numerous works amid much that is
+visionary have valuable criticisms upon society, and suggestions for
+its amelioration. He believed in the transmigration of souls. Died at
+Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.</p>
+<p><b>Fox</b> (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near
+Wrentham, Suffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he
+became a Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place,
+Finsbury, where he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books
+besides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of
+toleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He
+gradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete
+rejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent and
+able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained his seat
+until his retirement in &rsquo;61. He was a prominent worker for
+Radicalism, contributing to the <i>Westminster Review</i>, <i>Weekly
+Dispatch</i>, and <i>Daily News</i>. For some years he edited the
+<i>Monthly Repository</i>. His works, which include spirited
+<i>Lectures to the Working Classes</i>, and a philosophical statement
+of <i>Religions Ideas</i>, were published in twelve volumes,
+&rsquo;65&ndash;68. Died 3 June, 1864. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e7246" href="#xd20e7246" name="xd20e7246">136</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="franchi">&ldquo;<b>Franchi</b> (Ausonio),&rdquo; the pen name of
+Francesco Cristoforo <span class="sc">Bonavino</span>, Italian
+ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church and
+ordained priest in &rsquo;44, the practice of the confessional made him
+sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to believe in
+its dogmas, &rsquo;49. In &rsquo;52 he published his <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e7255" title="Source: principle">principal</span> work,
+entitled <i>The Philosophy of the Italian Schools</i>. The following
+year he published <i>The Religion of the Nineteenth Century</i>. He
+established <i lang="it">La Razione</i> (Reason) and <i lang="it">Il
+Libero Pensiero</i> at Turin, &rsquo;54&ndash;57; wrote on the
+<i>Rationalism of the People</i>, Geneva, &rsquo;56, and became an
+active organiser of anti-clerical societies. In &rsquo;66 he published
+a criticism of Positivism, and has since written <i>Critical and
+Polemical Essays</i>, 3 vols. Milan, &rsquo;70&ndash;72. In &rsquo;68
+was appointed Professor of Philosophy in the Academy of Milan by
+Terenzio Mamiani.</p>
+<p><b>Francis</b> (Samuel), M.D., author of <i>Watson Refuted</i>,
+published by Carlile, 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Francois de Neufchateau</b> (Nicolas Louis), <i>Count</i>, French
+statesman, poet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his
+youth he became secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his
+successor. He favored the Revolution, and was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly in &rsquo;91. As Member of the Directory,
+&rsquo;97, he circulated d&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">Contagion
+Sacr&eacute;e</i>. He became President of the Senate,
+&rsquo;14&ndash;16. He wrote numerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan.
+1828.</p>
+<p><b>Franklin</b> (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b.
+Boston 17 Jan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came
+to England and worked at his trade &rsquo;24&ndash;26; returned to
+Philadelphia, where he published a paper and became known by his
+<i>Poor Richard&rsquo;s Almanack</i>. He founded the public library at
+Philadelphia, and made the discovery of the identity of lightning with
+the electric fluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was
+sent to England as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he
+spoke boldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with
+this country, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to
+France, and effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb.
+&rsquo;78, which secured the independence of the American colonies.
+Turgot summed up his services in the fine line <i>Eripuit c&aelig;lo
+fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis</i>. &ldquo;He wrested the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7305" href="#xd20e7305" name=
+"xd20e7305">137</a>]</span>thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre from
+kings.&rdquo; Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.</p>
+<p><b>Fransham</b> (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a
+teacher of mathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed
+Paganism, writing several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died
+1810.</p>
+<p><b>Frauenstaedt</b> (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and
+disciple of Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He
+studied philosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at
+Frankfort in &rsquo;47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made
+him his literary executor. Among Frauenst&auml;dt&rsquo;s works are
+<i>Letters on Natural Religion</i>, &rsquo;58, <i>The Liberty of Men
+and the Personality of God</i>, &rsquo;38; <i>Letters on the Philosophy
+of Schopenhauer</i>, &rsquo;54, etc. Died at Berlin, 13 Jan. 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Frederick II.</b> (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the
+thirteenth century and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was
+elected to the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art,
+founded the Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of
+Aristotle and Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able
+men of his time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was
+twice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope
+(Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in &rsquo;28. He made a
+treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of
+Jerusalem. For some heretical words in his letter, in which he
+associates the names of Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported
+author of the famous work <i>De Tribus Impostoribus</i>. He addressed a
+series of philosophical questions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is
+said to have called the Eucharist <i>truffa ista</i>, and is credited
+also with the saying &ldquo;Ignorance is the mother of devotion.&rdquo;
+Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.</p>
+<p><b>Frederick the Great</b> (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was
+educated in a very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He
+ascended the throne and soon displayed his political and military
+ability. By a war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several
+deistical pieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying
+&ldquo;every man must get to heaven his own way.&rdquo; He attracted to
+his court <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7338" href="#xd20e7338"
+name="xd20e7338">138</a>]</span>men like Lamettrie, D&rsquo;Argens,
+Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle, continued all his days
+Friedrich&rsquo;s chief thinker. In 1756 France, Austria, Sweden, and
+Russia united against him, but he held his own against &ldquo;a world
+in arms.&rdquo; After a most active life Frederick died at Potsdam, 17
+Aug. 1786. The <i>Philosophical Breviary</i> attributed to him was
+really written by C&eacute;rutti.</p>
+<p><b>Fredin</b> (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published
+translation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll&rsquo;s
+writings. In &rsquo;80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish
+Academy for an original poem.</p>
+<p><b>Freeke</b> (William), b. about 1663, wrote <i>A Brief but Clear
+Confutation of the Trinity</i>, which being brought before the notice
+of the House of Lords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the
+common hangman, and the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General
+was fined &pound;500.</p>
+<p><b>Freiligrath</b> (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June,
+1810. In &rsquo;35 he acquired notice by some poems. In &rsquo;44 he
+published his profession of faith <i lang="de">Mein
+Glaubensbekenntniss</i>, and was forced to fly the country. In
+&rsquo;48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the <i lang="de">Neue
+Rheinische Zeitung</i>. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London,
+devoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a
+high place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart,
+18 March 1876.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e7366" title=
+"Source: Freret">Fr&eacute;ret</span></b> (Nicolas), French historical
+critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a pupil of Rollin, and was patronised
+by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished by his attainments in ancient
+history, <span class="corr" id="xd20e7369" title=
+"Source: philososophy">philosophy</span> and chronology, he became
+member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse on the
+&ldquo;Origin of the Franks,&rdquo; he was incarcerated for four months
+in the Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat
+much from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic
+<i>Letters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe</i> on Natural and Revealed
+Religion, and perhaps of <i lang="fr">La Moisade</i>, a criticism of
+the Pentateuch, translated by D. I. Eaton, as <i>A Preservative against
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e7380" title=
+"Source: Religous">Religious</span> Prejudices</i>. The <i>Letters to
+Eugenie</i>, attributed to <span class="corr" id="xd20e7388" title=
+"Source: Fr&egrave;ret">Fr&eacute;ret</span>, were written by
+D&rsquo;Holbach, and the <i>Critical Examination of the Apologists of
+the Christian Religion</i> by J. Levesque de <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7394" href="#xd20e7394" name=
+"xd20e7394">139</a>]</span>Burigny. <i>A Critical Examination of the
+New Testament</i>, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been
+wrongly attributed to Fr&eacute;ret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.</p>
+<p><b>Frey</b> (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist and
+philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general, 1839.
+Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he became
+teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the oppression
+and degradation of his country he went to New York in 1866 where he
+established co-operative communities and also Russian colonies in
+Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to influence his
+countrymen. In &rsquo;87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Fries</b> (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23
+Aug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of the
+Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a <i>System of
+Metaphysics</i>, 1824; a <i>Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and
+Philosophical &AElig;sthetics</i>, Heidelberg &rsquo;32; in which he
+resolves religion into poetry. He criticised Kant&rsquo;s proofs of God
+and immortality, and wrote a <i>History of Philosophy</i>. Died Jena,
+10 Aug. 1843.</p>
+<p><b>Frothingham</b> (Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26
+Nov. 1822. Graduated at Harvard, &rsquo;43, and became Unitarian
+minister. In &rsquo;60 he became pastor of the most radical Unitarian
+congregation in New York. In &rsquo;67 he became first president of the
+Free Religious Association, but, becoming too advanced, resigned in
+&rsquo;79 and came to Europe. Since his return to Boston, &rsquo;81, he
+has devoted himself to literature. He has published <i>The Religion of
+Humanity</i>, N.Y., &rsquo;73; <i>Life of Theodore Parker</i>,
+&rsquo;74; <i>The Cradle of the Christ</i>, &rsquo;77; <i>Life of
+Gerrit Smith</i>, 78; and numerous sermons.</p>
+<p><b>Froude</b> (James Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son
+of an Archdeacon of Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818,
+and educated at Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in
+&rsquo;40, was elected fellow of Exeter College and received
+deacon&rsquo;s orders. At first, under the influence of the Romanising
+movement, he became a rationalist and abandoned his fellowship and
+clerical life. His <i>Nemesis of Faith</i>, &rsquo;48, showed the
+nature of his objections. Mr. Froude devoted <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7440" href="#xd20e7440" name=
+"xd20e7440">140</a>]</span>his abilities to a literary career, and fell
+under the influence of Carlyle. For many years he edited
+<i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, in which he wrote largely. His essays
+are collected under the title of <i>Short Studies on Great
+Subjects</i>, &rsquo;71&ndash;83. His largest work is the <i>History of
+England</i>, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish
+Armada, &rsquo;56&ndash;76. His <i>Life of Carlyle</i>, &rsquo;82, and
+publication of <i>Carlyle&rsquo;s Reminiscenses</i> provoked much
+controversy. His magical translation of Lucian&rsquo;s most
+characteristic Dialogue of the Gods is done with too much <i>verve</i>
+to allow of the supposition that the translator is not in sympathy with
+his author.</p>
+<p><b>Fry</b> (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he
+was elected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was
+declared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was
+called to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted
+for Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence
+was passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote <i>The
+Accuser Shamed</i>, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking
+against &ldquo;that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the
+Godhead.&rdquo; He also wrote <i>The Clergy in their Colors</i>,
+1650.</p>
+<p id="fuller"><b>Fuller</b> (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b.
+Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In &rsquo;40&ndash;42 she
+edited the <i>Dial</i>. She also published <i>Woman in the Nineteenth
+Century</i>, &rsquo;44. Among friends she counted Emerson, Hawthorne,
+Channing, and Mazzini. She visited Europe and married at Rome the
+Marquis D&rsquo;Ossoli. Returning she was shipwrecked and drowned off
+the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.</p>
+<p><b>Furnemont</b> (L&eacute;on), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17
+April, 1861. Entered the school of Mines Li&eacute;ge in &rsquo;76, and
+founded the <i>Circle of Progressive Students</i>. Became president of
+International Congress of Students, &rsquo;84, and represented Young
+Belgium at the funeral of Victor Hugo. Radical candidate at the
+Brussels municipal elections, he obtained 3,500 votes, but was not
+elected. He is a Councillor of the International Federation of
+Freethinkers and director of a monthly journal, <i>La Raison</i>,
+1889.</p>
+<p><b>Gabarro</b> (Bartolom&eacute;) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade,
+Barcelona, 27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7495" href="#xd20e7495" name=
+"xd20e7495">141</a>]</span>with a view to taking the clerical habit, he
+refused and went to America. After travelling much, he established a
+day school in Barcelona and founded an Anti-clerical League of
+Freethinkers pledged to live without priests. This induced much
+clerical <span class="corr" id="xd20e7497" title=
+"Source: whath">wrath</span>, especially when Dr. Gabarro founded some
+200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For denouncing the
+assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel, sentenced to four
+years&rsquo; imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere on the
+frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal <i>La
+Tronada</i>. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an
+important work on Pius IX. and History.</p>
+<p><b>Gabelli</b> (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March,
+1830. Author of <i>The Religious Question in Italy</i>, &rsquo;64,
+<i>Man and the Moral Sciences</i>, &rsquo;69, in which he rejects all
+metaphysics and supernaturalism, and <i>Thoughts</i>, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Gage</b> (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New
+York, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active
+abolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in &rsquo;45
+she married Henry H. Gage. From &rsquo;52 till &rsquo;61 she wrote and
+spoke against slavery. In &rsquo;72 she was made President of the
+National Woman&rsquo;s Suffrage Association. She is joint author of
+<i>The History of Woman Suffrage</i> with Miss Anthony and Mrs.
+Stanton, and with them considers the Church the great obstacle to
+woman&rsquo;s progress.</p>
+<p><b>Gagern</b> (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826.
+Educated at Berlin, travelled in &rsquo;47 to Paris where he became
+acquainted with Humboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in
+the Pyrenees; served in the Prussian army, became a friend of
+Wislicenus and the free-religious movement. In &rsquo;52 he went to
+Mexico; here he had an appointment under General Miramon. In the
+French-Mexican expedition he was taken prisoner in &rsquo;63; released
+in &rsquo;65 he went to New York. He was afterwards military
+attach&eacute; for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought appears in his
+memoirs entitled <i>Dead and Living</i>, 1884, and in his volume
+<i>Sword and Trowel</i>, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Gall</b> (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6
+March, 1758. He practised as a physician in Vienna, devoting
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7537" href="#xd20e7537" name=
+"xd20e7537">142</a>]</span>much time to the study of the brain, and
+began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he was prohibited
+from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught their system in
+various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Galton</b> (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in
+1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King&rsquo;s
+College, London, and graduated at Cambridge, &rsquo;24. In &rsquo;48
+and &rsquo;50 he travelled in Africa. He wrote a popular <i>Art of
+Travel</i>, and has distinguished himself by many writings bearing on
+heredity, of which we name <i>Hereditary Genius</i>, &rsquo;69,
+<i>English Men of Science</i>, &rsquo;70. In his <i>Inquiries into
+Human Faculty and Developement</i>, &rsquo;83, he gives statistical
+refutation of the theory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the
+British Association from &rsquo;63&ndash;68, President of the
+Geographical Section in &rsquo;62 and &rsquo;72, and of the
+Anthropological Section in &rsquo;77 and &rsquo;85. He is President of
+the Anthropological Institute.</p>
+<p><b>Gambetta</b> (L&eacute;on Michel), French orator and statesman,
+b. Cahors, 30 Oct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished
+him to become one. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study
+for the law. In &rsquo;59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of
+Delescluze (14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire,
+made him famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles,
+he became the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he
+proclaimed the Republic and organised the national defences, leaving
+Paris, then invested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he
+invigorated every department, and was the inspiration of the few
+successes won by the French. Gambetta preserved the Republic against
+all machinations, and compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the
+alternatives, &ldquo;<i lang="fr">Se soumettre ou se
+demettre</i>.&rdquo; He founded the <i lang="fr">Republique
+Fran&ccedil;aise</i>, and became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was
+a professed disciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open
+opponent of clericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were
+Freethinkers. Died 31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of
+the largest gatherings ever witnessed.</p>
+<p><b>Gambon</b> (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19
+March, 1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the <i lang=
+"fr">Journal des Ecoles</i>. In &rsquo;48 he was elected <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7573" href="#xd20e7573" name=
+"xd20e7573">143</a>]</span>representative. The Empire drove him into
+exile, he returned at amnesty of &rsquo;59. In &rsquo;69 he refused to
+pay taxes. In &rsquo;71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the
+last defenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in
+&rsquo;82. Formed a League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept.
+1887.</p>
+<p><b>Garat</b> (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator
+and writer, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of
+d&rsquo;Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the
+Assembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As
+minister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He
+afterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,
+and president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.</p>
+<p><b>Garborg</b> (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851.
+Brought up as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the
+University of Christiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper
+<i>Fedraheimen</i>, written in the dialect of the peasantry. Held an
+appointment for some years in the Government Audit Office. In &rsquo;81
+he published a powerfully written tale, <i>A Freethinker</i>, which
+created a deal of attention. Since he has published <i>Peasant
+Students</i>, <i>Tales and Legends</i>, <i>Youth</i>, <i>Men</i>, etc.
+He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on the
+Norwegian press.</p>
+<p><b>Garcia-Vao</b> (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and
+miscellaneous writer, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of
+Cardinal Cisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards
+studied at the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing
+several papers, he attached himself to the staff of <i lang="es">Las
+Dominicales del Libre Pensiamento</i>. Among his numerous works are a
+volume of poems, <i>Echoes of a Free Mind</i>, <i>Love and the
+Monks</i>, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman philosophy, etc. This
+promising student was stabbed in the back at Madrid, 18 December,
+1886.</p>
+<p><b>Garde</b> (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four
+little blasphemous books at Paris in 1537.</p>
+<p><b>Garibaldi</b> (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4
+July, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a
+priest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7623" href="#xd20e7623" name=
+"xd20e7623">144</a>]</span>sailor&rsquo;s life. A trip to Rome made him
+long to free his country. He joined Mazzini&rsquo;s movement,
+&ldquo;Young Italy,&rdquo; and being implicated in the Genoese revolt
+of &rsquo;33, he fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he
+learnt he was sentenced to death. He went to South America and fought
+on behalf of the republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his
+beautiful and brave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures.
+Returning to Italy he fought against the Austrians in &rsquo;48, and
+next year was the soul of resistance to the French troops, who came to
+restore Papal authority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he
+escaped with difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working
+for an Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In &rsquo;54 he
+returned and bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In &rsquo;59 he
+again fought the Austrians, and in May, &rsquo;60, landed at Marsala,
+Sicily, took Palermo, and drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a
+Republican he saluted Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the
+cessation of Nice to France, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by
+Victor Emanuel&rsquo;s troops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he
+wrote his <i>Rule of the Monk</i>, a work exhibiting his love of
+liberty and hatred of the priesthood. In &rsquo;64 he visited England,
+and was enthusiastically received. In &rsquo;67 he again took part in
+an attempt to free Rome from the Papal government. In &rsquo;71 he
+placed his sword at the service of the French Republic, and the only
+standard taken from the Germans was captured by his men. Elected Member
+of the Italian Parliament in his later years he did much to improve the
+city of Rome. In one of his laconic letters of &rsquo;80, he says
+&ldquo;Dear Friend,&mdash;Man has created God, not God man,&mdash;Yours
+ever, Garibaldi.&rdquo; He died 2 June, &rsquo;82, and directed in his
+will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.</p>
+<p><b>Garrison</b> (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet
+on <i>The Absence of Design in Nature</i>, 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Garth</b> (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b.
+Yorkshire, 1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish
+dispensaries, and lashed the opposition in his poem <i>The
+Dispensary</i>. He was made physician to King George I. Died 18 June
+1719. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7642" href="#xd20e7642" name=
+"xd20e7642">145</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Gaston</b> (H.), French author of a brochure with the title
+<i lang="fr">Dieu, voila, l&rsquo;ennemi</i>, God the enemy, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Gattina</b> (F. P. della). See <a href=
+"#petruccellidellagattina"><span class="corr" id="xd20e7656" title=
+"Source: Petrucelli">Petruccelli</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Gautama</b> (called also <span class="sc">Gotama</span>,
+<span class="sc">Buddha</span>, and <span class="sc">Sakyamuni</span>),
+great Hindu reformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Many legends are told of his birth and
+life. He is said to have been a prince, who, pained with human misery,
+left his home to dedicate himself to emancipation. His system was
+rather a moral discipline than a religion. Though he did not deny the
+Hindu gods he asserted that all beings were subject to
+&ldquo;Karma,&rdquo; the result of previous actions. He said, &ldquo;If
+a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the forest, and if he but for
+one moment pay homage to a man whose soul is grounded in true
+knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice for a hundred
+years.&rdquo; According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha died at
+Kusinagara, <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 543.</p>
+<p><b>Gautier</b> (Th&eacute;ophile), exquisite French poet and prose
+writer, b. Tarbes, 31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against
+priestcraft or superstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is
+Pagan. His romanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with
+&ldquo;sacred themes&rdquo; as well as conventional morality.
+Baudelaire called him an impeccable master of French literature, and
+Balzac said that of the two men who could write French, one was
+Th&eacute;ophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Geijer</b> (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and
+critic, b. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the
+Swedish Academy&rsquo;s first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a
+Conservative in religious, philosophical, and political matters he
+became through his historical researches an ardent adherent of the
+principles of the French revolution. His historical work and indictment
+against &ldquo;The Protestant creed&rdquo; was published in 1820 in a
+philosophical treatise, <i>Thorild</i>, which was prosecuted. His
+acquittal by an enlightened jury stayed religious prosecutions in
+Sweden for over sixty years. He died 23 April 1847. A monument was
+erected to him last year at the University of Upsala, where he was
+professor of history. His works have been republished. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7689" href="#xd20e7689" name=
+"xd20e7689">146</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Geijerstam</b> (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the
+Freethinking group of <i>Young Sweden</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Geismar</b> (Martin von), editor of a Library of German
+Rationalists of the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some
+of the works of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846&ndash;7. He
+also added pamphlets entitled <i>Germany in the Eighteenth
+Century</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Gellion-Danglar</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), French writer, b. Paris,
+1829. Became Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in <i lang="fr">La
+Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, was made sous pr&eacute;fect of
+Compi&egrave;gne, &rsquo;71, wrote <i>History of the Revolution of
+1830</i>, and <i>A Study of the Semites</i>, &rsquo;82.</p>
+<p><b>Gemistos</b> (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver
+of Pagan learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He
+early lost his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem
+court at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Pal&aelig;logus
+in 1438, where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy,
+by which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of
+the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused
+him of Paganism. Died 1450.</p>
+<p><b>Genard</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French satirist, b. Paris about
+1722. He wrote an irreligious work called <i>A Parallel of the
+Portraits of the Age, with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures</i>, for
+which he was placed in the Bastille, where it is believed he finished
+his days.</p>
+<p><b>Gendre</b> (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15
+Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a gold
+medal. By reading the works of B&uuml;chner, Buckle, and Darwin she
+became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed to the
+<i lang="fr">Revue Internationale des Sciences</i>, to <i lang="fr">La
+Justice and the Nouvelle Revue</i>, etc. Some of her pieces have been
+reprinted under the title <i lang="fr">Etudes Sociales</i> (Social
+Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Gener</b> (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is
+a member of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the
+evolution of ideas entitled <i>Death and the Devil</i>, Paris,
+&rsquo;80. This able work is dedicated to Renan and has a preface by
+Littr&eacute;. The author has since translated it into Spanish.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7748" href="#xd20e7748" name=
+"xd20e7748">147</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Genestet</b> (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b.
+Amsterdam, 21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a
+Protestant minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at
+Rozendaal, 2 July, 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Genin</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16
+Feb. 1803. He became one of the editors of the <i>National</i>, of
+Paris, about &rsquo;37, and wrote for it spirited articles against the
+Jesuits. He published works on <i>The Jesuits and the Universities</i>,
+<i>The Church or the State</i>, etc. In &rsquo;45 the French Academy
+awarded a prize to his <i>Lexicon of the Language of
+Moli&egrave;re</i>. He edited Diderot, &rsquo;47, and is known for his
+researches into the origin of the French language and literature. Died
+Paris, 20 Dec. 1856.</p>
+<p><b>Genovesi</b> (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1
+Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his
+substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself many
+attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is his
+<i>Italian Morality</i>. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.</p>
+<p><b>Gensonne</b> (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of
+the Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the
+struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonn&eacute; was one of the most active
+and eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his
+colleagues 31 Oct. 1793.</p>
+<p><b>Gentilis</b> (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza,
+Naples, about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in
+1558 he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of
+sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,
+where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his
+innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland, where
+he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial he was
+condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne, 26 (?)
+Sept. 1566. <i>Ladvocat</i> says &ldquo;He died very impiously, saying
+he thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the
+Father, whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory
+of the Son.&rdquo; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7788" href=
+"#xd20e7788" name="xd20e7788">148</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Geoffrin</b> (Marie Ther&egrave;se, ne&eacute; <span class=
+"sc">Rodet</span>), a French lady distinguished as a patroness of
+learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She was a friend of
+Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot, and the
+encyclop&aelig;dists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at Paris,
+6 Oct. 1777.</p>
+<p><b>Gerhard</b> (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829.
+Educated at an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France,
+Italy, and Switzerland, and in &rsquo;61 returned to Amsterdam. He
+wrote for <i>De Dageraad</i>, and was correspondent of the
+<i>Internationale</i>. Died 5 July, 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Gerhard</b> (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland,
+7 April, 1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors
+of <i>De Dageraad</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Germond</b> (J. B. L.), editor of Mar&egrave;chal&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionnaire des Ath&eacute;es</i>, Brussels, 1833.</p>
+<p><b>Gertsen</b> (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See <a href=
+"#hertzen">Herzen</a>.</p>
+<p id="ghillany"><b>Ghillany</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b.
+at Erlangan, 18 April, 1807. In &rsquo;35 he became Professor of
+History at Nurenberg. His principal work is on <i>Human Sacrifices
+among the Ancient Jews</i>, Nurnberg, &rsquo;42. He also wrote on the
+Pagan and Christian writers of the first four centuries. Under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;Richard von der Alm&rdquo; he wrote <i>Theological
+Letters</i>, 1862; <i>Jesus of Nazareth</i>, 1868; and a collection of
+the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries
+upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Giannone</b> (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples,
+7 May, 1676. He devoted many years to a <i>History of the Kingdom of
+Naples</i>, in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated
+and fled to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which
+was removed on his avowal of <span class="corr" id="xd20e7848" title=
+"Source: heterdox">heterodox</span> opinions. He was driven from
+Austria and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition.
+Giannone was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal
+shore. He found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been
+enticed into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of
+Sardinia, and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7851" href="#xd20e7851" name=
+"xd20e7851">149</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Gibbon</b> (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b.
+Putney, 27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent
+to a Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When
+visiting the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of
+writing the <i>Decline and Fall</i> of that empire. For twenty-two
+years before the appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of
+arduous application, his investigations extending over the whole range
+of intellectual and political activity for nearly fifteen hundred
+years. His monumental work, bridging the old world and the new, is an
+historic exposure of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon
+was elected to Parliament in &rsquo;74, but did not distinguish
+himself. He died of dropsy, in London, 16 Jan. 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Gibson</b> (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden,
+Mass. 8 May, 1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the
+Bible brought her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the
+American Civil War she organised Ladies&rsquo; Soldiers&rsquo; Aid
+Societies, and was elected chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer
+Artillery. President Lincoln endorsed the appointment, which was
+questioned. She has written anonymously <i>Godly Women of the
+Bible</i>, and has contributed to the <i>Truthseeker</i>, <i>Boston
+Investigator</i>, and <i>Ironclad Age</i>, under her own signature and
+that of &ldquo;Lilian.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="giessenburg"><b>Giessenburg</b> (Rudolf Charles d&rsquo;Ablaing
+van), one of the most notable of Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble
+family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever in youth, in &rsquo;47 he went to
+Batavia, and upon his return set up as a bookseller under the name of
+R<span class="corr" id="xd20e7879" title="Not in source">.</span> C.
+Meijer. With Junghuhn and G&uuml;nst, he started <i lang="nl">de
+Dageraad</i>, and from &rsquo;56&ndash;68 was one of the contributors,
+usually under his name &ldquo;Rudolf Charles.&rdquo; He is a man of
+great erudition, has written <i lang="nl">Het verbond der vrije
+gedachte</i> (The Alliance of Freethought); <i lang="nl">de Tydgenoot
+op het gebied der Rede</i> (The Contemporary in the <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e7891" title="Source: Reign">Field</span> of Reason); <i lang=
+"nl">De Regtbank des Onderzoeks</i> (The Tribunal of Inquiry); <i lang=
+"nl">Zedekunde en Christendom</i> (Ethics and Christianity); <i lang=
+"nl"><span class="corr" id="xd20e7902" title=
+"Source: Curiosities von">Curiositeiten van</span> allerlei aard</i>
+(Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has also published the Religion and
+Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch and Brooksbank&rsquo;s work on
+Revelation. He was the first who published a complete edition of the
+famous <i lang="fr">Testament du Cur&eacute; Jean Meslier</i> in
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7909" href="#xd20e7909" name=
+"xd20e7909">150</a>]</span>three parts (&rsquo;64), has published the
+works of Douwes Dekker and other writers, and also <i lang=
+"nl">Curieuse Gebruiken</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Gilbert</b> (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He
+had printed at Dijon, in 1700, <i lang="fr">Histoire de Calejava, ou de
+l&rsquo;isle des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale
+et du Christianisme</i>. The book has neither the name of author or
+printer. It was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction,
+which was bought in 1784 by the Duc de La Valli&egrave;re for 120
+livres. It was in form of a dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both
+Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18
+Feb. 1720.</p>
+<p><b>Gill</b> (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the
+University of that city. In &rsquo;83 he published anonymously a work
+on <i>The Evolution of Christianity</i>. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in
+his defences before Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the
+following year he put his name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also
+written a pamphlet on the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an
+introduction, Archbishop Laurence&rsquo;s <i>Book of Enoch</i>,
+1883.</p>
+<p><b>Giles</b> (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26
+Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he graduated
+B.A. as a double first-class in &rsquo;28. He was appointed head-master
+of the City of London School, which post he left for the Church. The
+author of over 150 volumes of educational works, including the <i>Keys
+to the Classics</i>; privately he was a confirmed Freethinker, intimate
+with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on theology show his heresy,
+the principal being <i>Hebrew Records</i> 1850, <i>Christian
+Records</i> 1854. These two were published together in amended form in
+1877. He also wrote <i>Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti</i> 1852,
+<i>Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century</i> 1857, and
+<i>Apostolic Records</i>, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept
+1884.</p>
+<p><b>Ginguene</b> (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25
+April, 1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a
+teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais, and
+collaborated with Chamfort in the <i>Historic Pictures of the French
+Revolution</i>. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the
+fall of Robespierre, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7961" href=
+"#xd20e7961" name="xd20e7961">151</a>]</span>became Director of Public
+Instruction. His principal work is a <i>Literary History of Italy</i>.
+Died Paris, 11 Nov. 1816.</p>
+<p><b>Gilliland</b> (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a
+little work on <i>The Future of Morality</i>, from the Agnostic
+standpoint, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Gioja</b> (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza,
+20 Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a
+bureau of statistics. For his brochure <i>La Scienza del Povero
+Diavolo</i> he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on
+<i>Merit and Rewards</i> and <i>The Philosophy of Statistics</i>. Died
+at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.</p>
+<p><b>Girard</b> (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux
+France, 24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about
+1760; rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to
+settle in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the
+richest merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the
+whole of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his
+vessels after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu,
+Voltaire, Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public
+improvements and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests
+to Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a
+college for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or
+minister of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the
+college, or even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the
+officers of the institution are required to instruct the pupils in
+secular morality and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions.
+This will has been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26
+Dec. 1831.</p>
+<p><b>Glain</b> (D. de Saint). See <a href="#saint-glain"><span class=
+"sc">Saint Glain</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Glennie</b> (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and
+writer, author of <i>In the Morningland</i>, or the law of the origin
+and transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter of
+which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, <i>Christ and
+Osiris</i>. He has also written <i>Pilgrim Memories</i>, or travel and
+discussion in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T.
+Buckle, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Glisson</b> (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8016" href="#xd20e8016" name=
+"xd20e8016">152</a>]</span>Rampisham, Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his
+degree at Cambridge, and was there appointed Regius Professor of
+Physic, an office he held forty years. He discovered Glisson&rsquo;s
+capsule in the liver, and was the first to attribute irritability to
+muscular fibre. In his <i>Tractatus de natura substanti&aelig;
+energetica</i>, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in considering
+matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account for the
+operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey, and
+Boerhaave called him &ldquo;the most accurate of all anatomists that
+ever lived.&rdquo; Died in 1677.</p>
+<p><b>Godwin</b> (Mary). See <a href=
+"#wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Godwin</b> (William), English historian, political writer and
+novelist, b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a
+Dissenting minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied
+at Hoxton College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist;
+but making the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English
+Jacobins, his views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the
+rejection of the supernatural. In &rsquo;93 he published his republican
+work on <i>Political Justice</i>. In the following year he issued his
+powerful novel of <i>Caleb Williams</i>. He married Mary
+Wollstonecraft, &rsquo;96; wrote, in addition to several novels and
+educational works, <i>On Population</i>, in answer to Malthus, 1820; a
+<i>History of the Commonwealth</i>, &rsquo;24&ndash;28; <i>Thoughts on
+Man</i>, &rsquo;31; <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i>, &rsquo;34. Some
+Freethought essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled
+<i>The Genius of Christianity Unveiled</i>, were first published in
+&rsquo;73. They comprise papers on such subjects as future retribution,
+the atonement, miracles, and character of Jesus, and the history and
+effects of the Christian religion. Died 7 April, 1836.</p>
+<p><b>Goethe</b> (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany&rsquo;s greatest poet,
+b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his
+seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his mind
+with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several
+languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic
+University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed
+his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771, and
+in the same year composed his drama &ldquo;Goetz von
+Berlichingen.&rdquo; He went <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8058"
+href="#xd20e8058" name="xd20e8058">153</a>]</span>to Wetzlar, where he
+wrote <i>Sorrows of Werther</i>, 1774, which at once made him famous.
+He was invited to the court of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar and loaded with
+honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy of distinguished men. Here he
+brought out the works of Schiller and his own dramas, of which
+<i>Faust</i> is the greatest. His chief prose work is <i>Wilhelm
+Meister&rsquo;s Apprenticeship</i>. His works are voluminous. He
+declared himself &ldquo;decidedly non-Christian,&rdquo; and said his
+objects of hate were &ldquo;the cross and bugs.&rdquo; He was averse to
+abstractions and refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world.
+In philosophy he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced
+the popular creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: &ldquo;You look
+upon the gospel as it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice
+from heaven would not convince me that water burns and fire quenches,
+that a woman conceives without a man, and that a dead man can rise
+again. To you, nothing is more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a
+thousand written pages of ancient and modern inspired men are equally
+beautiful.&rdquo; Goethe was opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer
+admits &ldquo;stood in opposition to Christianity not merely on points
+of theological form, but to a certain extent on points of substance
+too.&rdquo; Goethe devoted much attention to science, and he attempted
+to explain the metamorphosis of plants on evolutionary principles in
+1790. Died 22 March, 1832.</p>
+<p><b>Goldstuecker</b> (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e8073" title="Source: bnt">but</span> a
+Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn
+under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing
+himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and
+assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the
+<i>Cosmos</i>. A democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction
+of &rsquo;49 and came to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in
+preparing his <i>Sanskrit-English Dictionary</i>. He contributed
+important articles on Indian literature to the <i>Westminster
+Review</i>, the <i>Reader</i>, the <i>Athen&aelig;um</i> and
+<i>Chambers&rsquo; Encyclop&aelig;dia</i>. Died in London, 6 March,
+1872.</p>
+<p><b>Goldziher</b> (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b.
+Stuhlweissenburg, 1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in
+Buda-pesth; is author of <i>Mythology Among the Hebrews</i>, which
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8102" href="#xd20e8102" name=
+"xd20e8102">154</a>]</span>has been translated by Russell Martineau,
+&rsquo;77, and has written many studies on Semitic theology and
+literature.</p>
+<p><b>Gordon</b> (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b.
+Kells, Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he
+supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished
+himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which
+recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and with
+whom he published <i>Cato&rsquo;s Letters</i> and a periodical entitled
+<i>The Independent Whig</i>, which he continued some years after
+Trenchard&rsquo;s death, marrying that writer&rsquo;s widow. He wrote
+many pamphlets, and translated from Barbeyrac <i>The Spirit of the
+Ecclesiastics of All Ages</i>. He also translated the histories of
+Tacitus and Sallust. He died 28 July, 1750, leaving behind him
+posthumous works entitled <i>A Cordial for Low Spirits</i> and <i>The
+Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Gorl&aelig;us</b> (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht,
+towards the end of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism
+on account of his speculations in a work published after his death
+entitled <i>Exercitationes Philosophic&aelig;</i>, Leyden 1620.</p>
+<p><b>Govea</b> or <span class="sc">Gouvea</span> [Latin Goveanus]
+(Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet, b. 1505, studied in France and
+gained great reputation by his legal writings. Calvin classes him with
+Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers, as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote
+elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin, 5 March, 1565.</p>
+<p><b>Gratiolet</b> (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6
+July 1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the
+brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.</p>
+<p><b>Graves</b> (Kersey), American, author of <i>The Biography of
+Satan</i>, 1865, and <i>The World&rsquo;s Sixteen Crucified
+Saviors</i>, 1876. Works of some vogue, but little value.</p>
+<p><b>Gray</b> (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris,
+Oneida Co., New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831.
+Wrote <i>Elements of Botany</i>, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist.
+at Harvard, and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote
+an <i>Examination of Darwin&rsquo;s Treatise</i> 1861. Succeeded
+Agassiz as Governor of Smithsonian Institute, and worked on <i>American
+Flora</i>. Died at Cambridge, Mass., 30 Jan. 1888. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8165" href="#xd20e8165" name=
+"xd20e8165">155</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Green</b> (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits
+the <i>Freethinker&rsquo;s Magazine</i> published at Buffalo, New
+York.</p>
+<p><b>Greg</b> (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809.
+Educated at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic
+studies and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the
+Manchester Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law
+League, and author of one of its prize essays. In &rsquo;40 he wrote on
+Efforts for the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In &rsquo;50 he
+published his <i>Creed of Christendom</i>, which has gone through eight
+editions, and in 1872 his <i>Enigmas of Life</i>, of which there were
+thirteen editions in his life. He published also Essays on Political
+and Social Science, and was a regular contributor to the <i>Pall Mall
+Gazette</i>. His works exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close
+reasoner. Died at Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Grenier</b> (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont,
+Perigord, 1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free
+will, &rsquo;68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of
+Orleans, imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author
+of Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.</p>
+<p id="grile">&ldquo;<b>Grile</b> (Dod),&rdquo; pen name of Ambrose
+Bierce, American humorist, who wrote on the <i>San Francisco
+News-Letter</i>. His <i>Nuggets and Dust</i> and <i>Fiend&rsquo;s
+Delight</i>, were blasphemous; has also written in <i>Fun</i>, and
+published <i>Cobwebs from an Empty Skull</i>, 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Grimm</b> (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic
+writer in French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became
+acquainted with D&rsquo;Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his
+friend, but afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of
+Orleans, and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic
+literary bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art.
+In 1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,
+and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia
+her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is
+chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published in
+seventeen vols. 1812&ndash;1813.</p>
+<p><b>Gringore</b> (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8219" href="#xd20e8219" name=
+"xd20e8219">156</a>]</span>satirised the pope and clergy as well as the
+early reformers. Died about 1544.</p>
+<p><b>Grisebach</b> (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845.
+Studied law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at
+Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of
+which the best known is <i>The New <span class="corr" id="xd20e8227"
+title="Source: Tanha&uuml;ser">Tanh&auml;user</span></i>, first
+published anonymously in &rsquo;69, and followed by <i><span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e8231" title=
+"Source: Tanha&uuml;ser">Tanh&auml;user</span> in Rome</i>, &rsquo;75.
+Has also translated <i>Kin Ku Ki Kuan</i>, Chinese novels. Is a
+follower of Schopenhauer, whose bibliography he has compiled, 1888.</p>
+<p id="groteg"><b>Grote</b> (George), the historian of Greece, b. near
+Beckenham, Kent, 17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was
+educated for the employment of a banker and was put to business at the
+age of sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and
+became a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820
+he married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in &rsquo;22 his
+<i>Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion</i> was published by
+Carlile, under the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the
+<i>Westminster Review</i>. In &rsquo;33 he was elected as Radical M.P.
+for the City of London and retained his seat till &rsquo;41. He was
+chiefly known in Parliament for his advocacy of the ballot. In
+&rsquo;46&ndash;&rsquo;56 he published his famous <i>History of
+Greece</i>, which cost him the best years of his life; this was
+followed by <i>Plato and the other Companions of Socrates</i>. His
+review of J. S. Mill&rsquo;s <i>Examination of Sir William
+Hamilton&rsquo;s Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;61, showed he retained his
+Freethought until the end of his life. He died 18 June &rsquo;71, and
+was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+<p><b>Grote</b> (Harriet) nee <span class="sc">Lewin</span>, wife of
+the above, b. 1792, shared in his opinions and wrote his life. Died 29
+Dec. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Gruen</b> (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817,
+L&uuml;denschied, Westphalia, studied at Bonn and Berlin. In &rsquo;44
+he came to Paris, was a friend to Proudhon and translated his
+<i>Philosophy of Misery</i>, was arrested in &rsquo;49 and condemned to
+exile; lived at Brussels till &rsquo;62, when he was made professor at
+Frankfort. He became professor of English at the College of Colmar,
+established a Radical journal the <i>Mannheim Evening News</i> and he
+wrote <span class="corr" id="xd20e8275" title=
+"Source: Biograpical">Biographical</span> Studies of Schiller,
+&rsquo;44, and Feuerbach, &rsquo;71. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e8278" href="#xd20e8278" name="xd20e8278">157</a>]</span><i>A
+Culture History of the 16th&ndash;17th Centuries</i>, and <i>The
+Philosophy of the Present</i>, &rsquo;76. Died at Vienna 17 February,
+1887.</p>
+<p><b>Gruet</b> (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death
+for blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his
+death papers were found in his possession directed against religion.
+They were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.</p>
+<p><b>Gruyer</b> (Louis Auguste Jean Fran&ccedil;ois-Philippe), Belgian
+philosopher, b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an <i>Essay of
+Physical Philosophy</i>, 1828, <i>Tablett&egrave;s Philosophiques</i>,
+&rsquo;42. <i>Principles of Physical Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;45, etc. He
+held the atomic doctrine, and that matter was eternal. Died Brussels 15
+Oct. 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Guadet</b> (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion
+(Gironde), 20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an
+advocate in &rsquo;81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the
+Revolution, and was elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement
+attacks on the Jacobins contributed to the destruction of his party,
+after which he took refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux,
+15 June, 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Gubernatis</b> (Angelo de), see <a href="#degubernatis">De
+Gubernatis</a>.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e8316" title=
+"Source: Guepin">Gu&eacute;pin</span></b> (Ange), French physician, b.
+Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became M.D. in &rsquo;28. After the
+revolution of July, &rsquo;30, Dr. Gu&eacute;pin was made Professor at
+the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first scientific and
+philosophical congress, held there in &rsquo;33. In &rsquo;48 he became
+Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in &rsquo;50 was deprived of
+his situation. In &rsquo;54 he published his <i>Philosophy of the
+Nineteenth Century</i>. After the fall of the Empire, M. Gu&eacute;pin
+became Prefet of La Loire Inf&eacute;rieure, but had to resign from
+ill-health. Died at Nantes, 21 May, 1873, and was buried without any
+religious ceremony.</p>
+<p><b>Gueroult</b> (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29
+Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote
+to the <i lang="fr">Journal des Debats</i>, the <i lang=
+"fr">Republique</i>, <i lang="fr">Credit</i> and <i lang=
+"fr">Industrie</i>, and founded <i lang="fr">l&rsquo;Opinion
+National</i>. He was elected to the Legislature in &rsquo;63, when he
+advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy, 21 July,
+1872. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8342" href="#xd20e8342" name=
+"xd20e8342">158</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Guerra Junqueiro.</b> Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal
+work is a poem on <i>The Death of Don Juan</i>, but he has also written
+<i>The Death of Jehovah</i>, an assault upon the Catholic faith from
+the standpoint of Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his
+powers.</p>
+<p id="guerrini"><b>Guerrini</b> (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4
+Oct. 1845. Educated at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has
+written many fine poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the
+preface to <i lang="it">Nova Polemica</i> he declares
+&ldquo;<span lang="it">Primo di tutto dice, non credo in
+Dio</span>&rdquo; (&ldquo;First of all I say do not believe in
+God.&rdquo;)</p>
+<p><b>Gueudeville</b> (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He
+became a Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the
+boldness of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors.
+He escaped to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught
+literature and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron
+de la Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the
+Travels of La <span class="corr" id="xd20e8367" title=
+"Source: Honton">Hontan</span>, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This
+dialogue is a bitter criticism of Christian usages. He translated
+Erasmus&rsquo;s <i>Praise of Folly</i> (1713), More&rsquo;s
+<i>Utopia</i> (1715), and C. Agrippa<span class="corr" id="xd20e8376"
+title="Not in source">,</span> <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e8380"
+title="Source: on">Of</span> the Uncertainty and Vanity of Sciences</i>
+(1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.</p>
+<p><b>Guichard</b> (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He
+became Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department.
+He was exiled in &rsquo;52, but again elected in &rsquo;71. His
+principal work is <i>La Libert&eacute; de Penser, fin du Pouvoir
+Spirituel</i> (1868). Died at Paris, 11th Nov. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Guild</b> (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In &rsquo;35
+he became a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became
+turned Universalist. In &rsquo;44 he published <i>The Universalist Book
+of Reference</i>, which went through several <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e8399" title="Source: edittons">editions</span>. It was followed
+by <i>Pro and Con</i>, in which he gives the arguments for and against
+Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Guirlando</b> (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death
+at Venice for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.</p>
+<p><b>Gundling</b> (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic
+philosopher, b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8413" href="#xd20e8413" name=
+"xd20e8413">159</a>]</span><i>History of the Philosophy of Morals</i>,
+1706, and <i>The Way to Truth</i>, 1713. One of the first German
+eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived all
+ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.</p>
+<p><b>Gunning</b> (William D.), American scientific professor, b.
+Bloomingburg, Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He
+wrote <i>Life History of our Planet</i>, Chicago, 1876, and contributed
+to <i>The Open Court</i>. Died <span class="corr" id="xd20e8430" title=
+"Source: Greely">Greeley</span>, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e8435" title=
+"Source: Gunst">G&uuml;nst</span></b> (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch
+writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam, 19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a
+Catholic clergyman; studied at Berne, where he was promoted &rsquo;47.
+Returning to Holland he became bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He
+was for many years secretary of the City Theatre. G&uuml;nst
+contributed to many periodicals, and became a friend of Junghuhn, with
+whom he started <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, the organ of the Dutch
+Freethinkers, which he edited from &rsquo;55 to &rsquo;67. He usually
+contributed under pseudonyms as &ldquo;Mephistho&rdquo; or (&there4;).
+He was for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,
+&ldquo;<span lang="la">Post Nubila Lux</span>,&rdquo; and wrote on
+<i>Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of the Freemasons</i>. He also wrote
+<i lang="nl">Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken</i> (Holy Water for the
+Roman Catholics); <i lang="nl">De Bloedgetuigen der <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e8452" title="Source: Spaanische">Spaansche</span>
+Inquisitie</i> (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, &rsquo;63); and
+<i lang="nl">Heidenen en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne
+zedeleer</i> (Pagans and Jesuits, a comparison of their morals,
+&rsquo;67). In his life and conversation he was <i>frater gaudens</i>.
+Died 29 Dec. 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Guyau</b> (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned
+at the age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on
+Utilitarian morality. In the following year he had charge of a course
+of philosophy at the Condorcet lyc&eacute;e at Paris. Ill health,
+brought on by excess of work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where
+he occupied himself with literature. His principal works are <i lang=
+"fr">La Morale d&rsquo;Epicure</i> (the morality of Epicurus), in
+relation to present day doctrines, 1878, <i lang="fr">La Morale
+Anglaise Contemporaine</i> (Contemporary English Ethics), &rsquo;79,
+crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,
+&rsquo;81. <i lang="fr">Esquisse d&rsquo;une morale sans obligation ni
+sanction</i> (Sketch of morality without obligation or sanction,)
+&rsquo;84, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8476" href="#xd20e8476"
+name="xd20e8476">160</a>]</span>and <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Irreligion de
+l&rsquo;Avenir</i> (the Irreligion of the Future) &rsquo;87. M. Guyau
+was a follower of M. Fouill&eacute;e, but all his works bear the
+impress of profound thought and originality. A chief doctrine is the
+expansion of life. Died Mentone, 31 March, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Guyot</b> (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He
+wrote with Sigismond Lacroix a <i>Study of the Social Doctrines of
+Christianity</i>, &rsquo;73, and a work on morality in the <i lang=
+"fr">Biblioth&egrave;que Mat&eacute;rialiste</i>. Elected on the
+Municipal Council of Paris &rsquo;74&ndash;78, he has since been a
+deputy to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has
+written the <i>Principles of Social Economy</i>, &rsquo;84, and many
+works on that topic; has edited Diderot&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">La
+Religieuse</i> and the journals <i lang="fr">Droits de
+l&rsquo;homme</i> and <i>le Bien public</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Gwynne</b> (George), Freethought writer in the <i>Reasoner</i>
+and <i>National Reformer</i>, under the pen-name of
+&ldquo;Aliquis.&rdquo; His reply to J. H. Newman&rsquo;s <i>Grammar of
+Assent</i> shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by pen and
+purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Gyllenborg</b> (Gustaf Fredrik), <i>Count</i>. Swedish poet, b. 6
+Dec. 1731, was one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and
+Chancellor of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes,
+etc., among which may be named <i>The Passage of the Belt</i>. His
+opinions were Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.</p>
+<p><b>Haeckel</b> (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b.
+Potsdam, 16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at W&uuml;rzburg,
+Berlin, and Vienna. In &rsquo;59 he went to Italy and studied zoology
+at Naples, and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena.
+Between &rsquo;66 and &rsquo;75 he travelled over Europe besides
+visiting Syria and Egypt, and later he visited India and Ceylon,
+writing an interesting account of his travels. He is the foremost
+German supporter of evolution; his <i>Natural History of Creation</i>,
+&rsquo;68, having gone through many editions, and been translated into
+English &rsquo;76, as have also his <i>Evolution of Man</i>, 2 vols.
+&rsquo;79, and <i>Pedigree of Man</i>, &rsquo;83. Besides numerous
+monographs and an able work on <i>Cellular Psychology</i>, Professor
+Haeckel has published important <i>Popular Lectures on Evolution</i>,
+&rsquo;78, and on <i>Freedom in Science and Teaching</i>, published
+with a prefatory note by Professor Huxley, &rsquo;79. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8550" href="#xd20e8550" name=
+"xd20e8550">161</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Hagen</b> (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About
+the year 1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the
+abuse they received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of
+Robert Owen, and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of
+Derby, where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife
+also deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.</p>
+<p><b>Halley</b> (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his
+lifetime as &ldquo;the Infidel Mathematician,&rdquo; b. Haggerston,
+London, 29 Oct. 1656; educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made
+observations of the planets and of the spots on the sun. In Nov.
+&rsquo;76 he went to St. Helena where he prepared his <i>Catalogue of
+Southern Stars</i>, &rsquo;79. He also found how to take the
+sun&rsquo;s parallax by means of the transits of Mercury or Venus. In
+&rsquo;78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later he made observation
+on &ldquo;Halley&rsquo;s comet,&rdquo; and in &rsquo;83 published his
+theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir Isaac
+Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his <i lang="la">Principia</i>. In
+&rsquo;98 he commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic.
+In 1713 he was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720
+Astronomer-royal. He then undertook a task which required nineteen
+years to perform, viz: to observe the moon throughout an entire
+revolution of her nodes. He lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan.
+1742. Halley was the first who conceived that fixed stars had a proper
+motion in space. Chalmers in his <i>Biographical Dictionary</i> says,
+&ldquo;It must be deeply regretted that he cannot be numbered with
+those illustrious characters who thought it not beneath them to be
+Christians.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Hammon</b> (W.), pseudonym of <span class="sc">Turner</span>
+William, <i>q. v.</i></p>
+<p id="hamond"><b>Hamond or Hamont</b> (Matthew), English heretic, by
+trade a ploughwright, of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May
+1579, for holding &ldquo;that the New Testament and the Gospel of
+Christ were pure folly, a human invention, a mere fable.&rdquo; He had
+previously been set in the pillory and had both his ears cut off.</p>
+<p><b>Hannotin</b> (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and
+some time editor of the <i>Journal de la Meuse</i>. Author of <i>New
+Philosophical Theology</i>, &rsquo;46; <i>Great Questions</i>,
+&rsquo;67; <i>Ten Years of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8598"
+href="#xd20e8598" name="xd20e8598">162</a>]</span>Philosophical
+Studies</i>, &rsquo;72; and an <i>Essay on Man</i>, in which he seeks
+to explain life by <i>sensibility</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Hanson</b> (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South
+Australia, b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short
+time in London, and wrote for the <i>Globe</i> and <i>Morning
+Chronicle</i>. In 1830 he took part in the attempt to found a colony in
+South Australia. In 1851 he became Advocate-General of the colony, and
+subsequently in 1861 Chief Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote
+on <i>Law in Nature</i> 1865, <i>The Jesus of History</i> 1869, and
+<i>St. Paul</i> 1875. Hanson wrote <i>Letters to and from Rome A.D.</i>
+61, 62 and 63. <i>Selected and translated by C.V.S.</i> 1873. Died at
+Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Hardwicke</b> (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e8638" title=
+"Source: Harwicke">Hardwicke</span>, F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In
+&rsquo;75 he qualified as a <span class="corr" id="xd20e8641" title=
+"Source: surgeon">surveyor</span>, and in &rsquo;86 as a physician. For
+twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent of the Government Emigration
+Service. He is an Agnostic of the school of Herbert Spencer, and has
+contributed to Freethought and scientific periodicals.</p>
+<p><b>Hardwicke</b> (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b.
+Sheffield, 26 Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In
+&rsquo;78 he became a member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians.
+Next year he was the principal agent in establishing the Sheffield
+Public Hospital for Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr.
+Hardwicke set up a press of his own in order to print <i>The Popular
+Faith Unveiled</i>, the publishers requiring guarantee in consequence
+of the prosecution of Mr. Foote (&rsquo;84), and <i>Evolution and
+Creation</i> (&rsquo;87). He has contributed to the <i>Agnostic
+Annual</i>, and has recently written <i>Rambles in Spain, Italy and
+Morocco</i> (&rsquo;89).</p>
+<p><b>Harriot</b> (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560,
+accompanied Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the
+expedition. He was noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says
+&ldquo;He was a Deist.&rdquo; Died 21 July 1621.</p>
+<p><b>Harrison</b> (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18
+Oct. 1831, educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in
+classics. He was called to the bar in &rsquo;58. He has since been
+appointed Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has
+written many important articles in the <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e8668" href="#xd20e8668" name=
+"xd20e8668">163</a>]</span>high-class reviews, and has published <i>The
+Meaning of History</i>, <i>Order and Progress</i>, and on <i>The Choice
+of Books and Other Literary Pieces</i>, &rsquo;86, and has translated
+vol. ii of Comte&rsquo;s <i>Positive Polity</i>. He was one of the
+founders of the Positivist school, &rsquo;70, and of Newton Hall in
+&rsquo;81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine articles bear the
+stamp of a cultured man of letters.</p>
+<p><b>Hartmann</b> (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist
+philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In &rsquo;58 he entered the
+Prussian army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in
+&rsquo;65. By the publication of his <i>Philosophy of the
+Unconscious</i> in &rsquo;69, he became famous, though it was not
+translated into English until &rsquo;84. He has since written numerous
+works of which we name <i>Self-Dissolution of Christianity and The
+Religion of the Future</i>, &rsquo;75, <i>The Crisis of Christianity in
+Modern Theology</i>, &rsquo;80, <i>The Religious Consciousness of
+Mankind</i>, &rsquo;81, and <i>Modern Problems</i>, &rsquo;86. Latterly
+Hartmann has turned his attention to the philosophy of politics.</p>
+<p id="hartoghheysvanzouteveen"><b>Hartogh Heys <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e8705" title="Source: Van">van</span> Zouteveen</b> (Dr. Herman),
+a learned Dutch writer, b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and
+natural philosophy at Leyden, and graduated doctor of law in &rsquo;64
+and doctor of natural philosophy in &rsquo;66. In &rsquo;66 he received
+a gold medal from the king of Holland for a treatise on the synthesis
+of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time professor of chemistry and
+natural history at the Hague, but lived at Delft, where he was made
+city councillor and in &rsquo;69 and &rsquo;70 travelled through Egypt
+and Nubia as correspondent of <i>Het Vaderland</i> and was the guest of
+the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Descent of
+Man</i> and <i>Expressions of the Emotions</i>, both with valuable
+annotations of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of
+the works of Ludwig B&uuml;chner and &ldquo;Carus Sterne,&rdquo; from
+the German, and works from the French, besides writing several original
+essays on anthropology, natural history, geology, and allied sciences,
+contributing largely to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In
+&rsquo;72 he visited the United States and the Pacific coast. Since
+&rsquo;73 he has resided at Assen, of which he was named member of the
+city council, but could not take his seat because he refused the oath.
+He is a director of the Provincial Arch&aelig;ological Museum at Assen,
+and a member of the Dutch Literary Society the Royal <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8718" href="#xd20e8718" name=
+"xd20e8718">164</a>]</span>Institution of Netherlands, India, and other
+scientific associations. For a long while he was a member of the Dutch
+Freethinkers&rsquo; Society, <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, of which he
+became president. To the organ <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> he
+contributed important works, such as <i>Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus
+of Nazareth</i> and the <i>Origin of Religious Ideas</i>, the last of
+which has been published separately.</p>
+<p><b>Haslam</b> (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24
+April, 1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became
+a Socialist and published <i>Letters to the Clergy of all
+Denominations</i>, showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities
+of their doctrines, &rsquo;38. This work went through several editions,
+and the publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by
+<i>Letters to the Bishop of Exeter</i>, containing materials for
+deciding the question whether or not the Bible is the word of God,
+&rsquo;41, and a pamphlet <i>Who are the Infidels?</i> In &rsquo;61 he
+removed to Benton, where he has since lived. In &rsquo;85 he issued a
+pamphlet entitled <i>The Suppression of War</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Hassell</b> (Richard), one of Carlile&rsquo;s shopmen, sentenced
+to two years imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age
+of Reason</i>, 28 May, 1824. He died in October 1826.</p>
+<p><b>Hattem</b> (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a
+follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had several
+followers. Died 1706.</p>
+<p><b>Haureau</b> (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812.
+At the age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a
+work on <i>The Mountain</i>. In turn journalist and librarian he has
+produced many important works, of which we name his <i>Manual of the
+Clergy</i>, &rsquo;44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals,
+and his erudite <i>Critical Examination of the Scholastic
+Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;50.</p>
+<p><b>Hauy</b> (Valentine), French <span class="corr" id="xd20e8777"
+title="Source: philanthrophist">philanthropist</span>, b. Saint-Just 13
+Nov. 1745. He devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and
+founded the institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the
+founders of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed
+till 1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at
+Paris 18 March, 1822. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8780" href=
+"#xd20e8780" name="xd20e8780">165</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Havet</b> (Ernest August Eug&egrave;ne), French scholar and
+critic, b. Paris, 11 April, 1813. In &rsquo;40 he was appointed
+professor of Greek literature at the Normal School. In &rsquo;55 he was
+made professor of Latin eloquence at the Coll&eacute;ge de France. In
+&rsquo;63 an article on Renan&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">Vie de Jesus</i> in
+the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> excited much attention, and
+was afterwards published separately. His work on <i>Christianity and
+its Origins</i>, 4 vols. 1872&ndash;84, is a masterpiece of rational
+criticism.</p>
+<p><b>Hawkesworth</b> (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in
+London about 1715. Became contributor to the <i>Gentleman&rsquo;s
+Magazine</i> and editor of the <i>Adventurer</i>. In &rsquo;61 he
+edited Swift&rsquo;s works with a life of that author. He compiled an
+account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook for
+government, for which he received &pound;6,000; but the work was
+censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of Providence. His
+novel <i>Almoran and Hamet</i> was very popular. Died at Bromley, Kent,
+17 Nov. 1773.</p>
+<p><b>Hawley</b> (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and
+by the terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.</p>
+<p><b>Hebert</b> (Jacques Ren&eacute;), French revolutionist, b.
+Alen&ccedil;on 15 Nov. 1757, published the notorious <i lang=
+"fr">P&egrave;re Duch&ecirc;sne</i>, and with Chaumette instituted the
+<i>Feasts of Reason</i>. He was denounced by Saint Just, and
+guillotined 2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a
+few days later.</p>
+<p><b>Hegel</b> (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b.
+Stuttgart, 27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at T&uuml;bingen, but,
+becoming acquainted with Schelling, devoted his attention to
+philosophy. His <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia of the Philosophical Sciences</i>
+made a deep impression in Germany, and two schools sprang up, one
+claiming it as a philosophical statement of Christianity, the other as
+Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel said students of philosophy must
+begin with Spinozism. He is said to have remarked that of all his many
+disciples only one understood him, and he understood him falsely. He
+was professor at Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, in which last city he
+died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried beside Fichte.</p>
+<p><b>Heine</b> (Heinrich), German poet and litt&eacute;rateur, b. of
+Jewish parents at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8833" href="#xd20e8833" name=
+"xd20e8833">166</a>]</span>Berlin, and G&ouml;ttingen; became
+acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and Hegel; graduated LL.D.,
+and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and was baptised. The change was
+only formal. He satirised all forms of religious faith. His fine
+<i>Pictures of Travel</i> was received with favor and translated by
+himself into French. His other principal works are the <i>Book of
+Songs</i>, <i>History of Recent Literature in Germany</i>, <i>The
+Romantic School</i>, <i>The Women of Shakespeare</i>, <i>Atta Troll</i>
+and other poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in
+Paris, where &ldquo;the Voltaire of Germany&rdquo; became more French
+than German. About 1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but
+he still employed himself in literary composition with the aid of an
+amanuensis. After an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme
+suffering on his &ldquo;mattress grave,&rdquo; he died 17 Feb. 1856.
+Heine was the greatest and most influential German writer since Goethe.
+He called himself a Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword
+played havoc with the forces of reaction.</p>
+<p><b>Heinzen</b> (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and
+politician, b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at
+Bonn, and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published
+(Cologne 1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a
+work on the <i>Prussian Bureaucracy</i>, for which he was prosecuted
+and had to seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the
+<i>German Tribune</i> and the <i>Democrat</i>. At the beginning of
+&rsquo;48 he visited New York but returned to participate in the
+attempted German Revolution. Again &ldquo;the regicide&rdquo; had to
+fly and in August &rsquo;50 returned to New York. He wrote on many
+papers and established the <i>Pioneer</i> (now <i lang=
+"de">Freidenker</i>), first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in
+New York, and from &rsquo;59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including
+<i>Letters on Atheism</i>, which appeared in <i>The Reasoner</i> 1856,
+<i>Poems</i>, <i>German Revolution</i>, <i>The Heroes of German
+Communism</i>, <i>The Rights of Women</i>, <i>Mankind the Criminal</i>,
+<i>Six Letters to a Pious Man</i> (Boston 1869), <i>Lessons of a
+Century</i>, and <i>What is Humanity?</i> (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov.
+1880.</p>
+<p><b>Hellwald</b> (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29
+March 1842, and in addition to many works on various countries has
+written an able <i>Culture History</i>, 1875. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8912" href="#xd20e8912" name=
+"xd20e8912">167</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Helmholtz</b> (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b.
+Potsdam 31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics,
+optics and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural
+philosophers in Europe. Among his works we mention <i>The Conservation
+of Force</i> (1847), and <i>Popular Scientific Lectures</i>
+(1865&ndash;76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects the design hypothesis.</p>
+<p><b>Helvetius</b> (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18
+Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a
+large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted by
+reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general to
+devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work <i>On
+the Mind</i> (De L&rsquo;Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement
+XIII, 31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759
+for the hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said
+&ldquo;he told everybody&rsquo;s secret.&rdquo; It was republished at
+Amsterdam and London. He also wrote a poem <i>On Happiness</i> and a
+work on <i>Man his Faculties and Education</i>. He visited England and
+Prussia and became an honored guest of Frederick the Great. Died 26
+Dec. 1771. His wife, <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e8937" title=
+"Source: n&egrave;e">n&eacute;e</span></i> Anne Catherine <span class=
+"sc">De Lingville</span>, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil,
+where her house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot,
+d&rsquo;Holbach, Morellet, Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This
+re-union of Freethinkers was known as the Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+d&rsquo;Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.</p>
+<p><b>Henault</b>, or <b>Hesnault</b> (Jean), French Epicurean poet of
+the 17th century, son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and
+went to Holland to see <a href="#spinoza">Spinoza</a>. Bayle says he
+professed Atheism, and had composed three different systems of the
+mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet is on <i>The
+Abortion</i>. Died Paris, 1682.</p>
+<p><b>Henin de Cuvillers</b> (Etienne Felix), <i>Baron</i>, French
+general and writer, b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist
+in England, Venice, and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy,
+he was wounded at Arcola, 26 Sept. &rsquo;96. He was made Chevalier of
+the Legion of Honor in 1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism.
+In the 8th vol. of his <i lang="fr">Archives du Magn&eacute;tisme
+Animal</i>, he suggests that the miracles of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8966" href="#xd20e8966" name=
+"xd20e8966">168</a>]</span>Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by
+means of magnetism learnt in Egypt. In other writings, especially in
+reflections on the crimes committed in the name of religion, &rsquo;22,
+he shows himself the enemy of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2
+August, 1841.</p>
+<p><b>Hennell</b> (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March,
+1809, author of an able <i>Inquiry concerning the Origin of
+Christianity</i>, first published in &rsquo;38, a work which powerfully
+influenced &ldquo;George Eliot,&rdquo; and a translation of which was
+introduced to German readers by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who
+induced &ldquo;George Eliot&rdquo; to translate Strauss&rsquo;s <i>Life
+of Jesus</i>. He also wrote on <i>Christian Theism</i>. Hennell lived
+most of his time in Coventry. He was married at London in &rsquo;39,
+and died 2 Sept. 1850.</p>
+<p><b>Herault de Sechelles</b> (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b.
+of noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and
+Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the
+Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in &rsquo;91, he was
+made President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document
+known as the <i>Constitution</i> of 1793, and was president and chief
+speaker at the national festival, 10 Aug. &rsquo;93. He drew on himself
+the enmity of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille
+Desmoulins, 5 April, 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Herbart</b> (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805
+he was made professor of philosophy at G&ouml;ttingen, and in 1808
+became Kant&rsquo;s successor at K&ouml;nigsberg and opposed his
+philosophy. Though religiously disposed, his philosophy has no room for
+the notion of a God. He was recalled to G&ouml;ttingen, where he died
+14 Aug. 1841.</p>
+<p><b>Herbert</b> (Edward), <i>Lord</i> of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b.
+Montgomery Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his
+travels. On his return he was made one of the king&rsquo;s counsellors,
+and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the
+Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself by
+romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in
+&rsquo;31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side
+of Parliament. His <span class="corr" id="xd20e8999" title=
+"Source: principle">principal</span> work is entitled <i lang="la">De
+Veritate</i>, the object of which was to assert the sufficiency of
+natural religion apart from revelation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e9005" href="#xd20e9005" name="xd20e9005">169</a>]</span>He also
+wrote <i>Lay Religion</i>, his own <i>Memoirs</i>, a <i>History of
+Henry VIII.</i>, etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.</p>
+<p><b>Hertell</b> (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and
+for some years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or
+three small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his
+influence in favour of State secularization.</p>
+<p id="hertzen"><b>Hertzen</b> or <b>Gertsen</b> (Aleksandr Ivanovich),
+Russian patriot, chief of the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March,
+1812. He studied at Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree.
+In &rsquo;34 he was arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon
+afterwards banished to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in
+&rsquo;37. He was expelled from Russia in &rsquo;42, visited Italy,
+joined the &ldquo;Reds&rdquo; at Paris in &rsquo;48, took refuge at
+Geneva, and soon after came to England. In &rsquo;57 he set up in
+London a Russian printing press for the publication of works prohibited
+in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in large
+numbers. Among his writings are <i>Dilettantism in Science</i>,
+&rsquo;42; <i>Letters on the Study of Nature</i>, &rsquo;45&ndash;46;
+<i>Who&rsquo;s to Blame?</i> &rsquo;57; <i>Memoirs of the Empress
+Catherine</i>, and <i>My Exile</i>, &rsquo;55. In &rsquo;57 Herzen
+started the magazine the <i>Kolokol</i> or <i>Bell</i>. Died at Paris,
+21 Jan. 1870. His son, <span class="sc">Alessandro Herzen</span>, b.
+Wladimar, 1839, followed his father&rsquo;s fortunes, learnt most of
+the European languages and settled at Florence, where he did much to
+popularise physiological science. He has translated Maudsley&rsquo;s
+<i>Physiology of Mind</i>, and published a physiological analysis of
+human free will.</p>
+<p><b>Herwegh</b> (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31
+May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for
+Literature. His <i>Gedichte eines Lebendigen</i> (Poems of a Living
+Man) aroused attention by their boldness. In &rsquo;48 he raised a
+troop and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and
+Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Hetherington</b> (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b.
+Soho, London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most
+energetic of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics&rsquo;
+institutes. He also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March,
+1830, which was the germ both of trades&rsquo; unionism and of the
+Chartist movement. He resisted <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9068"
+href="#xd20e9068" name="xd20e9068">170</a>]</span>the &ldquo;taxes upon
+knowledge&rdquo; by issuing unstamped <i>The Poor Man&rsquo;s
+Guardian</i>, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary
+to &ldquo;law,&rdquo; to try the power of &ldquo;might&rdquo; against
+&ldquo;right,&rdquo; &rsquo;31&ndash;35. For this he twice suffered
+sentences of six months&rsquo; imprisonment. He afterwards published
+<i>The Unstamped</i>, and his persistency had much to do in removing
+the taxes. While in prison he wrote his <i>Cheap Salvation</i> in
+consequence of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On
+Dec. 8, &rsquo;40, he was tried for &ldquo;blasphemous libel&rdquo; for
+publishing Haslam&rsquo;s <i>Letters to the Clergy</i>, and received
+four month&rsquo;s imprisonment. Hetherington published <i>A Few
+Hundred Bible Contradictions</i>, and other Freethought works. Much of
+his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He died 24 Aug.
+1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.</p>
+<p><b>Hetzer</b> (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell,
+Switzerland; was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the
+doctrine of the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates
+of Constance on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4
+Feb. 1529.</p>
+<p><b>Heusden</b> (C. J. van), Dutch writer in <i>De Dageraad</i>. Has
+written several works, <i>Thoughts on a Coming More Universal
+Doctrine</i>, by a Believer, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Hibbert</b> (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During
+the <span class="corr" id="xd20e9104" title=
+"Source: imprisoment">imprisonment</span> of Richard Carlile he was
+active in sustaining his publications. Learning that a distinguished
+political prisoner had received a gift of &pound;1,000, he remarked
+that a Freethinking prisoner should not want equal friends, and gave
+Carlile a cheque for the same amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly
+&pound;1,000 in fitting up Carlile&rsquo;s shop in Fleet Street. He
+contributed &ldquo;Theological Dialogues&rdquo; to the
+<i>Republican</i>, and also contributed to the <i>Poor Man&rsquo;s
+Guardian</i>. Hibbert set up a private press and printed in uncial
+Greek the <i>Orphic Hymns</i>, &rsquo;27, and also <i>Plutarch and
+Theophrastus on Superstition</i>, to which he wrote a life of Plutarch
+and appended valuable essays &ldquo;on the supposed necessity of
+deceiving the vulgar&rdquo;; &ldquo;various definitions of an important
+word&rdquo; [God], and a catalogue of the principal modern works
+against Atheism. He also commenced a <i>Dictionary of
+Anti-Superstitionists</i>, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9123"
+href="#xd20e9123" name="xd20e9123">171</a>]</span><i>Chronological
+Tables of British Freethinkers</i>. He wrote a short life of Holbach,
+published by James Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left
+&pound;500 each. Died December 1834.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e9129" title=
+"Source: Hidenin">Hedin</span></b> (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the
+&ldquo;<span lang="se">Andra Kammaren</span>&rdquo; [House of Commons],
+b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical
+candidate<span class="corr" id="xd20e9135" title="Source: .">,</span>
+&rsquo;61. Edited the <i lang="se">Aftonbladet</i>, &rsquo;74&ndash;76.
+Has written many radical works.</p>
+<p><b>Higgins</b> (Godfrey), English arch&aelig;ologist, b. Skellow
+Grange, near Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the
+bar, but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his
+father&rsquo;s property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which
+capacity he reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His
+first work was entitled <i lang="la">Hor&aelig; Sabbatic&aelig;</i>,
+1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In &rsquo;29 he published <i>An
+Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed</i> and <i>Celtic
+Druids</i>, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure of
+priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the origin
+of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily for
+about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,
+under the title of &ldquo;<i>Anacalypsis</i>, an attempt to draw aside
+the veil of the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of
+Languages, Nations, and Religions.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Hillebrand</b> (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at
+Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor at
+Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany, Karl was
+imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to France. He
+taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary to Heine. On
+the poet&rsquo;s death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a
+naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During
+the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the <i>Times</i>, and
+was taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he
+translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to the
+<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, <i lang=
+"fr">Revue des deux Mondes</i>, <i>North American Review</i>, etc. His
+best known work is on France and the French in the second half of the
+nineteenth century. Died at Florence, 18 Oct. 1884. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9177" href="#xd20e9177" name=
+"xd20e9177">172</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Hins</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy,
+Professor at Royal Athen&aelig;um, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As
+general secretary of the International, he edited <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Internationale</i>, in which he laid stress on
+anti-religious teaching. He contributed to <i lang="fr">La
+Libert&eacute;</i>, and was one of the prominent lecturers of the
+Societies <i lang="fr">Les Solidaires</i>, and <i lang="fr">La
+Libre-pens&eacute;e</i> of Brussels. He has written <i lang="fr">La
+Russie d&eacute; voil&eacute;e au moyen de sa litt&eacute;rature
+populaire</i>, 1883, and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Hippel</b> (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b.
+Gerdauen, Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it
+for law, and became in 1780 burgomaster of K&ouml;nigsberg. His
+writings, which were published anonymously, betray his advanced
+opinions. Died Bromberg, 23 April, 1796.</p>
+<p><b>Hittell</b> (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the
+<i>Evidences against Christianity</i> (New York, 1857): has also
+written <i>A Plea for Pantheism</i>, <i>A New System of Phrenology</i>,
+<i>The Resources of California</i>, a <i>History of San Francisco</i>,
+<i>A Brief History of Culture</i> (New York, 1875), and <i>St.
+Peter&rsquo;s Catechism</i> (Geneva, 1883).</p>
+<p><b>Hoadley</b> (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31
+July, 1836. He studied at Harvard, and in &rsquo;47 was admitted to the
+bar, and in &rsquo;51 was elected judge of the superior court of
+Cincinnati. He afterwards resigned his place and established a law
+firm. He was one of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory
+Bible reading in the public schools.</p>
+<p><b>Hobbes</b> (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,
+1588. In 1608 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e9236" title=
+"Source: beame">became</span> tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,
+with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the
+acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work <i>De Cive</i>. In
+1650 appeared in English his work on <i>Human Nature</i>, and in the
+following year his famous <i>Leviathan</i>. At the Restoration he
+received a pension, but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism
+and profaneness, passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed
+him. The latter years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of
+Devonshire, Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.</p>
+<p><b>Hodgson</b> (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of
+d&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>System of Nature</i> (1795). In 1794 he was
+confined <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9255" href="#xd20e9255"
+name="xd20e9255">173</a>]</span>in Newgate for two years for drinking
+to the success of the French Republic. In prison he wrote <i>The
+Commonwealth of Reason</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Hoelderlin</b> (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic
+poet, b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at
+T&uuml;bingen, but never took to the business. He wrote
+<i>Hyperion</i>, a fine romance (1797&ndash;99), and <i>Lyric
+Poems</i>, admired for their depth of thought. Died T&uuml;bingen, 7
+June, 1843.</p>
+<p><b>Hoijer</b> (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great
+Skedvi, Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University
+&rsquo;83, and teacher of philosophy &rsquo;98. His promotion was
+hindered by his liberal opinions. By his personal influence and
+published treatises he contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In
+1808 he became Professor of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June,
+1812.</p>
+<p id="holbach"><b>Holbach</b> (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von)
+<i>Baron</i>, b. Heidelsheim Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he
+spent most of his life. Rich and generous he was the patron of the
+Encyclop&aelig;dists. Buffon, Diderot, d&rsquo;Alembert, Helvetius,
+Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac, and other authors often
+met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin, and Priestley were also
+among his visitors. He translated from the German several works on
+chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English, Mark Akenside&rsquo;s
+<i>Pleasures of the Imagination</i>. He contributed many articles to
+the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>. In 1765 he visited England,
+and from this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works,
+usually put out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at
+Amsterdam <i>Christianity Unveiled</i>, attributed to Boulanger. The
+<i>Spirit of the Clergy</i>, translated, from the English of Trenchard
+and Gordon, was partly rewritten by d&rsquo;Holbach, 1767. His
+<i>Sacred Contagion or Natural History of Superstition</i>, was also
+wrongly attributed to Trenchard and Gordon. This work was condemned to
+be burnt by a decree of the French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770.
+D&rsquo;Holbach also wrote and published <i>The History of David</i>,
+1768, <i>The Critical History of Jesus Christ</i>, <i>Letters to
+Eugenia</i>, attributed to Freret, <i>Portable Theology</i>, attributed
+to Bernier, an <i>Essay on Prejudices</i>, attributed to M. Du M
+[arsais], <i>Religious Cruelty</i>, <i>Hell Destroyed</i>, and other
+works, said to be from the English. He also translated <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9319" href="#xd20e9319" name=
+"xd20e9319">174</a>]</span>the <i>Philosophical Letters</i> of Toland,
+and Collins&rsquo;s <i>Discourses on Prophecy</i>, and attributed to
+the latter a work with the title <i>The Spirit of Judaism</i>. These
+works were mostly conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by
+Naigeon, and the secret of their authorship was carefully preserved.
+Hence d&rsquo;Holbach escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his
+principal work <i>The System of Nature</i>, or <i>The Laws of the
+Physical and Moral World</i>. This text-book of atheistic philosophy,
+in which d&rsquo;Holbach was assisted by Diderot, professed to be the
+posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made a great sensation. Within two
+years he published a sort of summary under the title of <i>Good
+Sense</i>, attributed to the cur&eacute; Meslier. In 1773 he wrote on
+<i>Natural Politics</i> and the <i>Social System</i>. His last
+important work was <i>Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded
+upon Nature</i>. D&rsquo;Holbach, whose personal good qualities were
+testified to by many, was depicted in Rousseau&rsquo;s <i lang=
+"fr">Nouvelle H&eacute;loise</i> as the benevolent Atheist Wolmar. Died
+21 Jan. 1789.</p>
+<p><b>Holcroft</b> (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was
+successively a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His
+comedies &ldquo;Duplicity,&rdquo; 1781, and &ldquo;The Road to
+Ruin,&rdquo; 1792, were very successful. He translated the
+<i>Posthumous Works of Frederick the Great</i>, 1789. For his active
+sympathy with the French Republicans he was indicted for high treason
+with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794, but was discharged without a trial.
+Died 23 March, 1809.</p>
+<p><b>Holland</b> (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May,
+1836, graduated at Harvard in &rsquo;49, and in &rsquo;63 was ordained
+Unitarian minister at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he
+resigned, and has since written in the <i>Truthseeker</i>, the
+<i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Magazine</i>, etc. His principal work is
+entitled <i>The Rise of Intellectual Liberty</i>, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Hollick</b> (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec.
+1813. He was educated at the Mechanics&rsquo; Institute of that town,
+and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a
+public discussion with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on
+&ldquo;What is Christianity?&rdquo; On the failure of Owenism he went
+to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have
+had a large circulation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9377" href=
+"#xd20e9377" name="xd20e9377">175</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Hollis</b> (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of <i>Sober
+and Serious Reasons for Scepticism</i>, 1796; <i>An Apology for
+Disbelief in Revealed Religion</i>, 1799; and <i>Free Thoughts</i>,
+1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e9392" title=
+"Source: oppulent">opulent</span> dissenting family, was distinguished
+by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his
+beneficence.</p>
+<p><b>Holmes</b> (William Vamplew), one of Carlile&rsquo;s brave
+shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication.
+He was sentenced to two years&rsquo; imprisonment, 1 March, &rsquo;22,
+for selling blasphemous and seditious libels in <i>An Address to the
+Reformers of Great Britain</i>, and when in prison was told that
+&ldquo;if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was
+implied.&rdquo; On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and commenced
+the open sale of all the prohibited publications.</p>
+<p><b>Holwell</b> (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of
+the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a
+surgeon, went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against
+Surajah Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others
+in the &ldquo;Black Hole,&rdquo; 20th June, 1756, of which he published
+a <i>Narrative</i>. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On
+returning to England he published a dissertation directed against
+belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of
+church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5
+Nov. 1798.</p>
+<p><b>Holyoake</b> (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27
+Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of
+Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the
+abolition of the newspaper stamp&mdash;assisting when risk and danger
+had to be met&mdash;and he co-operated with his brother in the
+production of the <i>Reasoner</i> and other publications from &rsquo;45
+till &rsquo;62. Soon after this he printed and sub-edited the
+<i>National Reformer</i>, in which many of his Freethought articles
+appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentioned <i>Heaven and Hell</i>,
+<i>Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity</i>, <i>Thoughts on Atheism</i>,
+the <i>Book of Esther</i>, and <i>Daniel the Dreamer</i>. He also
+composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride in the
+character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting its
+welfare. His amiable spirit endeared <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e9435" href="#xd20e9435" name="xd20e9435">176</a>]</span>him to
+all who knew him. He died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts
+written on his deathbed, in which he repudiated all belief in
+theology.</p>
+<p><b>Holyoake</b> (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became
+mathematical teacher of the Mechanics&rsquo; Institution. Influenced by
+Combe and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in &rsquo;40 a Socialist
+missionary. In &rsquo;42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in
+the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>, Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal,
+and wrote <i>The Spirit of Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus</i>. He was
+soon arrested for a speech at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a
+question, that he would put the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug.
+&rsquo;42, he was sentenced to six months imprisonment, of which he
+gave a full account in his <i>Last Trial by Jury for Atheism in
+England</i>. In Dec. &rsquo;43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall the
+<i>Movement</i>, bearing the motto from Bentham, &ldquo;Maximise
+morals, minimise religion.&rdquo; The same policy was pursued in <i>The
+Reasoner</i>, which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many
+pamphlets we must notice the <i>Logic of Death</i>, &rsquo;50, which
+went through numerous editions, and was included in his most important
+Freethought work, <i>The Trial of Theism</i>. In &rsquo;49 he published
+a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In &rsquo;51 he first used the term
+&ldquo;Secularist,&rdquo; and in Oct. &rsquo;52 the first Secular
+Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In Jan.
+&rsquo;53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,
+and again in Oct. &rsquo;54. He purchased the business of James Watson,
+and issued many Freethought works, notably <i>The Library of
+Reason</i>&mdash;a series, <i>The Cabinet of Reason</i>, his own
+<i>Secularism</i>, <i>The Philosophy of the People</i>, etc. In
+&rsquo;60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out to Garibaldi.
+Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge, and has
+devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a history of the
+movement and contributed to most of its journals.</p>
+<p id="home"><b>Home</b> (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His
+legal ability was made known by his publication of <i>Remarkable
+Decisions of the Court of Session</i>, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to
+the bench as Lord Kames. He published <i>Essays on the Principles of
+Morality and Natural Religion</i> (1751), <i>Elements of Criticism</i>
+(1762), and <i>Sketches of the History of Man</i>, in <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9491" href="#xd20e9491" name=
+"xd20e9491">177</a>]</span>which he proved himself in advance of his
+age. Died 27 Dec. 1782.</p>
+<p><b>Hon</b>, Le (Henri). See <a href="#lehon">Le Hon</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Hooker</b> (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He
+studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D &rsquo;39. In &rsquo;55 he
+became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from &rsquo;65&ndash;85
+sole director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of
+science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.</p>
+<p><b>Hope</b> (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for
+his anonymous <i>Anastasius</i>, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also
+wrote an original work on <i>The Origin and Prospects of Man</i>
+&rsquo;31. Died at London 3 Feb. 1831.</p>
+<p><b>Houten</b> (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb.
+1837; he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In &rsquo;69 he
+was chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings
+on political economy. In &rsquo;88 he wrote a book entitled <i lang=
+"de">Das <span class="corr" id="xd20e9520" title=
+"Source: Causalitatgesatz">Causalit&auml;tgesetz</span></i> (The Law of
+Causality).</p>
+<p><b>Houston</b> (George). Was the translator of
+d&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>Ecce Homo</i>, first published in Edinburgh
+in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph Webb. A second edition was
+issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and was imprisoned two years in
+Newgate, with a fine of &pound;200. He afterwards went to New York,
+where he edited the <i>Minerva</i> (1822). In Jan. 1827, he started
+<i>The Correspondence</i>, which, we believe, was the first weekly
+Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He
+also republished <i>Ecce Homo</i>. Houston helped to establish in
+America a &ldquo;Free Press Association&rdquo; and a Society of Free
+Inquirers.</p>
+<p><b>Hovelacque</b> (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843.
+He studied law and made part of the groupe of <i lang="fr">la
+Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, with Asseline, Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He
+also studied anthropology under Broca and published many articles in
+the <i lang="fr">Revue d&rsquo;Anthropologie</i>. He founded with
+Letourneau, Thuli&eacute;, Asseline, etc. The &ldquo;<span lang=
+"fr">Biblioth&egrave;que des sciences contemporains</span>&rdquo; and
+published therein <i lang="fr">La Linguistique</i>. He also founded
+with the same the library of anthropological science and published in
+collaboration with G. Herv&eacute; a <i lang="fr">pr&egrave;cis</i> of
+Anthropology and a study of the <i>Negroes of Africa</i>. He has also
+contributed <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9563" href="#xd20e9563"
+name="xd20e9563">178</a>]</span>to the Dictionary of Anthropology. For
+the &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Biblioth&egrave;que
+Materialiste</span>&rdquo; he wrote a work on Primitive man. He has
+also published choice extracts from the works of Voltaire, Diderot and
+Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language, and a work on the <i>Avesta
+Zoroaster and Mazdaism</i>. In &rsquo;78 he was made a member of the
+municipal council of Paris, and in &rsquo;81 was elected deputy to the
+chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.</p>
+<p><b>Howdon</b> (John), author of <i>A Rational Investigation of the
+Principles of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral</i>, printed at
+Haddington, 1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.</p>
+<p><b>Huber</b> (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,
+1694. In a work on the <i>System of Theologians</i>, 1731, she opposed
+the dogma of eternal punishment. In &rsquo;38 published <i>Letters on
+the Religion essential to Man</i>. This was translated into English in
+the same year. Other works show English reading. She translated
+selections from the <i>Spectator</i>. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.</p>
+<p><b>Hudail</b> (Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (<i>Al Allaf</i>.)</p>
+<p><b>Huet</b> (Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec.
+1826. He became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through
+his Freethought left the church in &rsquo;63, and became editor of
+various newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of
+literary value, and published <i>Letters on the Bible</i>, &rsquo;57,
+etc. Died 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Hugo</b> (Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b.
+Besan&ccedil;on, 26 Feb. 1802. Was first noted for his <i>Odes</i>,
+published in &rsquo;21. His dramas &ldquo;Hernani,&rdquo; &rsquo;30,
+and &ldquo;Marion Delorme,&rdquo; &rsquo;31, were highly successful. He
+was admitted into the French Academy in &rsquo;41, and made a peer in
+&rsquo;45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of &rsquo;48,
+and was elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked
+Louis Napoleon, and after the <i>coup d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> was
+proscribed. He first went to Brussels, where he published <i>Napoleon
+the Little</i>, a biting satire. He afterwards settled at Guernsey,
+where he remained until the fall of the Empire, producing <i>The Legend
+of the Ages</i>, &rsquo;59, <i lang="fr">Les Miserables</i>, &rsquo;62,
+<i>Toilers of the Sea</i>, &rsquo;69, and other works. After his return
+to Paris he produced a new series of the <i>Legend of the Ages</i>,
+<i>The Pope</i>, <i>Religions and Religion</i>, <i>Torquemada</i>, and
+other poems. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9643" href="#xd20e9643"
+name="xd20e9643">179</a>]</span>He died 22 May, 1885, and it being
+decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon was secularised
+for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his death a poem
+entitled <i>The End of Satan</i> has been published.</p>
+<p><b>Hugues</b> (Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b.
+Menerbes, 3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but
+under the influence of Hugo left the black business. In &rsquo;71 he
+became head of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced
+to three years&rsquo; imprisonment. In &rsquo;81 he was elected deputy,
+and sits on the extreme left.</p>
+<p><b>Humboldt</b> (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious
+German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied
+under Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England
+with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general of
+mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico, and in
+1804 returned with <span class="corr" id="xd20e9657" title=
+"Not in source">a</span> rich collection of animals, plants and
+minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed the
+friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living
+distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions
+to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his
+celebrated <i>Cosmos</i>, the first volume of which appeared in
+&rsquo;45 and the fourth in &rsquo;58. To <a href=
+"#varnhagenvonense">Varnhagen von Ense</a> he wrote in 1841:
+&ldquo;Bruno Bauer has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years
+ago I wrote, &lsquo;<span lang="fr">Toutes les r&eacute;ligions
+positives offrent trois parties distinctes; un trait&eacute; de
+m&oelig;urs partout le m&ecirc;me et tr&egrave;s pur, un r&egrave;ve
+g&eacute;ologique, et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier
+&eacute;l&eacute;ment obtient le plus
+d&rsquo;importance.</span>&rsquo;&rdquo; Later on he says that Strauss
+disposes of &ldquo;the Christian myths.&rdquo; Humboldt was an
+unwearied student of science, paying no attention to religion, and
+opposed his brother in regard to his essay <i>On the Province of the
+Historian</i>, because he considered it to acknowledge the belief in
+the divine government of the world, which seemed to him as complete a
+delusion as the hypothesis of a principle of life. He died in Berlin, 6
+May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.</p>
+<p><b>Humboldt</b> (Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and
+philosopher, b. Potsdam, 22 June<span class="corr" id="xd20e9676"
+title="Source: .">,</span> 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to
+Paris in 1789, and hailed the revolution with <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9679" href="#xd20e9679" name=
+"xd20e9679">180</a>]</span>enthusiasm. In &rsquo;92 he published
+<i>Ideas on the Organization of the State</i>. He became a friend of
+Schiller and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He
+took part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia
+at the Congress of Vienna<span class="corr" id="xd20e9684" title=
+"Source: .">,</span> &rsquo;14. He advocated a liberal constitution,
+but finding the King averse, retired at the end of &rsquo;19, and
+devoted himself to the study of comparative philology. He said there
+were three things he could not comprehend&mdash;orthodox piety,
+romantic love, and music. He died 8 April, 1835. His works were
+collected and edited by his brother.</p>
+<p><b>Hume</b> (David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26
+April, 1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote his
+<i>Treatise on Human Nature</i>, published in 1739. This work then
+excited no interest friendly or hostile. Hume&rsquo;s <i>Essays Moral
+and Political</i> appeared in 1742, and in 1752 his <i>Inquiry
+Concerning the Principles of Morals</i> which of all his writings he
+considered the best. In 1755 he published his <i>Natural History of
+Religion</i>, which was furiously attacked by Warburton in an anonymous
+tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his <i>History of
+England</i>, which he did not complete till 1761. He became secretary
+to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was cordially
+welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing Rousseau
+with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767, and in 1769
+retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After his death his
+<i>Dialogues on Natural Religion</i> were published, and also some
+unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul, etc.
+Hume&rsquo;s last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous
+Dr. Adam Smith, considered him &ldquo;as approaching as nearly to the
+idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of
+human frailty will permit.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Hunt</b> (James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder
+of the Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president,
+&rsquo;63. He was the author of the <i>Negro&rsquo;s Place in
+Nature</i>, a work on Stammering, etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Hunt</b> (James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b.
+Southgate, Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and
+Coleridge at Christ&rsquo;s Hospital, London. He joined his
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9722" href="#xd20e9722" name=
+"xd20e9722">181</a>]</span>brother John in editing first the <i>Sunday
+News</i>, 1805, and then the <i>Examiner</i>, 1808. They were condemned
+to pay a fine, each of &pound;500, and to be imprisoned for two years,
+1812&ndash;14, for a satirical article, in which the prince regent was
+called an &ldquo;Adonis of fifty.&rdquo; This imprisonment procured him
+the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing the
+<i>Indicator</i> he was associated in editing the <i>Liberal</i>. He
+wrote many choice books of poems and criticisms, and in his <i>Religion
+of the Heart</i>, &rsquo;53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug.
+1859.</p>
+<p><b>Hutten</b> (Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble
+family Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda
+to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied
+<i>humaniora</i>. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in
+1510, and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He
+returned to Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of
+Maximilian. His great object was to free his country from
+sacerdotalism, and most of his writings are satires against the Pope,
+monks and clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council
+of Zurich drove <span class="corr" id="xd20e9747" title=
+"Source: him him">him</span> out of their territory and he died on the
+isle of Ufnau, Lake Z&uuml;rich, 29 Aug. 1523.</p>
+<p><b>Hutton</b> (James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at
+Edinburgh 3 June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and
+investigated the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a
+dissertation on <i>Light, Heat, and Fire</i>, and in his <i>Theory of
+the World</i>, 1795, attributes geological phenomena to the action of
+fire. He also wrote a work entitled <i>An Investigation of the
+Principles of Knowledge</i>, the opinions of which, says Chalmers,
+&ldquo;abound in sceptical boldness and philosophical
+infidelity.&rdquo; Died 26 March 1797.</p>
+<p><b>Huxley</b> (Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4
+May, 1825. He studied medicine, and in &rsquo;46 took M.R.C.S., and was
+appointed assistant naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities
+for his studies of natural history. In &rsquo;51 he was elected Fellow
+of the Royal Society, and in &rsquo;54 was made Professor at the School
+of Mines. In &rsquo;60 he lectured on &ldquo;The Relation of Man to the
+Lower Animals,&rdquo; and afterwards published <i>Evidence as to
+Man&rsquo;s Place in Nature</i> (1863). In addition to numerous
+scientific works, Professor Huxley has <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e9770" href="#xd20e9770" name="xd20e9770">182</a>]</span>written
+numerous forcible articles, addresses, etc., collected in <i>Lay
+Sermons</i>, &rsquo;70; <i>Critiques and Addresses</i>, &rsquo;73; and
+<i>American Addresses</i>, &rsquo;79. A vigorous writer, his
+<i>Hume</i> in the &ldquo;English Men of Letters&rdquo; series is a
+model of clear exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in
+his articles on the <i>Evolution of Theology</i>, and in his recent
+polemic with the Rev. Mr. Wace in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
+Professor Huxley shows all his freshness, and proves himself as ready
+in demolishing theological fictions as in demonstrating scientific
+facts. He states as his own life aims &ldquo;The popularising of
+science and untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that
+clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever
+denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Hypatia</b>, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in
+the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished
+lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of
+her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by
+St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked,
+cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story of
+Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of St.
+Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Bajjat. See <a href="#avempace">Avenpace</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Massara. See <a href="#massara">Massara</a> <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e9808" title="Not in source">in Supplement</span>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Rushd. See <a href="#averroes">Averroes</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Sab&icirc;n. See <a href="#sabin">Sabin</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Sina. See <a href="#avicenna">Avicenna</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibn</b> Tofail. See <a href="#abubakribnal-tufail">Abu
+Bakr</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ibsen</b> (Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b.
+Skien, 20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his
+attention to literature. In &rsquo;52, through the influence of Ole
+Bull, he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a
+great deal. From &rsquo;57 to &rsquo;63 he directed the theatre at
+Christiania. In the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing
+accorded him an annual pension for his services to literature. His
+dramas, <i lang="no">Brand</i>, (<i lang="no"><span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e9848" title="Source: Pier">Peer</span> Gynt</i>), <i lang=
+"no">Kejser og Galil&aelig;r</i> (C&aelig;sar [Julian] and the
+Galilean), <i lang="no">Nora</i>, and <i lang="no">Samfundets
+Stotler</i> (the Pillars of Society), and <i>Ghosts</i> exhibit
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9865" href="#xd20e9865" name=
+"xd20e9865">183</a>]</span>his unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open
+unbeliever in Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration
+through liberty, individuality, and education without superstition.</p>
+<p><b>Ilive</b> (Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol
+about 1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher,
+1751, and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in
+<i>Some Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock&rsquo;s Sermons</i>,
+and sentenced to two years&rsquo; imprisonment, 15 June, 1756&ndash;10
+June, 1758. He was confined in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and
+published some pamphlets exposing the bad condition of the prison and
+suggesting means for its improvement. He died in 1768.</p>
+<p><b>Imray</b> (I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile&rsquo;s
+<i>Republican</i> and <i>Lion</i>, and published
+&ldquo;Altamont,&rdquo; an atheistic drama, in 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Ingersoll</b> (Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New
+York, 11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He
+studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In
+&rsquo;62 he became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in
+the war, being taken prisoner. In &rsquo;66 he was appointed
+attorney-general for Illinois. At the National Republican Convention,
+&rsquo;76, he proposed Blaine for President in a speech that attracted
+much attention. In &rsquo;77 he refused the post of Minister to
+Germany. He has conducted many important cases, and defended C. B.
+Reynolds when tried for blasphemy in &rsquo;86. Col. Ingersoll is the
+most popular speaker in America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike
+at his command. He is well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches
+directed against Christianity. He had published the <i>Gods</i>,
+<i>Ghosts</i>, <i>Some Mistakes of Moses</i>, and a collection of his
+Lectures, &rsquo;83, and <i>Prose Poems and Extracts</i>, &rsquo;84.
+Most of his lectures have been republished in England. We mention
+<i>What must I do to be Saved?</i> <i>Hell</i>, <i>The Dying Creed</i>,
+<i>Myth and Miracle</i>, <i>Do I Blaspheme?</i> <i>Real Blasphemy</i>.
+In the pages of the <i>North American Review</i> Col. Ingersoll has
+defended Freethought against Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr.
+Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.</p>
+<p><b>Inman</b> (Thomas), B.A., physician and arch&aelig;ologist, b.
+1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9926" href="#xd20e9926" name=
+"xd20e9926">184</a>]</span>connected with the well-known shipping
+family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work on <i>Ancient
+Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names</i>, in which he deals with the
+evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was
+first published in &rsquo;69. A second edition appeared in &rsquo;73.
+He also wrote <i>Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed
+and Explained</i>, &rsquo;69, and a controversial Freethought work,
+entitled <i>Ancient Faiths and Modern</i>, published at New York
+&rsquo;76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool
+Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal
+Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring
+industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on the
+<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e9938" title=
+"Source: Preseervation">Preservation</span> and Restoration of
+Health</i>. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Iron</b> (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, <i>q.v</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Isnard</b> (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a
+work on <i>Spiritualism and Materialism</i>, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Isnard</b> (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb.
+1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared,
+&ldquo;The Law, behold my God. I know no other.&rdquo; He voted for the
+death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On
+the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the
+fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e9960" title="Source: Ffve">Five</span> Hundred. Died
+1830.</p>
+<p><b>Isoard</b> (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826.
+Was naval officer in &rsquo;48 but arrested as socialist in &rsquo;49.
+In &rsquo;70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote <i lang=
+"fr">Guerre aux J&eacute;suites</i>.</p>
+<p id="isoarddelisle"><b>Isoard Delisle</b> (Jean Baptiste Claude),
+called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743.
+When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left
+theology for literature. In 1769 he published the <i>Philosophy of
+Nature</i>, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was
+condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by
+many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to
+which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of
+Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little
+importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e9977" href="#xd20e9977" name="xd20e9977">185</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Jacob</b> (Andre Alexandre). See <a href="#erdan">Erdan
+(A.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Jacobson</b> (Augustus), American, author of <i>Why I do not
+Believe</i>, Chicago 1881, and <i>The Bible Inquirer</i>.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Jacobus</b> (Dom)&rdquo; Pseudonym of <a href=
+"#potvin"><span class="sc">Potvin</span> (Charles)</a> <i>q.v.</i></p>
+<p><b>Jacoby</b> (Leopold) German author of <i>The Idea of
+Development</i>. 2 vols. Berlin 1874&ndash;76.</p>
+<p><b>Jacolliot</b> (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne,
+1806. Brought up to the law, in &rsquo;43 he was made judge at
+Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work, <i>The Bible in
+India</i>, &rsquo;70. He also has written on <i>Genesis of
+Humanity</i>, &rsquo;76. <i>The Religions Legislators</i>,
+<i>Moses</i>, <i>Manu and Muhammad</i>, &rsquo;80, and <i>The Natural
+and Social History of Humanity</i>, &rsquo;84, and several works of
+travel.</p>
+<p><b>Jantet</b> (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e10043" title="Source: .">,</span> b. the first in 1826,
+the second in &rsquo;28, have published together able <i lang=
+"fr">Aper&ccedil;us Philosophiques</i> on R&egrave;nan&rsquo;s Life of
+Jesus, &rsquo;64, and <i lang="fr">Doctrine Medicale
+Mat&eacute;rialiste</i>, 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Jaucourt</b> (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of
+the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and
+Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and
+Leyden, furnished the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i> with many
+articles, and conducted the <i lang="fr">Biblioth&egrave;que
+Raisonn&eacute;e</i>. Died at Compi&egrave;gne, 3 Feb. 1779.</p>
+<p><b>Jefferies</b> (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his
+descriptions of nature in <i>The Gamekeeper at Home</i>, <i>Wild Life
+in a Southern Country</i>, etc. In his autobiographical <i>Story of My
+Heart</i> (1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker.
+Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Jefferson</b> (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell,
+Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in
+1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769&ndash;75. In
+1774 he published his <i>Summary Views of the Rights of
+British-Americans</i>. He drafted and reported to Congress the
+&ldquo;Declaration of Independence&rdquo; which was unanimously
+adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781,
+and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to
+Paris from 1785&ndash;89, secretary of state from 1789&ndash;93,
+vice-president 1791&ndash;1801 and third president of the United States
+1801&ndash;9. In &rsquo;19 he <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10082"
+href="#xd20e10082" name="xd20e10082">186</a>]</span>founded the
+University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July
+1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his <i>Dictionary of Biography</i> says
+&ldquo;In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.&rdquo; He
+spoke in old age of &ldquo;the hocus-pocus <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e10087" title="Source: phanton">phantom</span> of God, which like
+another Cerberus had one body and three heads.&rdquo; See his life by
+J. Parton.</p>
+<p><b>Johnson</b> (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and
+statesman, b. Bryant&rsquo;s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was
+educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became
+member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of
+cavalry &rsquo;12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians.
+Was member of Congress from 1807&ndash;19, and from &rsquo;29&ndash;37;
+a United States Senator from &rsquo;19&ndash;29, and Vice-President of
+the United States, &rsquo;37&ndash;40. Is remembered by his report
+against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of
+rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.</p>
+<p><b>Johnson</b> (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts,
+10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a
+&ldquo;Free Church&rdquo; at Lynn in &rsquo;53. He never attached
+himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were
+like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About &rsquo;46 he
+published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet,
+<i>Hymns of the Spirit</i>, <i>Oriental Religions in relation to
+Universal Religion</i>, of which the volume on India appeared in
+&rsquo;72, China &rsquo;77, and Persia &rsquo;84. Died Andover, 19 Feb.
+1882.</p>
+<p><b>Jones</b> (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b.
+Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of
+Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in &rsquo;44 in
+the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the
+<i>People&rsquo;s Paper</i>, <i>Notes to the People</i>, and other
+Chartist periodicals. In &rsquo;48 he was tried for making a seditious
+speech, and condemned to two years&rsquo; imprisonment, during which he
+wrote <i>Beldagon Church</i> and other poems. He stood for Halifax in
+&rsquo;47, and Nottingham in &rsquo;53 and &rsquo;57, without success.
+He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he
+died 26 Jan. 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Jones</b> (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of
+the French Revolution he became a leading member of the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10122" href="#xd20e10122" name=
+"xd20e10122">187</a>]</span>London Corresponding Society. Arrested at
+Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was
+subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the
+proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his
+liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On
+26 Dec. &rsquo;11 he was again convicted for &ldquo;a seditious and
+blasphemous libel.&rdquo; He was a resolute advocate of the rights of
+free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died
+Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.</p>
+<p><b>Jones</b> (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon,
+co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In &rsquo;27 he came over to
+Manchester, and in &rsquo;32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He
+became &ldquo;a social missionary,&rdquo; and had numerous debates with
+ministers, notably one on &ldquo;The Influence of Christianity&rdquo;
+with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in &rsquo;39. Lloyd
+Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and
+frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He
+contributed to the <i>New Moral World</i>, <i>Spirit of the Age</i>,
+<i>Glasgow Sentinel</i>, <i>Leeds Express</i>, <i>North British Daily
+Mail</i>, <i>Newcastle Chronicle</i>, and <i>Co-operative News</i>.
+Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind a <i>Life of Robert
+Owen</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Joseph II.</b>, Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria
+Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the
+Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany.
+He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in
+France as Count Falkenstein, saw d&rsquo;Alembert but did not visit
+Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience,
+suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of
+the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews.
+Carlyle says &ldquo;a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his
+day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He
+rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his
+bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;&mdash;flew at the throat of
+every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed.
+&lsquo;Disappear I say.&rsquo; A most prompt, severe, and yet
+beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must
+be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bent <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10157" href="#xd20e10157" name=
+"xd20e10157">188</a>]</span>to imitate him with profit. &lsquo;Very
+clever indeed&rsquo; says Friedrich, &lsquo;but has the fault<a id=
+"xd20e10159" name="xd20e10159"></a> (a terribly grave one!) of
+generally taking the second step without having taken the
+first.&rsquo;&rdquo; Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.</p>
+<p><b>Jouy</b> (Victor Joseph <span class="sc">Etienne de</span>),
+French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in
+India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of
+Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his
+plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.</p>
+<p><b>Julianus</b> (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople
+17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine
+he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned
+to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared C&aelig;sar. He made
+successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in
+361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to
+uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only
+fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e10172" title="Not in source">,</span> tact, industry,
+and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman
+Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361&mdash;26 June, 363),
+comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while
+seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the
+triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.</p>
+<p><b>Junghuhn</b> (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b.
+Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon.
+Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for
+botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and
+was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he
+simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he
+escaped to Algiers. In &rsquo;34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay
+Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical
+and geological survey. In &rsquo;54 he published his <i lang="nl">Licht
+en <span class="corr" id="xd20e10181" title=
+"Source: Schaduwbulden">Schaduwbeelden</span> uit de binnenlanden van
+Java</i> (Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which
+contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches
+of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much
+indignation from the pious, but also much agreement among <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10185" href="#xd20e10185" name=
+"xd20e10185">189</a>]</span>freethinkers, and led to the establishment
+of <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch
+Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21
+April, &rsquo;64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His <i>Light and
+Shadow pictures</i> have been several times reprinted.</p>
+<p><b>Kalisch</b> (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in
+Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he
+studied under Vatke and others. Early in &rsquo;49 he came to England
+as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild
+family. His critical <i>Commentary on the Pentateuch</i> commenced with
+a volume on Exodus, &rsquo;55, Genesis &rsquo;58, Leviticus in two
+vols. in &rsquo;67 and &rsquo;72 respectively. His rational criticism
+anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He published <i>Bible Studies</i>
+on Balaam and Jonah &rsquo;77, and discussions on philosophy and
+religion in a very able and learned work entitled <i>Path and
+Goal</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e10205" title="Source: .">,</span>
+&rsquo;80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott&rsquo;s series of
+Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Kames</b> (Lord). See <a href="#home">Home (Henry)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Kant</b> (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b.
+K&ouml;nigsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in
+1770. In 1781 he published his great work, <i>The Critick of Pure
+Reason</i>, which denied all knowledge of the &ldquo;Thing
+itself,&rdquo; and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In
+1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for his
+<i>Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason</i>. Kant effected a
+complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not
+yet exhausted. Died at K&ouml;nigsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.</p>
+<p><b>Kapila.</b> One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is
+known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya
+Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His
+aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.</p>
+<p><b>Karneades.</b> See <a href="#carneades">Carneades</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Keeler</b> (Bronson C.) American author of an able <i>Short
+History of the Bible</i>, being a popular account of the formation and
+development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Keim</b> (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17
+Dec. 1825. Was educated at T&uuml;bingen, and became professor
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10248" href="#xd20e10248" name=
+"xd20e10248">190</a>]</span>of theology at Z&uuml;rich. Is chiefly
+known by his <i>History of Jesus of Nazara</i>
+(&rsquo;67&ndash;&rsquo;72). He also wrote a striking work on
+<i>Primitive Christianity</i> (&rsquo;78), and endeavored to reproduce
+the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he
+was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was
+professor, 17 Nov. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Keith</b> (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine
+1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being
+confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and
+like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died
+Berlin, 25 May, 1778.</p>
+<p><b>Keith</b> (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b.
+Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender
+and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with
+distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under
+the Empress Elizabeth. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e10264" title=
+"Source: 1647">1747</span> he took service with Frederick the Great as
+field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him
+&ldquo;a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick,
+the more he knows him, likes him the better.&rdquo; From their
+correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of
+Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years&rsquo; war at
+Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of
+Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.</p>
+<p><b>Kenrick</b> (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford,
+Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name
+of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His
+first poetic production was a volume of <i>Epistles, Philosophical and
+Moral</i> (1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of
+scepticism. In 1775 he commenced the <i>London Review</i>, and the
+following year attacked Soame Jenyns&rsquo;s work on Christianity. He
+translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10
+June 1779.</p>
+<p><b>Kerr</b> (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville,
+Western Pennsylvania<span class="corr" id="xd20e10281" title=
+"Source: .">,</span> 15 March <span class="corr" id="xd20e10284" title=
+"Source: 1871">1827</span>. He was member of the Indiana Legislature
+&rsquo;56, and elected to Congress in &rsquo;74 and endeavoured to
+revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge,
+Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10287" href="#xd20e10287" name=
+"xd20e10287">191</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Ket</b>, <b>Kett</b>, or <b>Knight</b> (Francis), of Norfolk, a
+relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He
+was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14
+Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for &ldquo;divers detestable
+opinions against Christ our Saviour.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="khayyam"><b>Khayyam</b> (Omar) or <span class="sc">Umar
+Khaiyam</span>, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in
+the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his
+reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which
+E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his
+contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about
+1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be
+happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He
+makes his soul say, &ldquo;I myself am Heaven and Hell.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Kielland</b> (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e10309" title="Not in source">.</span> Stavanger, 18
+Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His
+stories, <i>Workpeople</i>, <i>Skipper Worse</i>, <i>Poison</i>, and
+<i>Snow</i> exhibit his bold opinions.</p>
+<p><b>Kleanthes.</b> See Cleanthes.</p>
+<p><b>Klinger</b> (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b.
+Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to
+the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting
+the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him
+&ldquo;a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.&rdquo; Died at
+Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.</p>
+<p><b>Kneeland</b> (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7
+April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister.
+He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the
+New Testament, 1823, <i>The Deist</i> (2 Vols.), &rsquo;22, edited the
+<i>Olive Branch</i> and the <i>Christian Inquirer</i>. He wrote <i>The
+Fourth Epistle of Peter</i>, &rsquo;29, and a <i>Review of the
+Evidences of Christianity</i>, being a series of lectures delivered in
+New York in &rsquo;29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April
+&rsquo;31 commenced the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, the oldest
+Freethought journal. In &rsquo;33 he was indicted and tried for
+blasphemy for saying that he &ldquo;did not believe in the God which
+Universalists did.&rdquo; He was sentenced 21 Jan. &rsquo;34, to two
+months&rsquo; imprisonment <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10359"
+href="#xd20e10359" name="xd20e10359">192</a>]</span>and fine of five
+hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in
+&rsquo;36, and he received two months&rsquo; imprisonment. Kneeland was
+a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon
+after left the <i>Boston Investigator</i> in the hands of P. Mendum and
+Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,
+1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical
+Dictionary</i>, was published in two volumes in 1852.</p>
+<p><b>Knoblauch</b> (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov.
+1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed
+against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept.
+1794.</p>
+<p><b>Knowlton</b> (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b.
+Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the <i>Fruits of
+Philosophy</i>, for which he was imprisoned in &rsquo;32. He was a
+frequent correspondent of the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, and held a
+discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of
+Harley. About &rsquo;29 he published <i>The Elements of Modern
+Materialism</i>. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.</p>
+<p id="knutzen"><b>Knutzen</b> (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein,
+1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at
+K&ouml;nigsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the
+adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles
+in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in
+Germany, and had followers who were called &ldquo;Gewissener,&rdquo;
+from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said
+there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is
+unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the
+existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless,
+and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience
+is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains
+great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.</p>
+<p><b>Koerbagh</b> (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633.
+He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published <i>A
+Flower Garden of all Loveliness</i>, a dictionary of definitions in
+which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and
+the writer fled to <span class="corr" id="xd20e10395" title=
+"Source: Culenborg">Culemborg</span>. There he translated a book
+<i lang="la">De Trinitate</i>, and began a work entitled <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10401" href="#xd20e10401" name=
+"xd20e10401">193</a>]</span><i>A Light Shining in Dark Places</i>, to
+illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk
+Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh
+was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned
+for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in
+prison, Oct. 1669.</p>
+<p><b>Kolb</b> (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b.
+Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an able <i>History of Culture</i>,
+1869&ndash;70. Died at Munich 15 May<span class="corr" id="xd20e10412"
+title="Source: .">,</span> 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Koornhert</b> (Theodore). See <a href="#coornhert">Coornhert
+(Dirk Volkertszoon.)</a></p>
+<p id="korn"><b>Korn</b> (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish
+birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the
+name of &ldquo;F. Nork,&rdquo; he wrote many works on mythology which
+may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst&rsquo;s
+<i lang="la">Bibliotheca Judaica</i>. We mention <i>Christmas and
+Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship</i>, Leipsic, &rsquo;36;
+<i>Brahmins and Rabbins</i>, Weissen, &rsquo;36; <i>The Prophet Elijah
+as a Sun Myth</i>, &rsquo;37; <i>The Gods of the Syrians</i>,
+&rsquo;42; <i>Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament</i>, 2
+vols. Stuttgart, &rsquo;42&ndash;&rsquo;43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,
+16 Oct. 1850.</p>
+<p id="krause"><b>Krause</b> (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific
+writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed
+to the <i lang="de">Vossische Zeitung</i> and <i lang=
+"de">Gartenlaube</i>. In &rsquo;63 he published, under the pen-name of
+&ldquo;Carus Sterne,&rdquo; a work on <i>The Natural History of
+Ghosts</i>, and in &rsquo;76 a work on <i>Growth and Decay</i>, a
+history of evolution. In &rsquo;77 he established with H&aelig;ckel,
+Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazine
+<i>Kosmos</i>, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted
+till &rsquo;82. In <i>Kosmos</i> appeared the germ of his little book
+on <i>Erasmus Darwin</i>, &rsquo;79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a
+preliminary notice. As &ldquo;Carus Sterne&rdquo; he has also written
+essays entitled <i>Prattle from Paradise</i>, <i>The Crown of
+Creation</i>, &rsquo;84, and an illustrated work in parts on <i>Ancient
+and Modern Ideas of the World</i>, &rsquo;87, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Krekel</b> (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14
+March, 1815. Went with parents to America in &rsquo;32 and settled in
+Missouri. In &rsquo;42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and
+afterwards county attorney. In &rsquo;52 he was elected <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10484" href="#xd20e10484" name=
+"xd20e10484">194</a>]</span>to the Missouri State Legislature. He
+served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the
+constitutional convention of &rsquo;65 and signed the ordinance of
+emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was
+appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, &rsquo;65. A pronounced
+Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife
+not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died
+at Kansas 14 July, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Krekel</b> (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents,
+Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her
+16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death,
+she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.</p>
+<p><b>Kropotkin</b> (Petr Aleksyeevich) <i>Prince</i>, Russian
+anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of
+Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological
+researches. In &rsquo;71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined
+the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years
+imprisonment, escaped &rsquo;76 and came to England. In &rsquo;79 he
+founded at Geneva, <i lang="fr">Le R&eacute;volt&eacute;</i> was
+expelled. Accused in France in &rsquo;83 of complicity in the outrage
+at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released
+in &rsquo;86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who
+translated Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Biology&rdquo; into Russian,
+died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.</p>
+<p><b>Laas</b> (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837.
+He has written three volumes on <i>Idealism and Positivism</i>,
+1879&ndash;&rsquo;84, and also on <i>Kant&rsquo;s Place in the History
+of the Conflict between Faith and Science</i>, Berlin, 1882. He was
+professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Labanca</b> (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the
+University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national
+movement of &rsquo;48, and in &rsquo;51 was imprisoned and afterwards
+expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also
+a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the
+martyr of Freethought, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Lachatre</b> (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a
+&ldquo;Library of Progress,&rdquo; in which has appeared his own
+<i>History of the Inquisition</i>, and <i>History of the Popes</i>,
+&rsquo;83. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10525" href="#xd20e10525"
+name="xd20e10525">195</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Lacroix</b> (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph
+<span class="sc">Krzyzanowski</span>, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His
+father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves Guyot <i>The Social Doctrines
+of Christianity</i>. In &rsquo;74 he was elected a municipal councillor
+of Paris. In &rsquo;77 he was sentenced to three months&rsquo;
+imprisonment for calling Jesus &ldquo;<i lang="fr">enfant
+adulterin</i>&rdquo; in <i lang="fr">Le Radical</i>. In Feb. &rsquo;81
+he was elected president of the municipal council, and in &rsquo;83
+deputy to the French parliament.</p>
+<p><b>Laffitte</b> (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb.
+1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his
+executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his
+master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e10546" title=
+"Source: appartment">apartment</span> of Comte. M. Laffitte has
+published discourses on <i>The General History of Humanity</i>,
+&rsquo;59, and <i>The Great Types of Humanity</i>, &rsquo;75&ndash;6.
+In &rsquo;78 he founded <i>La Revue Occidentale</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Lagrange</b> (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b.
+Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his <i>Analytical
+Mechanics</i>, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human
+intellect. He became a friend of D&rsquo;Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet,
+and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a
+God. Died 10 April 1813.</p>
+<p><b>La Hontan</b> (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666.
+In his account of <i>Dialogues with an American Savage</i>, 1704, which
+was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in
+Hanover, 1715.</p>
+<p><b>Lainez</b> (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650,
+of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a
+wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris
+18 April, 1710.</p>
+<p><b>Laing</b> (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the
+son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his
+degree &rsquo;32; called to the bar &rsquo;42; became secretary of the
+railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for
+Kirkwall &rsquo;52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers.
+In &rsquo;60 he became finance minister for India. His <i>Modern
+Science and Modern Thought</i>, &rsquo;85, is a plain exposition of the
+incompatibility of the old and new <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e10583" href="#xd20e10583" name="xd20e10583">196</a>]</span>view
+of the universe. In the <i>Modern Zoroastrian</i>, &rsquo;87, he gives
+the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by
+Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In &rsquo;88 he
+entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the
+subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.</p>
+<p><b>Lakanal</b> (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762.
+Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor
+into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792&ndash;5, and
+there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he
+retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president
+of the University of <span class="corr" id="xd20e10592" title=
+"Source: Louisana">Louisiana</span>. He returned to France after the
+Revolution of &rsquo;30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.</p>
+<p id="lalande"><b>Lalande</b> (Joseph J&egrave;rome <span class="sc"
+lang="fr">le Francais</span> de), distinguished French astronomer, b.
+Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a
+member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became
+Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published
+his <i>Treatise of Astronomy</i>, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir,
+which formed the basis of his <i>Origin of all Religions</i>, the idea
+of which he had taken from Lalande<span class="corr" id="xd20e10609"
+title="Source: ,">.</span> In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to
+save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the
+observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande&rsquo;s
+observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At
+Lalande&rsquo;s instigation Sylvain Mar&eacute;chal published his
+<i>Dictionary of Atheists</i>, to which the astronomer contributed
+supplements after Mar&eacute;chal&rsquo;s death. Lalande professed
+himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. His
+<i lang="fr">Bibliographie Astronomique</i> is called by Prof. de
+Morgan &ldquo;a perfect model of scientific bibliography.&rdquo; It was
+said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without
+receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.</p>
+<p><b>Lamarck</b> (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de <span class=
+"sc">Monet</span>) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated
+for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with
+distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany,
+and published <i>French Flora</i> in 1788, which opened to him the
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10629" href="#xd20e10629" name=
+"xd20e10629">197</a>]</span>Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at
+the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his
+<i>Zoological Philosophy</i>, a theory of transmutation of species. His
+<i>Natural History of Invertebrate Animals</i> (1815&ndash;22) was
+justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18
+Dec. 1829.</p>
+<p><b>Lamborelle</b> (Louis). Belgian author of books on <i>The Good
+Old Times</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e10644" title=
+"Source: Brussells">Brussels</span>, 1874; <i>The Apostles and Martyrs
+of Liberty of Conscience</i>, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical
+works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical
+views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.</p>
+<p id="lamettrie"><b>Lamettrie</b> (Julian <span class=
+"sc">Offray</span> de). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo,
+25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the
+Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under
+Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the
+French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen.
+Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical
+state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with
+which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in
+Holland. Here he published <i>The Natural History of the Soul</i>,
+under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp
+[Sharp], 1745. This was followed by <i>Man a Machine</i> (1748), a work
+which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the
+author&rsquo;s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a
+second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to
+D&rsquo;Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to
+knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion.
+Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an
+asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader
+(Feb. 1748). Here he published <i>Philosophical Reflections on the
+Origin of Animals</i> (1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He
+died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden
+of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he
+composed his funeral eulogy.</p>
+<p id="lamothelevayer"><b>La Mothe Le Vayer</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois de).
+French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis
+XIV., and was <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10670" href=
+"#xd20e10670" name="xd20e10670">198</a>]</span>preceptor to the Duke of
+Anjou. Published <i>The Virtue of Pagans</i> and <i>Dialogues after the
+Manner of the Ancients</i>, in which he gave scope to his scepticism.
+Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these
+contains <i>The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero</i> (Frankfort 1606,
+probably a false date). Died 1672.</p>
+<p><b>Lancelin</b> (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770.
+Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able
+<i>Introduction to the Analysis of Science</i>, 3 vols. 1801&ndash;3,
+and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805.
+Died Paris, 1809.</p>
+<p><b>Land</b> (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April,
+1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an
+edition of the philosopher&rsquo;s works in conjunction with J. van
+Vloten.</p>
+<p><b>Landesmann</b> (Heinrich). See <a href="#lorm">Lorm</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Landor</b> (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court,
+Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and,
+inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He
+published a volume of poems in 1795, and <i>Gebir</i> in 1798. An
+ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army
+against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum
+of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about
+1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his great <i>Imaginary
+Conversations</i>, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful
+language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his
+age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought
+sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.</p>
+<p><b>Lanessan</b> (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint
+Andr&eacute; de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a
+naval physician, and M.D. in &rsquo;68. He was elected in &rsquo;79 as
+Radical member of the <span class="corr" id="xd20e10713" title=
+"Source: Muncipal">Municipal</span> Council of Paris, and re-elected in
+&rsquo;81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the
+Department of the Seine. He founded <i lang="fr">Le Reveil</i>, edited
+the <i>Marseillaise</i>, and started the International Biological
+Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He
+has written a standard work on botany, and has <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10722" href="#xd20e10722" name=
+"xd20e10722">199</a>]</span>written vol. iii. of the
+&ldquo;Materialists&rsquo; Library,&rdquo; on the <i>Evolution of
+Matter</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Lanfrey</b> (Pierre), French author and senator, b.
+Chamb&eacute;ry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book on <i>The Church
+and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century</i>, &rsquo;55, and
+celebrated by his <i>History of Napoleon I.</i> &rsquo;67&ndash;75. M.
+Lanfrey also wrote <i>The Political History of the Popes</i>, a work
+placed on the <i>Index</i>. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Lang</b> (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844.
+Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his
+translation of the <i>Odyssey</i> with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful
+poems and ballads. He has written <i>In the Wrong Paradise</i>, and
+many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in <i>Custom
+and Myth</i>, &rsquo;84, and <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>,
+&rsquo;87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the
+evolutionary view of mythology.</p>
+<p><b>Lang</b> (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied
+theology under Baur at T&uuml;bingen, and became teacher at
+Z&uuml;rich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Lange</b> (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b.
+Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher
+in the gymnasium of Cologne, &rsquo;52. In &rsquo;53 he returned to
+Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of
+Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democratic
+<i>Landbote</i>, and filled various municipal offices. In &rsquo;70 he
+was called to the chair of philosophy at Z&uuml;rich, but resigned in
+&rsquo;72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov.
+1875. His fame rests on his important <i>History of Materialism</i>,
+which has been translated into English.</p>
+<p><b>Langsdorf</b> (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757,
+author of <i>God and Nature</i>, a work on the immortality of the soul,
+and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.</p>
+<p><b>Lankester</b> (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b.
+London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul&rsquo;s School and
+Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation
+of Haeckel&rsquo;s <i>History of Creation</i>, and has done much to
+forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10788" href="#xd20e10788" name=
+"xd20e10788">200</a>]</span>spiritist medium Slade, and procured his
+conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the
+University of London.</p>
+<p><b>La Place</b> (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b.
+Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant.
+Through the influence of D&rsquo;Alembert, La Place became professor of
+mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary
+abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he
+enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his <i>Exposition of
+the System of the Universe</i>, a popularisation of his greater work on
+<i>Celestial Mechanics</i>, 1799&ndash;1825. Among his sayings were,
+&ldquo;What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.&rdquo; Died Paris,
+5 March, 1827.</p>
+<p><b>Larevelliere-Lepaux</b> (Louis Marie <span class="sc">DE</span>),
+French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the
+ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in
+the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the
+proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment,
+and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with
+theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wrote <i>Reflections on
+Worship and the National F&ecirc;tes</i>. He became President of the
+Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty
+to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27
+March, 1824.</p>
+<p><b>Larousse</b> (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor
+parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He
+edited many school books and founded the <i lang="fr">Grand
+Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle</i>, 1864&ndash;77. This is a
+collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this
+century. Most of M. Larousse&rsquo;s colleagues were also Freethinkers.
+Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.</p>
+<p id="larra"><b>Larra</b> (Mariano Jos&eacute; de), distinguished
+Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to
+France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in &rsquo;22.
+At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed by
+<i lang="es">El Duende Satirico</i> (The Satirical Goblin). In
+&rsquo;31 <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10824" href="#xd20e10824"
+name="xd20e10824">201</a>]</span>appeared his <i lang="es">Pobrecito
+Hablador</i> (Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised
+the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its
+fourteenth number. He edited in the following year the <i lang=
+"es">Revista <span class="corr" id="xd20e10831" title=
+"Source: Espanola">Espa&ntilde;ola</span></i>, signing his articles
+&ldquo;Figaro.&rdquo; He travelled through Europe, and on his return to
+Madrid edited <i lang="es">El Mundo</i>. Larra wrote also some dramas
+and translated Lamennais&rsquo; <i lang="es">Paroles d&rsquo;un
+Croyant</i>. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April,
+1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra&rsquo;s scepticism, adds,
+&ldquo;Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the
+truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette
+paper!&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Larroque</b> (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March,
+1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse,
+1830&ndash;36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and
+Lyons, 1836&ndash;49. In the latter year he was denounced for his
+opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous
+works we mention <i lang="fr">De l&rsquo;Esclavage chez les Nations
+Chr&eacute;tiennes</i>, &rsquo;57, in which he proves that Christianity
+did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an <i>Critical
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e10850" title=
+"Source: Examnation">Examination</span> of the Christian Religion</i>,
+&rsquo;59, and a work on <i>Religious Renovation</i>, &rsquo;59, which
+proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while
+prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on <i>Religion and
+Politics</i>, &rsquo;78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Lassalle</b> (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German
+Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in
+Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a
+follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, &rsquo;46, was
+charmed with him. Humboldt called him &ldquo;Wunderkind.&rdquo; In 1858
+he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For
+planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was
+arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.</p>
+<p><b>Lastarria</b> (Jos&eacute; Victorino), Chilian statesman and
+Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to
+teaching and journalism, and in &rsquo;38 was appointed teacher of
+civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded
+several journals and literary societies. From &rsquo;43 he has been
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10869" href="#xd20e10869" name=
+"xd20e10869">202</a>]</span>at different times deputy to the
+legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served
+as minister to Peru and Brazil. In &rsquo;73 he founded the Santiago
+Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and his
+<i lang="it">Lecciones de Politicia Positiva</i> has been translated
+into French by E. de Rivi&egrave;re and others, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Lau</b> (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at
+K&ouml;nigsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at K&ouml;nigsberg and Halle,
+and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717
+he published in Latin, at Frankfort, <i>Philosophical Meditations on
+God, the World, and Man</i>, which excited an outcry for its
+materialistic tendency and was <span class="corr" id="xd20e10881"
+title="Source: supressed">suppressed</span>. He was a follower of
+Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed
+on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.</p>
+<p><b>Laurent</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), Belgian jurisconsult, b.
+Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In
+&rsquo;35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of
+Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement
+in &rsquo;80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his
+principal work is entitled <i>Studies in the History of Humanity</i>.
+He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon
+which he wrote, 1858&ndash;60. He also wrote <i>Letters on the
+Jesuits</i>, &rsquo;65. Died in 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Law</b> (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied
+the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the
+<i>Secular Chronicle</i>, 1876&ndash;1879.</p>
+<p><b>Lawrence</b> (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica,
+1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became
+acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was
+detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his
+<i>The Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women</i>, a free-love
+romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in
+French and English, a curious booklet <i>The Children of God</i>,
+London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the
+occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears in
+<i>The Etonian Out of Bounds</i>. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10914" href="#xd20e10914" name=
+"xd20e10914">203</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Lawrence</b> (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783.
+Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in &rsquo;13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two
+years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal
+College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his
+<i>Lectures on Man</i>, which on their publication in 1819 roused a
+storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest
+advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity,
+he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Layton</b> (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously
+observations on Dr. Bentley&rsquo;s <i>Confutation of Atheism</i>
+(1693), and a <i>Search After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in
+Man</i> (1700).</p>
+<p><b>Leblais</b> (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,
+1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled
+<i>Materialism and Spiritualism</i> (1865), to which Littr&eacute;
+contributed a preface.</p>
+<p><b>Le Bovier de Fontenelle.</b> See <a href=
+"#fontenelle">Fontenelle</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Lecky</b> (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin,
+26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which
+are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are
+<i>A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe</i>
+(&rsquo;65), <i>A History of European Morals from Augustus to
+Charlemagne</i> (&rsquo;69), and <i>A History of England in the
+Eighteenth Century</i> (1878&ndash;87).</p>
+<p><b>Leclerc</b> (Georges Louis). See <a href=
+"#buffon">Buffon</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Leclerc de Septchenes</b> (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to
+Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an
+essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of
+Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death.
+Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.</p>
+<p><b>Leconte de Lisle</b> (Charles Marie Ren&eacute;), French poet, b.
+Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to
+Paris, and took part in the revolution of &rsquo;48, but has since
+devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written also <i>A
+Republican Catechism</i> and <i>A Popular History of Christianity</i>
+(&rsquo;71). One of his finest poems is <i>Kain</i>. On being elevated
+to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in &rsquo;87, he gave umbrage
+to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10984" href="#xd20e10984" name=
+"xd20e10984">204</a>]</span>Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking
+of Moses as &ldquo;the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Lecount</b> (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was
+engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician
+in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he
+wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes
+entitled <i>A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil
+and other Old Matters</i>, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H.
+Hetherington (&rsquo;43). The author&rsquo;s name occurs on p. 144, vol
+i., as &ldquo;the Rev. Peter Lecount.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Leenhof</b> (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647.
+Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled
+<i>Heaven on Earth</i> (1703), which subjected him to accusations of
+Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.</p>
+<p><b>Lefevre</b> (Andr&eacute;), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov.
+1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the
+<i lang="fr">Magasin Pittoresque</i>. He wrote much in <i lang="fr">La
+Libre Pens&eacute;e</i> and <i lang="fr">La Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>;
+has translated <i>Lucretius</i> in verse (&rsquo;76), and written
+<i>Religions and Mythologies Compared</i> (&rsquo;77); contributed a
+sketchy <i>History of Philosophy</i> to the Library of Contemporary
+Science (&rsquo;78); has written <i>Man Across the Ages</i> (&rsquo;80)
+and the <i>Renaissance of Materialism</i> (&rsquo;81). He has also
+edited the <i lang="fr">Lettres Persanes</i> of Montesquieu, some
+<i>Dialogues</i> of Voltaire, and Diderot&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">La
+Religieuse</i> (&rsquo;86).</p>
+<p><b>Lefort</b> (C&eacute;sar), disciple of Comte. Has published a
+work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).</p>
+<p><b>Lefrancais de Lalande.</b> See <a href=
+"#lalande">Lalande</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Legate</b> (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b.
+about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King
+James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king
+asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had
+done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years.
+&ldquo;Away, base fellow!&rdquo; said His Majesty, &ldquo;It shall
+never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to
+the Savior for seven years together.&rdquo; He was burnt at Smithfield
+by the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11053" href="#xd20e11053"
+name="xd20e11053">205</a>]</span>King&rsquo;s writ, <i lang="la">De
+H&aelig;retico Comburendo</i>, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last
+persons so punished in England.</p>
+<p><b>Leguay de Premontval.</b> See <a href=
+"#premontval">Premontval</a>.</p>
+<p id="lehon"><b>Le Hon</b> (Henri) Belgian scientist, b.
+Ville-Pommer&oelig;ul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army,
+professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the
+Order of Leopold. Author of <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Homme Fossile en
+Europe</i>, &rsquo;66. Translated Professor Omboni&rsquo;s exposition
+of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Leidy</b> (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9
+Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of
+Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American
+pal&aelig;ontology.</p>
+<p><b>Leigh</b> (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the
+<i>Religions of the World</i>, 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Leland</b> (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He
+edited with Wakeman the journal <i>Man</i>. Died 2 June, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Lemaire</b> (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint
+Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols.,
+entitled <i>Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty</i>, Paris,
+1842.</p>
+<p><b>Lemonnier</b> (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles,
+1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he
+evinces his freethought sentiments.</p>
+<p><b>Lenau</b> (Nicolaus), <i>i.e.</i> Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von
+<span class="sc">Strehlenau</span>, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug.
+1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his
+constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died
+Ober-D&ouml;bling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.</p>
+<p><b>Lennstrand</b> (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,
+30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish
+Utilitarian Society, March &rsquo;88, and in May was sentenced to a
+fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th
+Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has
+written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions.
+In company with <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11116" href=
+"#xd20e11116" name="xd20e11116">206</a>]</span>A. Lindkvist he has
+founded the <i>Fritankaren</i> as the organ of Swedish freethought.</p>
+<p><b>Leontium</b>, Athenian Het&aelig;ra, disciple and mistress of
+Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a
+treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in
+a skilful and elegant manner.</p>
+<p><b>Leopardi</b> (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b.
+Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among
+poets by his lines addressed <i>To Italy</i>. His <i>Canti</i>,
+&rsquo;31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose
+essays, <i>Operette Morali</i>, &rsquo;27, are esteemed the finest
+models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi&rsquo;s short life
+was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character.
+As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of
+modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.</p>
+<p><b>Lequinio</b> (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b.
+Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar
+to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the
+death of Louis XVI. &ldquo;regretting that the safety of the state did
+not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.&rdquo; In
+1792 he published <i>Prejudices Destroyed</i>, signed &ldquo;Citizen of
+the World,&rdquo; in which he considered religion as a political chain.
+He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrote <i>Philosophy of the
+People</i>, 1796. Died 1813.</p>
+<p><b>Lermina</b> (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839.
+Founded the <i>Corsair</i> and <i>Satan</i>, and has published an
+illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France,
+1884&ndash;5.</p>
+<p><b>Lermontov</b> (Mikhail Yur&rsquo;evich), Russian poet and
+novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family,
+he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In
+&rsquo;32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and
+afterwards joined the Hussars. In &rsquo;37 some verses on the death of
+Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes
+in a work translated into English, &rsquo;53. His poems are much
+admired. <i>The Demon</i>, exhibiting Satan in love, has been
+translated into English, and so has his romance entitled <i>A Hero of
+Our Times</i>. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11168" href="#xd20e11168" name=
+"xd20e11168">207</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Leroux</b> (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b.
+Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer,
+he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype.
+In 1824 he became editor of the <i>Globe</i>. Becoming a Saint
+Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with
+Reynaud <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Encyclop&eacute;die Nouvelle</i>, and
+afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand the <i lang="fr">Revue
+Ind&eacute;pendante</i> (&rsquo;41), which became noted for its pungent
+attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is <i lang="fr">De
+l&rsquo;Humanite</i> (&rsquo;40). In June &rsquo;48 M. Leroux was
+elected to the Assembly. After the <i lang="fr">coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> he returned to London and Jersey. Died at
+Paris, 12 April, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Leroy</b> (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of
+Versailles, b<span class="corr" id="xd20e11193" title=
+"Source: ,">.</span> 1723, one of the writers on the <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>. He defended the work of Helvetius on the
+Mind against Voltaire, and wrote <i>Philosophical Letters on the
+Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals</i> (1768), a work
+translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.</p>
+<p><b>Lespinasse</b> (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft,
+14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at
+Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the
+<i lang="nl">Dageraad</i> he wrote many interesting studies under the
+pen-name of &ldquo;Titus,&rdquo; and translated the work of Dupuis into
+Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large
+farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.</p>
+<p><b>L&rsquo;Espinasse</b> (Julie Jeanne El&eacute;onore de). French
+beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the
+prot&eacute;g&eacute; of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of
+D&rsquo;Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit.
+Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.</p>
+<p><b>Lessing</b> (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet,
+b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became
+acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at
+Wolfenb&uuml;ttel he published <i>Fragments of an Unknown</i> (1777),
+really the <i>Vindication of Rational Worshippers of God</i>, by
+Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so
+clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings
+were <i>The Freethinker</i> and <i>Nathan the Wise</i>, his
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11229" href="#xd20e11229" name=
+"xd20e11229">208</a>]</span>noblest play, in which he enforces lessons
+of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was
+decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest
+German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.</p>
+<p><b>Lessona</b> (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has
+translated some of the works of Darwin.</p>
+<p><b>Leucippus.</b> Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.</p>
+<p><b>L&rsquo;Estrange</b> (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a
+view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26
+Feb. &rsquo;44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley&rsquo;s
+Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the
+&ldquo;cooking&rdquo; process there described, has been undergone by
+all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott&rsquo;s series
+valuable tracts on <i>Our First Century</i>, <i>Primitive Church
+History</i>, <i>Iren&aelig;us</i>, <i>Order</i>, <i>The Eucharist</i>.
+He also edited Hume&rsquo;s <i>Dialogues on Natural Religion</i>, and
+wrote <i>The First Ten Alleged Persecutions</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Levallois</b> (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In
+&rsquo;55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote <i lang=
+"fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e11270" title=
+"Source: Deism&eacute;">D&eacute;isme</span> et Christianisme</i>,
+1866.</p>
+<p><b>Lewes</b> (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London,
+18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In
+1845&ndash;6 appeared his <i>Biographical History of Philosophy</i>,
+which showed higher power. This has been republished as <i>History of
+Philosophy from Thales to Comte</i>. Lewes was one of the first to
+introduce English readers to Comte in his account of <i>Comte&rsquo;s
+Philosophy of the Sciences</i>, &rsquo;47. In &rsquo;49 he became one
+of the founders of the <i>Leader</i>, for which he wrote till
+&rsquo;54. In that year he began his association with &ldquo;George
+Eliot&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>). His <i>Life of Goethe</i> appeared in
+&rsquo;55, and from this time he began to give his attention to
+scientific, especially biological, studies. In &rsquo;64 he published
+an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of the
+<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, &rsquo;65, Lewes was appointed editor. His
+last work, <i>Problems of Life and Mind</i>, 5 vols.
+&rsquo;74&ndash;79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov.
+1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams&rsquo;s library.</p>
+<p><b>Lichtenberg</b> (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and
+scientist, b. Ober-Ramst&auml;dt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11307" href="#xd20e11307" name=
+"xd20e11307">209</a>]</span>he left many thoughts showing his advanced
+opinions. Died G&ouml;ttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.</p>
+<p><b>Lick</b> (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg,
+Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large
+fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and
+bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for
+other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Lilja</b> (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808.
+Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote,
+on <i>Man; his Life and Destiny</i>. Died Lund 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Lincoln</b> (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,
+b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his
+election (Nov. &rsquo;60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of
+slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he &ldquo;read Volney
+and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he
+reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he
+never denied or regretted its composition.&rdquo; Mrs. Lincoln said,
+&ldquo;Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of
+those words.&rdquo; Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the
+following morning.</p>
+<p><b>Lindet</b> (Robert Thomas), &ldquo;apostate&rdquo; French bishop,
+b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his
+district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was
+made Bishop of L&rsquo;Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7
+Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals
+should take the place of religious ones. He became member of the
+<i lang="fr">Conseil des Anciens</i>. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and
+was buried without religious service.</p>
+<p><b>Lindh</b> (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833.
+Studied at Helsingfors University, &rsquo;51&ndash;57; became lawyer in
+&rsquo;71, and is now a member of the <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e11336" title="Source: Muncipal">Municipal</span> Council of
+Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from
+the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have
+brought him into controversy with the clergy.</p>
+<p><b>Lindkvist</b> (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11343" href="#xd20e11343" name=
+"xd20e11343">210</a>]</span>of pious parents. At the University of
+Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the
+works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of
+poems, <i>Snow Drops</i> and <i>April Days</i>, and lost a stipend at
+the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of
+Jesus entitled <i>The Reformer from Galilee</i>. Mr. Lindkvist has
+visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In
+&rsquo;88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought,
+and in Nov. received a month&rsquo;s imprisonment for having translated
+one of J. Symes&rsquo;s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now edits <i lang=
+"se">Fritankaren</i> in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.</p>
+<p><b>Lindner</b> (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau,
+28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained
+in several works on music. He edited the <i lang="de">Vossische
+Zeitung</i> from &rsquo;63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.</p>
+<p id="liniere"><b>Liniere</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois <span class=
+"sc">Payot</span> de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as
+the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did
+was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it.
+Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a
+criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.</p>
+<p><b>Linton</b> (Eliza, n&eacute;e <span class="sc">Lynn</span>)
+novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland,
+b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical
+journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must
+mention <i>Under which Lord?</i> and <i>The Rebel of the Family</i>. In
+&rsquo;72 she published <i>The True History of Joshua Davidson</i>,
+<i>Christian and Communist</i>, and in &rsquo;85 the <i>Autobiography
+of Christopher Kirkland</i>. She has also written on the woman
+question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.</p>
+<p><b>Linton</b> (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at
+London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated
+with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic
+press, and also, we believe, to the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>. He wrote
+the <i>Reasoner</i> tract on &ldquo;The Worth of Christianity.&rdquo;
+He was one of the founders of the <i>Leader</i>, has edited the
+<i>Truthseeker</i>, the <i>National</i> and the <i>English
+Republic</i>, and has published <i>Famine a Masque</i>, a <i>Life of
+Paine</i>, and a memoir of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11423"
+href="#xd20e11423" name="xd20e11423">211</a>]</span><i>James Watson</i>
+and some volumes of poems. In &rsquo;67 he went to America, but has
+recently returned.</p>
+<p><b>Liscow</b> (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German
+satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and
+became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor
+of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with
+literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow&rsquo;s principal
+satires are <i>The Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation</i> and
+<i>The Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers</i>. He has been called
+the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken
+Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Lisle</b> (Lionel), author of <i>The Two Tests: the Supernatural
+Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules</i> (London,
+1877).</p>
+<p id="liszinski"><b>Liszinski</b> (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble
+birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and
+Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His
+ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the
+statements in Liszinski&rsquo;s papers was that man was the creator of
+God, whom he had formed out of nothing.</p>
+<p><b>Littre</b> (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and
+philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and
+most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors
+of the <i>National</i>. His edition of the works of Hippocrates
+(1839&ndash;61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced
+the doctrines of Comte, and in &rsquo;45 published a lucid analysis of
+the Positive Philosophy. He translated the <i>Life of Jesus</i>, by
+Strauss, and wrote the <i>Literary History of France</i>. His
+<i>Dictionary of the French Language</i>, in which he applied the
+historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever
+performed by one man. He wrote on <i>Comte and Positive Philosophy</i>,
+<i>Comte and Mill</i>, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later
+vagaries. From &rsquo;67 till his death he conducted <i>La Philosophie
+Positive</i>. Littr&eacute; also wrote <i>Science from the Standpoint
+of Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;73; <i>Literature and History</i>, &rsquo;75;
+<i>Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology</i>,
+&rsquo;76. He was proposed for the Academy in &rsquo;63, but was
+bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in &rsquo;71. In
+the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in &rsquo;75
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11484" href="#xd20e11484" name=
+"xd20e11484">212</a>]</span>was chosen senator. Under the Empire he
+twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant
+labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Lloyd</b> (John William), American poet and writer, b. of
+Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly
+self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became
+assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became
+an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in <i>Liberty</i> and
+<i>Lucifer</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Lohmann</b> (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied
+a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he
+practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the <i>Mirror
+of Faith</i>. Died 1642.</p>
+<p><b>Lollard</b> (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end
+of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected
+the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve
+apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers.
+Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great
+courage.</p>
+<p><b>Loman</b> (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep.
+1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the
+Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many
+critical works.</p>
+<p><b>Lombroso</b> (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov.
+1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism
+to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the
+physiology of criminals.</p>
+<p><b>Longet</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Achille), French physiologist, b. St.
+Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published a <i>Treatise on Physiology</i> in 3
+vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Longiano</b> (Sebastiano). See <a href="#fausto"><span class=
+"sc">Fausto</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Longue</b> (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service
+of the house of Conti; wrote <i lang="fr">Les Princesses de
+Malabares</i>, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was
+condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in
+Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.</p>
+<p><b>Lorand</b> (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11542" href="#xd20e11542" name=
+"xd20e11542">213</a>]</span>law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an
+active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the
+University and in workmen associations. He edits <i lang="fr">La
+R&eacute;forme</i> at Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of
+Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed
+an association for the suppression of the standing army.</p>
+<p id="lorm">&ldquo;<b>Lorm</b> (Hieronymus),&rdquo; the pen name of
+Heinrich <span class="sc">Landesmann</span>. German pessimistic poet,
+b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he
+has written essays entitled <i>Nature and Spirit</i>, Vienna,
+&rsquo;84.</p>
+<p><b>Lozano</b> (Fernando), Spanish writer in <i lang="es">Las
+Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento</i>, where he uses the signature
+&ldquo;Demofilo.&rdquo; He has written <i>Battles of Freethought</i>,
+<i>Possessed by the Devil</i>, <i>The Church and Galeote</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Lubbock</b> (Sir John), banker, arch&aelig;ologist, scientist and
+statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken
+into his father&rsquo;s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a
+partner in &rsquo;56. By his arch&aelig;ological works he has most
+distinguished himself. He has written <i>Prehistoric Times as
+Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern
+Savages</i> (&rsquo;65), and <i>The Origin of Civilisation and the
+Primitive Condition of Man</i> (&rsquo;70).</p>
+<p><b>Lucretius Carus</b> (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 99. Little is known of his life, but his
+name is immortalised by his atheistic work, <i>De Rerum Natura</i>, in
+six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius
+has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he
+expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests
+philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own
+hand <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 55.</p>
+<p><b>Luetzelberger</b> (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b.
+Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote
+on <i>The Church Tradition of the Apostle John</i>. He also wrote a
+work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck&rsquo;s <i>Qu&rsquo;est ce que la
+Religion</i>. In &rsquo;56 he was appointed town librarian at
+Nuremberg.</p>
+<p><b>Lunn</b> (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets <i>On
+Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc.</i> 1839, and <i>Divine Revelation
+Examined</i>, 1841. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11617" href=
+"#xd20e11617" name="xd20e11617">214</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Luys</b> (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is
+physician at l&rsquo;Hopital de la Charit&eacute;, Paris, and author of
+a work on <i>The Brain and its Functions</i> in the
+&ldquo;International Scientific Series.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Lyell</b> (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14
+Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself
+to geology. In 1830&ndash;33 appeared his great work, <i>The Principles
+of Geology</i>, which went through numerous editions. His last
+important work was <i>Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man</i>,
+in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Maccall</b> (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated
+at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as
+insufficiently broad. He wrote <i>Elements of Individualism</i>
+(&rsquo;47), translated Spinoza&rsquo;s Treatise on Politics
+(&rsquo;54), wrote to the <i>Critic</i> as &ldquo;Atticus,&rdquo;
+contributed to the <i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Secular Review</i>,
+etc., published <i>Foreign Biographies</i> (&rsquo;73), and translated
+Dr. Letourneau&rsquo;s <i>Biology</i> and other works. Maccall was an
+idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19
+Nov. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Macchi</b> (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818.
+Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming
+obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was
+deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism,
+founded <i>l&rsquo;Italia</i>, a Republican journal, for which he was
+exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in
+the <i>Libero Pensiero</i> and the <i>Libero Pensatore</i>, and founded
+an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In &rsquo;61 he was elected
+deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in &rsquo;79 was elevated to the
+Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on
+the <i>Council of Ten</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Macdonald</b> (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York
+<i>Truthseeker</i>, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the
+printer&rsquo;s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M.
+Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr.
+Bennett&rsquo;s death.</p>
+<p><b>Macdonald</b> (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11686" href="#xd20e11686" name=
+"xd20e11686">215</a>]</span>the <i>Truthseeker</i>, and now conducts
+<i>Freethought</i>, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam.
+George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>McDonnell</b> (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824.
+Author of <i>The Heathens of the Heath</i> and <i>Exeter Hall</i>,
+&rsquo;73, both Freethought romances.</p>
+<p><b>Mackay</b> (Robert William), author of <i>The Progress of the
+Intellect</i>, 1850, <i>Sketch of the Rise and Progress of
+Christianity</i>, &rsquo;53, and <i>The Tubingen School</i>,
+&rsquo;63.</p>
+<p><b>Mackey</b> (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of
+Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He
+wrote <i>The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients</i>, Norwich,
+1822&ndash;24, <i>Pious Frauds</i>, &rsquo;26, A Lecture on Astronomy
+and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, &rsquo;32, <i>Urania&rsquo;s
+Key</i> to the Revelation, &rsquo;33, and <i>The Age of Mental
+Emancipation</i>, &rsquo;36&ndash;39. Mackey also wrote the
+<i>Sphinxiad</i>, a rare book. Died 1846.</p>
+<p><b>Mackintosh</b> (Thomas Simmons), author of <i>The Electrical
+Theory of the Universe</i>, 1848, and <i>An Inquiry into the Nature of
+Responsibility</i>. Died 1850.</p>
+<p><b>MacSweeney</b> (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He
+came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830,
+adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the
+<i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, and other papers.
+He published a pamphlet on <i>Moses and Bacchus</i> in 1874. Died Jan.
+1881.</p>
+<p><b>Madach</b> (Imr&eacute;), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan.
+1823<span class="corr" id="xd20e11763" title="Source: .">,</span> at
+Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards
+lived at Cseszlova. He was in &rsquo;52 incarcerated for a year for
+having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in
+&rsquo;61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem
+<i lang="hu">Az Ember <span class="corr" id="xd20e11768" title=
+"Source: Trag&eacute;diaja">Trag&eacute;di&aacute;ja</span></i> (The
+Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer
+in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct.
+1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Maier</b> (Lodewyk). See <a href="#meyer">Meyer</a>.</p>
+<p id="maillet"><b>Maillet</b> (Ben&ocirc;it de). French author, b.
+Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and
+at <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11782" href="#xd20e11782" name=
+"xd20e11782">216</a>]</span>Leghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan.
+1738. After his death was published &ldquo;Telliamed&rdquo; (the
+anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was
+originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man
+included, owes its origin to the sea.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Mainlaender</b>&rdquo; (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp
+<span class="sc">Batz</span>, German pessimist, author of a profound
+work entitled the <i>Philosophy of Redemption</i>, the first part of
+which was published in 1876. It was said that
+&ldquo;Mainl&auml;nder&rdquo; committed suicide in that year, but the
+second part of his work has come out 1882&ndash;86. He holds that
+Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to
+Atheism. &ldquo;God is dead, and his death was the life of the
+world.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Malherbe</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He
+served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of
+Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes.
+Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told
+upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like
+others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.</p>
+<p><b>Mallet</b> (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on <i>The
+Bible</i>, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).</p>
+<p><b>Malon</b> (Beno&icirc;t). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne,
+1841. One of the founders of the <i>International</i>; he has written a
+work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He
+is editor on <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Intransigeant</i>, conducted the
+<i lang="fr">Revue Socialiste</i>, and has written on the religion and
+morality of the Socialists and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Malvezin</b> (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June
+1841. Author of <i lang="fr">La Bible Farce</i> (Brussels, 1879.) This
+work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to
+three month&rsquo;s imprisonment. He conducts the review <i lang=
+"fr">La Fraternit&eacute;</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Mandeville</b> (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine,
+was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he
+published a poetical satire, <i>The Grumbling Hive</i>, or Knaves
+Turned Honest. In 1709, he published <i>The Virgin Unmasked</i>, and in
+1723, <i>Free Thoughts on Religion the Church and <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11842" href="#xd20e11842" name=
+"xd20e11842">217</a>]</span>National Happiness</i>. In the same year
+appeared his <i>Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public
+Benefits</i>. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex,
+1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville
+replied to Berkeley in <i>A Letter to Dion</i>, occasioned by a book
+called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote <i>An
+Inquiry of Honor</i>, and <i>Usefulness of Christianity in War</i>,
+1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.</p>
+<p><b>Mantegazza</b> (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct.
+1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled
+considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first
+book <i>The Physiology of Pleasure</i>. He has also written on the
+physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on
+Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romance <i lang="it">Il Dio
+Ignoto</i>, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most
+popular and able of Italian writers.</p>
+<p><b>Manzoni</b> (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847,
+studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on
+the doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer <i>A Life of Jesus</i>,
+also <i lang="it">Il Prete</i>, a work translated into German with the
+title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Marchena</b> (Jos&eacute;), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia,
+1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French
+philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he
+became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced
+<i lang="fr">Essai de Th&eacute;ologie</i>, 1797, and translated into
+Spanish Moli&egrave;re&rsquo;s <i>Tartufe</i>, and some works of
+Voltaire. He translated <span class="corr" id="xd20e11888" title=
+"Source: Dupins">Dupuis</span>&rsquo; <i lang="fr">Origine de tous les
+Cultes</i>, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.</p>
+<p><b>Marechal</b> (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug.
+1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of
+literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place
+by his <i>Book Escaped from the Deluge</i>, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech
+(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In
+1781 he wrote <i lang="fr">Le Nouveau Lucrece</i>. In 1788 appeared his
+<i>Almanack of Honest People</i>, in which the name of Jesus Christ was
+found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament,
+burnt at the hands of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11907"
+href="#xd20e11907" name="xd20e11907">218</a>]</span>hangman, and
+Mar&eacute;chal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution,
+and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he
+published his <i>Code of a Society of Men without God</i>, and <i>Free
+Thoughts on the Priests</i>. In 1799 appeared his most learned work,
+<i>Travels of Pythagoras</i> in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,
+Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Mar&eacute;chal puts a host of
+bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he
+published his famous <i>Dictionary of Atheists</i>, which the
+Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the
+following year appeared his <i>For and Against the Bible</i>. Died at
+Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by
+Lalande.</p>
+<p><b>Maret</b> (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4
+March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits <i>Le
+Radical</i>; was elected deputy in &rsquo;81.</p>
+<p><b>Marguerite</b>, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I.
+b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to
+religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.</p>
+<p><b>Marguetel de Saint Denis.</b> See <a href="#saintevremond">Saint
+Evremond (C.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Mario</b> (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited
+the <i>Tribune</i> and <i>Free Italy</i>, became aide-de-camp to
+Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In &rsquo;60 he
+wrote a polemic against the papacy entitled <i>Slavery and Thought</i>.
+Died 2 June, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Marlow</b> (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b.
+Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he
+took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and
+according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at
+Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information
+laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius
+is displayed in <i>Tamburlaine</i> and <i>Dr. Faustus</i>. Of the
+latter, Goethe said &ldquo;How greatly is it all planned.&rdquo;
+Swinburne says &ldquo;He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring
+and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Marr</b> (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of <i>Religious
+Excursions</i>, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.</p>
+<p><b>Marsais</b> (Cesar Chesneau du). See <a href="#dumarsais">Du
+Marsais</a>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11981" href=
+"#xd20e11981" name="xd20e11981">219</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Marselli</b> (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832.
+Author of advanced works on the Science of History, <i>Nature and
+Civilisation</i>, the <i>Origin of Humanity</i>, the <i>Great Races of
+Humanity</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Marston</b> (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug.
+1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of
+D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere.
+Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in
+unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.</p>
+<p><b>Marsy</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as
+a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was
+confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.</p>
+<p><b>Marten</b> (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at
+Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in
+1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed
+his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King
+Charles&rsquo;s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He
+proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and
+when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the
+words &ldquo;and all fools.&rdquo; Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he
+was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls
+him &ldquo;sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little
+Pagan if not better.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Martin</b> (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol,
+1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the <i>Bristol
+Magazine</i>. She wrote the <i>Exiles of Piedmont</i> and translated
+from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and
+Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought
+cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about
+committing the &ldquo;crime&rdquo; for which they were imprisoned. In
+&rsquo;43 she published <i>Baptism A Pagan Rite</i>. This was followed
+by <i>Tracts for the People</i> on the Bible no Revelation, Religion
+Superseded, Prayer, God&rsquo;s Gifts and Men&rsquo;s Duties, a
+conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on
+the <i>Punishment of Death</i>, to which she was earnestly opposed.
+Died Oct. 1851. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12027" href=
+"#xd20e12027" name="xd20e12027">220</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Martin</b> (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St.
+Quentin<span class="corr" id="xd20e12032" title="Source: .">,</span> 20
+Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for
+history. His <i>History of France</i>, in nineteen vols.
+(1838&ndash;53), is a monumental work of erudition<span class="corr"
+id="xd20e12038" title="Source: ,">.</span> A confirmed Republican, he
+warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of
+the National Assembly, &rsquo;71<span class="corr" id="xd20e12041"
+title="Source: .">,</span> and senator, &rsquo;76. He was elected
+member of the Academy, &rsquo;78. In addition to his historical works
+he contributed to <i lang="fr">le Siecle</i>, <i lang="fr">la
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e12050" title=
+"Source: Liberte">Libert&eacute;</span> de penser</i>, and <i lang=
+"fr">l&rsquo;Encyclop&eacute;die Nouvelle</i>, etc. Died 14 Dec.
+1883.</p>
+<p><b>Martin</b> (Louis), author of <i lang="fr">Les Evangiles Sans
+Dieu</i> (called by Victor Hugo <i lang="fr">cette noble page</i>),
+Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.</p>
+<p><b>Martin</b> (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April,
+1811, editor of the <i lang="fr">Morale Independante</i> and member of
+the Institute of Geneva. For his <i>True and False Catholics</i>
+(&rsquo;58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six
+months. He published the <i lang="fr">Annuaire Philosophique</i>.
+Several of his works are placed on the Roman <i>Index</i>. Died Paris,
+6 April, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Martinaud</b> (M.), an ex-abb&eacute; who refused ordination, and
+wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to
+his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, &ldquo;Religion is the
+infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Martineau</b> (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from
+a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing
+Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a
+means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political
+economy. The <i>Letters on the Laws of Man&rsquo;s Nature and
+Development</i>, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared
+in &rsquo;51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of
+Thought. In &rsquo;53 she issued a condensed account of Comte&rsquo;s
+philosophy. She wrote a <i>History of England during the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; Peace</i>, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27
+June, 1876. Her <i>Autobiography</i>, published after her death, shows
+the full extent of her unbelief.</p>
+<p><b>Masquerier</b> (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot
+descent, b. 1 March, 1802. Wrote <i>The Sataniad</i>, established
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12108" href="#xd20e12108" name=
+"xd20e12108">221</a>]</span><i>Greenpoint Gazette</i>, and contributed
+to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>. Died 7 Jan. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Massenet</b> (Jules Emile Fr&eacute;deric), French musical
+composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular
+oratorio on <i>Marie Magdeleine</i>, and an opera,
+<i>Herodiade</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Massey</b> (Gerald), poet and arch&aelig;ologist, b. of poor
+parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was
+sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen
+he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and
+became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of
+&rsquo;48, he started <i>The Spirit of Freedom</i>, &rsquo;49. It cost
+him five situations in eleven months. In &rsquo;53 his <i>Ballad of
+Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poems</i> at once gave him position
+as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to
+the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his <i>Book of
+Beginnings</i> and <i>Natural Genesis</i>, &rsquo;81&ndash;83, in which
+he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also
+lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don&rsquo;t God Kill the Devil?
+The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in
+the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being
+re-published under the title <i>My Lyrical Life</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Massey</b> (James). See <a href="#tyssotdepatot">Tyssot.
+(S.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Massol</b> (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18
+March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in &rsquo;30 and
+became a Saint Simonian. In &rsquo;48 he wrote on Lamennais&rsquo;
+<i lang="fr">La R&eacute;forme</i>, and on the <i lang="fr">Voix du
+Peuple</i> with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In
+&rsquo;65 he established <i lang="fr">La Morale Independante</i> with
+the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at
+Paris 20 April, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Maubert de Gouvest</b> (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20
+Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon
+army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal
+nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he
+did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went
+to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by Lord
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12168" href="#xd20e12168" name=
+"xd20e12168">222</a>]</span>Bolingbroke. He published <i lang=
+"fr">Lettres Iroquoises</i>, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous
+works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and
+vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov.
+1767.</p>
+<p><b>Maudsley</b> (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5
+Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in
+1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached
+eminence in his profession. From &rsquo;69&ndash;&rsquo;79 he was
+professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His
+works on <i>The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind</i> (&rsquo;67),
+<i>Body and Mind</i> (&rsquo;70), <i>Responsibility in Mental
+Disease</i> (&rsquo;73), and Body and Will (&rsquo;83) have attracted
+much attention. His <i>Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings</i>
+(&rsquo;80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all
+superstition.</p>
+<p><b>Mauvillon</b> (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though
+feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer
+corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the
+service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he
+defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously
+<i>Paradoxes Moraux</i> (Amsterdam, 1768) and <i>The Only True System
+of the Christian Religion</i> (Berlin, 1787), at first composed under
+the title of <i>False Reasonings of the Christian Religion</i>. Died in
+Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.</p>
+<p><b>Mazzini</b> (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808.
+In &rsquo;26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and
+plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the
+object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in &rsquo;33, he went
+to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in &rsquo;37. In
+&rsquo;48 he returned, and in March &rsquo;49 was made triumvir of Rome
+with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to
+retire, he returned to London. He wrote in the <i>Westminster
+Review</i> and other periodicals <span class="corr" id="xd20e12210"
+title="Source: and and">and</span> his works are numerous though mostly
+of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness,
+love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini &ldquo;a man
+of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and
+nobleness of mind.&rdquo; Died at <span class="corr" id="xd20e12213"
+title="Source: P&igrave;sa">Pisa</span> 10 March, 1872. He was a Deist.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12216" href="#xd20e12216" name=
+"xd20e12216">223</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Meissner</b> (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has
+written Ziska, an epic poem, <i>The Son of Atta Troll</i>,
+<i>Recollections of Heine</i>, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Meister</b> (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. B&uuml;ckeburg, 6
+Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and
+became acquainted with D&rsquo;Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a
+short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the <i>Origin of
+Religious Principles</i>, 1762, and <i>Natural Morality</i>, 1787.</p>
+<p><b>Menard</b> (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In
+&rsquo;48&ndash;&rsquo;49 he wrote <i>Prologue of a Revolution</i>, for
+which he was obliged to leave France. Has written on <i>Morality before
+the Philosophers</i>, &rsquo;60, <i>Studies on the Origin of
+Christianity</i>, &rsquo;67, and <i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Religious
+Catechism</i>, &rsquo;75.</p>
+<p><b>Mendoza</b> (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish
+author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the
+church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the
+university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic
+novel, <i>Lazarillo de Tormes</i>, which was condemned by the
+Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was
+greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work
+is his <i>History of the Moorish Wars</i>, which remained unprinted
+thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II.
+Mendoza&rsquo;s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the
+Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died
+at Valladolid, April, 1575.</p>
+<p><b>Mendum</b> (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the <i>Boston
+Investigator</i>, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a
+printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after
+his imprisonment engaged to print the <i>Investigator</i>, and when
+Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on
+the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the
+founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of
+Freethought in that city.</p>
+<p><b>Mentelle</b> (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris,
+11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Cr&eacute;vier.
+His <i lang="fr">Pr&eacute;cis de l&rsquo;Histoire des
+H&eacute;breux</i> (1798), and <i lang="fr">Pr&eacute;cis <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12282" href="#xd20e12282" name=
+"xd20e12282">224</a>]</span>de l&rsquo;Histoire Universelle</i> are
+thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a
+member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at
+Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.</p>
+<p><b>Mercier</b> (L. A.), author of <i lang="fr">La Libre <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e12291" title="Source: Pensee">Pens&eacute;e</span></i>,
+Brussels, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Meredith</b> (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of <i>The
+Prophet of Nazareth</i> (1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of
+Jesus, and <i>Amphilogia</i>, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and
+the Rev. J. F. Francklin, &rsquo;67.</p>
+<p><b>Meredith</b> (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b.
+Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the
+law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet
+with <i>Poems</i> (&rsquo;51). Of his powerful novels we mention the
+<i>Ordeal of Richard Feveril</i> (&rsquo;59), <i>Emilia in England</i>
+(&rsquo;64), now <i>Sandra Belloni</i>, with Vittoria (&rsquo;66) for a
+sequel. <i>Rhoda Fleming</i>, <i>Beauchamp&rsquo;s Career</i>
+(&rsquo;76), <i>The Egoist</i> (&rsquo;79), <i>The Tragic Comedians</i>
+(&rsquo;81) and <i>Diana of the Crossways</i> (&rsquo;85). Deep thought
+and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not
+popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities,
+and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.</p>
+<p><b>Merimee</b> (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept.
+1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector
+General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in
+&rsquo;44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis
+(Brussels), &rsquo;64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at
+Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Merritt</b> (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8
+June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and
+contributed to the <i>Reasoner</i>, using the signature
+&ldquo;Christopher.&rdquo; He wrote on <i>Dirt and Pictures</i> and
+<i>Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles</i>, etc. Died in London, 10
+July, 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Meslier</b> or <b>Mellier</b> (Jean), cur&eacute; of Etrepigny,
+Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After
+his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in
+which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own
+garden. His property he left to his <span class="corr" id="xd20e12361"
+title="Source: parishoners">parishioners</span>. Voltaire published it
+under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To
+Meslier has been attributed the <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e12364" href="#xd20e12364" name="xd20e12364">225</a>]</span>work
+entitled <i lang="fr">Le Bon Sens</i>, written by Baron
+D&rsquo;Holbach. <i lang="fr">Le Testament de Jean Meslier</i> has been
+published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by
+Rudolf Charles (R. C. d&rsquo;Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in
+question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to
+the National Convention to erect a statue to this &ldquo;honest
+priest.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Metchnikov</b> (L&eacute;on), Russian writer in French; author of
+a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian
+Communion in the <i lang="fr">Revue Internationale des Sciences
+Biologiques</i>, tome 12.</p>
+<p><b>Metrodorus</b> of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span>, a disciple and intimate friend of
+Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by
+Diogenes Laertius. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 277.</p>
+<p><b>Mettrie</b>, see <a href="#lamettrie">La Mettrie</a><span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e12395" title="Not in source">.</span></p>
+<p><b>Meunier</b> (Am&eacute;d&eacute;e Victor), French writer, b.
+Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by his
+<i>Scientific Essays</i>, 1851&ndash;58, the <i>Ancestors of Adam</i>,
+&rsquo;75, etc.</p>
+<p id="meyer"><b>Meyer</b> (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and
+follower of Spinoza, who published <i lang="la">Exercitatio
+Paradoxa</i> on the philosophical interpretation of scripture,
+Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to
+Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited with
+<span lang="la">Lucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum.
+Alethopoli</span> (Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to
+another writer, viz. P. de la Court.</p>
+<p><b>Mialhe</b> (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe
+(Tarn)<span class="corr" id="xd20e12422" title="Not in source">,</span>
+1834. From &rsquo;60&ndash;62 he was with the French army of occupation
+at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited
+<i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Union des Libres-Penseurs</i>, and has written
+<i lang="fr">M&eacute;moires d&rsquo;un libre Penseur</i> (Nevers,
+1888).</p>
+<p><b>Michelet</b> (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798.
+Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written a <i>History of
+France</i> and of the <i>French Revolution</i>; <i>The Jesuits</i>,
+with his friend Quinet, &rsquo;43; <i>The Priest, Woman and the
+Family</i>, &rsquo;44; <i>The Sorceress</i>, dealing with witchcraft in
+the Middle Ages, &rsquo;62; <i>The Bible of Humanity</i>, &rsquo;64.
+His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and
+after the <i>coup d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> he was <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12457" href="#xd20e12457" name=
+"xd20e12457">226</a>]</span>deprived of his chair. All Michelet&rsquo;s
+works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was
+a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at
+Hy&egrave;res, 9 Feb. 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Michelet</b> (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family,
+b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In &rsquo;29 he became Professor of Philosophy.
+A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master&rsquo;s works, &rsquo;32. His
+principle work is <i>A System of Philosophy as an Exact Science</i>,
+&rsquo;76&ndash;81<span class="corr" id="xd20e12466" title=
+"Source: ,">.</span> He has also written on the relation of Herbert
+Spencer to German philosophy.</p>
+<p><b>Middleton</b> (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683.
+His <i>Letters from Rome</i>, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity
+had borrowed from Paganism, and his <i>Free Inquiry into the Miraculous
+Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church</i>, 1749,
+was a severe blow to hitherto received &ldquo;Christian
+Evidences.&rdquo; He also wrote a classic <i>Life of Cicero</i>. Died
+at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.</p>
+<p><b>Mignardi</b> (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published <i lang=
+"it">Memorie di un Nuovo Credente</i> (Memoirs of a New Believer).</p>
+<p><b>Milelli</b> (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841.
+His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank
+Pagan, as may be seen in his <i lang="it">Odi Pagane</i>, &rsquo;79,
+<i>Canzonieri</i>, &rsquo;84, and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Mill</b> (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge,
+Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished
+himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was
+licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in
+1800, and became editor of the <i>Literary Review</i>, and contributed
+to the reviews. He published, &rsquo;17&ndash;&rsquo;19, his <i>History
+of British India</i>. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition
+of the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i>. A friend of Bentham, he
+wrote largely in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and did much to forward
+the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His <i>Analysis of the Human
+Mind</i>, &rsquo;39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete
+sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler&rsquo;s <i>Analogy</i> made him an
+Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.</p>
+<p><b>Mill</b> (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the
+preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12527" href="#xd20e12527" name=
+"xd20e12527">227</a>]</span>without religion, he became clerk in the
+East India House, and early in life contributed to the
+<i>Westminster</i> and <i>Edinburgh Reviews</i>. Of the first he became
+joint editor in &rsquo;35. His <i>System of Logic</i>, &rsquo;43, first
+made him generally known. This was followed by his <i>Principles of
+Political Economy</i>. In &rsquo;59 appeared his small but valuable
+treatise <i>On Liberty</i>, in which he defends the unrestricted free
+discussion of religion. Among subsequent works were
+<i>Utilitarianism</i>, &rsquo;63; <i>Auguste Comte and Positivism</i>,
+&rsquo;67; <i>Examination of Sir William Hamilton&rsquo;s
+Philosophy</i> &rsquo;65; <i>Dissertations and Discussions</i>,
+&rsquo;59&ndash;&rsquo;75; and the <i>Subjection of Women</i>,
+&rsquo;69. In &rsquo;65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster,
+but lost his seat in &rsquo;68. In &rsquo;67 he was chosen Rector of
+St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain
+says &ldquo;in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he
+was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its
+utility.&rdquo; Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his
+interesting <i>Autobiography</i> and three essays on
+&ldquo;Nature,&rdquo; &ldquo;Theism,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Religion.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Mille</b> (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest,
+educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of
+Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with
+Codreano, and after the latter&rsquo;s death (&rsquo;77), in spreading
+Socialism. Mill&eacute; contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the
+V&uuml;torul, edited by C. Pilitis.</p>
+<p><b>Milliere</b> (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents,
+Lamarche (C&ocirc;te d&rsquo;Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate,
+and founded the <i>Proletaire</i> at Clermont Ferrand. For writing
+<i>Revolutionary Studies</i> he was, after the <i>coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i>, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of
+&rsquo;59. In &rsquo;69 Milli&egrave;re started, with Rochefort, the
+<i>Marseillaise</i>, of which he became one of the principal directors.
+At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by
+73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to
+act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the
+Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying &ldquo;<i lang="fr">Vive
+l&rsquo;Humanit&eacute;</i>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Mirabaud</b> (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675.
+He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the
+French Academy. He wrote <i>Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews</i>, a
+<i>Critical Examination of the New Testament</i>, (published
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12597" href="#xd20e12597" name=
+"xd20e12597">228</a>]</span>under the name of Fr&eacute;ret), <i>The
+World: its Origin and Antiquity</i>, 1751, <i>Sentiments of a
+Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul</i> inserted in the collection
+entitled <span lang="fr">Nouvelle libert&eacute;s de Penser</span>,
+Amst. (Paris) 1743. The <i>System of Nature</i>, attributed to
+Mirabaud, was written by d&rsquo;Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June,
+1760.</p>
+<p><b>Mirabeau</b> (Honor&eacute; Gabriel <span class=
+"sc">Riquetti</span> Comte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the
+Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate
+nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious
+activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue
+provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once
+imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in
+literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his <i lang=
+"el-latn">Erotika Biblion</i>, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible.
+In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected
+materials for his work on <i>The Prussian Monarchy</i>. He returned to
+the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the
+Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National
+Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords
+and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard.
+Carlyle calls him &ldquo;far the strongest, best practical intellect of
+that time.&rdquo; He died 2 April, 1791<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e12625" title="Source: ,">.</span> Among his last words were,
+&ldquo;Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may
+pass away into everlasting sleep.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Miranda</b> (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general,
+b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence,
+tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the
+Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was
+a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806&ndash;11 he was engaged seeking to
+free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in
+a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a
+sceptic of James Mill.</p>
+<p><b>Miron.</b> See <a href="#morin"><span class="sc">Morin</span>
+(Andr&eacute; Saturnin.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Mitchell</b> (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of <i>Dates and
+Data</i> (1876) and <i>Chrestos; a Religious Epithet</i> (1880). Dr.
+Mitchell has also written in the <i>National Reformer</i>, using his
+initials only. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12655" href=
+"#xd20e12655" name="xd20e12655">229</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Mitchell</b> (Logan), author of Lectures published as <i>The
+Christian Mythology Unveiled</i>. This work was also issued under the
+title <i>Superstition Besieged</i>. It is said that Mitchell committed
+suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of &pound;500 to any
+bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first
+published by B. Cousens, and was republished in &rsquo;81.</p>
+<p><b>Mittermaier</b> (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b.
+Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he
+became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He
+obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented
+Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an
+active part in the Radical movement of &rsquo;48. His writings are all
+in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Mittie</b> (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church
+bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished
+himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.</p>
+<p><b>Mocenicus</b> (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a
+Venetian philosopher, whose heretical <i>Contemplations</i> were
+printed at Geneva, 1588, with the <i>Peripatetic Question of
+C&aelig;salpinus</i> and the books of Telesio on <i>The Nature of
+Things</i> in the volume entitled <i lang="la">Tractationum
+Philosophicarum</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Moleschott</b> (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch
+parents at <span class="corr" id="xd20e12694" title=
+"Source: Herzogenbusch">&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch</span>, 9 Aug. 1822;
+studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of
+Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised
+Italian he was in &rsquo;76 made a senator, and in &rsquo;78 Professor
+of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has written <i>Circulation
+of Life</i>, <i>Light and Life</i>, <i>Physiological Sketches</i>, and
+other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him &ldquo;the father
+of the modern Materialistic movement.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Molesworth</b> (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the
+eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In &rsquo;32
+he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from &rsquo;37&ndash;41 sat
+for Leeds. In &rsquo;53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and
+in &rsquo;55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was for <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12710" href="#xd20e12710" name=
+"xd20e12710">230</a>]</span>some time proprietor and conductor of the
+<i>Westminster Review</i>, in which he wrote many articles. A noble
+edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, &rsquo;39&ndash;45, and
+he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.</p>
+<p><b>Mommsen</b> (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov.
+1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from &rsquo;44 to 47. He became
+Professor of Law of Leipsic, Z&uuml;rich and Berlin. Is best known by
+his <i>History of Rome</i>, &rsquo;53&ndash;85, a work of great
+research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it
+is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Monboddo</b> (Lord). See <a href="#burnett">Burnett
+(James)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Monge</b> (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746.
+Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres,
+became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the
+influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was
+one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a
+senator, created him Count of <span class="corr" id="xd20e12733" title=
+"Source: Pelusuin">Pelusium</span>, and gave him an estate for his many
+services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was
+deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Mar&eacute;chal and
+Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.</p>
+<p><b>Mongez</b> (Antoine), French arch&aelig;ologist, b. Lyons, 30
+June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the
+Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said
+&ldquo;he had the honor to be an Atheist.&rdquo; He was one of the most
+ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at
+Paris, 30 July, 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Monroe</b> (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the <i>Ironclad
+Age</i>, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In &rsquo;50 he went
+to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In &rsquo;55 he
+started the <i>Rochford Herald</i>, and in July, &rsquo;57, the
+<i>Seymour Times</i>. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to
+the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke
+down. In &rsquo;75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a
+volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less
+political. In April, &rsquo;82, he removed to <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e12754" title="Source: Indianopolis">Indianapolis</span>, Indiana,
+and changed the name to <i>The Age</i>, afterwards Monroe&rsquo;s
+Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a
+remarkable fund of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12761" href=
+"#xd20e12761" name="xd20e12761">231</a>]</span>natural humor. Among his
+publications are poems on <i>The Origin of Man</i>, etc., <i>Genesis
+Revised</i>, and <i>Holy Bible Stories</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Montaigne</b> (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the
+family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a
+judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous
+&ldquo;Essays,&rdquo; which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most
+independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects
+an epoch in literature. Emerson says, &ldquo;Montaigne is the frankest
+and honestest of all writers.&rdquo; Montaigne took as his motto: Que
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e12776" title=
+"Source: scais je">s&ccedil;ais-je</span>? [What know I?] and said that
+all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says,
+&ldquo;Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural
+thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and
+audacious inquiry.&rdquo; Montaigne seems to have been the first man in
+Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a
+difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the
+Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.</p>
+<p><b>Monteil</b> (Charles Fran&ccedil;ois Louis Edgar), French
+journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing
+in <i lang="fr">Le Rappel</i>. During the Commune he was secretary to
+Delescluze. For his <i lang="fr">Histoire d&rsquo;un Fr&egrave;re
+Ignorantin</i>, &rsquo;74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,
+and condemned to one year&rsquo;s imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and
+10,000 francs damages. In &rsquo;77 he wrote a <i>Freethinker&rsquo;s
+Catechism</i>, published at Antwerp, and in &rsquo;79 an edition of
+<i lang="fr">La R&eacute;publique Fran&ccedil;aise</i>. In &rsquo;80 he
+was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in
+&rsquo;84. In &rsquo;83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
+He has compiled an excellent secular <i>Manual of Instruction</i> for
+schools.</p>
+<p id="montesquieu"><b>Montesquieu</b> (Charles de <span class=
+"sc">Secondat</span>), <i>Baron</i>, eminent French writer, b. near
+Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitled
+<i>Persian Letters</i>, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the
+French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that
+his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the
+<i>Spirit of Laws</i>, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of
+the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on
+Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, which <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12814" href="#xd20e12814" name=
+"xd20e12814">232</a>]</span>Voltaire pronounced to be worthy of
+Moli&egrave;re. Died 10 Feb. 1755.</p>
+<p><b>Montgomery</b> (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents,
+Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw
+Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended at <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e12820" title="Source: Heidelburg">Heidelberg</span> the lectures
+of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He
+wrote in German and published at Munich in &rsquo;71, <i>The Kantian
+Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint</i>. In
+&rsquo;67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells
+in Animal Bodies<span class="corr" id="xd20e12826" title=
+"Source: ,">.</span> In &rsquo;71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his
+scientific studies on life. He has written in the <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>, <i>The Index</i>, and <i>The Open Court</i> and
+<i>Mind</i>. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of
+a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.</p>
+<p><b>Montgolfier</b> (Michel Joseph), aeronaut<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e12846" title="Source: .">,</span> b. Aug. 1740. He was the first
+to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La
+Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June
+1810.</p>
+<p><b>Mook</b> (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844,
+studied philosophy and theology at T&uuml;bingen, but gave up the
+latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became
+lecturer to a free congregation at N&uuml;renburg, and wrote a popular
+<i>Life of Jesus</i>, published at Z&uuml;rich, &rsquo;72&ndash;3. He
+travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His
+brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some
+poems.</p>
+<p><b>Moor</b> (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of
+the <i>Hindu Pantheon</i>, 1810 and <i>Oriental Fragments</i>,
+&rsquo;34. Died 1840.</p>
+<p><b>Moreau</b> (H&eacute;g&eacute;sippe), French poet, b. Paris 9,
+April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in
+&rsquo;30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose
+work entitled <i>The <span class="corr" id="xd20e12872" title=
+"Source: Miseltoe">Mistletoe</span> and the Oak</i>. His life, which
+was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec.
+1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by
+Sainte-Beuve.</p>
+<p><b>Moreau</b> (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12880" href="#xd20e12880" name=
+"xd20e12880">233</a>]</span>He became a distinguished alienist of the
+materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point
+of view, &rsquo;36, and many physiological works.</p>
+<p><b>Morelly</b>, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b.
+Vitry-le-Fran&ccedil;ais, author of a work called <i lang="fr">Code de
+la Nature</i>, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in
+1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity
+is minimised.</p>
+<p><b>Morgan</b> (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book
+as <i>The Moral Philosopher</i>, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was
+deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He
+edited Radicati&rsquo;s Dissertation on Death, 1731. His <i>Moral
+Philosopher</i> seeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls
+Moses &ldquo;a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid,&rdquo;
+and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was
+supplemented by <i>A Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason</i>,
+1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740.
+He replied to his opponents over the signature
+&ldquo;Philalethes.&rdquo; His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741.
+Lechler calls Morgan &ldquo;the modern Marcion.&rdquo; Died at London,
+14 Jan. 1743.</p>
+<p><b>Morgan</b> (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at
+Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney
+Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he
+is author of <i>Sketches of the Philosophy of Life</i>, &rsquo;18, and
+the <i>Philosophy of Morals</i>, &rsquo;19. The <i>Examiner</i> says,
+&ldquo;He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais
+or Bayle.&rdquo; Died 28 Aug. 1843.</p>
+<p id="morin"><b>Morin</b> (Andr&eacute; Saturnin), French writer, b.
+Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate.
+In &rsquo;30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration.
+In &rsquo;48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he
+combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under
+the signature &ldquo;Miron,&rdquo; in the <i>Rationaliste</i> of
+Geneva, the <i lang="fr">Libre Pens&eacute;e</i> of Paris, the <i lang=
+"it">Libero-pensiero</i> of Milan, and other papers. He was intimately
+associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian
+Freethinkers. His principal work is an <i>Examination of
+Christianity</i>, in three volumes, &rsquo;62. His <i>Jesus Reduced to
+his True Value</i> has gone <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12936"
+href="#xd20e12936" name="xd20e12936">234</a>]</span>through several
+editions. His <i lang="fr">Essai de Critique Religieuse</i>, &rsquo;85,
+is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of the <i lang=
+"fr">Biblioth&egrave;que D&eacute;mocratique</i>, to which he
+contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one on <i>Confession</i>
+being translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In &rsquo;76 he was
+elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the
+question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888,
+and was cremated at Milan.</p>
+<p><b>Morison</b> (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man
+of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A.,
+&rsquo;59. In &rsquo;63 he published the <i>Life and Times of Saint
+Bernard</i>. He was one of the founders of the <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, in which he wrote, as well as in the <i>Athen&aelig;um</i>.
+He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Men of Letters&rdquo; Series. In &rsquo;86 he published his
+striking work <i>The Service of Man</i>, an Essay towards the Religion
+of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been
+much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest
+and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of
+France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but
+the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and
+he never did justice to his powers. Even the <i>Service of Man</i> was
+postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended.
+Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of
+friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at
+Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Morley</b> (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24
+Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C.
+Morison. He contributed to <i>The Leader</i> and the <i>Saturday
+Review</i>, edited the <i>Morning Star</i>, and the <i>Fortnightly
+Review</i>, &rsquo;67&ndash;82, in which appeared the germs of most of
+his works, such as <i>On Compromise</i>, <i>Voltaire</i>, &rsquo;72;
+<i>Rousseau</i>, &rsquo;73; <i>Diderot and the Encyclop&aelig;dists</i>
+&rsquo;78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared
+in that review. From May, &rsquo;80 till Aug. &rsquo;83 he edited the
+<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was
+elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. &rsquo;86 was
+appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12998" href="#xd20e12998" name=
+"xd20e12998">235</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Morselli</b> (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b.
+Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on
+<i>Suicide</i> in the International Scientific Series, and a study on
+&ldquo;The Religion of Mazzini.&rdquo; He edits the <i>Rivista di
+Filosofia Scientifica</i>, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the
+past and future of religion.</p>
+<p><b>Mortillet</b> (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b.
+Meylan (Is&egrave;re), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits.
+Condemned in &rsquo;49 for his political writings he took refuge in
+Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France.
+Has written <i>Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical
+history of man</i>, &rsquo;64. <i>The Sign of the Cross before
+Christianity</i>, &rsquo;66, <i>Contribution to the History of
+Superstition</i>, and <i>Prehistoric Antiquity of Man</i>, &rsquo;82.
+He contributed to the <i>Revue Ind&eacute;pendante</i>, <i lang=
+"fr">Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the
+Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Moss</b> (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has
+written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in <i>Waves
+of Freethought</i>, &rsquo;85. Others are <i>Nature and the Gods</i>,
+<i>Man and the Lower Animals</i>, <i>Two Revelations</i>, etc. Mr. Moss
+has been a contributor to the <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, <i>Secular
+Review</i>, <i>Freethinker</i>, <i>Truthseeker</i>, and other journals,
+and has had a written debate on &ldquo;Was Jesus God or Man.&rdquo; A
+School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on
+Sunday. A collection of his <i>Lectures and Essays</i> has been
+published, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Mothe Le Vayer.</b> See <a href="#lamothelevayer">La Mothe Le
+Vayer</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Mott</b> (Lucretia), American reformer, <i>nee</i> <span class=
+"sc">Coffin</span>, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but
+on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who
+preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she
+took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to
+the World&rsquo;s Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but
+excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton.
+Took an active part in Women&rsquo;s Rights conventions. Died at
+Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Muhammad</b> ibn al Hudail <i>al Basri</i>, philosopher of Asia
+Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b.
+about 757. Died about 849. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13088"
+href="#xd20e13088" name="xd20e13088">236</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan</b> (Abu Nasr.) See <a href=
+"#alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat.</b> See <a href=
+"#avempace">Avempace</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Muhammad Jalal ed din.</b> See <a href="#akbar">Akbar</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Muller</b> (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has
+contributed good articles to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i> (the
+Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of
+Amsterdam.</p>
+<p><b>Murger</b> (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to
+the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, tales poems and dramas. In
+his poem <i>Le Testament</i> in &ldquo;Winter Nights&rdquo; he says in
+answer to the inquiring priest &ldquo;<span lang="fr">Reponds lui que
+j&rsquo;ai lu Voltaire.</span>&rdquo; His most popular work is entitled
+<i>Scenes of Bohemian Life</i>. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Musset</b> (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11
+Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the
+Romantic school. His prose romance, <i lang="fr">Confession d&rsquo;un
+Enfant du Si&egrave;cle</i>, &rsquo;36, exhibits his intellectual
+development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four
+poems entitled <i lang="fr">Nuits</i>. He contributed to the <i lang=
+"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, and was admitted into the Academy in
+&rsquo;52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.</p>
+<p><b>Naber</b> (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage,
+16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem
+gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athen&aelig;um. He has
+edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson
+of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and
+disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.</p>
+<p><b>Nachtigal</b> (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23
+Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became
+private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote
+an account thereof, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i>. He became German Consul
+General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Naigeon</b> (Jacques Andr&eacute;), French atheist, b. Dijon
+1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of
+Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and
+conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. He <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13162" href="#xd20e13162" name=
+"xd20e13162">237</a>]</span>contributed to the Encyclop&eacute;die,
+notably the articles <span class="sc">Ame</span> and <span class=
+"sc">Unitaires</span> and composed the <i lang="fr">Militaire
+Philosophe</i>, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father
+Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being
+written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that
+writer, notably in the <i lang="fr">Theologie Portative</i>. He
+published the <i lang="fr">Recu&eacute;il Philosophique</i>, 2 vols.,
+Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach&rsquo;s Essay on Prejudices and
+his <i lang="fr">Morale Universelle</i>. He also edited the works of
+Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland&rsquo;s
+philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient
+and Modern Philosophy in the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die
+M&eacute;thodique</i> (Paris 1791&ndash;94.) He addressed the National
+Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the
+name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man.
+Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.</p>
+<p><b>Naquet</b> (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6
+Oct. 1834, became M.D. in &rsquo;59. In &rsquo;67 he received fifteen
+months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with
+M. Regnard, the <i lang="fr">Revue Encyclop&eacute;dique</i>, which was
+suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In &rsquo;69 he
+issued a work on <i>Religion, Property, and Family</i>, which was
+seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of
+five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He
+represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with
+the extreme left. He was re-elected in &rsquo;81. The new law of
+divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet&rsquo;s
+energetic advocacy. In &rsquo;83 he was elected to the Senate, and of
+late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General
+Boulanger.</p>
+<p><b>Nascimento</b> (Francisco Manuel do). <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e13200" title="Source: Portugese">Portuguese</span> poet, b.
+Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated
+Moli&egrave;re&rsquo;s <i>Tartuffe</i>, was accused of heresy (1778),
+and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems
+and satires under the name of &ldquo;Filinto Elysio.&rdquo; Died 25
+Feb. 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Navez</b> (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of <i lang=
+"fr">La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, of Antwerp, and active member of the
+Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13214" href="#xd20e13214" name=
+"xd20e13214">238</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Nelson</b> (Gustave), a writer in the New York
+<i>Truthseeker</i>, conjectured to be the author of <i>Bible Myths and
+their Parallels in other Religions</i>, a large and learned work,
+showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.</p>
+<p><b>Newcomb</b> (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace,
+(Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in &rsquo;53,
+and was appointed computor on the <i>Nautical Almanack</i>. In
+&rsquo;77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy.
+He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and
+has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as
+<i>Principles of Political Economy</i>, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Newman</b> (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b.
+London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at
+Balliol College &rsquo;26, but resigned in &rsquo;30, being unable
+conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in
+force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a
+Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not
+conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became
+classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor
+at London University. In <i>The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations</i>,
+&rsquo;49, he states his Theistic position, and in <i>Phases of
+Faith</i>, &rsquo;50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity.
+He has also written <i>A History of the Hebrew Monarchy</i>, &rsquo;47,
+<i>Theism: Doctrinal and Practical</i>, &rsquo;58, and a number of
+Scott&rsquo;s tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament,
+the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of
+Protestantism, etc. Also <i>Religion not History</i>, &rsquo;77;
+<i>What is Christianity without Christ?</i> &rsquo;81; <i>Christianity
+in its Cradle</i>, &rsquo;84; and <i>Life after Death</i>,
+&rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Neymann</b> (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess,
+friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.</p>
+<p><b>Nicholson</b> (William), English writer on chemistry and natural
+philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon
+returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published
+useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the
+British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also
+wrote <i>The Doubts of the Infidels</i>, submitted to the Bench of
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13275" href="#xd20e13275" name=
+"xd20e13275">239</a>]</span>Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work
+republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor
+circumstances 21 May, 1815.</p>
+<p><b>Nicolai</b> (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18
+March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted
+for founding &ldquo;The Universal German Library.&rdquo; He wrote
+anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8
+Jan. 1811.</p>
+<p><b>Nietzsche</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15
+Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and
+of <i>Morgenr&ouml;the</i>, and other philosophical works. Died
+1889.</p>
+<p><b>Nieuwenhuis</b> (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b.
+Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on
+Nov. 25, &rsquo;77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to
+believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then
+contributed to <i lang="nl">De Banier</i> (Banner) <i lang="nl">de
+Dageraad</i> (Dawn) and <i lang="nl">de Vragen des Tijds</i> (Questions
+of the time.) On 1st March, &rsquo;79 he started a Socialist paper
+<i lang="nl">Recht voor Allen</i>, now an important daily organ of
+Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are&mdash;<i>With
+Jesus</i>, <i>For or against Socialism</i>, <i>The Religious Oath
+Question</i>, <i>The Religion of Reason</i>, <i>The Religion of
+Humanity</i>. On Jan. 19, &rsquo;87, he was sentenced to one
+years&rsquo; solitary confinement for an article he had not written,
+and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was
+liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.</p>
+<p><b>Noeldeke</b> (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,
+1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been
+professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has
+written a <i>History of the Koran</i>, &rsquo;56; a <i>Life of
+Mahomet</i>, &rsquo;63; and a <i>Literary History of the Old
+Testament</i>, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg
+and J. Soury, &rsquo;73.</p>
+<p><b>Noire</b> (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at
+Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of
+Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist
+philosophy, &rsquo;77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, &rsquo;77.
+He contends that language originates in <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e13337" href="#xd20e13337" name=
+"xd20e13337">240</a>]</span>instinctive sounds accompanying will in
+associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Noorthouck</b> (John), author of a <i>History of London</i>,
+1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been
+credited with the <i>Life of the Man After God&rsquo;s Own Heart</i>.
+See <a href="#annet">Annet</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Nordau</b> (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July,
+1849. He became a physician in &rsquo;73. He has written several books
+of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work on <i>Convential
+Lies of our Civilisation</i>. He has since written on <i>The Sickness
+of the Century</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Nork</b> (Felix). See <a href="#korn">Korn (Selig)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Nott</b> (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia,
+South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote <i>The Physical History of the
+Jewish Race</i>, <i>Types of Mankind</i>, &rsquo;54, and <i>Indigenous
+Races of the Earth</i>, &rsquo;55; the last two conjointly with G. R.
+Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of
+the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Noun</b> (Paul), French author of <i>The Scientific Errors of the
+Bible</i>, 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Noyes</b> (Thomas Herbert), author of <i>Hymns of Modern Man</i>,
+1870.</p>
+<p><b>Nunez</b> (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28
+Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in
+philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.</p>
+<p><b>Nuytz</b> (Louis Andr&eacute;). See <a href=
+"#andre-nuytz">Andre-Nuytz</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Nystrom</b> (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb.
+1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, &rsquo;68.
+He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of
+&rsquo;67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has
+established a Positivist Society and Workmen&rsquo;s Institute. Has
+written a <i>History of Civilisation</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Ocellus Lucanus</b>, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the
+eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a
+translation by the Marquis d&rsquo;Argens, and Thomas Taylor published
+an English version.</p>
+<p><b>Ochino</b> (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna,
+1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins.
+Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13423" href="#xd20e13423" name=
+"xd20e13423">241</a>]</span>had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to
+England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in
+London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to
+Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562
+for <i>Thirty Dialogues</i>, in one of which he shows that neither in
+the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy.
+He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,
+and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of
+Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the
+special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.</p>
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Connor</b> (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b.
+Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen
+and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was
+tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose
+to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of
+Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also
+edited the <i>Journal of Religious Freedom</i>. Died at Bignon, 25
+April, 1852.</p>
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Donoghue</b> (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at
+law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity
+College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and published <i>Theology and
+Mythology</i>, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and
+the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Oest</b> (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote
+poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.</p>
+<p><b>Offen</b> (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772.
+He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of
+Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote <i>Biblical
+Criticism</i> and <i>A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion</i>,
+and supported the <i>Correspondent</i>, <i>Free Inquirer</i>, and
+<i>Boston Investigator</i>. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.</p>
+<p><b>Offray de la Mettrie</b> (Julian). See <a href=
+"#lamettrie">Lamettrie</a>.</p>
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Keefe</b> (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an
+essay <i>On the Progress of the Human Understanding</i>, 1795, in which
+he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was a <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13480" href="#xd20e13480" name=
+"xd20e13480">242</a>]</span>follower of Kant, and was classed with
+<i>Living Authors of Great Britain</i> in 1816.</p>
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Kelly</b> (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the
+O&rsquo;Kelly&rsquo;s; author of <i>Consciousness, or the Age of
+Reason</i>, 1853; <i>Theological Papers</i>, published by Holyoake; and
+<i>Theology for the People</i>, &rsquo;55, a series of short papers
+suggestive of religious Theism.</p>
+<p><b>Oken</b> (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b.
+Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at G&ouml;ttingen and became a
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e13502" title=
+"Source: privat-doceut">privat-docent</span> in that university. In a
+remarkable <i>Sketch of Natural Philosophy</i>, 1802, he advanced a
+scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work on
+<i>Generation</i>, 1805, and a <i>Manual of Natural Philosophy</i>,
+1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views.
+From &rsquo;17 till &rsquo;48 he edited the scientific journal
+<i>Isis</i>. In &rsquo;32 he became a professor at Z&uuml;rich, where
+he died, 11 Aug. 1851.</p>
+<p><b>Oliver</b> (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism.
+Died 1764.</p>
+<p><b>Omar Khayyam.</b> See <a href="#khayyam">Khayyam</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Omboni</b> (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29
+June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many
+scientific works.</p>
+<p><b>Onimus</b> (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b.
+near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,
+and wrote a treatise on <i>The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological
+Sciences</i>, 1866. In &rsquo;73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna
+Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of
+the <i>Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere</i>, &rsquo;78, and has
+written in the <i lang="fr">Revue Positive</i> and other
+periodicals.</p>
+<p><b>Oort</b> (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836.
+Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has
+written many works, of which we mention <i>The Worship of Baalim in
+Israel</i>, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and <i>The Bible for Young
+People</i>, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P.
+H. Wickstead, 1873&ndash;79.</p>
+<p><b>Orelli</b> (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b.
+Z&uuml;rich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13560" href="#xd20e13560" name=
+"xd20e13560">243</a>]</span>favor of Strauss at the time when there was
+an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Z&uuml;rich. Died 6 Jan.
+1849.</p>
+<p><b>Osborne</b> (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589.
+Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His <i>Advice to a
+Son</i>, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who
+drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt,
+and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died
+1659.</p>
+<p><b>Oscar</b> (L.), Swiss writer, author of <i>Religion Traced Back
+to its Source</i>, Basel, 1874. He considers religion &ldquo;a belief
+in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies&rdquo;
+of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled &ldquo;The
+Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Ossoli</b> (Countess d&rsquo;). See <a href="#fuller">Fuller
+(Margaret)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Oswald</b> (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many
+popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Oswald</b> (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845.
+Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural
+history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He
+has contributed to the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, <i>The
+Truthseeker</i> and other journals, and has published <i>Summerland
+Sketches</i>, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central
+America, &rsquo;81; Physical Education, &rsquo;82; <i>The Secrets of
+the East</i>, &rsquo;83, which argues that Christianity is derived from
+Buddhism, and <i>The Bible of Nature</i> or the Principles of
+Secularism, &rsquo;88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural
+History in Brazil.</p>
+<p><b>O&rsquo;Toole</b> (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to
+death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says
+he &ldquo;denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the
+trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection
+of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable;
+the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e13610" title=
+"Source: Apostolike">Apostolic</span> see erronious.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="ouida">&ldquo;<b>Ouida,</b>&rdquo; See Ram&eacute;e (Louise de
+la).</p>
+<p><b>Ouvry</b> (Henry Aim&eacute;), Col., translator of
+Feuchterslebens, <i>Dietetics of the Soul</i> and Rau&rsquo;s
+<i>Unsectarian Catechism</i>, and author of several works on the land
+question. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13631" href="#xd20e13631"
+name="xd20e13631">244</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Overton</b> (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on
+relics, 1642, and a treatise on <i>Man&rsquo;s Mortality</i> (London,
+1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally
+mortal.</p>
+<p><b>Owen</b> (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire,
+Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business
+talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the
+daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole
+manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools
+and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810&ndash;15 he
+published <i>New Views on Society</i>, or, Essays on the Formation of
+Character. In &rsquo;17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that
+the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the
+creature of circumstances. In &rsquo;24 he went to America and
+purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new
+community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at
+Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In &rsquo;28 he debated at
+Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He
+published a numerous series of tracts, <i>Robert Owen&rsquo;s
+Journal</i>, and <i>The New Moral World</i>, &rsquo;35. He debated on
+his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his
+mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,
+17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the
+direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his
+energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.</p>
+<p><b>Owen</b> (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800.
+Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to
+Fellenberg&rsquo;s school, near Berne, Switzerland. In &rsquo;25 he
+went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony,
+Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances
+Wright, in Nov. &rsquo;28, the publication of the <i>Free Inquirer</i>,
+which was continued till &rsquo;32. In that year he had a written
+discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the
+authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought
+cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mention
+<i>Situations</i>, 1839; <i>Address on Free Inquiry</i>, 1840;
+<i>Prossimo&rsquo;s Experience</i>, <i>Consistency</i>, <i>Galileo and
+the Inquisition</i>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13676" href=
+"#xd20e13676" name="xd20e13676">245</a>]</span>He was elected to
+Congress in &rsquo;43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the
+women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge
+d&rsquo;affaires at Naples in &rsquo;53. During the civil war he
+strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a
+Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Paalzow</b> (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg
+(Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire&rsquo;s commentaries on
+<i>The Spirit of the Laws</i> and Burigny&rsquo;s <i>Examination of the
+Apologists of Christianity</i> (Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a <i>History
+of Religious Cruelty</i> (Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.</p>
+<p><b>Paepe</b> (Cesar de). See <a href="#depaepe">De Paepe</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Pagano</b> (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale).
+Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied
+at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of
+criminal law in 1787. For his <i>Political Essays</i> in three volumes
+(1783&ndash;92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on
+<i>Criminal Process</i> and a work on <i>God and Nature</i>. Taking
+part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791,
+he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.</p>
+<p><b>Page</b> (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of
+introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through
+many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited
+<i>Life Lights of Song</i>, &rsquo;64. His <i>Man Where, Whence, and
+Whither?</i>, &rsquo;67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in
+Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend
+of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that
+writer&rsquo;s <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>, in the scientific details
+of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Paget</b> (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of
+&ldquo;Vernon Lee,&rdquo; has written <i>Studies of the Eighteenth
+Century in Italy</i> and <i>Baldwin</i>, dialogues on views and
+aspirations 1886. Since &rsquo;71 she has lived chiefly in Florence,
+and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in the
+<i>Contemporary</i> (May &rsquo;83) on &ldquo;Responsibilities of
+Unbelief&rdquo; being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget&rsquo;s
+writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13737" href="#xd20e13737" name=
+"xd20e13737">246</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Pageze</b> (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat
+and the Budget des Cultes, &rsquo;86, Separation of Church and State,
+&rsquo;87, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Paine</b> (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737.
+His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the
+trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich,
+where he married the daughter of <span class="corr" id="xd20e13746"
+title="Source: a an">an</span> exciseman, and entered the excise. He
+was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a
+paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in
+London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went
+in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the
+<i>Pennsylvanian Magazine</i> and contributed to the Pennsylvanian
+journal a strong anti-slavery essay. <i>Common Sense</i>, published
+early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more
+than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each
+number of the <i>Crisis</i>, which appeared during the war, was read by
+Washington&rsquo;s order to each regiment in the service. Paine
+subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself.
+After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars,
+and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his
+attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he
+endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the
+Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of
+royalty. In 1791 he published his <i>Rights of Man</i>, in reply to
+Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to
+France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the
+execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the
+Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine.
+During this time he wrote the first part of the <i>Age of Reason</i>,
+which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable
+in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian
+dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought
+work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant
+slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his
+own direction was buried on his farm at New <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13765" href="#xd20e13765" name=
+"xd20e13765">247</a>]</span>Rochelle. Cobbett is said to have
+disinterred him and brought his bones to England.</p>
+<p><b>Pajot</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois). See <a href="#liniere"><span class=
+"sc">Liniere</span></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Paleario</b> (Aonio), <i>i.e.</i>, Antonio, della Paglia, Italian
+humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at V&eacute;roli in the Roman
+Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant
+men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles
+V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin
+poem on the Mortality of the Soul&mdash;modeled on Lucretius. He was
+Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of
+heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all
+men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into
+the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ&rsquo;s Death has been
+attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to
+Benedetto da Mantova.</p>
+<p><b>Pallas</b> (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b.
+Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,
+he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History
+at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the
+Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811.
+Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of
+modern geology.</p>
+<p><b>Pallavicino</b> (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza
+1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing
+some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his
+head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the
+Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.</p>
+<p><b>Palmer</b> (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25
+March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in &rsquo;69. He was
+brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while
+still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In &rsquo;80
+he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for
+the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the
+<i>Freethinker&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, <i>Truthseeker</i>, etc. A sister
+married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23
+July, 1888, and was <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13801" href=
+"#xd20e13801" name="xd20e13801">248</a>]</span>cremated at Fresh Pond,
+his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.</p>
+<p><b>Palmer</b> (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,
+1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but
+became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack
+of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New
+York. After this he dictated his <i>Principles of Nature</i>, 1802, a
+powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in &rsquo;19. He
+also wrote <i>Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year
+1804</i>. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati
+founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April,
+1806.</p>
+<p><b>Panaetius</b> (<span class="trans" title="Panaitios"><span class=
+"Greek" lang=
+"el">&Pi;&alpha;&nu;&alpha;&#8055;&tau;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span></span>),
+Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and
+perhaps of Carneades. About 150 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> he visited
+Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the
+conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He
+wrote a work <i>On Duties</i>, to which Cicero expresses his
+indebtedness in his <i lang="la">De Officiis</i>. Died in Athens 111
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span></p>
+<p><b>Pancoucke</b> (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b.
+Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with
+d&rsquo;Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau,
+Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated
+Lucretius, 1768, brought out the <i lang="fr">Mercure de France</i>,
+projected in 1781 the important <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die
+M&eacute;thodique</i>, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the
+<i lang="fr">Moniteur</i>, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.</p>
+<p><b>Pantano</b> (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the
+Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Papillon</b> (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b.
+Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote an <i>Introduction to Chemical
+Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;65; contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue de
+Philosophie Positive</i> and the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux
+Mondes</i>. His <span class="corr" id="xd20e13867" title=
+"Source: principle">principal</span> work is entitled <i>Nature and
+Life</i>, &rsquo;73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.</p>
+<p id="paquet"><b>Paquet</b> (Henri Remi Ren&eacute;), French writer,
+b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went
+to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his main
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13877" href="#xd20e13877" name=
+"xd20e13877">249</a>]</span>attention to literature. Under the anagram
+of &ldquo;N&eacute;r&eacute;e Qu&eacute;pat&rdquo; he has published
+<i lang="fr">La Lorgnette Philosophique</i>, &rsquo;72<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e13882" title="Source: .">,</span> a dictionary of the
+great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie
+entitled <i>Materialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century</i> and
+other works.</p>
+<p><b>Pare</b> (William), Owenite Social reformer, b.
+Birmingham<span class="corr" id="xd20e13892" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> <span class="corr" id="xd20e13895" title=
+"Not in source">11 Aug.</span> 1805. Wrote an abridgment of
+Thompson&rsquo;s <i>Distribution of Wealth</i>, also works on
+<i>Capital and Labor</i> &rsquo;54, <i>Co-operative Agriculture</i>, at
+Rahaline, &rsquo;70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the <i>Biography of
+Robert Owen</i>. Died at Croydon, 18 June<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e13911" title="Source: .">,</span> 1873.</p>
+<p id="parfaitn"><b>Parfait</b> (Noel), French writer and politician,
+b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of &rsquo;30,
+and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d&rsquo;&eacute;tat he
+took refuge in Belgium. In &rsquo;71 was elected deputy and sat on the
+extreme left.</p>
+<p><b>Parfait</b> (Paul), son of the <a href="#parfaitn">foregoing</a>,
+b. Paris, 1841. Author of <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Arsenal de la
+D&eacute;votion</i>, &rsquo;76, Notes to serve for a history of
+superstition, and a supplement <i lang="fr">Le Dossier des
+P&eacute;lerinages</i>, &rsquo;77, and other pieces. Died 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Parisot</b> (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote <i lang=
+"fr">La Foy <span class="corr" id="xd20e13938" title=
+"Source: de voil&eacute;e">devoil&eacute;e</span> par la raison</i>,
+1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have
+occasioned its suppression.</p>
+<p><b>Parker</b> (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass.,
+24 Aug. 1810. From his father&mdash;a Unitarian&mdash;he inherited
+independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in
+poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while
+laboring on the farm. In March, &rsquo;31, he became an assistant
+teacher at Boston. In June, &rsquo;37, he was ordained Unitarian
+minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of
+the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the
+Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a
+hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. His <i>Discourse
+on Matters Pertaining to Religion</i>, &rsquo;47, exhibited his
+fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette&rsquo;s Critical
+Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive
+Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in &rsquo;59
+failing health compelled him to relinquish his <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13949" href="#xd20e13949" name=
+"xd20e13949">250</a>]</span>duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He
+bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public
+Library.</p>
+<p><b>Parmenides</b>, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Is said to have been a disciple of
+Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470 <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> in a didactic poem <i>On Nature</i>, fragments of
+which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our
+guide, and considered nature eternal.</p>
+<p><b>Parny</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e13968" title=
+"Source: Evariste">&Eacute;variste</span> D&eacute;sir&eacute;
+<span class="sc">de Forges</span> de), <i>Viscount</i>. French poet, b.
+St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose
+the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired
+his &ldquo;Amatory Poems,&rdquo; and he afterwards wrote the audacious
+<i>War of the Gods</i>, <i>Paradise Lost</i>, and <i>The Gallantries of
+the Bible</i>. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and
+he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French
+Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.</p>
+<p><b>Parton</b> (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822.
+Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York.
+He married Miss Willis, &ldquo;Fannie Fern,&rdquo; and has written many
+biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, &rsquo;74, and of
+Voltaire, &rsquo;81. He has also written on <i>Topics of the Time</i>,
+&rsquo;71, and <i>Church Taxation</i>. He resided in New York till
+&rsquo;75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.</p>
+<p><b>Parvish</b> (Samuel), Deistic author of <i>An Inquiry into the
+Jewish and Christian Revelation</i> (London, 1739), of which a second
+edition was issued in 1746.</p>
+<p><b>Pasquier</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e14008" title=
+"Source: Etienne">&Eacute;tienne</span>). French journalist, b. 7
+April, 1529, at Paris<span class="corr" id="xd20e14011" title=
+"Source: ,">.</span> Brought up to the bar he became a successful
+pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also
+attacked in a bitter satire, <i lang="fr">Cat&eacute;chisme des
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e14016" title=
+"Source: Jesuites">J&eacute;suites</span></i>. Died Paris, 30 Aug.
+1615.</p>
+<p id="passerano"><b>Passerano</b> (Alberto <span class=
+"sc">Radicati</span> di) <i>count</i>. Italian philosopher of last
+century, attached to the court of Victor Amed&eacute;e II. For some
+pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the
+Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the
+acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died
+about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at
+Rotterdam <i lang="fr">Recueil de Pi&egrave;ces <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14031" href="#xd20e14031" name=
+"xd20e14031">251</a>]</span>curieuses sur les matieres les plus
+&iacute;nt&eacute;ressantes</i>, etc., which contains a <i>Parallel
+between Mahomet and Sosem</i> (anagram of Moses), <i>an abridged
+history of the Sacerdotal Profession</i>, and a <i>Faithful and comic
+recital of the religion of modern cannibals</i>, by Zelin Moslem; also
+a <i>Dissertation upon Death</i>, which was published separately in
+1733. The <i>Recueil</i> was republished at London in 1749. He also
+wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism,
+satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.</p>
+<p><b>Pasteur</b> (Louis). French scientist b. D&ocirc;le, 27 Dec 1822,
+became doctor in &rsquo;47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in
+&rsquo;48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in
+&rsquo;56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry.
+Decorated with the Legion of honor in &rsquo;53, he was made commander
+&rsquo;68 and grand officer &rsquo;78. His researches into innoculation
+have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large
+institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the
+Academy as successor of Littr&eacute;. He gave his name as
+Vice-President of the British Secular Union.</p>
+<p><b>Pastoret</b> (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), <i>Marquis</i>,
+French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct.
+1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an
+<i>Elege de Voltaire</i>. By his works on <i>Zoroaster, Confucius and
+Mahomet</i> (1787) and on <i>Moses Considered as Legislator and
+Moralist</i> (1788) he did something for the infant science of
+comparative religion. His principal work is a learned <i>History of
+Legislation</i>, in 11 vols. (1817&ndash;37), in which he passes in
+review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became
+President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the
+erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the
+conversion of the church of Ste Genevi&egrave;ve into the Pantheon. On
+the 19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation
+of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as
+deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the
+French Academy, in &rsquo;23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,
+and in &rsquo;29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept.
+1840.</p>
+<p><b>Pater</b> (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14078" href="#xd20e14078" name=
+"xd20e14078">252</a>]</span>1839. B.A. at Oxford in &rsquo;62, M.A. in
+&rsquo;65. Has written charming essays in the <i>Westminster
+Review</i>, <i>Macmillan</i>, and the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>. In
+&rsquo;73 he published <i>The Renaissance</i>, and in &rsquo;85
+<i>Marius the Epicurean, His Sensations and Ideas</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Paterson</b> (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century.
+After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the
+<i>Oracle of Reason</i>. For exhibiting profane placards he was
+arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months&rsquo;
+imprisonment. His trial was reported under the title <i>God</i> v.
+<i>Paterson</i> (&rsquo;43.) He insisted on considering God as the
+plaintiff and in quoting from &ldquo;the Jew book&rdquo; to show the
+plaintiff&rsquo;s bad character. When released he went to Scotland to
+uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov.
+&rsquo;43 to fifteen months&rsquo; imprisonment for selling
+&ldquo;blasphemous&rdquo; publications at Edinburgh. On his release he
+was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington
+presiding. Paterson went to America.</p>
+<p><b>Patin</b> (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near
+Beauvais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France.
+His reputation is chiefly founded on his <i>Letters</i>, in which he
+attacked superstition. Larousse says &ldquo;<span lang=
+"fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e14117" title=
+"Source: C&rsquo;etait">C&rsquo;&eacute;tait</span> un libre penseur de
+la famille de Rabelais.</span>&rdquo; Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.</p>
+<p><b>Patot</b>. See <a href="#tyssotdepatot">Tyssot de Patot
+(S.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Pauw</b> (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739.
+He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the
+Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for
+his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the
+uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.</p>
+<p><b>Peacock</b> (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He
+wrote many poems in the <i>National Reformer</i>, and in &rsquo;67
+published <i>Hours of Reverie</i>. Died 4 May, 1877.</p>
+<p><b>Peacock</b> or <b>Pecock</b> (Reginald), the father of English
+rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of
+which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St
+Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good
+Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be
+accommodated to &ldquo;the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14149"
+href="#xd20e14149" name="xd20e14149">253</a>]</span>doom of
+reason.&rdquo; He questioned the genuineness of the Apostles&rsquo;
+Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of
+martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery
+at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him,</p>
+<div class="lgouter">
+<p class="line">&ldquo;Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan,</p>
+<p class="line">How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<p class="firstpar">His books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in
+1460. His influence doubtless contributed to the Reformation.</p>
+<p><b>Pearson</b> (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled <i>The
+Ethic of Freethought</i>, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. &rsquo;79,
+M.A. &rsquo;82.</p>
+<p><b>Pechmeja</b> (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he
+wrote a socialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus,
+called T&eacute;l&egrave;phe, 1784. Died 1785.</p>
+<p><b>Peck</b> (John), American writer in the <i>Truthseeker</i>. Has
+published <i>Miracles and Miracle Workers</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Pecqueur</b> (A.), contributor to the <i lang=
+"fr">Rationaliste</i> of Geneva, 1864.</p>
+<p><b>Pelin</b> (Gabriel), French author of works on <i>Spiritism
+Explained and Destroyed</i>, 1864, and <i>God or Science</i>,
+&rsquo;67.</p>
+<p><b>Pelletan</b> (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son
+of the following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lyc&eacute;e
+Louis le Grand. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La Tribune
+Fran&ccedil;aise</i>, and <i lang="fr">Le Rappel</i>, and since
+&rsquo;80 has conducted <i lang="fr">La Justice</i> with his friend
+Cl&eacute;menceau, of whom he has written a sketch.</p>
+<p><b>Pelletan</b> (Pierre Clement Eug&egrave;ne), French writer, b.
+Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in
+<i lang="fr">La Presse</i>, under the name of &ldquo;Un Inconnu,&rdquo;
+articles distinguished by their love of liberty and progress. He also
+contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>. In &rsquo;52
+he published his <i>Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century</i>,
+and in &rsquo;57 <i>The Law of Progress</i> and <i>The Philosophical
+Kings</i>. From &rsquo;53&ndash;&rsquo;55 he opposed Napoleon in the
+Si&egrave;cle, and afterwards established <i lang="fr">La Tribune
+Fran&ccedil;aise</i>. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e14233" title=
+"Source: &rsquo;83">&rsquo;63</span> he was elected deputy, but his
+election being annulled, he was re-elected in &rsquo;64. He took
+distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After the battle of
+Sedan he was made member of the Committee of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14236" href="#xd20e14236" name=
+"xd20e14236">254</a>]</span>National Defence, and in &rsquo;76 of the
+Senate, of which he became vice-president in &rsquo;79. In &rsquo;78 he
+wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled <i lang="fr">Un Roi
+Philosophe</i>, and in &rsquo;83 <i>Is God Dead?</i> Died at Paris, 14
+Dec. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Pemberton</b> (Charles Reece). English actor and author, b.
+Pontypool, S. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world
+and wrote <i>The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice</i>, which with other
+remains was published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.</p>
+<p><b>Pennetier</b> (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the
+Museum of Natural History at Rouen. Author of a work on the
+<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e14256" title=
+"Source: Orgin">Origin</span> of Life</i>, &rsquo;68, in which he
+contends for spontaneous generation. To this work F. A. Pouchet
+contributed a preface.</p>
+<p><b>Perfitt</b> (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the
+<i>Pathfinder</i>, &rsquo;59&ndash;61. Preached at South Place Chapel.
+Wrote <i>Life and Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth</i>, &rsquo;61.</p>
+<p><b>Periers</b> (Bonaventure des). See <a href=
+"#desperiers">Desperiers</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Perot</b> (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on
+<i>Man and God</i>, which has been translated into English, 1881, and
+<i>Moral and Philosophical Allegories</i> (Paris, 1883).</p>
+<p><b>Perrier</b> (Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of
+Natural History, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on
+Natural History, and one on <i>Transformisme</i>, &rsquo;88.</p>
+<p><b>Perrin</b> (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on
+<i>The Religion of Philosophy</i>, or the Unification of Knowledge: a
+comparison of the chief philosophical and religious systems of the
+world, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Perry</b> (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile&rsquo;s shopmen,
+sentenced 1824 to three years&rsquo; imprisonment in Newgate for
+selling Palmer&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Nature</i>. He became a chemist
+at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned Parliament for the prisoners for
+blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe, stating that his own imprisonment had
+not fulfilled the judge&rsquo;s hope of his recantation.</p>
+<p><b>Petit</b> (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de
+Gr&egrave;ve in 1665 as the author of some impious pieces.</p>
+<p><b>Petronius</b>, called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at
+the Court of Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his
+veins and bled to death in <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 66, conversing
+meanwhile <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14320" href="#xd20e14320"
+name="xd20e14320">255</a>]</span>with his friends on the gossip of the
+day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning &ldquo;Primus
+in orbe Deos fecit timor.&rdquo; Petronius is famous for his
+&ldquo;pure Latinity.&rdquo; He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with
+the same excuse, his romance being a satire on Nero and his court.</p>
+<p id="petruccellidellagattina"><b>Petruccelli della Gattina</b>
+(Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples, 1816, has travelled much and
+written many works. He was deputy to the Naples Parliament in
+&rsquo;48, and exiled after the reaction.</p>
+<p id="petrusdeabano"><b>Petrus de Abano.</b> A learned Italian
+physician, b. Abano 1250. He studied at Paris and became professor of
+medicine at Padua. He wrote many works and had a great reputation. He
+is said to have denied the existence of spirits, and to have ascribed
+all miracles to natural causes. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as
+a heretic, a magician and an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was
+acquitted. He was accused a second time but dying (1320) while the
+trial was preparing, he was condemned after death, his body disinterred
+and burnt, and he was also burnt in effigy in the public square of
+Padua.</p>
+<p><b>Peypers</b> (H. F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e14334" title="Source: Dijp">Rijp</span>, 2 Jan. 1856, studied
+medicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and
+good natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much to
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and is at present one of the five editors
+of that Freethought monthly.</p>
+<p><b>Peyrard</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French mathematician, b. Vial
+(Haute Loire) 1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of
+those who (7 Nov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An
+intimate friend of Sylvian Mar&eacute;chal, Peyrard furnished him with
+notes for his <i>Dictionnaire des Ath&eacute;es</i>. He wrote a work on
+<i>Nature and its Laws</i>, 1793&ndash;4, and proposed the piercing of
+the Isthmus of Suez. He translated the works of Euclid and Archimedes.
+Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.</p>
+<p><b>Peyrat</b> (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812.
+He wrote in the <i>National</i> and <i>la Presse</i>, and combated
+against the Second Empire. In &rsquo;65 he founded <i>l&rsquo;Avenir
+National</i>, which was several times condemned. In Feb. &rsquo;71, he
+was elected deputy of the Seine, and proposed the proclamation of the
+Republic. In &rsquo;76 he was chosen senator. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14363" href="#xd20e14363" name=
+"xd20e14363">256</a>]</span>He wrote a History of the Dogma of the
+Immaculate Conception, &rsquo;55; <i>History and Religion</i>,
+&rsquo;58; <i>Historical and Religious Studies</i>, &rsquo;58; and an
+able and scholarly <i>Elementary and Critical History of Jesus</i>,
+&rsquo;64.</p>
+<p><b>Peyrere</b> (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and
+brought up as a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of
+Cond&eacute;, and became intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi.
+His work entitled <i>Pr&aelig;adamit&aelig;</i>, 1653, in which he
+maintained that men lived before Adam, made a great sensation, and was
+burnt by the hangman at Paris. The bishop of Namur censured it, and la
+Peyr&egrave;re was arrested at Brussels, 1656, by order of the
+Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of the Prince of
+Cond&eacute; on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The following
+epitaph was nevertheless made on him:</p>
+<div lang="fr" class="lgouter">
+<p class="line">La Peyrere ici g&icirc;t, ce bon Israelite,</p>
+<p class="line">Hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite:</p>
+<p class="line">Quatre religions lui plurent &agrave; la fois:</p>
+<p class="line xd20e14390">Et son indiff&eacute;rence &eacute;tait si
+peu commune</p>
+<p class="line">Qu&rsquo;apr&egrave;s 80 ans qu&rsquo;il eut &agrave;
+faire un choix</p>
+<p class="line xd20e14390">Le bon homme partit, et n&rsquo;en choisit
+pas une.</p>
+</div>
+<p class="firstpar">Died near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.</p>
+<p><b>Pfeiff</b> (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829.
+Editor of the free religious periodical, <i>The Truthseeker</i>, since
+1882. He has also translated into Swedish some of the writings of
+Herbert Spencer.</p>
+<p><b>Pharmacopulo</b> (A.P.) Greek translator of B&uuml;chner&rsquo;s
+<i>Force and Matter</i>, and corresponding member of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers.</p>
+<p><b>Phillips</b> (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b.
+London, 1767. He was hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher,
+republican, Sheriff of London (1807&ndash;8), and Knight. He compiled
+many schoolbooks, chiefly under pseudonyms, of which the most popular
+were the Rev. J. Goldsmith and Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen
+most in his <i>Million of Facts</i>. Died at Brighton 2 April,
+1840.</p>
+<p><b>Phillippo</b> (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near
+Thetford, Norfolk. A deist who wrote an <i>Essay on Political and
+Religious Meditations</i>, 1868. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e14426" href="#xd20e14426" name="xd20e14426">257</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Pi-y Margall</b> (Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican
+statesman, b. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the
+<i>Ruins</i> of Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has
+written many political works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has
+much admiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and
+philosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with
+Castelar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic,
+being Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Pichard</b> (Prosper). French Positivist, author of <i>Doctrine
+of Reality</i>, &ldquo;a catechism for the use of people who do not pay
+themselves with words,&rdquo; to which Littr&eacute; wrote a preface,
+1873.</p>
+<p><b>Pierson</b> (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8
+April, 1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical
+congregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor
+at Heidelberg. He resigned his connection with the Church in &rsquo;64.
+He has written many works of theological and literary value of which we
+mention his <i>Poems</i> &rsquo;82, <i>New Studies on Calvin</i>,
+&rsquo;83, and <i>Verisimilia</i>, written in conjunction with S. A.
+Naber, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Pigault-Lebrun</b> (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French
+author, b. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of
+Boulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and <i lang="fr">Le
+Citateur</i>, 1803, a collection of objections to Christianity,
+borrowed in part from Voltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811
+Napoleon threatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It
+was suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently
+reprinted. Pigault-Lebrun<a id="xd20e14461" name="xd20e14461"></a>
+became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon, and died at La
+Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Pike</b> (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June,
+1826, wrote <i>My Religious Experience</i> and <i>What I found in the
+Bible</i>, 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Pillsbury</b> (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22
+Sep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till &rsquo;35, when he entered
+Gilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in &rsquo;38<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e14478" title="Not in source">,</span> studied a year at
+Andover, was congregational minister for one <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14481" href="#xd20e14481" name=
+"xd20e14481">258</a>]</span>year, and then, perceiving the churches
+were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the ministry. He became an
+abolitionist lecturer, edited the <i>Herald of Freedom</i>, <i>National
+Anti-Slavery Standard</i>, and the <i>Revolution</i>. He also preached
+for free religious societies, wrote <i>Pious Frauds</i>, and
+contributed to the <i>Boston Investigator</i> and
+<i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Magazine</i>. His principal work is <i>Acts of
+the Anti-Slavery Apostles</i>, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Piron</b> (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689.
+His pieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of
+his profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being
+drunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even
+deity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried
+by his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written
+parodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book
+in the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered
+&ldquo;Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin.&rdquo; Died at Paris, 21
+Jan. 1773.</p>
+<p><b>Pisarev</b> (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and
+materialist, b. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the
+Scholastics of the nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July
+1868. His works are published in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Pitt</b> (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English
+statesman and orator, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. <span class="corr"
+id="xd20e14517" title="Source: 1808">1708</span>. The services to his
+country of &ldquo;the Great Commoner,&rdquo; as he was called, are well
+known, but it is not so generally recognised that his <i>Letter on
+Superstition</i>, first printed in the <i>London Journal</i> in 1733,
+entitles him to be ranked with the Deists. He says that &ldquo;the more
+superstitious people are, always the more vicious; and the more they
+<i>believe</i>, the less they practice.&rdquo; Atheism furnishes no man
+with arguments to be vicious; but superstition, or what the world made
+by religion, is the greatest possible encouragement to vice, by setting
+up something as religion, which shall atone and commute for the want of
+virtue. This remarkable letter ends with the words &ldquo;Remember that
+the only true divinity is humanity.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Place</b> (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779
+at Charing Cross. He early became a member of the London, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14533" href="#xd20e14533" name=
+"xd20e14533">259</a>]</span>Corresponding Society. He wrote to
+Carlile&rsquo;s <i>Republican</i> and <i>Lion</i>. A friend of T.
+Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and
+Hibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was
+connected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left many
+manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are now in
+the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist&mdash;see
+<i>Reasoner</i>, 26 March, &rsquo;54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan.
+1854.</p>
+<p><b>Platt</b> (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author
+of popular works on <i>Business</i>, &rsquo;75; <i>Morality</i>,
+&rsquo;78; <i>Progress</i>, &rsquo;80; <i>Life</i>, &rsquo;81; <i>God
+and Mammon</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Pliny</b> (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist,
+b. Verona, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 22. He distinguished himself in
+the army, was admitted into the college of Augurs, appointed procurator
+in Spain, and honored with the esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote
+the history of his own time in 31 books, now lost, and a
+<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e14571" title=
+"Source: National">Natural</span> History</i> in 37 books, one of the
+most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean Atheism
+appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. <span class=
+"sc">A.D.</span> 79, he observed the <span class="corr" id="xd20e14578"
+title="Source: erruption">eruption</span> of Mount Vesuvius, and
+landing to assist the inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious
+vapors.</p>
+<p><b>Plumacher</b> (Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and
+authoress of a work on <i>Pessimism in the Past and Future</i>,
+Heidelberg, 1884. She has also defended her views in <i>Mind</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Plumer</b> (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25
+June, 1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on
+account of scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the
+Legislature eight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was
+governor of New Hampshire, 1812&ndash;18, wrote to the press over the
+signature &ldquo;Cincinnatus,&rdquo; and published an <i>Address to the
+Clergy</i>, &rsquo;14. He lived till 22 June, 1850.</p>
+<p><b>Plutarch</b>. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheron&aelig;a
+in B&oelig;tia, about <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 50. He visited
+Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of Trajan. His <i>Parallel
+Lives</i> of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made him immortal. He
+wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works, including a
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14608" href="#xd20e14608" name=
+"xd20e14608">260</a>]</span>treatise on Superstition. He condemned the
+vulgar notions of Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds
+popularly ascribed to the gods, that he would rather men said there was
+no Plutarch than traduce his character. In other words, superstition is
+more impious than Atheism. Died about <span class="sc">A.D.</span>
+120.</p>
+<p><b>Poe</b> (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe,
+who figured in the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His
+mother was an actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing
+<i>Tamerlane and other Poems</i>, &rsquo;27, he enlisted in the United
+States Army, but was cashiered in &rsquo;31. He then took to literary
+employment in Baltimore and wrote many stories, collected as the
+<i>Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor</i>. In &rsquo;45 appeared
+<i>The Raven and other Poems</i>, which proved him the most musical and
+dextrous of American poets. In &rsquo;48 he published <i>Eureka, a
+Prose Poem</i>, which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed
+his greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His
+personal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not unlike
+that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.</p>
+<p><b>Poey</b> (Andr&eacute;s), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of
+French and Spanish descent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the <i>Modern
+Thinker</i>, and is author of many scientific memoirs and a popular
+exposition of Positivism (Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on
+Darwinism and Comtism.</p>
+<p><b>Pompery</b> (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A
+follower of Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism,
+&rsquo;79, and a Life of Voltaire, &rsquo;80.</p>
+<p><b>Pomponazzi</b> (Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher,
+b. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua, where
+he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was appointed
+professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence with
+Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at Ferrara
+and Bologna. His treatise <i>De Immortalitate Anim&aelig;</i>, 1516,
+gave great offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the
+hangman at Venice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo&rsquo;s intercession
+with Pope Leo X. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14648" href="#xd20e14648" name=
+"xd20e14648">261</a>]</span>Among his works is a treatise on Fate, Free
+Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive man, and was nicknamed
+&ldquo;Peretto.&rdquo; He held that doubt was necessary for the
+development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation for upright
+conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525, and was buried
+at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.</p>
+<p id="ponnat"><b>Ponnat</b> (de), <i>Baron</i>, French writer, b.
+about 1810. Educated by Jesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and
+democrat and a friend of A. S. Morin, with whom he collaborated on the
+<i>Rationaliste</i> of Geneva. He wrote many notable articles in <i>La
+Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, <i>Le Critique</i>, and <i>Le Candide</i>, for
+writing in which last he was sentenced to one year&rsquo;s
+imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan, <i>The
+Cross or Death</i>, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the
+Ecumenical Council at Rome (Brussels, &rsquo;62). His principal work is
+a history of the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church
+(Paris, &rsquo;82). Died in 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Porphyry</b> (<span class="trans" title="Porphyrios"><span class=
+"Greek" lang=
+"el">&Pi;&omicron;&rho;&phi;&#8059;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf;</span></span>),
+Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia, 233 <span class=
+"sc">A.D.</span> His original name was <span class="sc">Malchus</span>
+or <span class="sc">Melech</span>&mdash;a &ldquo;King.&rdquo; He was a
+pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that he was
+of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards rejected
+Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and intelligence;
+the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote (in Greek) a
+famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some fragments of
+which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It is certain he
+showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian writings, exposed
+their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between Peter and Paul,
+and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. He wrote many
+other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and Pythagorus. Died at
+Rome about 305.</p>
+<p><b>Porzio</b> (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when
+lecturing at Pisa, the students cried &ldquo;What of the soul?&rdquo;
+He frankly professed his belief that the human soul differed in no
+essential point from the soul of a lion or plant, and that those who
+thought otherwise were prompted by pity for our mean estate. These
+assertions are in his treatise <i>De Mente Human&acirc;</i>.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14701" href="#xd20e14701" name=
+"xd20e14701">262</a>]</span></p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Posos</b> (Juan de),&rdquo; an undiscovered author using
+this pen-name, expressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary
+travels, published in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into
+German at Leipsic, 1721.</p>
+<p><b>Post</b> (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From &rsquo;28 she
+was a leading advocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman&rsquo;s
+suffrage and religious reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan.
+1889.</p>
+<p><b>Potter</b> (Agathon Louis de<span class="corr" id="xd20e14715"
+title="Source: .)">).</span> See <a href="#depotteral">De Potter (A.
+L.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Potter</b> (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See <a href=
+"#depotterlaj">De Potter (L. A. J.)</a></p>
+<p id="potvin"><b>Potvin</b> (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec.
+1818, is member of the Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the
+history of literature at Brussels. He wrote anonymously <i lang=
+"fr">Poesie et Amour</i> &rsquo;58, and <i>Rome and the Family</i>.
+Under the name of &ldquo;Dom Jacobus&rdquo; he has written an able work
+in two volumes on <i>The Church and Morality</i>, and also <i>Tablets
+of a Freethinker</i>. He was president of &ldquo;<span lang="fr">La
+Libre Pens&eacute;e</span>&rdquo; of Brussels from &rsquo;78 to
+&rsquo;83, is director of the <span lang="fr">Revue de Belgique</span>
+and has collaborated on the <i lang="fr">National</i> and other
+papers.</p>
+<p><b>Pouchet</b> (Felix Archim&egrave;de), French naturalist, b. Rouen
+26 Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author
+of <i>Mme. Bovary</i>, and became doctor in &rsquo;27. He was made
+professor of natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his
+experiments enriched science with many discoveries. He defended
+spontaneous generation and wrote many monographs and books of which the
+principal is entitled <i>The Universe</i>, &rsquo;65. Died at Rouen, 6
+Dec. 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Pouchet</b> (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the
+proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in &rsquo;64, and in &rsquo;79
+professor of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at
+Paris. In &rsquo;80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has
+written on <i>The Plurality of the Human Race</i>, &rsquo;58, and
+collaborated on the <i lang="fr">Si&egrave;cle</i>, and the <i lang=
+"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> and to <i lang="fr">la Philosophie
+Positive</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Pouchkine</b> (A.), see <a href="#pushkin">Pushkin</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Pougens</b> (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural
+son of the Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24
+he was blinded by small pox. He became an intimate <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14792" href="#xd20e14792" name=
+"xd20e14792">263</a>]</span>friend of the philosophers, and, sharing
+their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though it ruined his
+fortunes. He wrote <i>Philosophical Researches</i>, 1786, edited the
+posthumous works of D&rsquo;Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary
+of the French language. His <i>Jocko</i>, a tale of a monkey, exhibits
+his keen sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his <i>Philosophical
+Letters</i>, 1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau,
+D&rsquo;Alembert, Pechmeja, Franklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near
+Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.</p>
+<p><b>Poulin</b> (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of
+<i>What is God? What is Man?</i> a scientific solution of the religious
+problem (Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as <i>God According to
+Science</i>, &rsquo;75, in which he maintains that man and God exclude
+each other, and that the only divinity is moral harmony.</p>
+<p><b>Poultier D&rsquo;Elmolte</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Martin), b.
+Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31 Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast
+aside his frock at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a
+battalion of volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the
+death of the King. He conducted the journal, <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Ami
+des lois</i>, and became one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in
+1816, he died at Tournay in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote <i lang=
+"fr">Morceaux Philosophiques</i> in the <i lang="fr">Journal
+Encyclop&eacute;dique</i>; <i lang="fr">Victoire</i>, or the
+Confessions of a Benedictine; <i lang="fr">Discours
+D&eacute;cadaires</i>, for the use of Theophilantropists, and
+<i>Conjectures on the Nature and Origin of Things</i>, Tournay,
+1821.</p>
+<p><b>Powell</b> (B. F.), compiler of the <i>Bible of Reason</i>, or
+Scriptures of Ancient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.</p>
+<p><b>Prades</b> (Jean Martin de), French theologian b.
+Castel-Sarrasin, about 1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless
+became intimate with Diderot and contributed the article <span class=
+"sc">Certitude</span> to the Encyclop&eacute;die. On the 18th Nov. 1751
+he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the doctorate, remarkable as
+the first open attack on Christianity by a French theologian. He
+maintained many propositions on the soul, the origin of society, the
+laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary to the dogmas of the Church,
+and compared the cures recorded in the Gospels to those attributed to
+Esculapius. The thesis made a great scandal. His opinions were
+condemned by Pope <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14850" href=
+"#xd20e14850" name="xd20e14850">264</a>]</span>Benedict XIV., and he
+fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by
+d&rsquo;Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became
+reader to that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de
+Prades&rsquo; work on ecclesiastical history, published as <i lang=
+"fr">Abr&eacute;ge de l&rsquo;Histoire ecclesiastique de Fleury</i>,
+Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice at Glogau (Silesia),
+given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.</p>
+<p><b>Prater</b> (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted
+himself to the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the
+century, he wrote on the <i>Physiology of the Blood</i>, 1832. He
+published <i>Letters to the American People</i>, and <i>Literary
+Essays</i>, &rsquo;56. Died 20 July, 1885. He left the bulk of his
+money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep wound to be made in his
+arm to insure that he was dead.</p>
+<p><b>Preda</b> (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on
+<i>Revelation and Reason</i>, published at Geneva, 1865, under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;Padre Pietro.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="premontval"><b>Premontval</b> (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French
+writer, b. Charenton, 16 Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in
+the college of Plessis Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma
+of the Eucharist. He studied mathematics and became member of the
+Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He wrote <i lang="fr">Le Diogene de
+D&rsquo;Alembert</i>, or Freethoughts on Man, 1754, <i>Panangiana
+Panurgica</i>, or the false Evangelist, and <i lang="fr">Vues
+Philosophiques</i>, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote <i lang="fr">De
+la Th&eacute;ologie de L&rsquo;Etre</i>, in which he denies many of the
+ordinary proofs of the existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.</p>
+<p><b>Priestley</b> (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead,
+near Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way
+to broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the
+doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to
+his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the
+sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in his
+<i>Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit</i>, 1777. Through the obloquy
+these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord
+Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of an
+independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14899" href="#xd20e14899" name=
+"xd20e14899">265</a>]</span><i>History of the Corruptions of
+Christianity</i> and <i>History of the Early Opinions Concerning Jesus
+Christ</i>, which involved him in controversy with Bishop Horsley and
+others. In consequence of his sympathy with the French Revolution, his
+house was burnt and sacked in a riot, 14 July, 1791. After this he
+removed to Hackney, and was finally goaded to seek an asylum in the
+United States, which he reached in 1794. Even in America he endured
+some uneasiness on account of his opinions until Jefferson became
+president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.</p>
+<p><b>Pringle</b> (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of <i>Ingersoll
+in Canada</i>, 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Proctor</b> (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23
+March, 1837. Educated at King&rsquo;s College, London, and at St.
+John&rsquo;s, Cambridge, where he became B.A. in &rsquo;60. In
+&rsquo;66 he became Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which
+he afterwards became hon. sec. He maintained in &rsquo;69 the
+since-established theory of the solar corona. He wrote, lectured, and
+edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty volumes, chiefly
+popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for a while a
+Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and science, and
+in a letter to the <i>New York Tribune</i>, Nov. &rsquo;75, formally
+renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His
+remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in <i>The Universe of Suns,
+and other Science Gleanings</i>, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his
+heresy. In &rsquo;81 he started <i>Knowledge</i>, in which appeared
+many valuable papers, notably one (Jan. &rsquo;87), &ldquo;The
+Beginning of Christianity.&rdquo; He entirely rejected the miraculous
+elements of the gospels, which he considered largely a
+<i>rechauff&eacute;</i> of solar myths. In other articles in the
+<i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Magazine</i> and the <i>Open Court</i> he
+pointed out the coincidence between the Christian stories and solar
+myths, and also with stories found in Josephus. The very last article
+he published before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel
+Ingersoll in his controversy with Gladstone in the <i>North American
+Review</i>. In &rsquo;84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he
+contracted yellow fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Proudhon</b> (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political
+thinker, b. Besan&ccedil;on, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14943" href="#xd20e14943" name=
+"xd20e14943">266</a>]</span>printer, and won a prize of 1,500 francs
+for the person &ldquo;best fitted for a literary or scientific
+career.&rdquo; In &rsquo;40 appears his memoir, What is Property? in
+which he made the celebrated answer &ldquo;<i lang="fr">C&rsquo;est le
+vol.</i>&rdquo; In &rsquo;43 the <i>Creation of Order in Humanity</i>
+appeared, treating of religion, philosophy and logic. In &rsquo;46 he
+published his <i>System of Economical Contradictions</i>, in which
+appeared his famous aphorism, &ldquo;<i lang="fr">Dieu, c&rsquo;est le
+mal.</i>&rdquo; In &rsquo;48 he introduced his scheme of the
+organisation of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though
+Proudhon saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte
+when President, and was sentenced to three years&rsquo; imprisonment
+and a fine of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. &rsquo;50 he married by private
+contract while in prison. For his work on <i>Justice in the Revolution
+and in the Church</i> he was condemned to three years&rsquo;
+imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in &rsquo;58. He took refuge in
+Belgium and returned in &rsquo;63. Died at Passy, 19 Jan. 1865. Among
+his posthumous works was <i>The Gospels Annotated</i>, &rsquo;66.
+Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations, but he
+lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works have
+been published in 26 vols.</p>
+<p><b>Protagoras</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Is said to have been a disciple of
+Democritus, and to have been a porter before he studied philosophy. He
+was the first to call himself a sophist. He wrote in a book on the
+gods, &ldquo;Respecting the gods, I am unable to know whether they
+exist or do not exist.&rdquo; For this he was impeached and banished,
+and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek Islands, and died
+about 411. He believed all things were in flux, and summed up his
+conclusions in the proposition that &ldquo;man is the measure of all
+things, both of that which exists and that which does not exist.&rdquo;
+Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy &ldquo;had the
+merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative nature
+of cognition.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Prudhomme</b> (Sully). See <a href="#sullyprudhomme">Sully
+Prudhomme</a>.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e14980" title=
+"Source: Pueckler Muskau">P&uuml;ckler Muskau</span></b> (Hermann
+Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer, b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He
+travelled widely and wrote his observations in a work entitled
+<i>Letters of a Defunct</i>, 1830; this was followed by <i lang=
+"it">Tutti Frutti</i>, &rsquo;32; <i>Semilasso in Africa</i>,
+&rsquo;36, and other works. Died 4 Feb. 1871. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14992" href="#xd20e14992" name=
+"xd20e14992">267</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="pushkin"><b>Pushkin</b> (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian
+poet, often called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From
+youth he was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work,
+which circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny&rsquo;s
+<i lang="fr">Guerre des Dieux</i>, and entitled the Gabrielade, the
+archangel being the hero. He was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired
+largely by reading Voltaire and Byron, put forward numerous poems and
+romances, of which the most popular is Eugene On&eacute;guine, an
+imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote some histories and founded the
+<i>Sovremennik</i> (Contemporary), 1836. In Jan. 1837 he was mortally
+wounded in a duel.</p>
+<p><b>Putnam</b> (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up
+as a minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became
+secretary to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected
+president in Oct. 1887. In &rsquo;88 he started <i>Freethought</i> at
+San Francisco in company with G. Macdonald. Has written poems,
+<i>Prometheus</i>, <i>Ingersoll and Jesus</i>, <i>Adami and Heva</i>;
+romances entitled <i>Golden Throne</i>, <i>Waifs and Wanderings</i>,
+and <i>Gottlieb</i>, and pamphlets on the <i>Problem of the
+Universe</i>, <i>The New God</i>, and <i>The Glory of
+Infidelity</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Putsage</b> (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of
+the Colins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on <i>Determinism
+and Rational Science</i>, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in
+<i lang="fr">La Philosophie de L&rsquo;Avenir</i> of Paris and <i lang=
+"fr">La Societe Nouvelle</i> of Brussels.</p>
+<p><b>Pyat</b> (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon,
+4 Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college
+at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and
+Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in
+many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as <i>The Rag-picker of
+Paris</i>, &rsquo;47. After &rsquo;52 he lived in England, where he
+wrote an apology for the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove,
+&rsquo;58. In &rsquo;71 he founded the journal <i lang="fr">le
+Combat</i>. Elected to the National Assembly he protested against the
+treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and condemned to death
+in &rsquo;73. He returned to France after the armistice, and has sat as
+deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice, 3 Aug. 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Pyrrho</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15066" title=
+"Source: &Pi;&upsilon;&rho;&rho;&omicron;&nu;"><span class="trans"
+title="Pyrr&#333;n"><span class="Greek" lang=
+"el">&Pi;&#8059;&rho;&rho;&omega;&nu;</span></span></span>). Greek
+philosopher, a native of Elis, in <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e15075" href="#xd20e15075" name=
+"xd20e15075">268</a>]</span>Peloponesus, founder of a sceptical school
+about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been attracted to
+philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself to
+Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,
+and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian
+Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all
+things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his
+equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept
+house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He
+reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians
+honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his
+school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus and
+Empiricus.</p>
+<p><b>Quental.</b> See <a href="#antherodequental">Anthero de
+Quental</a>.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Quepat</b> (N&eacute;r&eacute;e.&rdquo;) See <a href=
+"#paquet">Paquet (Ren&eacute;<span class="corr" id="xd20e15091" title=
+"Source: .)">).</span></a></p>
+<p><b>Quesnay</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French economist, b. M&eacute;rey,
+4 June 1694. Self educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted
+for his <i>Tableau Economique</i>, 1708, and his doctrine of <i>Laissez
+Faire</i>. He derived moral and social rules from physical laws. Died
+Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.</p>
+<p><b>Quinet</b> (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb.
+1803. He attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of
+Herder&rsquo;s <i>The Philosophy of History</i>. With his friend
+Michelet he made many attacks on Catholicism, the <i>Jesuits</i> being
+their joint work. He fought in the Revolution of &rsquo;48, and opposed
+the Second Empire. His work on <i>The Genius of Religion</i>,
+&rsquo;42, is profound, though mystical, and his historical work on
+<i>The Revolution</i>, &rsquo;65 is a masterpiece. Died at Versailles,
+27 March, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Quintin</b> (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of
+the Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in
+1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and
+burnt at Tournay in 1530.</p>
+<p><b>Quris</b> (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published
+some works on law and <i>La D&eacute;fense Catholique et la
+Critique</i>, Paris, 1864.</p>
+<p><b>Rabelais</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), famous and witty French satirist
+and philosopher, b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15135" href="#xd20e15135" name=
+"xd20e15135">269</a>]</span>age he joined the order of Franciscans, but
+finding monastic life incompatible with his genial temper, quitted the
+convent without the leave of his superior. He studied medicine at
+Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised at Lyons. His great
+humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was denounced as
+heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their order but
+their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was appointed
+cur&eacute; of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings show
+surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, &ldquo;Beyond a doubt
+he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his
+age.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Radenhausen</b> (Christian), German philosopher, b.
+Friedrichstadt, 3 Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a
+lithographer, he resided at Hamburg, where he published <i>Isis</i>,
+Mankind and the World (4 vols.), &rsquo;70&ndash;72; <i>Osiris</i>,
+&rsquo;74; <i>The New Faith</i>, &rsquo;77; <i>Christianity is
+Heathenism</i>, &rsquo;81; <i>The True Bible and the False</i>,
+&rsquo;87; <i>Esther</i>, &rsquo;87.</p>
+<p><b>Radicati</b> (Alberto di), <i>Count</i>. See <a href=
+"#passerano">Passerano</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ragon</b> (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine,
+1781. By profession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of
+Bureau to the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on
+Freemasonry, and <i>The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the
+Ancient Mysteries</i>, 1844. Died at Paris, 1862.</p>
+<p><b>Ram</b> (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the
+seventeenth century, who was accused of Atheism.</p>
+<p><b>Ramaer</b> (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East
+Friesland, 2 Aug. 1812. From &rsquo;29 he served as officer in the
+Dutch army. He afterwards became a tax collector, and in &rsquo;60 was
+pensioned. He wrote on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also
+contributed largely to <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, often under the
+pseudonym of &ldquo;La&ccedil;hm&eacute;.&rdquo; He had a noble mind
+and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16 Feb.
+1867.</p>
+<p><b>Ramee</b> (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French
+extraction, Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of
+&ldquo;Ouida,&rdquo; a little sister&rsquo;s mispronunciation of
+Louisa, she has published many popular novels, exhibiting her free and
+pessimistic opinions. We mention <i>Tricotin</i>, <i>Folle Farine</i>,
+<i>Signa</i>, <i>Moths</i> and <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e15205" href="#xd20e15205" name="xd20e15205">270</a>]</span><i>A
+Village Commune</i>. She has lived much in Italy, where the scenes of
+several novels are placed.</p>
+<p><b>Ramee</b> (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth
+(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused
+of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the
+massacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.</p>
+<p><b>Ramsey</b> (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a
+Freethinker early in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall
+of Science and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co.
+Starting in business for himself he published the <i>Freethinker</i>,
+for which in &rsquo;82 he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp.
+Tried in March &rsquo;83, after a good defence, he was sentenced to
+nine months&rsquo; imprisonment, and on Mr. Foote&rsquo;s release acted
+as printer of the paper.</p>
+<p><b>Ranc</b> (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec.
+1831, and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents.
+He took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and
+studied law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the
+Second Empire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He
+collaborated on <i>La Marseillaise</i>, was elected on the Municipal
+Council of Paris in &rsquo;71, and Deputy, &rsquo;73. Has written
+<i>Under the Empire</i> and many other political works.</p>
+<p><b>Randello</b> (Cosimo), <span class="corr" id="xd20e15235" title=
+"Source: Italia">Italian</span> author of <i>The Simple Story of a
+Great Fraud</i>, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity,
+directed against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Rapisardi</b> (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843.
+Has translated Lucretius, &rsquo;80, and published poems on
+<i>Lucifer</i>, and <i>The Last Prayer of Pius IX.</i>, &rsquo;71,
+etc.</p>
+<p><b>Raspail</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Vincent), French chemist and
+politician b. Carpentras 24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics
+and intended for the Church. He became, while quite young, professor of
+philosophy at the theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of
+theological dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from
+1815&ndash;24 gave lessons, and afterwards became a scientific
+lecturer. He took part in the Revolution of &rsquo;30. Louis Philippe
+offered him the Legion of Honor but he refused. Taking part in all the
+revolutionary outbreaks <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15255" href=
+"#xd20e15255" name="xd20e15255">271</a>]</span>he was frequently
+imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in &rsquo;69 and sat on the extreme
+left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Rau</b> (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813.
+He studied theology and became preacher to free congregations in
+Stuttgart and Mannheim. He wrote <i>Gospel of Nature</i>, <i>A
+Catechism of the Religion of the Future</i>, and other works. Died
+Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Rawson</b> (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,
+b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and
+art, he made four visits to the East, and made in &rsquo;51&ndash;2 a
+pilgrimage from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of
+medicine. He has published many maps and typographical and philological
+works, and illustrated Beecher&rsquo;s <i>Life of Jesus</i>. Has also
+written on the <i>Antiquities of the Orient</i>, New York, &rsquo;70,
+and Chorography of Palestine, London, &rsquo;80. Has written in the
+<i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Magazine</i>, maintaining that the Bible account
+of the twelve tribes of Israel is non-historical.</p>
+<p><b>Raynal</b> (Guillaume Thomas Fran&ccedil;ois) <i><span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e15286" title=
+"Source: l&rsquo;abbe">l&rsquo;abb&eacute;</span></i>, French historian
+and philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as
+a priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,
+1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With the
+assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a
+philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies (4
+vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious and
+political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was censured
+by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May, 1781.
+Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near Paris, 6
+March, 1796.</p>
+<p><b>Reade</b> (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew
+of Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,
+26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart of
+Africa, and wrote <i>Savage Africa</i>, <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e15296" title="Not in source">&rsquo;</span>63, <i>The African
+Sketch Book</i>, and in &rsquo;73, <i>The Story of the Ashantee
+Campaign</i>; which he accompanied as <i>Times</i> correspondent. In
+the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e15310" title=
+"Source: Martrydom">Martyrdom</span> of Man</i> (&rsquo;72), he rejects
+the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions
+and is still worth reading. He also wrote <i>Liberty Hall</i>, a novel,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e15317" title=
+"Not in source">&rsquo;</span>60; <i>The <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e15322" href="#xd20e15322" name="xd20e15322">272</a>]</span>Veil
+of Isis</i>, &rsquo;61, and <i>See Saw</i>, a novel, &rsquo;65. He
+wrote his last work <i>The Outcast</i>, a Freethought novel, with the
+hand of death upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Reber</b> (George), American author of <i>The Christ of Paul</i>,
+or the Enigmas of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he
+exposes the frauds and follies of the early fathers.</p>
+<p><b>Reclus</b> (Jean Jacques Elis&eacute;e), French geographer and
+socialist, the son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande
+(Gironde), 15 March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and
+afterwards at Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for
+liberty, and left France after the <i lang="fr">coup
+d&rsquo;&eacute;tat</i> of 2 Dec. &rsquo;51, and travelled till
+&rsquo;57 in England, Ireland, and the North and South America,
+devoting himself to studying the social and political as well as
+physical condition of the countries he visited, the results being
+published in the <i lang="fr">Tour du monde</i>, and <i lang="fr">Revue
+des Deux Mondes</i>, in which he upheld the cause of the North during
+the American war. In &rsquo;71 he supported the Commune and was taken
+prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent men in
+England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted to
+banishment. At the amnesty of March &rsquo;79, he returned to Paris,
+and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard <i>Universal
+Geography</i> in 13 vols. In &rsquo;82 he gave two of his daughters in
+marriage without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a
+preface to Bakounin&rsquo;s <i>God and the State</i>, and many other
+works.</p>
+<p><b>Reddalls</b> (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,
+Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham <i>Daily Post</i>,
+but wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for
+himself, and issued the <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, &rsquo;73, which was
+contributed to by Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He
+died 13 Oct. 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Reghillini de Schio</b> (M.), Professor of Chemistry and
+Mathematics, b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in
+French an able exposition of <i>Masonry</i>, 1833, which he traced to
+Egypt; and an <i>Examination of Mosaism and Christianity</i>,
+&rsquo;34. He was mixed in the troubles of Venice in &rsquo;48, and
+fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at Brussels Aug. 1853. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15377" href="#xd20e15377" name=
+"xd20e15377">273</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Regnard</b> (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b.
+Lachante (Ni&egrave;vre), 20 March, 1836, author of <i lang="fr">Essais
+d&rsquo;Histoire et de Critique Scientifique</i> (Paris,
+&rsquo;65)&mdash;a work for which he could find no publisher, and had
+to issue himself&mdash;in which he proclaimed scientific materialism.
+Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet and Clemenceau, the
+<i lang="fr">Revue Encyclop&eacute;dique</i>, which being suppressed on
+its first number, he started <i lang="fr">La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>
+with Asseline, Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him
+and Eudes a condemnation of four months&rsquo; imprisonment. He wrote
+<i>New Researches on Cerebral Congestion</i>, &rsquo;68, and was one of
+the French delegates to the anti-Council of Naples, &rsquo;69. Has
+published <i>Atheism</i>, studies of political science, dated Londres,
+&rsquo;78; a <i>History of England since 1815</i>; and has translated
+B&uuml;chner&rsquo;s <i>Force and Matter</i>, &rsquo;84. He was
+delegate to the Freethinkers&rsquo; International Congress at Antwerp,
+&rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Regnard</b> (Jean Fran&ccedil;ois), French comic poet, b. Paris.
+8 Feb. 1655. He went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was
+captured by an Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an
+intrigue with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The
+French consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He
+wrote a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a
+treasurer of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.</p>
+<p><b>Regnier</b> (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21
+Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for
+its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained a
+canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22 Oct.
+1613.</p>
+<p><b>Reich</b> (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of
+Sclav descent on his father&rsquo;s side, b. Olm&uuml;tz, 6 March 1839.
+He studied at Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty
+volumes besides editing the <i>Athen&aelig;um</i> of Jena &rsquo;75,
+and <i>Universities</i> of Grossenbain, &rsquo;83. Of his works we
+mention <i>Man and the Soul</i>, &rsquo;72; <i>The Church of
+Humanity</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e15428" title=
+"Not in source">&rsquo;</span>74; <i>Life of Man as an Individual</i>,
+&rsquo;81; <i>History of the Soul</i>, &rsquo;84; <i>The Emancipation
+of Women</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e15441" title=
+"Not in source">&rsquo;</span>84.</p>
+<p><b>Reil</b> (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East
+Friesland, 20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to
+medicine; after practising some years in his native <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15448" href="#xd20e15448" name=
+"xd20e15448">274</a>]</span>town he went in 1787 to Halle, and in 1810
+he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin University. He wrote many
+medical works, and much advanced medical science, displacing the old
+ideas in a way which brought on him the accusation of pantheism.
+Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle he was attacked by the
+malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.</p>
+<p><b>Reimarus</b> (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22
+Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and
+Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector
+of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of
+the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on
+<i>The Principle Truths of Natural Religion</i>, 1754, and left behind
+the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e15459" title=
+"Source: Wolfenb&uuml;ltel">Wolfenb&uuml;ttel</span> Fragments</i>,
+published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg, 1 March, 1768. Strauss
+has written an account of his services, 1862.</p>
+<p><b>Reitzel</b> (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden,
+1849. Named after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from
+New York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant
+church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker
+of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now
+editor of <i lang="de">Der Arme Teufel</i> of Detroit, and says he
+&ldquo;shall be a poor man and a Revolutionaire all my life.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Remsburg</b> (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848.
+Has written a series of pamphlets entitled <i>The Image Breaker, False
+Claims of the Christian Church</i>, &rsquo;83, <i>Sabbath Breaking,
+Thomas Paine</i>, and a vigorous onslaught on <i>Bible Morals</i>,
+instancing twenty crimes and vices sanctioned by scripture,
+&rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Renan</b> (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b.
+Tr&eacute;guier (Brittany) 27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church
+and went to Paris to study. He became noted for his linguistic
+attainment, but his studies and independence of thought did not accord
+with his intended profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by
+metaphysics nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In &rsquo;45 he
+gave up all thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In
+&rsquo;48 he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic
+Languages, afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In
+&rsquo;52 he published <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15487" href=
+"#xd20e15487" name="xd20e15487">275</a>]</span>his work on
+Averro&euml;s and Averro&iuml;sm. In &rsquo;56 was elected member of
+the Academy of Inscriptions, and in &rsquo;60 sent on a mission to
+Syria; having in the meantime published a translation of <i>Job</i> and
+<i>Song of Songs</i>. Here he wrote his long contemplated <i lang=
+"fr">Vie de Jesus</i>, &rsquo;63. In &rsquo;61 he had been appointed
+Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of France, but denounced by
+bishops and clergy he was deprived of his chair, which was, however,
+restored in &rsquo;70. The Pope did not disdain to attack him
+personally as a &ldquo;French blasphemer.&rdquo; The <i>Vie de
+Jesus</i> is part of a comprehensive <i>History of the Origin of
+Christianity</i>, in 8 vols., &rsquo;63&ndash;83, which includes <i>The
+Apostles</i>, <i>St Paul</i>, <i>Anti-Christ</i>, <i>The Gospels</i>,
+<i>The Christian Church</i>, and <i>Marcus Aurelius, and the end of the
+Antique World</i>. Among his other works we must mention <i>Studies on
+Religious History</i> (&rsquo;58)<span class="corr" id="xd20e15527"
+title="Source: .">,</span> <i>Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments</i>
+(&rsquo;76), <i>Spinoza</i> (&rsquo;77), <i>Caliban</i>, a satirical
+drama (&rsquo;80), the Hibbert Lecture on the Influence of Rome on
+Christians, <i>Souvenirs</i>, &rsquo;84; <i>New Studies of Religious
+History</i>,&rsquo;84; <i>The Abbess of Jouarre</i>, a drama which made
+a great sensation in &rsquo;86; and <i>The History of the People of
+Israel</i>, &rsquo;87&ndash;89.</p>
+<p><b>Renand</b> (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled <i>Nouvelle
+Symbolique</i>, on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published
+at Brussels in 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Rengart</b> (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and
+freethought friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.</p>
+<p><b>Renard</b> (Georges), French professor of the Academie of
+Lausanne; author of <i>Man, is he Free?</i> 1881, and a <i>Life of
+Voltaire</i>, &rsquo;83.</p>
+<p><b>Renouvier</b> (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b.
+Montpellier, 1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical
+philosophy. Among his works are <i>Manual of Ancient Philosophy</i> (2
+vols., &rsquo;44); <i>Republican Manual</i>, &rsquo;48; <i>Essays of
+General Criticism</i>, &rsquo;54; <i>Science of Morals</i>, &rsquo;69;
+a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume&rsquo;s <i>Psychology</i>,
+&rsquo;78; and <i>A Sketch of a Systematic Classification of
+Philosophical Doctrines</i>, &rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Renton</b> (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852.
+Educated in Germany. Wrote poems entitled <i>Oil and Water Colors</i>,
+and a work on <i>The Logic of Style</i>, &rsquo;74. At Keswick he
+published <i>Jesus</i>, a psychological estimate of that hero,
+&rsquo;76. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15609" href="#xd20e15609"
+name="xd20e15609">276</a>]</span>Has since published a romance of the
+last generation called <i>Bishopspool</i>, &rsquo;83.</p>
+<p><b>Rethore</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois), French professor of philosophy at
+the Lyceum of Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled
+<i>Condillac, or Empiricism and Rationalism</i>, &rsquo;64. Has
+translated H. Spencer&rsquo;s <i>Classification of Sciences</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Reuschle</b> (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12
+Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, &rsquo;71, and Philosophy
+and Natural Science, &rsquo;74, dedicated to the memory of D. F.
+Strauss. Died at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Revillon</b> (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and
+deputy, b. Saint-Laurent-les M&acirc;con (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first
+a lawyer in &rsquo;57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many
+journals, and published many romances and brochures. In &rsquo;81 he
+was elected deputy.</p>
+<p><b>Rey</b> (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He
+printed all the works of d&rsquo;Holbach and Rousseau and some of
+Voltaire&rsquo;s, and conducted the <i lang="fr">Journal des
+Savans</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Reynaud</b> (Antoine Andre Louis), <i>Baron</i>, French
+mathematician, b. Paris, 12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the
+National Guard of Paris. He was teacher and examiner for about thirty
+years in the Polytechnic School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24
+Feb. 1844.</p>
+<p><b>Reynaud</b> (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb.
+1806. For a time he was a Saint Simonian. In &rsquo;36 he edited with
+P. Leroux the <i lang="fr">Encyclop&eacute;die Nouvelle</i>. He was a
+moderate Democrat in the Assembly of &rsquo;48. His chief work,
+entitled <i>Earth and Heaven</i>, &rsquo;54, had great success. It was
+formally condemned by a clerical council held at P&eacute;rigueux. Died
+Paris, 28 June, 1863.</p>
+<p><b>Reynolds</b> (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was
+brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher, but
+was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy at
+Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by Col.
+Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was a paltry
+fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the <i>Boston Investigator</i>,
+<i>Truthseeker</i>, and <i>Ironclad Age</i>. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15670" href="#xd20e15670" name=
+"xd20e15670">277</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Reynolds</b> (George William MacArthur), English writer; author
+of many novels. Wrote <i>Errors of the Christian Religion</i>,
+1832.</p>
+<p><b>Rialle</b> (J. <span class="sc">Girard</span> de), French
+anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La
+Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, conducted the <i lang="fr">Revue de
+Linguistique et de Philologie compar&eacute;e</i>, and has written on
+<i>Comparative Mythology,</i> dealing with fetishism, etc., &rsquo;78,
+and works on Ethnology.</p>
+<p><b>Ribelt</b> (L&eacute;once), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824,
+author of several political works and collaborator on <i>La Morale
+Ind&eacute;pendante</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Ribeyrolles</b> (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel
+(Lot) 1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat;
+edited the <i>Emancipation</i> of Toulouse, and <i lang="fr">La
+R&eacute;forme</i> in &rsquo;48. A friend of V. Hugo, he shared in his
+exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Ribot</b> (Th&eacute;odule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp
+(C&ocirc;tes du-Nord) 1839; has written <i>Contemporary English
+Psychology</i> &rsquo;70, a resume of the views of Mill, Bain, and
+Spencer, whose <i>Principles of Psychology</i> he has translated. Has
+also written on <i>Heredity</i>, &rsquo;73; <i>The Philosophy of
+Schopenhauer</i>, &rsquo;74; The maladies of Memory, personality and
+Will, 3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the
+<i>Revue Philosophique</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Ricciardi</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15734" title=
+"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot,
+b. Capodimonte (Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi,
+Count of Camaldoli, 1758&ndash;1842. Early in life he published
+patriotic poems. He says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel
+before a priest. In &rsquo;32 he founded at Naples <i lang="it">Il
+Progresso</i>, a review of science, literature, and art. Arrested in
+&rsquo;34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned eight months
+and then lived in exile in France until &rsquo;48. Here he wrote in the
+<i lang="fr">Revue Ind&eacute;pendante</i>, pointing out that the
+Papacy from its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected
+deputy to the Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He
+wrote a <i>History of the Revolution of Italy in &rsquo;48</i> (Paris
+&rsquo;49). Condemned to death in &rsquo;53, his fortune was seized. He
+wrote an <i>Italian Martyrology from 1792&ndash;1847</i> (Turin
+&rsquo;56), and <i>The Pope and Italy</i>, &rsquo;62. At the time of
+the <span class="corr" id="xd20e15753" title=
+"Source: Eucumenical">Ecumenical</span> Council he <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15756" href="#xd20e15756" name=
+"xd20e15756">278</a>]</span>called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at
+Naples, &rsquo;69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it
+led to the International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi
+published an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his
+friend Mauro Macchi, &rsquo;82. Died 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Richepin</b> (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b.
+M&eacute;d&eacute;ah (Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and
+during the Franco-German war took to journalism. In &rsquo;76 he
+published the <i>Song of the Beggars</i>, which was suppressed. In
+&rsquo;84 appeared <i lang="fr">Les Blasph&egrave;mes</i>, which has
+gone through several editions.</p>
+<p><b>Richer</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15773" title=
+"Source: Leon">L&eacute;on</span>), French Deist and journalist, b.
+Laigh, 1824. He was with A. Gu&eacute;roult editor of <i lang=
+"fr">l&rsquo;Opinion Nationale</i>, and in &rsquo;69 founded and edits
+<i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Avenir des Femmes</i>. In &rsquo;68 he published
+<i>Letters of a Freethinker to a Village Priest</i>, and has written
+many volumes in favor of the emancipation of women, collaborating with
+Mdlle. Desraismes in the Women&rsquo;s Rights congresses held in
+Paris.</p>
+<p><b>Rickman</b> (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several
+volumes of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom
+he also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved
+by Sharpe.</p>
+<p><b>Riem</b> (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He
+became a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of
+a hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of
+the Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the <i lang=
+"de">Aufklaring</i>. Died 1807.</p>
+<p><b>Ritter</b> (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has
+translated into French Strauss&rsquo;s Essay of Religious History,
+George Eliot&rsquo;s <i>Fragments and Thoughts</i>, and Zeller&rsquo;s
+<i>Christian Baur and the T&uuml;bingen School</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Roalfe</b> (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the
+blasphemy prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to
+uphold the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated
+a manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed
+useful &ldquo;whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy
+Scriptures and the Christian Religion.&rdquo; When prosecuted for
+selling <i>The Age of Reason</i>, <i>The <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e15815" href="#xd20e15815" name="xd20e15815">279</a>]</span>Oracle
+of Reason</i>, etc., she expressed her intention of continuing her
+offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to two months
+imprisonment 23 Jan. &rsquo;44, and on her liberation continued the
+sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter
+Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Robert</b> (Pierre Fran&ccedil;ois Joseph), French conventionnel
+and friend of Brissot and Danton, b. Gimn&eacute;e (Ardennes) 21 Jan.
+1763. Brought up to the law he became professor of public law to the
+philosophical society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote
+<i>Republicanism adapted to France</i>, 1790, became secretary to
+Danton, and voted for the death of the king. He wrote in
+Prudhomme&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">R&eacute;volutions de Paris</i>. Died at
+Brussels 1826.</p>
+<p><b>Robertson</b> (A. D.), editor of the <i>Free Enquirer</i>,
+published at New York, 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Robertson</b> (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov.
+1856. He became journalist on the <i>Edinburgh Evening News</i>, and
+afterwards on the <i>National Reformer</i>. Mr. Robertson has published
+a study of Walt Whitman in the &ldquo;Round Table Series.&rdquo;
+<i>Essays towards a Critical Method</i>, &rsquo;89, and has contributed
+to <i>Our Corner</i>, <i>Time</i>, notably an article on Mithraism,
+March, &rsquo;89, <i>The Westminster Review</i>, etc. He has also
+issued pamphlets on <i>Socialism and <span class="corr" id="xd20e15860"
+title="Source: Malthusiasm">Malthusianism</span></i>, and <i>Toryism
+and Barbarism</i>, &rsquo;85, and edited Hume&rsquo;s <i>Essay on
+Natural Religion</i>, &rsquo;89.</p>
+<p id="roberty"><b>Roberty</b> (Eug&egrave;ne de), French positivist
+writer, of Russian birth, b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on
+Sociology, Paris, &rsquo;81, and <i>The Old and the New Philosophy</i>,
+an essay on the general laws of philosophic development, &rsquo;87. He
+has recently written a work entitled <i>The Unknowable</i>,
+&rsquo;89.</p>
+<p><b>Robin</b> (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of
+the Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4
+June, 1821. Became M.D. in &rsquo;46, and D.Sc. &rsquo;47. In company
+with Littr&eacute; he refounded Nysten&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of
+Medicine</i>, and he has written many important medical works, and one
+on <i>Instruction</i>. In &rsquo;72 his name was struck out of the list
+of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God, and it thus remained
+despite many protests until &rsquo;76. In the same year <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15889" href="#xd20e15889" name=
+"xd20e15889">280</a>]</span>he was elected Senator, and sits with the
+Republican Left. He has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.</p>
+<p><b>Robinet</b> (Jean Baptiste Ren&eacute;), French philosopher, b.
+Rennes, 23 June, 1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to
+Holland to publish his curious work, <i>De la Nature</i>, 1776, by some
+attributed to Toussaint and to Diderot. He continued Marsy&rsquo;s
+<i>Analysis of Bayle</i>, edited the <i>Secret Letters</i> of Voltaire,
+translated Hume&rsquo;s <i>Moral Essays</i>, and took part in the
+<i lang="fr">Recueil Philosophique</i>, published by J. L. Castilhon.
+Died at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.</p>
+<p><b>Robinet</b> (Jean Eug&egrave;ne Fran&ccedil;ois), French
+physician and publicist, b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached
+himself to the person and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his
+physician and one of his executors. During the war of &rsquo;70 he was
+made Mayor of the Sixth Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a
+<i>Notice of the Work and Life of A. Comte</i>, &rsquo;60, a memoir of
+the private life of <i>Danton</i>, &rsquo;65, <i>The Trial of the
+Dantonists</i>, &rsquo;79, and contributed an account of the
+<i>Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte</i> to the
+&ldquo;<span lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e15928" title=
+"Source: Bibliotheque">Biblioth&egrave;que</span> Utile</span>,&rdquo;
+vol. 66, &rsquo;81.</p>
+<p><b>Roell</b> (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author
+of a Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort
+in 1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.</p>
+<p><b>Rogeard</b> (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25
+April, 1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend
+mass. In &rsquo;49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary
+movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in
+&rsquo;65 was sentenced to five years&rsquo; imprisonment for writing
+<i lang="fr">Les Propos de Labienus</i> (London, <i>i.e.</i>
+Z&uuml;rich), &rsquo;65. He fled to Belgium and wrote some excellent
+criticism on the Bible in the <i lang="fr">Rive Gauche</i>. In
+&rsquo;71 he assisted Pyat on <i lang="fr">Le Vengeur</i>, and was
+elected on the Commune but declined to sit. An incisive writer, he
+signed himself &ldquo;Atheist.&rdquo; Is still living in Paris.</p>
+<p><b>Rokitansky</b> (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of
+the <span class="corr" id="xd20e15956" title=
+"Source: Vienese">Viennese</span> school in medicine, b.
+K&ouml;niggr&auml;tz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804, studied medicine at Prague
+and Vienna, and received his degree of Doctor in &rsquo;28. His
+principal work is a <i>Manual of Practical Anatomy</i>,
+&rsquo;42&ndash;6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15962" href="#xd20e15962" name=
+"xd20e15962">281</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Roland</b> (Marie Jeanne), <i>n&eacute;e</i> Phlipon, French
+patriot, b. Paris, 17 March, 1754. Fond of reading, <i>Plutarch&rsquo;s
+Lives</i> influenced her greatly. At a convent she noted the names of
+sceptics attached and read their writings, being, she says, in turn
+Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist, and deist. The last she remained,
+though Miss Blind classes her with Agnostics. After her marriage in
+1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la Plati&ecirc;re (b. Lyons, 1732),
+Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies of her husband, and the
+Revolution found her an ardent consort. On the appointment of her
+husband to the ministry, she became the centre of a Girondist circle.
+Carlyle calls her &ldquo;the creature of Simplicity and Nature, in an
+age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant,&rdquo; and &ldquo;the
+noblest of all living Frenchwomen.&rdquo; On the fall of her party she
+was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband, then in
+hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself, 15 Nov.
+1793.</p>
+<p><b>Rolph</b> (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English
+father, Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became <i>privat-docent</i> of Zoology
+in the University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on <i>Biological
+Problems</i>, &rsquo;84, in which he accepts evolution, discards
+theology, and places ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Romagnosi</b> (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and
+jurist, b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able
+work on penal legislation, <i>Genesis of Penal Law</i>, many pages of
+which are borrowed from d&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>System of
+Nature</i>. He became Professor of Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A
+member of the Italian Academy, he was named professor at Corfu, where
+he died 8 June, 1835. In &rsquo;21 he wrote <i>Elements of
+Philosophy</i>, followed by <i>What is a Sound Mind?</i> (&rsquo;27)
+and <i>Ancient Moral Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;32. A somewhat obscure
+writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of
+sociology.</p>
+<p><b>Romiti</b> (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy
+in the University of Siena. Has published <i>Anatomical Notes</i>, and
+a Discourse which excited some commotion among the theologians.</p>
+<p><b>Romme</b> (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became
+deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16013" href="#xd20e16013" name=
+"xd20e16013">282</a>]</span>Convention in 1792. In Sept. 1793 he
+introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which was drawn by
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e16015" title=
+"Source: Laland">Lalande</span>, and the names assigned by Fabre
+d&rsquo;Eglantine. He advocated the F&ecirc;tes of Reason. Being
+condemned to death, he committed suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother
+Charles, b. 1744, was also an eminent geometrician, and a friend of
+Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.</p>
+<p><b>Ronge</b> (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde
+(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau, and became
+a Catholic priest in &rsquo;40. His liberal views and bold preaching
+soon led to his suspension. In &rsquo;44 his letter denouncing the
+worship of &ldquo;the holy coat,&rdquo; exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of
+Treves, made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many
+free congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of
+&rsquo;49 and took refuge in England. In &rsquo;51 he issued a
+revolutionary manifesto. In &rsquo;61 he returned to Frankfort, and in
+&rsquo;73 settled at Darmstadt. Died at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Ronsard</b> (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept.
+1524. He became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V.
+of Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French
+Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.</p>
+<p><b>Roorda van Eysinga</b> (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b.
+Batavia (Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was
+expelled about &rsquo;64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He
+contributed to the <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> and <i lang="fr">Revue
+Positive</i>. Died Clarens (Switzerland), 23 Oct. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Roquetaillade</b> (Jean de la), also known as <span class=
+"sc">Rupescina</span>, early French reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne),
+who entered the order of the Franciscans. His bold discourses led to
+his imprisonment at Avignon 1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he
+wrote an apology. Accused of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at
+Avignon in 1362, but this has been disputed.</p>
+<p><b>Rose</b> (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of
+<i>A Light to Lighten the Gentiles</i>, 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Rose</b> (Ernestine Louise) <i>n&eacute;e</i> S&uuml;smond
+Potowsky, Radical reformer and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan.
+1810. Her father was a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16058" href="#xd20e16058" name=
+"xd20e16058">283</a>]</span>and inquiring disposition. At the age of 17
+she went to Berlin. She was in Paris during the Revolution of
+&rsquo;30. Soon after she came to England where she embraced the views
+of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here she married Mr.
+William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In May &rsquo;36,
+they went to the United States and became citizens of the Republic.
+Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system, the
+formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against slavery
+in the slave-owning states and sent in &rsquo;38 the first petition to
+give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one of the
+inaugurators of the Woman&rsquo;s Rights Movement, and a constant
+champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses
+have been published. <i>Defence of Atheism</i>, <i>Women&rsquo;s
+Rights</i> and <i>Speech at the Hartford Bible Convention in
+&rsquo;54</i>. About &rsquo;73 she returned to England where she still
+lives. One of her last appearances at public was at the Conference of
+Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in &rsquo;76, where she
+delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face and head, and
+though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest in the
+Freethought cause.</p>
+<p><b>Roskoff</b> (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg,
+Hungary, 30 Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and
+has written works on <i>Hebrew Antiquity</i>, &rsquo;57. The Samson
+legend and Herakles myth, &rsquo;60, and a standard <i>History of the
+Devil</i> in 2 vols., Leipzig, &rsquo;69.</p>
+<p><b>Ross</b> (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844.
+Author of poems and educational works, and editor of <i>Secular
+Review</i>, now <i>The Agnostic Journal</i>. Wrote <i>God and his
+Book</i>, &rsquo;87, and several brochures published under the pen name
+of &ldquo;Saladin.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Rosseau</b> (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva
+under the name of L. Russelli. He published separately the <i>Female
+Followers of Jesus</i>, founded the <i>Horizon</i>, contributed to
+<i lang="fr">la Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, and was editor of <i lang=
+"fr">l&rsquo;Ath&eacute;e</i>. Died 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Rossetti</b> (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian
+parents, London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King&rsquo;s College, he
+became a student at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites.
+As a poet artist he exhibited the richest <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e16112" href="#xd20e16112" name="xd20e16112">284</a>]</span>gifts
+of <span class="corr" id="xd20e16114" title=
+"Source: orignality">originality</span>, earnestness, and splendour of
+expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Rossetti</b> (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother
+of the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King&rsquo;s
+College, he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He
+has acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief
+being an edition of Shelley, &rsquo;70, with a memoir and numerous
+notes. He is Chairman of the <span class="corr" id="xd20e16121" title=
+"Source: Commitee">Committee</span> of the Shelley Society.</p>
+<p><b>Rossmaessler</b> (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3
+March, 1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote
+many scientific works of repute. In &rsquo;48 he was elected to
+Parliament. Among his writings are <i>Man in the Mirror of Nature</i>.
+&rsquo;49&ndash;55. <i>The History of the Earth</i>, &rsquo;68. Died as
+a philosopher 8 April, 1867.</p>
+<p><b>Roth</b> (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and
+Priestcraft, Leipzig, 1869; <i>Jesuitism</i>, &rsquo;71.</p>
+<p><b>Rothenbuecher</b> (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little
+<i>Handbook of Morals</i>, written from the Secular standpoint,
+Cottbus, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Rotteck</b> (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman
+b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in 1798 be
+became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his University in
+the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal
+views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper and was
+deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death, which
+occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck&rsquo;s <i>General History of the
+World</i> (9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest
+views of history which had then appeared.</p>
+<p><b>Rousseau</b> (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28
+June, 1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and
+supported himself. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e16160" title=
+"Source: 1715">1751</span> he obtained a prize from the academy of
+Dijon for negative answer to the question &ldquo;whether the
+re-establishment of the arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of
+morals.&rdquo; This success prompted further literary efforts. He
+published a dictionary of music, the <i>New Heloise</i> (1759), a love
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e16166" title="Source: stories">story</span>
+in the form of letters, which had great <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e16169" href="#xd20e16169" name=
+"xd20e16169">285</a>]</span>success, and <i>Emilius</i> (May 1762), a
+moral romance, in which he condemns other education than that of
+following nature. In this work occurs his <i>Confession of Faith of a
+Savoyard Vicar</i>, discarding the supernatural element in
+Christianity. The French parliament condemned the book 9 June, 1762,
+and prosecuted the writer, who fled to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII
+fulminated against Emile, and Rousseau received so many insults on
+account of his principles that he returned to Paris and on the
+invitation of Hume came to England in Jan. 1766. He knew little English
+and soon took offence with Hume, and asked permission to return to
+Paris, which he obtained on condition of never publishing anything
+more. He however completed his <i>Confessions</i>, of which he had
+previously composed the first six books in England. Rousseau was a
+sincere sentimentalist, an independent and eloquent, but not deep
+thinker. His captious temper spoiled his own life, but his influence
+has been profound and far-reaching. Died near Paris, 2 July, 1778.</p>
+<p><b>Rouzade</b> (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has
+written several brochures and novels, notably <i lang="fr">Le Monde
+Renvers&eacute;</i>, 1872, and <i lang="fr">Ci et ca, ca et la</i>,
+ideas upon moral philosophy and social progress. Writes in
+Malon&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">Revue Socialiste</i>, and is one of the
+editors of <i>Les Droits des Femmes</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Roy</b> (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach&rsquo;s
+<i>Essence of Christianity</i>, 1864, and <i>Religion, Death,
+Immortality</i>, &rsquo;66. Has also translated Marx&rsquo;s
+<i>Capital</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Royer</b> (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24
+April, 1830, of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in
+&rsquo;54, she studied our language and literature. Going to
+Switzerland, in &rsquo;59 she opened at Lausanne a course of logic and
+philosophy for women. In &rsquo;60 she shared with Proudhon in a prize
+competition on the subject of taxation. In &rsquo;62 she translated
+Darwin&rsquo;s <i>Origin of Species</i>, with a bold preface and notes.
+In &rsquo;64 her philosophical romance <i>The Twins of Hellas</i>
+appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work is
+on <i>The Origin of Man and of Societies</i>, &rsquo;69. In this she
+states the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the
+Christian creed. This was followed by many memoirs, <i>Pre-historic
+Funeral Rites</i>, &rsquo;76; <i>Two Hypotheses of Heredity</i>,
+&rsquo;77; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16230" href="#xd20e16230"
+name="xd20e16230">286</a>]</span><i>The Good and the Moral Law</i>,
+&rsquo;81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue
+Moderne</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue de Philosophie</i>, <i lang=
+"fr">Positive</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue d&rsquo;Anthropologie</i>, etc.,
+and has assisted and spoken at many political, social, and scientific
+meetings.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e16248" title=
+"Source: Ruedt">R&uuml;dt</span></b> (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer
+and &ldquo;apostle of unbelief,&rdquo; b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844.
+Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he studied philosophy, philology,
+and jurisprudence at Heidelberg University, &rsquo;65&ndash;69. Dr.
+R&uuml;dt became acquainted with Lassalle, and started a paper,
+<i lang="de">Die Waffe</i>, and in &rsquo;70 was imprisoned for
+participation in social democratic agitation. From &rsquo;74 to
+&rsquo;86 he lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted
+himself to Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been
+published.</p>
+<p><b>Ruelle</b> (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810.
+Author of <i>The History of Christianity</i>, &rsquo;66, and <i lang=
+"fr">La Schmita</i>, &rsquo;69.</p>
+<p><b>Ruge</b> (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle R&uuml;gen),
+13 Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member
+of the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in
+&rsquo;30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded
+the Hallische Jahrb&uuml;cher, &rsquo;38, which opposed Church and
+State. In &rsquo;48 he started <i lang="de">Die Reform</i>. Elected to
+the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the Extreme Left. When compelled to
+fly he came to England, where he wrote <i>New Germany</i> in
+&ldquo;Cabinet of Reason&rdquo; series, and translated Buckle&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Civilisation</i>. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,
+where he died 30 Dec. 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Ruggieri</b> (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer,
+patronised by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish
+<i>Almanachs</i> in 1604, which he issued annually. He died at Paris in
+1615, declaring himself an Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence
+denied Christian burial.</p>
+<p><b>Rumpf</b> (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and
+Progress, and <i>The Bible and Christ</i>, a criticism (Strasburg,
+1858). Edited <i>Das Freire Wort</i> (Basle, &rsquo;56).</p>
+<p><b>Russell</b> (John). See <a href="#amberley">Amberley</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Ryall</b> (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the
+Anti-Persecution Union, 1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on
+<i>The Oracle of Reason</i> and <i>The Movement</i>. Died 1846.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16312" href="#xd20e16312" name=
+"xd20e16312">287</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Rydberg</b> (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b.
+J&ouml;nk&ouml;ping, 18 Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which
+we mention <i>The Last Athenian Roman Days</i>, and <i>The Magic of the
+Middle Ages</i>, which have been translated into English.</p>
+<p><b>Rystwick</b> (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell
+and taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all
+matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty upon
+abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time, he was
+arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.</p>
+<p id="sabin"><b>Sabin</b> (Ibn), <i>Al Mursi</i>, Spanish Arabian
+philosopher, b. Murcia about 1218 of noble family. About 1249 he
+corresponded with Frederick II., replying to his philosophical
+questions. Committed suicide about 1271.</p>
+<p><b>Sadoc</b>, a learned Jewish doctor in the third <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e16338" title="Source: centnry">century</span>
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> He denied the resurrection, the existence
+of angels, and the doctrine of predestination, and opposed the idea of
+future rewards and punishments. His followers were named after him,
+Sadducees.</p>
+<p><b>Saga</b> (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for
+Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.</p>
+<p><b>Saigey</b> (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote
+<i>Modern Physics</i>, 1867, and <i>The Sciences in the Eighteenth
+Century: Physics of Voltaire</i>, &rsquo;74. Died 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Saillard</b> (F.), French author of <i>The Revolution and the
+Church</i> (Paris, &rsquo;69), and <i>The Organisation of the
+Republic</i>, &rsquo;83.</p>
+<p><b>Sainte Beuve</b> (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of
+letters b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied
+medicine, which he practised several years. A favorable review of V.
+Hugo&rsquo;s <i>Odes and Ballades</i> gained him the intimacy of the
+Romantic school. As a critic he made his mark in &rsquo;28 with his
+<i>Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth
+Century</i>. His other principal works are his <i>History of Port
+Royal</i>, &rsquo;40&ndash;62; <i>Literary Portraits</i>,
+&rsquo;32&ndash;39; and <i lang="fr">Causeries du Lundi</i>,
+&rsquo;51&ndash;57. In &rsquo;45 he was elected to the Academy, and in
+&rsquo;65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,
+comprehensive, and impartial.</p>
+<p id="saintevremond"><b>Saint Evremond</b> (Charles de Marguetel de
+Saint Denis) seigneur de, French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast
+(Normandy), <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16392" href=
+"#xd20e16392" name="xd20e16392">288</a>]</span>1 April, 1713. He
+studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became
+major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal
+Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles II. He
+died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God, he
+replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,
+consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in 3
+vols. 1705.</p>
+<p id="saint-glain"><b>Saint-Glain</b> (Dominique de), French
+Spinozist, b. Limoges, about 1620. He went into Holland that he might
+profess the Protestant religion more freely; was captain in the service
+of the States, and assisted on the Rotterdam <i>Gazette</i>. Reading
+Spinoza, he espoused his system, and translated the Tractatus
+Theologico-Politicus into French, under the title of <i lang="fr">La
+Clef du Sanctuaire</i>, 1678. This making much noise, and being in
+danger of prosecution, he changed the title to <i lang="fr">Ceremonies
+Superstitieuses des Juifs</i>, and also to <i lang="fr">Reflexions
+Curieuses d&rsquo;un Esprit Desint&eacute;ress&eacute;</i>, 1678.</p>
+<p id="saint-hyacinthe"><b>Saint-Hyacinthe</b> (Themiseul de
+<span class="sc">Cordonnier</span> de), French writer, b. Orleans, 24
+Sept. 1684. Author of <i>Philosophical Researches</i>, published at
+Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire published
+his <i lang="fr">Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers</i> under the name
+of St. Hyacinthe.</p>
+<p><b>Saint John</b> (Henry). See <a href="#bolingbroke">Bolingbroke,
+<i>Lord</i></a>.</p>
+<p><b>Saint Lambert</b> (Charles, or rather Jean Fran&ccedil;ois de),
+French writer, b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the
+Jesuits he entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry.
+He became a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du
+Chatelet. He wrote some articles in the <i lang=
+"fr">Encyclop&eacute;die</i>, and many fugitive pieces and poems in the
+literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured him admission
+to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and Bolingbroke, and
+<i lang="fr">Le Cat&eacute;chisme Universel</i>. His <i>Philosophical
+Works</i> were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.</p>
+<p><b>Sale</b> (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680,
+educated at Canterbury. He was one of a society which <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16449" href="#xd20e16449" name=
+"xd20e16449">289</a>]</span>undertook to publish a <i>Universal
+History</i>, and was also one of the compilers of the <i>General
+Dictionary</i>. His most important work was a translation of the
+<i>Koran</i>, with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734.
+He was one of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of
+Learning. Died 14 Nov. 1736.</p>
+<p><b>Salieres</b> (A.), contributor to <i lang=
+"fr">l&rsquo;Ath&eacute;e</i>, 1870. Has written a work on
+<i>Patriotism</i>, 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Sallet</b> (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French
+descent, b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army,
+he was imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In
+&rsquo;34 he attended Hegel&rsquo;s lectures at Berlin, and in
+&rsquo;38 quitted the army. He wrote a curious long poem entitled the
+Layman&rsquo;s Gospel, in which he takes New Testament texts and
+expounds them pantheistically&mdash;the God who is made flesh is
+replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau (Silesia), 21 Feb.
+1843.</p>
+<p><b>Salmeron y Alonso</b> (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo
+Seco, 1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy
+to the Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic
+of &rsquo;73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on <i>Philosophy
+and Arts</i>, &rsquo;78, and his own works were issued in 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Salt</b> (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept.
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e16485" title="Source: 1821">1851</span>;
+educated at Eton, where he <span class="corr" id="xd20e16488" title=
+"Source: bacame">became</span> assistant master. A contributor to
+<i>Progress</i>, he has written <i>Literary Sketches</i>, &rsquo;88. A
+monograph on Shelley, and a <i>Life of James Thomson</i>,
+&ldquo;<i>B.V.</i>&rdquo;, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Saltus</b> (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June
+1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In &rsquo;84 he
+published a sketch of <i>Balzac</i>. Next year appeared <i>The
+Philosophy of Disenchantment</i>, appreciative and well written views
+of Schopenhauer and Hartmann. This was followed by <i>The Anatomy of
+Negation</i>, a sketchy account of some atheists and sceptics from
+Kapila to Leconte de Lisle, &rsquo;86. Has also written several novels,
+and <i>Eden</i>, an episode, &rsquo;89. His brother Francis is the
+author of <i>Honey and Gall</i>, a book of poems (Philadelphia,
+&rsquo;73.) <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16524" href=
+"#xd20e16524" name="xd20e16524">290</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Salverte</b> (Anne Joseph Eus&egrave;be <span class=
+"sc">Baconniere de</span>), French philosopher, b. Paris, 18 July,
+1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote <i>Epistle to a Reasonable
+Woman</i>, an Essay on <i>What should be Believed</i>, 1793,
+contributed to Mar&eacute;chal&rsquo;s <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des
+Ath&eacute;es</i>, published an eloge on Diderot, 1801, and many
+brochures, among others a tragedy on the Death of Jesus Christ. Elected
+deputy in &rsquo;28, he was one of the warm partisans of liberty, and
+in &rsquo;30, demanded that Catholicism should not be recognised as the
+state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his work on <i>The Occult
+Sciences</i>, &rsquo;29, which was translated into English, &rsquo;46.
+To the French edition of &rsquo;56 Littr&eacute; wrote a Preface. He
+died 27 Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.</p>
+<p id="sand"><b>Sand</b> (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile
+Aurore <span class="sc">Dupin</span>, afterwards baroness <span class=
+"sc">Dudnevant</span>, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and
+brought up by her grandmother at the <span class="corr" id="xd20e16555"
+title="Source: Chateau">Ch&acirc;teau</span> de Nohant. Reading
+Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She
+remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an
+elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom after
+some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her whole
+fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of
+&rsquo;48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and
+translated Mazzini&rsquo;s <i>Republic and Royalty in Italy</i>, Died
+at her Chateau of Nohant, 8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in
+England, where she was thought of as an assailant of marriage and
+religion, but a better appreciation of her work and genius is making
+way.</p>
+<p><b>Sarcey</b> (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828,
+editor of <i lang="fr">Le XIXe. Si&egrave;cle</i>, has written plays,
+novels, and many anti-clerical articles.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Sarrasi</b>,&rdquo; pseudonym of A. de C....; French
+Orientalist b. Department of Tarn, 1837, author of <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Orient Devoil&eacute;</i>, &rsquo;80, in which he shows
+the mythical elements in Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Saull</b> (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He
+established a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of
+the John Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening
+the old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16580" href="#xd20e16580" name=
+"xd20e16580">291</a>]</span>on the connection between astronomy,
+geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in Kensal Green,
+near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.</p>
+<p><b>Saunderson</b> (Nicholas), English <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e16586" title="Source: mathematican">mathematician</span> b.
+Thurleston (Yorkshire), 2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his
+sight by small pox when but a year old, yet he became conversant with
+Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He
+lectured at Cambridge University, explaining Newton&rsquo;s
+Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, and even his works on
+light and color. It was said, &ldquo;They have turned out Whiston for
+believing in but one God, and put in Saunderson, who believes in no God
+at all.&rdquo; Saunderson said that to believe in God he must first
+touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.</p>
+<p><b>Sauvestre</b> (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of
+the editors of <i lang="fr">L&rsquo;Opinion Nationale</i>. Has written
+on <i>The Clergy and Education</i> (&rsquo;61), <i lang="la">Monita
+Secreta Societatis Jesu</i>; <i>Secret Instructions of the Jesuits</i>
+(&rsquo;65), <i>On the Knees of the Church</i> (&rsquo;68),
+<i>Religious Congregations Unveiled</i> (&rsquo;70), and other
+anti-clerical works. He died at Paris in 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Saville</b> (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,
+b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign of
+James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test Acts.
+He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious account of
+his opinions, which he probably tones down.</p>
+<p><b>Sawtelle</b> (C. M.), American author of <i>Reflections on the
+Science of Ignorance</i>, or the art of teaching others what you
+don&rsquo;t know yourself, Salem, Oregon, 1868.</p>
+<p><b>Sbarbaro</b> (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona,
+1838; studied jurisprudence. He published a work on <i>The Philosophy
+of Research</i>, &rsquo;66. In &rsquo;70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a
+book on <i>The Task of the Nineteenth Century</i>, and presided at a
+congress of Freethinkers held at Loreto. Has written popular works on
+the Conditions of Human Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay
+entitled <i>From Socino to Mazzini</i>, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Schade</b> (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed
+in the immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16640" href="#xd20e16640" name=
+"xd20e16640">292</a>]</span>for his opinions on the Isle of
+Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775, where he died in
+1795.</p>
+<p><b>Scherer</b> (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8
+April, 1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at
+Geneva, but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went
+to Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal
+Protestants, and in the <i lang="fr">Revue de Th&eacute;ologie et de
+Philosophie Chr&eacute;tienne</i>, &rsquo;50&ndash;60, put forward
+views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also wrote in the
+<i lang="fr">Bibliotheque Universelle</i> and <i lang="fr">Revue des
+Deux-Mondes</i>. Some of his articles have been collected as <i lang=
+"fr">M&eacute;langes de Critique Religieuse</i>, &rsquo;60; and
+<i lang="fr">M&eacute;langes d&rsquo;Histoire Religieuse</i>,
+&rsquo;64. He was elected deputy in &rsquo;71, and sat with the
+Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Scherr</b> (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3 Oct.
+1817. Educated at Z&uuml;rich and T&uuml;bingen, he wrote in &rsquo;43
+with his brother Thomas a <i>Popular History of Religious and
+Philosophical Ideas</i>, and in &rsquo;57 a <i>History of Religion</i>,
+in three parts. In &rsquo;60 he became Professor of History and
+Literature at Z&uuml;rich, and has written many able literary studies,
+including histories of German and English literature. Died at
+Z&uuml;rich, 21 Nov. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Schiff</b> (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort,
+1823. Educated at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of
+Comparative Anatomy at Berne, &rsquo;54&ndash;63; of Physiology at
+Florence, &rsquo;63&ndash;76, and at Genoa. Has written many
+physiological treatises, which have been attacked as materialistic.</p>
+<p><b>Schiller</b> (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German
+poet and historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to
+become a minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A
+friend of Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and
+poems, a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty
+Years&rsquo; War. He died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May,
+1805.</p>
+<p><b>Schmidt</b> (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb.
+1823. He travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at
+Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has
+illustrated its application in many directions, <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16684" href="#xd20e16684" name=
+"xd20e16684">293</a>]</span>and published an able work on <i>The
+Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism</i> in the &ldquo;International
+Scientific Series.&rdquo; Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.</p>
+<p id="schmidtk"><b>Schmidt</b> (Kaspar), German philosopher, b.
+Bayreuth, 25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and
+K&ouml;nigsberg, first theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym
+of &ldquo;Max Stirner&rdquo; he wrote a system of individualism <i>The
+Only One, and His Possession</i> (<span lang="de">Der Einzige und sein
+Eigenthum</span>), &rsquo;45. He also wrote a <i>History of
+Reaction</i> in two parts (Berlin, &rsquo;52), and translated
+Smith&rsquo;s <i>Wealth of Nations</i> and Say&rsquo;s <i>Text-book of
+Political Economy</i>. Died at Berlin, 25 June, 1856.</p>
+<p><b>Schneeberger</b> (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept,
+1827. Has written some popular novels under the name of &ldquo;Arthur
+Storch,&rdquo; and was one of the founders of the German
+Freethinkers&rsquo; Union.</p>
+<p><b>Sch&oelig;lcher</b> <span class="corr" id="xd20e16716" title=
+"Not in source">(</span> Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21
+July 1804. While still young he joined the secret society <i lang=
+"fr">Aide-toi, le ciel t&rsquo;aidera</i>, and studied social
+questions. He devoted himself from about &rsquo;26 to advocating the
+abolition of slavery, and wrote many works on the subject. On 3 March,
+&rsquo;48, he was made Under Secretary of the Navy, and caused a decree
+to be issued by the Provisional Government enfranchising all slaves on
+French territory. He was elected Deputy for Martinique &rsquo;48 and
+&rsquo;49. After 2 Dec. &rsquo;51, he came to London, where he wrote
+occasionally in the <i>Reasoner</i> and <i>National Reformer</i>. He
+returned to France during the war, and took part in the defence of
+Paris. In &rsquo;71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in
+&rsquo;75 he was elected a life senator.</p>
+<p><b>Scholl</b> (Aur&eacute;lien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14
+July, 1833. He began life as a writer on the <i>Corsaire</i>, founded
+<i>Satan</i>, <i lang="fr">Le Nain Jaune</i>, etc., and writes on
+<i lang="fr">l&rsquo;Ev&eacute;nement</i>. Has written several novels,
+and <i lang="fr">le Proc&egrave;s de J&eacute;sus Christ</i>,
+&rsquo;77.</p>
+<p><b>Scholl</b> (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free
+religious bodies of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug.
+1820. He became a minister &rsquo;44, but was suspended for his free
+opinions in &rsquo;45. His first important work was on the <i>Messiah
+Legend of the East</i> (Hamburg, &rsquo;52), and in &rsquo;61 he
+published a volume on <i>Free Speech</i>, a collection of extracts from
+French, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16757" href="#xd20e16757"
+name="xd20e16757">294</a>]</span>English, and American Freethinkers. In
+&rsquo;70 he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity,
+<i>Es Werde Licht!</i> which continued for many years. Has published
+many discourses, and written <i>Truth from Ruins</i>, &rsquo;73, and on
+<i>Judaism and the Religion of Humanity</i>, &rsquo;79.</p>
+<p><b>Schopenhauer</b> (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b.
+Danzig, 22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant
+and a vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and
+studied at G&ouml;ttingen science, history, and the religions and
+philosophies of the East. After two visits to Italy, and an
+unsuccessful attempt to obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode
+at Frankfort. In 1815 he wrote his chief work, <i>The World as Will and
+Idea</i>, translated into English in &rsquo;83. His philosophy is
+expressed in the title, will is the one reality, all else appearance.
+He also wrote <i>The Two Ground Problems of Ethics</i>, &rsquo;61,
+<i>On the Freedom of Will</i>, and a collection of essays entitled
+<i>Parega and Paralipomena</i> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e16785"
+title="Not in source">&rsquo;</span>51). Died at Frankfort, 21 Sept.
+1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of every form
+of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms; they
+require darkness to shine in.</p>
+<p><b>Schroeter</b> (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4
+June, 1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious
+communion in &rsquo;45. In &rsquo;50, he went to America, living since
+&rsquo;53 in Sauk City, and frequently lecturing there. In &rsquo;81,
+he attended the International Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels.
+He was a constant contributor to the <i>Freidenker</i>, of Milwaukee,
+until his death 2 April, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Schroot</b> (A.), German author of <i>Visions and Ideas</i>
+(Berlin, 1865), <i>Natural Law and Human Will</i>; <i>Creation and
+Man</i>, and <i>Science and Life</i> (Hamburg, 1873).</p>
+<p><b>Schuenemann Pott</b> (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3
+April, 1826. He joined the &ldquo;<span lang="de">Freie
+Gemeinde</span>,&rdquo; and was expelled from Prussia in &rsquo;48.
+After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part in democratic
+agitation, for which he was tried for high treason, but acquitted. In
+&rsquo;54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing tours over the
+States settling at San Francisco.</p>
+<p><b>Schultze</b> (Karl August<a id="xd20e16823" name=
+"xd20e16823"></a> Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May, 1846,
+studied at Jena, G&ouml;ttingen and M&uuml;nich, has <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16825" href="#xd20e16825" name=
+"xd20e16825">295</a>]</span>written an able study on <i>Fetishism</i>,
+Leipzig &rsquo;71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools, &rsquo;72,
+a <i>History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance</i>, &rsquo;74, and
+<i>Kant and Darwin</i>, &rsquo;75. In &rsquo;76, he was appointed
+Professor of Philosophy in Jena, since which he has written <i>The
+Elements of Materialism</i>, &rsquo;80, <i>Philosophy of the Natural
+Sciences</i>, 2 vols. &rsquo;81&ndash;82, and <i>Elements of
+Spiritualism</i>, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Schumann</b> (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b.
+Nekau, 8 July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for
+music. He started a musical journal &rsquo;34, which he edited for some
+years. His lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a
+&ldquo;profane&rdquo; oratorio, <i>Paradise and the Peri</i>
+(&rsquo;40). His character and opinions are illustrated by his
+<i>Letters</i>. Died 29 July, 1856.</p>
+<p><b>Schweichel</b> (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b.
+K&ouml;nigsberg, 12 July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to
+literature. Taking part in the events of &rsquo;48, after the reaction
+he went to Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss
+life, also a <i>Life of Auerbach</i>. He wrote the preface to
+Dulk&rsquo;s <i lang="de">Irrgang des Leben&rsquo;s Jesu</i>, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Schweitzer</b> (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b.
+Frankfort, 12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg;
+became after Lassalle&rsquo;s death president of the German
+Workmen&rsquo;s Union, and was sent to Parliament in &rsquo;67. He
+wrote the <i>Zeitgeist and Christianity</i>, &rsquo;62, <i>The
+Darwinians</i>, &rsquo;75, and several other works. Died 28 July,
+1875.</p>
+<p><b>Scot</b> (Reginald), English rationalist, author of <i>The
+Discoverie of Witchcraft</i>, 1584, the first English work to question
+the existence of witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and
+was republished in 1886. Scot died in 1599.</p>
+<p><b>Scott</b> (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early
+life he travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas.
+X, of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life
+devoted himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly
+pamphlets among the clergy and cultured classes. From
+&rsquo;62&ndash;77, he issued from Mount Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a
+hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds, F. W. Newman, Kalisch,
+Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which were given away. He
+issued a challenge to the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16887"
+href="#xd20e16887" name="xd20e16887">296</a>]</span>Christian Evidence
+Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox<span class="corr" id="xd20e16889"
+title="Source: .">,</span> <i>The English Life of Jesus</i> &rsquo;71.
+Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little known
+outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should secure him
+lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Seaver</b> (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25
+Aug. 1810. In &rsquo;37 he became a compositor on the <i>Boston
+Investigator</i>, and during Kneeland&rsquo;s imprisonment took the
+editorship, which he continued for upwards of fifty years during which
+he battled strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were
+always very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been
+published with the title <i>Occasional Thoughts</i> (Boston,
+&rsquo;88). With Mr. Mendum, he helped the erection of the Paine
+Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of all Freethinkers in America. Died,
+21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration was delivered by Colonel
+Ingersoll.</p>
+<p><b>Sebille</b> (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym of
+&ldquo;Dr. Fabricus,&rdquo; published <i>God, Man, and his latter
+end</i>, a medico-psychological study, 1868, and <i>Letters from a
+Materialist to Mgr. Dupanloup</i>, 1868&ndash;9.</p>
+<p><b>Sechenov</b> or <b>Setchenoff</b> (Ivan), Russian philosopher,
+who, in 1863, published <i>Psychological Studies</i>, explaining the
+mind by physiology. The work made a great impression in Russia, and has
+been translated into French by Victor Der&eacute;ly, and published in
+&rsquo;84 with an introduction by M. G. Wyrouboff.</p>
+<p><b>Secondat</b> (Charles de). See <a href=
+"#montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Seeley</b> (John Robert), English historian and man of
+letters<span class="corr" id="xd20e16937" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> b. London, 1834, educated at City of London
+School and Cambridge, where he graduated in &rsquo;57. In &rsquo;63, he
+was appointed Professor of Latin in London University. In &rsquo;66,
+appeared his <i lang="la">Ecce Homo</i>, a survey of the Life and Work
+of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord Shaftesbury
+denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of hell. In
+&rsquo;69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and has
+since written some important historical works as well as <i>Natural
+Religion</i> (&rsquo;82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical
+Society. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16946" href="#xd20e16946"
+name="xd20e16946">297</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Segond</b> (Louis August), French physician and Positivist,
+author of a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849,
+and of several medical works.</p>
+<p><b>Seidel</b> (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end
+of the sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted
+Messiah, and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish
+Socinians. He wrote three Letters on the Messiah, <i>The Foundations of
+the Christian Religion</i>, in which he considered the quotation from
+the Old Testament in the new, and pointed out the errors of the
+latter.</p>
+<p><b>Sellon</b> (Edward), English arch&aelig;ologist, author of <i>The
+Monolithic Temples of India</i>; <i>Annotations on the Sacred Writings
+of the Hindus</i>, 1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.</p>
+<p><b>Semerie</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan.
+1832. Becoming physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and
+in &rsquo;67 published a work on <i>Intellectual Symptoms of
+Madness</i>, in which he maintained that the disordered mind went back
+from Positivism to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This
+work was denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote <i>A
+Simple Reply to M. Dupanloup</i>, &rsquo;68. During the sieges of Paris
+he acted as surgeon and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre
+Lafitte, he edited the <i lang="fr">Politique Positive</i>, and wrote
+<i>Positivists and Catholics</i>, &rsquo;73, and <i>The Law of the
+Three States</i>, &rsquo;75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Semler</b> (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec.
+1725. He was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical
+Biblical criticism there. He translated Simon&rsquo;s <i>Critical
+History of the New Testament</i>, and by asserting the right of free
+discussion drew down the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March,
+1791.</p>
+<p><b>Serafini</b> (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a
+<i>Catechism for Female Freethinkers</i> (Geneva, 1869), and a work on
+<i>Marriage and Divorce</i> (Salerno, &rsquo;73).</p>
+<p><b>Serveto y Reves</b> (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus,
+Spanish martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church,
+he left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied
+medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject of the
+Trinity, against which he <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17008"
+href="#xd20e17008" name="xd20e17008">298</a>]</span>wrote <i lang=
+"la">De Trinitatis Erroribus</i> and <i lang="la">Christianismi
+Restitutio</i>, which excited the hatred of both Catholics and
+Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his last work. Calvin,
+through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic authorities at Lyons.
+He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to Naples passed through
+Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of Calvin, tried for
+blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire, 26 Oct. 1553.</p>
+<p><b>Seume</b> (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels,
+29 Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,
+but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an
+adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote <i>Promenade to
+Syracuse</i>, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June,
+1810.</p>
+<p><b>Sextus Empiricus</b>, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician,
+who probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He
+left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in three
+books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.</p>
+<p><b>Shadwell</b> (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall,
+Norfolk, 1640. Although damned by Dryden in his <i>Mac Flecknoe</i>,
+Shadwell&rsquo;s plays are not without merit, and illustrate the days
+of Charles II. Died 6 Dec. 1692.</p>
+<p id="shaftesbury"><b>Shaftesbury</b> (Anthony Ashley <span class=
+"sc">Cooper</span>), third Earl, b. London, 26 Feb. 1671. Educated by
+Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole, and proposed granting
+counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His health suffering, he
+resigned and went to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Bayle.
+The excitement induced by the French Prophets occasioned his <i>Letters
+upon Enthusiasm</i>, 1708. This was followed, by his <i>Moralists</i>
+and <i lang="la">Sensus Communis</i>. In 1711 he removed to Naples,
+where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under the
+title of <i>Characteristics</i>, 1732. They went through several
+editions, and did much to raise the character of English Deism.</p>
+<p><b>Shakespeare</b> (William). The greatest of all dramatists, b.
+Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his life
+are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he
+became an actor and produced his marvellous <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17058" href="#xd20e17058" name=
+"xd20e17058">299</a>]</span>plays, the eternal honor of English
+literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and retired to his
+native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas warrant the
+inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green says,
+&ldquo;Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life and
+death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the common
+theological solutions around him.&rdquo; His comprehensive mind
+disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in what
+the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his <i>Inquiry into the
+Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare</i>, sustains the position that
+he was an Atheist.</p>
+<p><b>Shaw</b> (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec.
+1841. Brought up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the
+Southern Army, took part in some battles, and was wounded. He
+afterwards entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry, &rsquo;70; studied
+biblical criticism to answer sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He
+left the Church in March, &rsquo;83, and started the <i>Independent
+Pulpit</i> at Waco, Texas, in which he publishes bold Freethought
+articles. He rejects all supernaturalism, and has written <i>The Bible,
+What Is It?</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e17072" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> <i>Studies in Theology</i>, <i>The Bible
+Against Itself</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Shelley</b> (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place
+(Sussex), 4 Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to
+Oxford. Here he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for
+which he was expelled <span class="corr" id="xd20e17085" title=
+"Not in source">from</span> the University. His father, Sir Timothy
+Shelley, also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote <i>Queen
+Mab</i>, and met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two
+children had been born, they separated. In &rsquo;16 Shelley learned
+that his wife had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his
+children, but, in March, &rsquo;17, Lord Eldon decided against him,
+largely on account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written <i>A
+Letter to Lord Ellenborough</i>, indignantly attacking the sentence the
+judge passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine&rsquo;s <i>Age of
+Reason</i>. On 30 Dec. &rsquo;16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of
+William Godwin and Mary <span class="corr" id="xd20e17097" title=
+"Source: Woolstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</span>. In &rsquo;18, fearing
+their son might also be taken from him, he left England never to
+return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron, composed <i>The
+Cenci</i>, the <i>Witch of Atlas</i>, <i>Prometheus Unbound</i>,
+<i>Adonais</i>, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17113" href=
+"#xd20e17113" name="xd20e17113">300</a>]</span><i>Epipsychidion</i>,
+<i>Hellas</i>, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty, the glory of
+our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia, 8 July, 1822.
+Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny, who knew him well,
+says he was an Atheist to the last.</p>
+<p><b>Siciliani</b> (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b.
+Galatina, 19 Sep. 1835, author of works on <i>Positive Philosophy</i>,
+<i>Socialism</i>, <i>Darwinism</i>, and <i>Modern Sociology</i>,
+&rsquo;79; and <i>Modern Psychogeny</i>, with a preface by J. Soury,
+&rsquo;82. Died 28 Dec. &rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Sidney</b> (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of
+Robert, Earl of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of
+Parliament, and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he
+remained abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot,
+was condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec.
+1678.</p>
+<p><b>Sierebois</b> (P.)<span class="corr" id="xd20e17148" title=
+"Not in source">.</span> See <a href=
+"#boissiere">Boissi&egrave;re</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Siffle</b> (Alexander Fran&ccedil;ois), Dutch writer, b.
+Middleburg, 11 May, 1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at
+Middleburg. He wrote several poems and works of literary value, and
+contributed to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i>. He was a man of wide
+reading. Died at Middleburg, 7 Oct. 1872.</p>
+<p><b>Sigward</b> (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817.
+An active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican
+calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris
+&rsquo;89, and is one of the editors of <i>Le Danton</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Simcox</b> (Edith), author of <i>Natural Law</i> in the English
+and Foreign Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in
+the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, 1872, under the signature &ldquo;H.
+Lawrenny.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Simon de Tournai</b><span class="corr" id="xd20e17182" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> a Professor at Paris University early in the
+XIIIth century. He said that &ldquo;Three seducers,&rdquo; Moses,
+Jesus, and Muhammad, &ldquo;have mystified mankind with their
+doctrines.&rdquo; He was said to have been punished by God for his
+impiety.</p>
+<p id="simon"><b>Simon</b> (Richard), learned French theological
+critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May, 1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the
+Oratory, he distinguished himself by bold erudition. His <i>Critical
+History of the Old Testament</i>, 1678, was suppressed by Parliament.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17192" href="#xd20e17192" name=
+"xd20e17192">301</a>]</span>He followed it with a <i>Critical History
+of the New Testament</i>, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe, 11
+April, 1712.</p>
+<p><b>Simonis.</b>&mdash;A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in
+Poland for his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled <i>Simonis
+Religio</i>, published at Cracow, 1588.</p>
+<p><b>Simpson</b> (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838
+put forward a <i>Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and
+attributes of God</i>, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the
+signature &ldquo;Antitheos.&rdquo; Died about 1844.</p>
+<p><b>Sjoberg</b> (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives
+near Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet
+there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures
+at Stockholm.</p>
+<p><b>Skinner</b> (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of <i>Thoughts
+on Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth</i> (Cupar, 1822), was
+credited also with <i>Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews</i>,
+published by Carlile in 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Slater</b> (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for
+many years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on
+the Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.</p>
+<p><b>Slenker</b> (Elmina), n&eacute;e <span class="sc">Drake</span>,
+American reformer, b. of Quaker parents, 23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she
+began notes for her work, <i>Studying the Bible</i>, afterwards
+published at Boston, &rsquo;70; she conducts the Children&rsquo;s
+Corner in the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, and has contributed to most
+of the American Freethought papers. Has written <i>John&rsquo;s Way</i>
+(&rsquo;78), Mary Jones, <i>The Infidel Teacher</i> (&rsquo;85), <i>The
+Darwins</i> (&rsquo;79), Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville,
+Virginia.</p>
+<p><b>Smith</b> (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March,
+1799, graduated at Hamilton&rsquo;s College. He was elected to Congress
+in 1850, but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding
+family, he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In
+religion, originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and
+wrote <i>The Religion of Reason</i>, &rsquo;64, and <i>Nature the base
+of a Free Theology</i>, &rsquo;67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Snoilsky</b> (Karl Johan Gustav), <i>Count</i>, Swedish poet, b.
+Stockholm, 8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, &rsquo;60. Displays
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17269" href="#xd20e17269" name=
+"xd20e17269">302</a>]</span>his Freethought in his poems published
+under the name of &ldquo;Sventr&ouml;st.&rdquo;</p>
+<p id="socinus"><b>Socinus</b> [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto),
+anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5 Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his
+uncle, Laelio, (1525&ndash;1562), and taught them with more boldness.
+In 1574 he went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Poland, where he made
+many converts, and died 3 March, 1604.</p>
+<p><b>Sohlman</b> (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika,
+1824. He edited the <i lang="se">Aftonbladet</i>, of Stockholm, from
+&rsquo;57, and was a distinguished Liberal politician. Died at
+Stockholm, 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Somerby</b> (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has
+issued many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the
+<i>Truthseeker</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Somerset</b> (Edward Adolphus <span class="sc">Saint
+Maur</span>), 12th <i>Duke of</i>, b. 20 Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton
+and Oxford. He married a daughter of Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for
+Totnes, &rsquo;34&ndash;35, and was Lord of the Treasury,
+&rsquo;35&ndash;39, and First Lord of the Admiralty,
+&rsquo;59&ndash;66. In &rsquo;72 he startled the aristocratic world by
+a trenchant attack on orthodoxy entitled <i>Christian Theology and
+Modern Scepticism</i>. He also wrote on mathematics and on Monarchy and
+Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Soury</b> (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In
+&rsquo;65 he became librarian at the <span lang=
+"fr">Biblioth&egrave;que Nationale</span>. He has contributed to the
+<i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue
+Nouvelle</i>, and other journals, and has published important works on
+<i>The Bible and Arch&aelig;ology</i>, &rsquo;72; <i>Historical Studies
+on Religions</i>, &rsquo;77; <i>Essays of Religious Criticism</i>,
+&rsquo;78; <i>Jesus and the Gospels</i>, &rsquo;78, a work in which he
+maintains that Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has
+been translated into English, together with an essay on <i>The Religion
+of Israel</i> from his <i>Historical Studies</i>. <i>Studies of
+Psychology</i>, &rsquo;79, indicated a new direction in M.
+Soury&rsquo;s Freethought. He has since written <i>A Breviary of the
+History of Materialism</i>, &rsquo;80; <i>Naturalist Theories of the
+World and of Life in Antiquity</i>, &rsquo;81; <i>Natural
+Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;82; <i>Contemporary Psychological Doctrines</i>,
+&rsquo;83. He has translated Noeldeke&rsquo;s <i>Literary History of
+the Old Testament</i>, 73; Haeckel&rsquo;s <i>Proofs of Evolution</i>,
+&rsquo;79; and Preyer&rsquo;s <i>Elements of General Physiology</i>,
+&rsquo;84. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17361" href="#xd20e17361"
+name="xd20e17361">303</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Southwell</b> (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He
+served with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social
+missionary. In Nov. &rsquo;41 he started <i>The Oracle of Reason</i> at
+Bristol, for an article in which on &ldquo;The Jew Book&rdquo; he was
+tried for blasphemy 14 Jan. &rsquo;42, and after an able defence
+sentenced to twelve months&rsquo; imprisonment, and a fine of one
+hundred pounds. After coming out he edited the <i>Lancashire
+Beacon</i>. He also lectured and debated both in England and Scotland;
+wrote <i>Christianity Proved Idolatry</i>, &rsquo;44; <i>Apology for
+Atheism</i>, &rsquo;46; <i>Difficulties of Christianity</i>, &rsquo;48;
+<i>Superstition Unveiled</i>; <i>The Impossibility of Atheism</i> which
+he held on the ground that Theism was unproved, and <i>Another
+Fourpenny Wilderness</i>, in answer to G. J. Holyoake&rsquo;s criticism
+of the same. He also wrote about &rsquo;45, <i>Confessions of a
+Freethinker</i>, an account of his own life. In &rsquo;56 he went to
+New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.</p>
+<p><b>Souverain</b> (N.), French author of <i>Platonism Unveiled</i>
+1700, a posthumous work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was
+deposed on account of his opinions.</p>
+<p><b>Sozzini</b>. See <a href="#socinus">Socinus</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Spaink</b> (Pierre Fran&ccedil;ois), Dutch physician, b.
+Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862, and studied at the city, wrote for a time on
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, with the pen names &ldquo;A. Th.
+Eist.&rdquo; and &ldquo;F.R.S.&rdquo; Has translated Romanes&rsquo;
+<i>Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Spaventa</b> (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since
+&rsquo;61 he has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written
+upon the Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died
+1888.</p>
+<p><b>Specht</b> (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,
+1845. Has been for many years editor of <i lang="de">Menschenthum</i>
+at Gotha, and has written on <i>Brain and Soul</i>, <i>Theology and
+Science</i> and a <i>Popular History of the <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e17437" title="Source: Worlds">World&rsquo;s</span>
+Development</i>, which has gone through several editions. Dr. Specht is
+a leading member of the German Freethinkers&rsquo; Union.</p>
+<p><b>Spencer</b> (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He
+was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote
+in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and at the house of Dr. Chapman met
+Mill, Lewes and &ldquo;George Eliot.&rdquo; His first important
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17449" href="#xd20e17449" name=
+"xd20e17449">304</a>]</span>work was <i>Social Statistics</i>,
+&rsquo;51. Four years later appeared his <i>Principles of
+Psychology</i>, which with First Principles, &rsquo;62; Principles of
+Biology, &rsquo;64; Principles of Sociology, &rsquo;76&ndash;85, and
+Data of Ethics, &rsquo;79, form part of his &ldquo;Synthetic
+Philosophy&rdquo; in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the
+phenomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also
+published <i>Essays</i>, 3 vols, &rsquo;58&ndash;74; a work on
+<i>Education</i> &rsquo;61; <i>Recent Discussions on Science,
+Philosophy and Morals</i>, &rsquo;71; <i>The Study of Sociology</i>,
+&rsquo;72; <i>Descriptive Sociology</i>, &rsquo;72&ndash;86, an immense
+work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against
+Socialism; <i>The Coming Slavery</i>, &rsquo;84; and <i>Man and the
+State</i>, &rsquo;85, and has contributed many articles to the best
+reviews.</p>
+<p id="spinoza"><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e17481" title=
+"Source: Spinosa">Spinoza</span></b> (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher,
+b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the
+study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts,
+was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time
+he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic&rsquo;s dagger. To avoid
+persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to
+philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he
+settled at the Hague, where he remained until his death. In 1670 he
+issued his <i>Tractatus Theologico-politicus</i>, which made a great
+outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was
+gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and
+a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom
+he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e17487" title=
+"Source: Spinosa">Spinoza</span> is now generally recognised as among
+the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb.
+1677. His <i>Ethics</i> was published with his <i lang="la">Opera
+Posthuma</i>. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an
+eloquent address from M. R&eacute;nan.</p>
+<p><b>Spooner</b> (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19
+Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was <i>A Deist&rsquo;s Reply to the
+alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity</i>. He started
+letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with
+prosecutions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor of
+Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Stabili</b> (Francesco), see <a href="#ceccodascoli">Cecco&rsquo;
+d&rsquo;Ascoli</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Stamm</b> (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote <i>The
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17516" href="#xd20e17516" name=
+"xd20e17516">305</a>]</span>Religion of Action</i>, translated into
+English, 1860. After the events of &rsquo;48, he came to England, went
+to America, Aug. &rsquo;54.</p>
+<p><b>Standring</b> (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct.
+1855, was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but
+discarded theology after independent inquiry in &rsquo;73. He became
+hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about &rsquo;75, resigning on
+appointment of paid sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president.
+Started <i>Republican Chronicle</i>, April, 1875, this was afterwards
+called <i>The Republican</i>, and in Sept. &rsquo;88 <i>The
+Radical</i>. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has
+contributed to the <i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Freethinker</i>,
+<i>Progress</i>, <i>Our Corner</i>, <i>Reynolds&rsquo;s</i> and <i>Pall
+Mall Gazette</i>. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an
+active Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Stanley</b> (F. Lloyd), American author of <i>An Outline of the
+Future Religion of the World</i> (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic
+work in which he criticises preceding religions.</p>
+<p><b>Stanton</b> (Elizabeth, n&eacute;e <b>Cady</b>), American
+reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine
+Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the
+Anti-Slavery and the Woman&rsquo;s Rights crusades, of which last the
+first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July &rsquo;48.
+She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, <i>The
+Revolution</i>, and is joint author of <i>History of Woman&rsquo;s
+Suffrage</i> (&rsquo;80&ndash;86). She has written in the <i>North
+American Review</i> notably on &ldquo;Has Christianity Benefited
+Woman,&rdquo; May, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Stap</b> (A.), author of <i>Historic Studies on the origins of
+Christianity</i>. Bruxelles, 1864, and <i>The Immaculate
+Conception</i>, 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Starcke</b> (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the
+University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of
+Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in &rsquo;83. This able
+Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in
+&rsquo;85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since
+published in the &ldquo;International Scientific Series,&rdquo; a work
+on <i>The Primitive Family</i>, in which he critically surveys the
+views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on
+<i>Ethics</i> based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach.</p>
+<p><b>Stecchetti</b> (Lorenzo). See <a href="#guerrini"><span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e17599" title="Source: Guerini">Guerrini</span> (O.)</a>
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17603" href="#xd20e17603" name=
+"xd20e17603">306</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Stefanoni</b> (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan,
+1842. In &rsquo;59, his first Romance, <i>The Spanish in Italy</i> was
+suppressed by the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi&rsquo;s volunteers and
+contributed to <i>Unita Italiana</i>. In &rsquo;66, he founded at Milan
+the Society of Freethinkers and the organ <i>Il Libero Pensiero</i>, in
+which he wrote <i>A critical History of Superstition</i>, afterwards
+published separately 2 vols. &rsquo;69. He also compiled a
+Philosophical Dictionary, &rsquo;73&ndash;75; and wrote several
+romances as <i>L&rsquo;Inferno</i>, <i>The Red and Black of Rome</i>,
+etc. He translated B&uuml;chner&rsquo;s <i>Force and Matter</i>,
+Morin&rsquo;s <i>Jesus r&eacute;duit</i>, La Mettrie&rsquo;s
+<i>Man-machine</i>, Letourneau&rsquo;s <i>Physiology of the
+Passions</i>, and Feuerbach&rsquo;s <i>Essence of Religion</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Steinbart</b> (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b.
+Z&uuml;llichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he
+became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In &rsquo;74, he became
+Prof. of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a <i>System of
+Pure Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.</p>
+<p><b>Steinthal</b> (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gr&ouml;bzig, 16
+May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology.</p>
+<p><b>Steller</b> (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical
+work, <i>Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus</i>, Dresden,
+1674.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Stendhal</b> (M. de),&rdquo; Pseud, see <a href=
+"#beyle">Beyle (M. H.)</a></p>
+<p><b>Stephen</b> (<i>Sir</i> James FitzJames), English judge and
+writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A.
+&rsquo;52, and was called to the bar in &rsquo;54. He was counsel for
+the Rev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in
+<i>Essays and Reviews</i>, and his speech was reprinted in &rsquo;62.
+He wrote in the <i>Saturday Review</i>, and reprinted <i>Essays by a
+Barrister</i>. From Dec. &rsquo;69, to April, &rsquo;72, he was Legal
+Member of the Indian Council, and in &rsquo;79 was appointed judge. He
+is author of <i>Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity</i>, &rsquo;73, and
+some valuable legal works. He has written much in the <i>Nineteenth
+Century</i>, notably on the Blasphemy Law &rsquo;83, and Modern
+Catholicism, Oct. &rsquo;87.</p>
+<p><b>Stephen</b> (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of
+preceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he
+graduated M.A., &rsquo;57. He married a daughter of <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17696" href="#xd20e17696" name=
+"xd20e17696">307</a>]</span>Thackeray, and became editor of the
+<i>Cornhill Magazine</i> from &rsquo;71&ndash;82, when he resigned to
+edit the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. Mr. Stephen also
+contributed to <i>Macmillan</i>, the <i>Fortnightly</i>, and other
+reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in <i>Essays on
+Freethinking and Plainspeaking</i>, &rsquo;73. He has also written an
+important <i>History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century</i>,
+&rsquo;76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and <i>The Science of
+Ethics</i>, &rsquo;82, besides many literary works.</p>
+<p><b>Stern</b> (J)., <i>Rabbiner</i>, German writer, b. of Jewish
+parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the
+town. In &rsquo;58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and
+studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do
+this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In &rsquo;63
+he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave
+discourses collected in his first book, <i>Gottesflamme</i>, &rsquo;72.
+His <i>Old and New Faith Among the Jews</i>, &rsquo;78, was much
+attacked by the orthodox Jews. In <i>Women in the Talmud</i>,
+&rsquo;79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written <i>Jesus
+as a Jewish Reformer</i>, <i>The Egyptian Religion and Positivism</i>,
+and <i>Is the Pentateuch by Moses?</i> In &rsquo;81 he went to live at
+Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza&rsquo;s Ethics, and is
+engaged on a history of Spinozism.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Sterne</b> (Carus)&rdquo;; pseud. See <a href=
+"#krause">Krause (E)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Stevens</b> (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American
+Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of <i>God in the State</i>, and
+contributor to the American Freethought journals.</p>
+<p><b>Stewart</b> (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London
+before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked
+through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in
+London, 20 Feb. 1822.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Stirner</b> (Max).&rdquo; See <a href="#schmidtk">Schmidt
+(Kaspar)</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Stosch</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also <span class=
+"sc">Stoss</span> (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at
+Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he published a little book, <i>Concordia
+rationis et fidei</i>, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously
+suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a
+penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German
+Spinozists, and says &ldquo;Stosch curtly denies not only the
+immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul.&rdquo; Died 1704.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17784" href="#xd20e17784" name=
+"xd20e17784">308</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Stout</b> (<i>Sir</i> Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick
+(Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in &rsquo;63
+left for New Zealand. In &rsquo;67 he began the study of the law, was
+elected to the General Assembly in &rsquo;75, and became
+Attorney-General in March, &rsquo;78. He has since been Minister of
+Education of the Colony.</p>
+<p><b>Strange</b> (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for
+many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man,
+and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
+ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest
+advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student
+and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to
+bring the prisoner &ldquo;to Jesus.&rdquo; He professed himself
+influenced, but at the gallows &ldquo;he proclaimed his trust to be in
+Rama and not in Christ.&rdquo; This set the judge thinking. He
+investigated Christianity&rsquo;s claims, and has embodied the result
+in his works. <i>The Bible, Is it the Word of God?</i> &rsquo;71;
+<i>The Speaker&rsquo;s Commentary Reviewed</i>, &rsquo;71; <i>The
+Development of Creation on the Earth</i>, &rsquo;74; <i>The Legends of
+the Old Testament</i>, &rsquo;74; and <i>The Sources and Development of
+Christianity</i>, &rsquo;75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong,
+he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Strauss</b> (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg
+(Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at T&uuml;bengen, was
+ordained in &rsquo;30, and in &rsquo;32 became assistant-teacher. His
+<i>Life of Jesus Critically Treated</i>, &rsquo;35, in which he shows
+the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he
+was deprived of his position. In &rsquo;39 the Z&uuml;rich Government
+appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to
+repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His
+next important work was on the <i>Christian Doctrines</i> (2 vols.),
+&rsquo;40. In &rsquo;47 he wrote on <i>Julian the Apostle</i>, and in
+&rsquo;58 an account of the <i>Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten</i>.
+He prepared a <i>New Life of Christ for the German People</i>,
+&rsquo;64, followed by the <i>Christ of the Creeds</i> and the <i>Jesus
+of History</i>. In &rsquo;70 he published his lectures on
+<i>Voltaire</i>, and two years later his last work <i>The Old Faith and
+the New</i>, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but
+with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17843" href="#xd20e17843" name=
+"xd20e17843">309</a>]</span>of truth, his mind was always advancing. He
+died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Strindberg</b> (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the
+Scandinavian Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published
+many prominent rationalistic works, as <i>The Red Chamber</i> and
+<i>Marriage</i>. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most
+popular poets and novelists in Sweden.</p>
+<p><b>Stromer</b> (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured
+on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote
+<i>Confessions of a Freethinker</i>. Died 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Strozzi</b> (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b.
+of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned
+it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry
+II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558,
+and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus, he calmly
+declared himself an Atheist.</p>
+<p><b>Suard</b> (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b.
+Besan&ccedil;on, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron
+d&rsquo;Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole.
+He wrote <i>Miscellanies of Literature</i>, etc. He had the post of
+censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817.</p>
+<p><b>Sue</b> (Marie Joseph, called Eug&egrave;ne), French novelist, b.
+Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which <i>The Mysteries
+of Paris</i> and <i>The Wandering Jew</i>, &rsquo;42&ndash;45, were the
+most popular. In &rsquo;50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme
+left, but was exiled by the <i lang="fr">coup d&rsquo;etat</i>. He died
+as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.</p>
+<p><b>Sullivan</b> (J.), author of <i>Search for Deity</i>, an inquiry
+as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).</p>
+<p id="sullyprudhomme"><b>Sully Prudhomme</b> (Ren&egrave;
+Fran&ccedil;ois Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He
+studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In
+&rsquo;78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in &rsquo;82 member of
+the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of
+philosophical suggestion.</p>
+<p><b>Sunderland</b> (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter
+(Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was
+prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17902" href="#xd20e17902" name=
+"xd20e17902">310</a>]</span>He came out of the Church as the great
+bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years
+preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism,
+&rsquo;47; <i>Book of Human Nature</i>, &rsquo;53, and <i>Ideology</i>,
+3 vols., &rsquo;86&ndash;9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Suttner</b> (Bertha von), <i>Baroness</i>, Austrian author of
+<i>Inventory of a Soul</i>, 1886, and of several novels.</p>
+<p><b>Sutton</b> (Henry S.), anonymous author of <i>Quinquenergia</i>;
+or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, and <i>Letters from a
+Father to a Son on Revealed Religion</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Swinburne</b> (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b.
+London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where
+he spent some time with W. S. Landor. <i>Atalanta in Calydon</i>, a
+splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius.
+<i>Poems and Ballads</i>, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical
+passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In his <i>Songs before
+Sunrise</i>, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with
+unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward
+many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays,
+studies, and prose miscellanies.</p>
+<p><b>Symes</b> (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29
+Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In &rsquo;64 he offered himself
+as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College,
+Richmond, and in &rsquo;67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to
+doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in &rsquo;72, preached his first open
+Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. &rsquo;76. Had several
+debates, wrote <i>Philosophic Atheism</i>, <i>Man&rsquo;s Place in
+Nature</i>, <i>Hospitals not of Christian Origin</i>, <i>Christianity a
+Persecuting Religion</i>, <i>Blows at the Bible</i>, etc. He
+contributed to the <i>Freethinker</i>, and was ready to conduct it
+during Mr. Foote&rsquo;s imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec.
+&rsquo;83, and there established the <i>Liberator</i>, and has written
+<i>Life and Death of My Religion</i>, &rsquo;84; <i>Christianity and
+Slavery</i>, <i>Phallic Worship</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Symonds</b> (John Addington), English poet and author, b.
+Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in
+&rsquo;62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his
+marriage. His chief work is on the <i>Renaissance in <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17984" href="#xd20e17984" name=
+"xd20e17984">311</a>]</span>Italy</i>, 7 vols., completed in &rsquo;86.
+He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health
+compels his living abroad.</p>
+<p><b>Taine</b> (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of
+letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon
+(now the Condorcet Lyceum), in &rsquo;53 he took the degree of Doctor
+of Letters. In &rsquo;56 appears his <i>French Philosophers of the
+Nineteenth Century</i>, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist
+and religious school. He came to England and studied English
+Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy
+prize, &rsquo;63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on
+account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote on <i>English
+Positivism</i>, a study of J. S. Mill. In &rsquo;71 Oxford made him
+D.C.L., and in Nov. &rsquo;78, he was elected to the French Academy;
+his latest work is <i>The Origins of Contemporary France</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Talandier</b> (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept.
+1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in
+the revolution of &rsquo;48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to
+England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated
+Smiles&rsquo;s Self-Help, and wrote in the <i>National Reformer</i>.
+Returned to Paris in &rsquo;70 and became professor at the Lyc&eacute;e
+Henri IV. In &rsquo;74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the
+Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and
+was re-elected in &rsquo;81. In &rsquo;83 he published a <i>Popular
+Rabelais</i> and has written in <i>Our Corner</i> on that great
+Freethinker.</p>
+<p><b>Taubert</b> (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann&rsquo;s first
+wife. She wrote <i>The Pessimists and their Opponents</i>, 1873.</p>
+<p><b>Taule</b> (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of <i>Notions
+on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter</i>. Paris, 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Taurellus</b> (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b.
+Montb&eacute;hard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at T&uuml;bingen and
+Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how the <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e18032" title=
+"Source: Aristotlelian">Aristotelian</span> doctrine of the eternity of
+the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was
+stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of
+which is <i lang="la">Philosophi&aelig; Triumphans</i>, 1573. He died
+of the plague 28 Sept. 1606. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18038"
+href="#xd20e18038" name="xd20e18038">312</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Taylor</b> (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b.
+Edmonton<span class="corr" id="xd20e18043" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> 18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy&rsquo;s
+and St. Thomas&rsquo;s Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded
+to join the Church, he entered St. John&rsquo;s, Cambridge, Oct. 1809,
+in Jan. &rsquo;13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He
+was curate at Midhurst till &rsquo;18, when he first became sceptical
+through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah
+which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and
+published <i>The Clerical Review</i> and started &ldquo;The Society of
+Universal Benevolence.&rdquo; In &rsquo;24 he came to London and
+started &ldquo;The Christian Evidence Society,&rdquo; and delivered
+discourses with discussion; also edited the <i>Philalethian</i>. In
+&rsquo;27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able
+defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. &rsquo;28 sentenced to one
+year&rsquo;s imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote his
+<i>Syntagma</i> on the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work,
+<i>The Diegesis</i>, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and
+early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter to
+<i>The Lion</i>, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his
+liberation they both went on &ldquo;an infidel mission&rdquo; about the
+country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where
+Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in
+<i>The Devil&rsquo;s Pulpit</i>. He was again prosecuted, and on 4
+July, &rsquo;31, was sentenced to two year&rsquo;s imprisonment. He was
+badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady
+and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.</p>
+<p><b>Taylor</b> (Thomas), known as &ldquo;The Platonist,&rdquo; b.
+London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of
+the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle,
+Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on
+the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of
+Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to
+have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died
+in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Taylor</b> (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an
+acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations
+from the German, notably Lessing&rsquo;s <i>Nathan <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18075" href="#xd20e18075" name=
+"xd20e18075">313</a>]</span>the Wise</i>, brought him some repute. He
+also wrote a <i>Survey of German Poetry</i> and <i>English
+Synonyms</i>, 1830. He edited the Norwich <i>Iris</i>, 1802, which he
+made the organ of his political and religions views. In &rsquo;10 he
+published anonymously <i>A Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of
+Luke</i>, also entitled <i>Who was the Father of Jesus Christ</i>?
+1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ.
+Also wrote largely in the <i>Monthly Review</i>, replying therein to
+the Abb&eacute; Barruel; and the <i>Critical Review</i> when edited by
+Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus.
+Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.</p>
+<p><b>Tchernychewsky</b> (N. G.) See <a href=
+"#chernuishevsky">Chernuishevsky</a>.</p>
+<p>&ldquo;<b>Tela</b> (Josephus),&rdquo; the Latinised name of Joseph
+Webbe who in 1818 edited the <i>Philosophical Library</i>, containing
+the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc.,
+and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the
+production of <i>Ecce Homo</i>, &rsquo;13. Cushing, in his <i>Initials
+and Pseudonyms</i>, refers Tela to &ldquo;Joseph Webb,&rdquo;
+1735&ndash;87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in
+America; died in Boston.&rdquo; I am not satisfied that this is the
+same person.</p>
+<p><b>Telesio</b> (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family
+at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his
+learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote
+in Latin <i>On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles</i>,
+1565. He opposed the <span class="corr" id="xd20e18128" title=
+"Source: Aristotleian">Aristotelian</span> doctrine in physics, and
+employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was
+prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in
+the <i>Index</i>, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice,
+1590.</p>
+<p><b>Telle</b> (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b.
+Zierikzee, 1578. He translated Servetus <i>On the Errors of the
+Trinity</i>, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.</p>
+<p><b>Testa</b> (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious
+<i>Storia di Ges&ugrave; di Nazareth</i>, 1870, in which he maintains
+that Jesus was the son of <span class="corr" id="xd20e18148" title=
+"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Pandera, a Calabrian of
+Brindisi.</p>
+<p><b>Thaer</b> (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14
+May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18155" href="#xd20e18155" name=
+"xd20e18155">314</a>]</span>inspired Lessing&rsquo;s work on <i>The
+Education of the Human Race</i>. Died 28 Oct. 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Theodorus</b> of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions
+resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his
+native city. He resided at Athens about 312 <span class=
+"sc">B.C.</span> When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered
+little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.</p>
+<p><b>Theophile de Viau</b>, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For
+the alleged publication of <i>Le Parnasse Satyriques</i>, he was
+accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled,
+and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,
+25 Sept. 1626.</p>
+<p><b>Thompson</b> (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on
+<i>The Problem of Evil</i>, &rsquo;87; <i>The Religious Sentiments</i>,
+etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.</p>
+<p><b>Thomson</b> (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833.
+Went to sea in &rsquo;49 and became a merchant captain in &rsquo;57,
+and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna
+he started a Utilitarian Society in &rsquo;88, of which he is
+president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his
+Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote
+and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in
+the conduct of <i>Frit&auml;nkaren</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Thomson</b> (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov.
+1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a
+schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he
+afterwards assisted on the <i>National Reformer</i>. To this paper he
+contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including
+his famous &ldquo;City of Dreadful Night,&rdquo; the most powerful
+pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, &rsquo;74, afterwards
+published with other poems in &rsquo;80). &ldquo;Vane&rsquo;s
+Story&rdquo; with other poems was issued in &rsquo;81, and &ldquo;A
+Voice from the Nile,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Shelley&rdquo; (privately
+printed in &rsquo;84). Thomson also contributed to the
+<i>Secularist</i> and <i>Liberal</i>, edited by his friend Foote, who
+has published many of his articles in a volume entitled <i>Satires and
+Profanities</i>, which includes &ldquo;The Story of a Famous Old Jewish
+Firm,&rdquo; also published separately. Thomson employed much of his
+genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18208" href="#xd20e18208" name=
+"xd20e18208">315</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Thomson</b> (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author
+of <i>The Distribution of Wealth</i>, 1824; <i>Appeal for Women</i>,
+&rsquo;25; <i>Labor Reward</i>, &rsquo;27, and in the <i>Co-operative
+Magazine</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Thorild</b> (Thomas), or <span class="sc">Thoren</span>, Swedish
+writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in
+1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous
+pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wrote
+<i>Cromwell</i>, an epic poem. In 1786 he wrote <i>Common Sense on
+Liberty</i>, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was
+a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was
+imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a <i>Sermon of Sermons</i>,
+attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died
+at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time,
+and is now becoming appreciated.</p>
+<p><b>Thulie</b> (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and
+anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In &rsquo;56 he founded a journal,
+&ldquo;Realism.&rdquo; In &rsquo;66 he published a work on <i>Madness
+and the Law</i>. He contributed to <i>La Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>,
+defending the views of B&uuml;chner. He has written an able study,
+<i>La Femme</i>, Woman, published in &rsquo;85. M. Thulie has been
+President of the Paris Municipal Council.</p>
+<p><b>Tiele</b> (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec.
+1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the
+service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in
+editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, &rsquo;68. He has
+written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works
+have been translated into English, viz., <i>Outlines of the History of
+Religion</i>, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed.
+&rsquo;88; and <i>Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian
+Religions</i>, &rsquo;82.</p>
+<p><b>Tillier</b> (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,
+11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling
+pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,
+of which we note <i>My Uncle Benjamin</i>. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct.
+1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.</p>
+<p><b>Tindal</b> (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris,
+Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was
+induced to turn Romanist in the reign of <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e18275" href="#xd20e18275" name="xd20e18275">316</a>]</span>James
+II., but returned to Protestantism and wrote <i>The Rights of the
+Christian Church</i>. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who
+even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to
+be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he published <i>Christianity
+as Old as the Creation</i>, to which no less than 150 answers were
+published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in
+MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.</p>
+<p><b>Toland</b> (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry,
+30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early
+youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and
+proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic.
+He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and
+became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the
+orthodox with his <i>Christianity not Mysterious</i>, which was
+&ldquo;presented&rdquo; by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by
+the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,
+Sept. 1697. He wrote a <i>Life of Milton</i> (1698), in which,
+mentioning <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, he referred to the
+&ldquo;suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and
+other great persons.&rdquo; For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall
+before Parliament. He replied with <i>Amytor</i>, in which he gives a
+catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the
+Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote <i>Letters to Serena</i> (1704),
+which, says Lange, &ldquo;handles the kernel of the whole question of
+Materialism.&rdquo; In 1709 he published <i>Adeisid&aelig;non</i> and
+<i>Origines Judaic&aelig;</i>. In 1718 <i>Nazarenus</i>, on Jewish,
+Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the
+Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitled
+<i>Tetradymus</i> and <i>Pantheisticon</i>, which described a society
+of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland
+died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722.
+Lange praises him highly.</p>
+<p><b>Tollemache</b> (<i>Hon.</i> Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron
+Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many
+articles in <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, reprinted (privately) as
+<i>Stones of Stumbling</i>, &rsquo;84. Has also written <i>Safe
+Studies</i>, &rsquo;84; <i>Recollections of Pallison</i>, &rsquo;85;
+and <i>Mr. Romanes&rsquo;s Catechism</i>, &rsquo;87. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18342" href="#xd20e18342" name=
+"xd20e18342">317</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Tone</b> (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,
+1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in
+1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept
+relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the
+French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken
+prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.</p>
+<p><b>Topinard</b> (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam
+1830. Editor of the <i lang="fr">Revue d&rsquo;Anthropologie</i>, and
+author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of
+Contemporary Science.</p>
+<p><b>Toulmin</b> (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of
+<i>The Antiquity and Duration of the World</i>, 1785; <i>The Eternity
+of the Universe</i>, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.</p>
+<p><b>Tournai</b> (Simon de). See <a href="#simon">Simon</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Traina</b> (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on <i>The
+Ethics of Herbert Spencer</i>, Turin, 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Travis</b> (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested
+himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend
+and literary executor to Robert Owen. In &rsquo;51&ndash;53 he edited
+<i>Robert Owen&rsquo;s Journal</i>. He also wrote on <i>Effectual
+Reform</i>, <i>Free Will and Law</i>, <i>Moral Freedom and
+Causation</i>, and <i>A Manual of Social Science</i>, and contributed
+to the <i>National Reformer</i>. Died 4 Feb. 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Trelawny</b> (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became
+intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in
+August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married
+a daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote <i>Adventures of a Younger
+Son</i>, &rsquo;31; and <i>Records of Shelley, Byron, and the
+Author</i>, &rsquo;78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha,
+his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was
+a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society.
+Swinburne calls him &ldquo;World-wide liberty&rsquo;s lifelong
+lover.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Trenchard</b> (John), English Deist and political writer, b.
+Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was
+appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction
+with Gordon he wrote <i>Cato&rsquo;s Letters</i> on civil and
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18418" href="#xd20e18418" name=
+"xd20e18418">318</a>]</span>religious liberty, and conducted <i>The
+Independent Whig</i>. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for
+Taunton; he also wrote the <i>Natural History of Superstition</i>,
+1709; but <i lang="fr">La Contagion Sacree</i>, attributed to him, is
+really by d&rsquo;Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.</p>
+<p><b>Trevelyan</b> (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e18433" title="Not in source">.</span>, a writer in the
+<i>Reasoner</i> and <i>National Reformer</i>. Published <i>The Insanity
+of Mankind</i> (Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a
+Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6
+Feb. 1878.</p>
+<p><b>Trezza</b> (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was
+brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study
+led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions
+of a Sceptic, &rsquo;78; Critical Studies, &rsquo;78; New Critical
+Studies, &rsquo;81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of
+High Studies, Florence. To the first number of the <i lang="fr">Revue
+Internationale</i> &rsquo;83, he contributed <i lang="fr">Les Dieux
+s&rsquo;en vont</i>. He also wrote Religion and Religions, &rsquo;84;
+and a <span class="corr" id="xd20e18455" title=
+"Source: Monk">work</span> on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has
+reached its third edition, &rsquo;87.</p>
+<p><b>Tridon</b> (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon
+sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were
+rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In &rsquo;64 he
+published in <i lang="fr">Le Journal des Ecoles</i>, his remarkable
+study of revolutionary history <i lang="fr">Les H&eacute;bertistes</i>.
+In May, &rsquo;65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., <i lang="fr">Le
+Candide</i>, the precursor of <i lang="fr">La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>,
+&rsquo;66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were
+expounded. Delegated in &rsquo;65 to the International Students
+Congress at Li&eacute;ge his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop
+Dupanloup; he got more than two years&rsquo; imprisonment for articles
+in <i lang="fr">Le Candide</i> and <i lang="fr">La Libre
+Pens&eacute;e</i>, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which
+killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his work
+<i lang="fr">Du Molochisme Juif</i>, critical and philosophical studies
+of the Jewish religion, only published in &rsquo;84. After 4 Sept.
+&rsquo;70, he founded <i>La Patrie en Danger</i>. In Feb. &rsquo;71 he
+was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting
+against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris
+Commune, retiring after <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18488" href=
+"#xd20e18488" name="xd20e18488">319</a>]</span>the collapse to Brussels
+where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid
+Freethinker&rsquo;s funeral witnessed in Belgium.</p>
+<p><b>Truebner</b> (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817.
+After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and
+distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions,
+philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Truelove</b> (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early
+in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was
+secretary of the John Street Institution. In &rsquo;44 and &rsquo;45 he
+threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In
+&rsquo;52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced
+literature. He published Voltaire&rsquo;s <i>Philosophical
+Dictionary</i> and <i>Romances</i>, Paine&rsquo;s complete works,
+D&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>System of Nature</i>, and Taylor&rsquo;s
+<i>Syntagma</i> and <i>Diegesis</i>. In &rsquo;58 he was prosecuted for
+publishing a pamphlet on <i>Tyrannicide</i>, by W. E. Adams, but the
+prosecution was abandoned. In &rsquo;78 he was, after two trials,
+sentenced to four months&rsquo; imprisonment for publishing R. D.
+Owen&rsquo;s <i>Moral Physiology</i>. Upon his release he was presented
+with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.</p>
+<p><b>Trumbull</b> (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,
+b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army
+in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him
+Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and
+then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted
+himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.</p>
+<p><b>Tschirnhausen</b> (Walthier Ehrenfried), German <i>Count</i>, b.
+1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a
+follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.</p>
+<p><b>Tucker</b> (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass.,
+17 April, 1854. Edits <i>Liberty</i>, of Boston.</p>
+<p><b>Turbiglio</b> (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7
+July, <span class="corr" id="xd20e18542" title=
+"Source: 1642">1842</span>, author of a work on <i>Spinoza and the
+Transformation of his Thoughts</i>, 1875.</p>
+<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e18550" title=
+"Source: Turgeuev">Turgenev</span></b> (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian
+novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels, <i>Fathers and Sons</i>
+and <i>Virgin Soil</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18559" href=
+"#xd20e18559" name="xd20e18559">320</a>]</span>he has depicted
+characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3
+Sept. 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Turner</b> (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name
+of William Hammon, published an <i>Answer to Dr. Priestley&rsquo;s
+Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever</i>, 1782, in which he avows
+himself an Atheist.</p>
+<p><b>Tuuk</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e18572" title=
+"Source: Tilia">Titia</span>, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov.
+1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of
+the editors of <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Twesten</b> (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e18582" title="Source: Krel">Kiel</span>, 22 April,
+1820. Studied law, &rsquo;38&ndash;41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and
+became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National
+Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of
+Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), &rsquo;72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct.
+1870.</p>
+<p><b>Tylor</b> (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English
+anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to
+the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority
+upon the subject. He has wrote <i>Anahuac</i>, or Mexico and the
+Mexicans, &rsquo;61; <i>Researches into the Early History of
+Mankind</i>, &rsquo;65; <i>Primitive Culture</i>; being researches into
+the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2
+vols.), &rsquo;71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism,
+the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook of
+<i>Anthropology</i>, an introduction to the Study of Man and
+Civilisation, &rsquo;81; and contributed to the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia
+Britannica</i>, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of
+the Anthropological Society.</p>
+<p><b>Tyndall</b> (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near
+Carlow, 1820. In &rsquo;47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College
+(Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In &rsquo;56 he went
+to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on
+glaciers. He contributed to the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, notably an
+article on Miracles and Special Providence, &rsquo;66. In &rsquo;72 he
+went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was
+president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a
+great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific
+works he has <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18612" href=
+"#xd20e18612" name="xd20e18612">321</a>]</span>published popular
+<i>Fragments of Science</i>, which has gone through several
+editions.</p>
+<p><b>Tyrell</b> (Henry). See <a href="#church">Church</a>.</p>
+<p id="tyssotdepatot"><b>Tyssot de Patot</b> (Simon), b. of French
+family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer.
+Under the pen name of &ldquo;Jacques Mass&eacute;&rdquo; he published
+<i>Voyages and Adventures</i>, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic
+and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S.
+Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.</p>
+<p><b>Ueberweg</b> (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22
+Jan. 1826; studied at G&ouml;ttingen and Berlin, and became Professor
+of Philosophy at K&ouml;nigsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief
+work is a <i>History of Philosophy</i>. Lange cites Czolbe as saying
+&ldquo;He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and
+Materialist.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Uhlich</b> (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious
+reformer, b. K&ouml;then 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a
+preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and
+founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures
+defending his opinions. His <i>Religion of Common Sense</i> has been
+translated and published in America. Died at <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e18645" title="Source: Madgeburg">Magdeburg</span>, 23 March,
+1872.</p>
+<p><b>Ule</b> (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820.
+Studied at Halle and Berlin. In &rsquo;52 he started the journal <i>Die
+Natur</i>, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6
+Aug. 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Underwood</b> (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New
+York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War.
+He fought at Ball&rsquo;s Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. &rsquo;61, was
+wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In &rsquo;81 he
+edited the <i>Index</i> in conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in
+&rsquo;87 started <i>The Open Court</i> at Chicago. He has had numerous
+debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being
+published. He has also published <i>Essays and Lectures</i>, <i>The
+Religion of Materialism</i>, <i>Influence of Christianity on
+Civilisation</i>, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written <i>Heroines of
+Freethought</i>, New York, 1876.</p>
+<p><b>Vacherot</b> (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809.
+In &rsquo;39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18682" href="#xd20e18682" name=
+"xd20e18682">322</a>]</span>at the Sorbonne. For his free opinions
+expressed in his <i>Critical History of the School of Alexandria</i>, a
+work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, &rsquo;46&ndash;51, he
+was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He
+afterwards wrote <i>Essays of Critical Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;64, and
+<i>La Religion</i>, &rsquo;69.</p>
+<p><b>Vacquerie</b> (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A
+friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit,
+and was director of <i>Le Rappel</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Vaillant</b> (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26
+Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took
+part in the Commune, and in &rsquo;84 was elected Muncipal Councillor
+of Paris.</p>
+<p id="vairasse"><b>Vairasse</b> (Denis) d&rsquo;Alais, French writer
+of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author
+of <i>Histoire des Sevarambes</i>, 1677; imaginary travels in which he
+introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.</p>
+<p><b>Vale</b> (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for
+the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he
+edited the <i>Citizen of the World</i> and the <i>Beacon</i>. He
+published <i>Fanaticism; its Source and Influence</i>, N.Y. 1835, and a
+<i>Life of Paine</i>, &rsquo;41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Valk</b> (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being
+a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> between 1860&ndash;70, using the pen name
+of &ldquo;Thomas.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Valla</b> (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having
+hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was
+condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples.
+Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him
+to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.</p>
+<p><b>Vallee</b> (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote
+<i lang="fr">La B&eacute;atitude des Chr&eacute;stiens ou le
+Fl&eacute;o de la Foy</i>, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and
+hanged on the Place de Gr&eacute;ve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.</p>
+<p><b>Valliss</b> (Rudolph), German author of works on <i>The Natural
+History of Gods</i> (Leip., 1875); <i>The Eternity of the World</i>,
+&rsquo;75; <i>Catechism of Human Duty</i>, &rsquo;76, etc. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18759" href="#xd20e18759" name=
+"xd20e18759">323</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Van Cauberg</b> (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders
+and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died
+1886.</p>
+<p><b>Van Effen.</b> See <a href="#effen">Effen</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Vanini</b> (Lucilio, afterwards <span class="sc">Julius
+C&aelig;sar</span>), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano
+(Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the
+Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and
+France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic
+opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his
+track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in
+1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and
+published a Pantheistic work in Latin <i>On the Admirable Secrets of
+Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals</i>. It was condemned by the
+Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no
+repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his
+scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body
+burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb.
+1619. President Gramond, author of <i>History of France under Louis
+XIII.</i>, writes &ldquo;I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to
+execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to
+repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words.
+&lsquo;<i>He</i> sweated with fear and weakness, and I die
+undaunted.&rsquo;&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Vapereau</b> (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4
+April, 1819. In &rsquo;41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He
+collaborated on the <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Sciences
+Philosophiques</i> and the <i lang="fr">Libert&eacute; de Penser</i>,
+but is best known by his useful <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire Universel des
+Contemporains</i>. In &rsquo;70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but
+on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in
+&rsquo;73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a <i>Universal
+Dictionary of Writers</i>, &rsquo;76, and <i>Elements of the History of
+French Literature</i>, 1883&ndash;85.</p>
+<p id="varnhagenvonense"><b>Varnhagen von Ense</b> (Earl August Ludwig
+Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied
+medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and
+served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of
+Alex. von Humboldt, and shared his <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e18810" href="#xd20e18810" name=
+"xd20e18810">324</a>]</span>Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10
+Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his
+<i>Diary</i>.</p>
+<p id="vauvenargues"><b>Vauvenargues</b> (Luc de <span class=
+"sc">Clapiers</span>), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715.
+At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined
+health in 1743. He published in 1746 an <i>Introduction to the
+Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims</i>,
+which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28
+May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously
+suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.</p>
+<p><b>Velthuysen</b> (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He
+wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works,
+<i lang="la">De Officio Pastorum</i> and <i lang="la">De Idolatria et
+Superstitione</i> were proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off
+with a fine. Died 1685.</p>
+<p><b>Venetianer</b> (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of <i>Der
+Allgeist</i>, 1874, and a work on <i>Schopenhauer as a
+Scholastic</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Vereschagin</b> (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He
+studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and
+has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of
+his <i>Holy Family</i> and <i>Resurrection</i> were the cause of their
+being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. &rsquo;85, by order
+of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into
+English, &rsquo;87, he shows his free opinions.</p>
+<p><b>Vergniaud</b> (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b.
+Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected
+to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the
+Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the
+people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonn&eacute; and
+Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being
+beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793.
+Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: &ldquo;Reason thinks,
+Religion dreams.&rdquo; He had prepared poison for himself, but as
+there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with
+them.</p>
+<p><b>Verlet</b> (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18864" href="#xd20e18864" name=
+"xd20e18864">325</a>]</span><i>La Libre Pens&eacute;e</i>, 1871, and
+author of a pamphlet on <i>Atheism and the Supreme Being</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Verliere</b> (Alfred), French author of a <i lang="fr">Guide du
+Libre-Penseur</i> (Paris, 1869); collaborated <i lang="fr">La Libre
+Pens&eacute;e</i>, <i lang="fr">Rationaliste</i>, etc. To Bishop
+Dupanloup&rsquo;s <i lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e18885"
+title="Source: Atheisme">Ath&eacute;isme</span> et Peril Social</i> he
+replied with <i lang="fr">Deisme et Peril Social</i>, for which he was
+condemned to several months&rsquo; imprisonment.</p>
+<p><b>Vermersch</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), French journalist, b. Lille about
+1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical
+papers.</p>
+<p><b>Vernes</b> (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has
+published <i lang="fr">Melanges de Critique Religieuse</i>, and
+translated from Kuenen and Tiele.</p>
+<p><b>Veron</b> (Eug&egrave;ne), French writer and publicist, b. Paris,
+29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, founded <i lang="fr">La France
+Republicaine</i> at Lyons, and <i lang="fr">l&rsquo;Art</i> at Paris.
+Besides historical works he has written <i lang=
+"fr">L&rsquo;Esthetique</i> in the &ldquo;Library of Contemporary
+Science,&rdquo; &rsquo;78; <i>The Natural History of Religions</i>, 2
+vols., in the <span lang="fr">Biblioth&egrave;que Materialiste</span>,
+&rsquo;84; and <i lang="fr">La Morale</i>, &rsquo;84.</p>
+<p><b>Viardot</b> (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July,
+1800<span class="corr" id="xd20e18930" title="Not in source">.
+He</span> came to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in
+Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on the <i lang="fr">Globe
+National</i> and <i lang="fr">Si&egrave;cle</i>. In &rsquo;41 he
+founded the <i lang="fr">Revue Independante</i> with &ldquo;George
+Sand,&rdquo; and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian,
+and in addition to many works on art he wrote <i>The Jesuits</i>,
+&rsquo;57; <i>Apology of an Unbeliever</i>, translated into English,
+&rsquo;69, and republished as <i lang="fr">Libre Examen</i>, &rsquo;71.
+Died 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Vico</b> (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples
+1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city,
+and published a <i>New Science of the Common Nature of Nations</i>,
+1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by
+immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21
+Jan. 1743.</p>
+<p><b>Virchow</b> (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e18964" title=
+"Source: Ponnerania">Pomerania</span>, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine
+at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of
+&rsquo;48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. His
+<i>Cellular Pathology</i>, &rsquo;58, established his reputation. He
+was chosen <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18970" href="#xd20e18970"
+name="xd20e18970">326</a>]</span>deputy and rose to the leadership of
+the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he
+opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.</p>
+<p><b>Vischer</b> (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b.
+Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a
+minister, but renounced theology and became professor of <span class=
+"gap" title=
+"Missing one or more lines, for the following reason: missing in source.">
+[<i>missing text</i>]</span> and is <i lang="de">Jahrb&uuml;cher der
+Gegenwart</i>, &rsquo;44, was accused of blasphemy and for his
+Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of
+&rsquo;48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In &rsquo;55 he
+became Professor at Z&uuml;rich. His work on <i>&AElig;sthetic</i>, or
+the Science of the Beautiful, &rsquo;46&ndash;54, is considered
+classic. He has also written, <i>Old and New</i>, &rsquo;81, and
+several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Vitry</b> (Guarin de) French author of a <i>Rapid Examination of
+Christian Dogma</i>, addressed to the Council of 1869.</p>
+<p><b>Vloten</b> (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818;
+studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in &rsquo;43. He has,
+however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works,
+translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his
+life&mdash;translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited also
+<i lang="nl">De Levensbode</i>, 1865, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Voelkel</b> (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz
+(Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e19005" title="Not in source">&rsquo;</span>59&ndash;65) theology,
+natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He
+returned &rsquo;70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher
+schools. Since &rsquo;80 has been &ldquo;sprecher&rdquo; of Freethought
+associations and since &rsquo;85 editor of the <i lang="de">Neues
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e19010" title=
+"Source: Freireligioses">Freireligi&ouml;ses</span> Sonntags-Blatt</i>,
+at <span class="corr" id="xd20e19014" title=
+"Source: Magdenburg">Magdeburg</span>. In &rsquo;88 he was several
+times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented
+several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers,
+&rsquo;89.</p>
+<p><b>Voglet</b> (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was
+blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in
+consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his
+own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared in <i lang=
+"fr">La Tribune du Peuple</i>, which he edited.</p>
+<p><b>Vogt</b> (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the
+son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19028" href="#xd20e19028" name=
+"xd20e19028">327</a>]</span>became acquainted with Agassiz. In
+&rsquo;48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of
+his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva.
+His lectures on <i>Man, His Position in Creation and in the History of
+the Earth</i>, &rsquo;63, made a sensation by their endorsement of
+Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the
+Anthropological Society. He has also written a <i>Manual of
+Geology</i>, <i>Physiological Letters</i>, <i>Zoological Letters</i>,
+<i>Blind Faith and Science</i>, etc., and has contributed to the
+leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.</p>
+<p><b>Volkmar</b> (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809.
+Studied at Marburg &rsquo;29&ndash;32; became <i>privat docent</i> at
+Zurich, &rsquo;53, and professor &rsquo;63. He has written rationalist
+works on the Gospel of Marcion, &rsquo;52; Justin Martyr, &rsquo;53;
+the <i>Origin of the Gospels</i>, &rsquo;66; <i>Jesus and the first
+Christian Ages</i>, &rsquo;82, etc.</p>
+<p id="volney"><b>Volney</b> (Constantin Fran&ccedil;ois <span class=
+"sc">Chassebouf</span> de), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou)
+3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in
+1774. Here he met D&rsquo;Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for
+Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made
+Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the
+Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of
+landed property. In 1791 his eloquent <i>Ruins</i> appeared. During the
+Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In &rsquo;95 he visited
+America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in
+the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when
+he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his
+other works was a <i>History of Samuel</i> and the <i>Law of
+Nature</i>. Died 25 April, 1820.</p>
+<p id="voltaire"><b>Voltaire</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois Marie. <span class=
+"sc">Arouet</span> de), French poet, historian and philosopher, b.
+Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished
+himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV
+he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed
+again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he
+came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became
+acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His <i lang="fr">Lettres
+Philosophiques</i> translated as &ldquo;Letters on the English,&rdquo;
+1732, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19085" href="#xd20e19085"
+name="xd20e19085">328</a>]</span>gave great offence to the clergy and
+was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the
+Marquise de Ch&acirc;telet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We
+may mention <i>Mahomet</i>, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to
+see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750
+he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But
+he could not help laughing at the great king&rsquo;s poetry. The last
+twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan
+territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He
+did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other
+relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last
+he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His
+works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty
+works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one
+hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the
+clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May,
+1778.</p>
+<p><b>Voo</b> (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more
+than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French
+language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many
+articles to <i lang="fr">De Dageraad</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Vosmaer</b> (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826.
+Studied law at Leyden. He edited the <i lang="fr">Tydstroom</i>
+(1858&ndash;9) and <i>Spectator</i> (1860&ndash;73), and wrote several
+works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e19108" title="Source: Montreaux">Montreux</span> (Switzerland),
+12 June, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Voysey</b> (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828.
+Graduated B.A. at Oxford, &rsquo;51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire,
+&rsquo;64&ndash;71, and deprived 11 Feb. &rsquo;71 for heresy in
+sermons published in <i>The Sling and the Stone</i>. He has since
+established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his
+sermons are regularly published. He has also issued <i>Fragments from
+Reimarus</i>, &rsquo;79, edited <i>The Langham Magazine</i> and
+published <i>Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Vulpian</b> (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan.
+1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at
+the School of Medicine, &rsquo;69, was violently opposed <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19131" href="#xd20e19131" name=
+"xd20e19131">329</a>]</span>on account of his Atheism. He was
+afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Wagner</b> (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet,
+b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From &rsquo;42&ndash;49 he was conductor of
+the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his
+exile to Switzerland, where he produced his &ldquo;Lohengrin.&rdquo; In
+&rsquo;64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many
+fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should
+aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed
+himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Waite</b> (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county,
+N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted
+to the Bar in &rsquo;47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was
+appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In
+&rsquo;81 he issued his <i>History of the Christian Religion to the
+year <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 200</i>, a rationalistic work, which
+explodes the evangelical narratives.</p>
+<p><b>Wakeman</b> (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29
+Dec. 1834, was one of the editors of <i>Man</i> and a president of the
+New York Liberal Club. A contributor to the <i>Freethinkers&rsquo;
+Magazine</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Walferdin</b> (Fran&ccedil;ois-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June,
+1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of
+science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He
+published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in &rsquo;57, and left
+the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Walker</b> (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of <i>Is the Bible
+True?</i> and <i>What is Blasphemy?</i> 1843.</p>
+<p><b>Walker</b> (Edwin C.), editor of <i>Lucifer</i> and <i>Fair
+Play</i>, Valley Falls, Kansas.</p>
+<p><b>Walker</b> (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858.
+Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In
+&rsquo;77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,
+Melbourne. In &rsquo;82 he started the Australian Secular Association,
+of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In
+&rsquo;85 he was convicted for lecturing <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e19185" href="#xd20e19185" name="xd20e19185">330</a>]</span>on
+Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In
+&rsquo;87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President
+of Australian Freethought Union.</p>
+<p><b>Walser</b> (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co.
+Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature
+of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to
+try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or
+drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a
+Freethought University.</p>
+<p><b>Ward</b> (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois,
+18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and
+was wounded. In &rsquo;65 he settled at Washington and became librarian
+of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and
+fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on
+paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled
+<i>Dynamic Sociology</i>. He has contributed <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e19199" title="Not in source">to</span> the <i>Popular Science
+Monthly</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Ward</b> (Mary A.), translator of <i>Amiel&rsquo;s Journal</i>,
+and authoress of a popular novel <i>Robert Elsmere</i>, 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Warren</b> (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took
+an active part in Robert Owen&rsquo;s communistic experiment at New
+Harmony, Indiana, in &rsquo;25&ndash;6. His own ideas he illustrated by
+establishing a &ldquo;time store&rdquo; at Cincinnati. His views are
+given in a work entitled <i>True Civilisation</i>. Died Boston, Mass.
+14 April, 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Washburn</b> (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham,
+Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In &rsquo;57 he went to Barre. Was
+sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich,
+Feb. &rsquo;70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson,
+and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he
+organised the first Freethought Society in the State. He <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e19226" title="Source: aftewards">afterwards</span>
+resided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which
+several have been published. He now edits the <i>Boston
+Investigator</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Waters</b> (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of <i>Rome v.
+Reason</i>, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.</p>
+<p><b>Watson</b> (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton
+(Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his
+shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London to <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19243" href="#xd20e19243" name=
+"xd20e19243">331</a>]</span>Leeds. In Feb. &rsquo;23 he was arrested
+for selling Palmer&rsquo;s <i>Principles of Nature</i>, tried 23 April,
+and sentenced to twelve months&rsquo; imprisonment, during which he
+read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor
+on the <i>Republican</i>. In &rsquo;31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type
+and presses, and he issued Volney&rsquo;s <i>Lectures on History</i>.
+In Feb. &rsquo;33 he was sentenced to six months&rsquo; imprisonment
+for selling <i>The Poor Man&rsquo;s Guardian</i>. Hibbert left him
+&pound;450, which he used in printing d&rsquo;Holbach&rsquo;s <i>System
+of Nature</i>, Volney&rsquo;s <i>Ruins</i>, F. Wright&rsquo;s
+<i>Lectures</i>, R. D. Owen&rsquo;s pamphlets, Paine&rsquo;s works, and
+other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.</p>
+<p><b>Watson</b> (Thomas), author of <i>The Mystagogue</i>, Leeds,
+1847.</p>
+<p><b>Watts</b> (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835.
+Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a
+lecturer and assistant editor on the <i>National Reformer</i>. Mr.
+Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr.
+Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the
+<i>Secular Review</i> with G. W. Foote, and afterwards <i>Secular
+Thought</i> of Toronto. He wrote a portion of <i>The
+Freethinker&rsquo;s Text Book</i>, and has published <i>Christianity:
+its Origin, Nature and Influence</i>; <i>The Teachings of Secularism
+compared with Orthodox Christianity</i>, and other brochures.</p>
+<p><b>Watts</b> (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts
+<i>Watts&rsquo;s Literary Gazette</i> and edits the <i>Agnostic
+Annual</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Watts</b> (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2
+Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to
+Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the
+<i>Reasoner</i>, and afterwards for a time edited the <i>National
+Reformer</i>. He edited <i>Half Hours With Freethinkers</i> with
+&ldquo;Iconoclast,&rdquo; and published several pamphlets, <i>Logic and
+Philosophy of Atheism</i>, <i>Origin of Man</i>, <i>Is Man
+Immortal?</i> <i>The Devil</i>, <i>Who were the Writers of the New
+Testament</i>, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Watts</b> (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the <i>Yahoo</i>, a
+satire in verse (first published in 1833), also <i>The Great Dragon
+Cast Out</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Webber</b> (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth
+century wrote heretical works <i>On the Temptation of Christ</i> and
+<i>The Seduction of Adam and Eve</i>, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he
+surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19357" href="#xd20e19357" name=
+"xd20e19357">332</a>]</span>wrote <i>The True Origin, Continuance and
+Destruction of Satan</i>. Died in 1679.</p>
+<p><b>Weber</b> (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,
+1767. Studied law at Erlangen and G&ouml;ttingen. He lived for a while
+in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his
+satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of <i>Monkery</i>,
+1818&ndash;20; <i>Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany</i>,
+&rsquo;26&ndash;28; and <i>Demokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a
+Laughing Philosopher</i>, &rsquo;32&ndash;36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July,
+1832.</p>
+<p><b>Weitling</b> (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg,
+1808. He was a leader of &ldquo;<span lang="de">Der Bund der
+Gerechten</span>,&rdquo; the League of the Just, and published at
+Z&uuml;rich <i>The Gospel of Poor Sinners</i>. He also wrote
+<i>Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be</i>. He emigrated to America,
+where he died 25 Jan. 1871.</p>
+<p><b>Wellhausen</b> (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844,
+studied theology at G&ouml;ttingen, and became professor in Griefswald,
+Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for his <i>History of Israel</i> in
+progress, &rsquo;78, etc., and his <i>Prolegomena</i> to the same, and
+his contributions to the <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Westbrook</b> (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike
+co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in
+&rsquo;40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about
+&rsquo;60, and has since written <i>The Bible: Whence and What?</i> and
+<i>Man: Whence and Whither?</i> In &rsquo;88 Dr. Westbrook was elected
+President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize
+for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.</p>
+<p><b>Westerman</b> (W. B.) During many years, from 1856&ndash;68, an
+active co-operator on <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Westra</b> (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for
+some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society,
+&ldquo;<span lang="nl">De Dageraad</span>.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Wettstein</b> (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7
+April, 1838. About &rsquo;48 his parents emigrated. In &rsquo;58 he set
+up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the
+<i>Freethinkers&rsquo; Magazine</i>, <i>The Ironclad Age</i>, and other
+journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.</p>
+<p><b>White</b> (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7
+Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19439" href="#xd20e19439" name=
+"xd20e19439">333</a>]</span>in &rsquo;53; travelled in Europe, and in
+&rsquo;57 was elected professor of history and English literature in
+the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in
+&rsquo;67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has
+largely endowed. Among his works we must mention <i>The Warfare of
+Science</i> (N.Y., &rsquo;76) and <i>Studies in General History and in
+the History of Civilisation</i>, &rsquo;85.</p>
+<p><b>Whitman</b> (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island,
+N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer,
+and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a
+volunteer army nurse. His chief work, <i>Leaves of Grass</i>, with its
+noble preface, appeared in &rsquo;55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as
+&ldquo;the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has
+yet contributed.&rdquo; It was followed by <i>Drum Taps</i>,
+<i>November Boughs</i> and <i>Sands at Seventy</i>. This &ldquo;good
+gray poet&rdquo; has also written prose essays called <i>Democratic
+Vietas</i> and <i>Specimen Days and Collect</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Wicksell</b> (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm,
+30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in
+&rsquo;85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration,
+Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories,
+as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of
+&rsquo;89.</p>
+<p><b>Wieland</b> (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b.
+near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the
+Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice <i>Dialogues of the
+Gods</i>, <i>Agathon</i>, a novel, and <i>Euthanasia</i>, in which he
+argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and
+Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were &ldquo;To
+be or not to be.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Wiener</b> (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic
+work on the <i>Elements of Natural Laws</i>, 1863.</p>
+<p><b>Wiessner</b> (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination
+of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).</p>
+<p><b>Wigand</b> (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. G&ouml;ttingen,
+10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he
+issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other
+Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870. <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e19503" href="#xd20e19503" name="xd20e19503">334</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Wightman</b> (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of
+Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last
+person burnt for heresy in England.</p>
+<p><b>Wihl</b> (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels,
+16 Jan. 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Wilbrandt</b> (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837.
+Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, H&ouml;lderlin, the poet of
+Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mention
+<i>Giordano Bruno</i>, 1874, and also some novels.</p>
+<p><b>Wilhelmi</b> (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of
+<i>Vortrage</i>, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris
+Congress of &rsquo;89.</p>
+<p><b>Wilkinson</b> (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with
+Squire Farrah an able <i>Examination of Dr. Godwin&rsquo;s Arguments
+for the Existence of God</i>, published at Bradford, 1853.</p>
+<p><b>Williams</b> (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He
+became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of
+<i>Sermons on Religious Hypocrisy</i>, 1774, dissolved the connections.
+In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a
+<i>Liturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality</i>,
+which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish
+Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational
+works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29
+June, 1816.</p>
+<p><b>Willis</b> (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He
+studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came
+to London, and in &rsquo;23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the
+College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of
+Spinoza, &rsquo;70, and <i>Servetus and Calvin</i>, &rsquo;77. He also
+wrote on <i>The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the
+Science and Moral Senses of our Age</i>, and <i>A Dialogue by Way of
+Catechism</i>, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept.
+1878.</p>
+<p><b>Wilson</b> (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of
+<i>Thoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics</i>, 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Wirmarsius</b> (Henrik), Dutch author of <i>Den Ingebeelde
+Chaos</i>, 1710.</p>
+<p><b>Wislicenus</b> (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19575" href="#xd20e19575" name=
+"xd20e19575">335</a>]</span>20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle,
+and became a minister, but in consequence of his work <i>Letter or
+Spirit</i> (1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For
+his work on <i>The Bible in the Light of Modern Culture</i> he was, in
+Sept. &rsquo;53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America,
+and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in
+&rsquo;56, and stayed in Z&uuml;rich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His
+chief work, <i>The Bible for Thinking Readers</i>, was published at
+Leipsic in &rsquo;63.</p>
+<p><b>Wittichius</b> (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671.
+Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.</p>
+<p><b>Wixon</b> (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the
+&ldquo;Children&rsquo;s Corner&rdquo; in the <i>Truthseeker</i>, has
+for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and
+women&rsquo;s rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board
+of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She
+contributes to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Wollny</b> (Dr. F.), German author of <i>Principles of
+Psychology</i> (Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes
+himself an Atheist.</p>
+<p id="wollstonecraft"><b>Wollstonecraft</b> (Mary), English authoress,
+b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled
+in London, and began her literary labors with <i>Thoughts on the
+Education of Daughters</i>. She also wrote a <i>Vindication of the
+Rights of Man</i>, in answer to Burke, and <i>Vindication of the Rights
+of Woman</i>. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in
+childbirth.</p>
+<p><b>Wooley</b> (Milton), Dr., American author of <i>Science of the
+Bible</i> 1877; <i>Career of Jesus Christ</i>, &rsquo;77; and a
+pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Woolston</b> (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669.
+He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a
+minister. He published in 1705 <i>The Old Apology</i>, which was
+followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of
+Scripture. In 1726 he began his <i>Six Discourses upon the
+Miracles</i>, which were <span class="corr" id="xd20e19640" title=
+"Source: assailad">assailed</span> in forcible, homely language. Thirty
+thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were
+written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced
+(March, 1729) to one <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19643" href=
+"#xd20e19643" name="xd20e19643">336</a>]</span>year&rsquo;s
+imprisonment and a fine of &pound;100. This he could not pay, and died
+in prison 29 Jan. 1733.</p>
+<p><b>Wright</b> (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan,
+Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale
+College, &rsquo;26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the
+Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery
+Society, and edited the <i>Abolitionist</i> and <i>Commonwealth</i>. He
+was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the
+<i>Boston Investigator</i>, the <i>Freethinker&rsquo;s Magazine</i>,
+etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. &rsquo;85. His funeral oration was
+delivered by Col. Ingersoll.</p>
+<p><b>Wright</b> (Frances), afterwards <span class=
+"sc">D&rsquo;Arusmont</span>, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept.
+1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote <i>A Few Days in Athens</i>, in
+which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited
+the United States, and wrote <i>Views on Society and Manners in
+America</i>, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it
+with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined
+Owen&rsquo;s experiment; in part edited the <i>New Harmony Gazette</i>,
+and afterwards the <i>Free Inquirer</i>. A <i>Course of Popular
+Lectures</i> was published at New York in &rsquo;29, in which she
+boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables
+and tracts, and assisted in founding the <i>Boston Investigator</i>.
+Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.</p>
+<p><b>Wright</b> (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon,
+Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery
+orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote
+<i>The Living, Present and the Dead Past</i>. Died Pawtucket, Rhode
+Island, 16 Aug. 1870.</p>
+<p><b>Wright</b> (Susannah), one of Carlile&rsquo;s shopwomen. Tried 14
+Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence,
+in the course of which she was continually interrupted.</p>
+<p><b>Wundt</b> (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),
+16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at
+T&uuml;bingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of
+physiology at Heidelberg in &rsquo;64, and has since held chairs at
+Zurich and Leipsic. His principal works <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e19703" href="#xd20e19703" name="xd20e19703">337</a>]</span>are
+<i>Principles of Physiological Psychology</i>, &rsquo;74; <i>Manual of
+Human Physiology</i>; <i>Logic</i>, &rsquo;83; <i>Essays</i>,
+&rsquo;85; <i>Ethik</i>, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Wuensch</b> (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein,
+1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the
+Oder, 1828.</p>
+<p><b>Wyrouboff</b> (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established
+the <i>Revue de Philosophie Positive</i> with Littr&eacute;, and edited
+it with him from 1867&ndash;83.</p>
+<p><b>Xenophanes</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600
+<span class="sc">B.C.</span> He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a
+poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in
+his own image.</p>
+<p><b>Ximines</b> (Augustin Louis), <i>Marquis de</i>, French writer,
+b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote
+several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.</p>
+<p><b>York</b> (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became
+a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally
+Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California
+Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the
+States.</p>
+<p><b>Yorke</b> (J. F.), author of able <i>Notes on Evolution and
+Christianity</i>, London, 1882.</p>
+<p><b>Youmans</b> (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b.
+Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great
+student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science,
+popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and
+evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the
+&ldquo;International Scientific Series,&rdquo; and in &rsquo;72
+established the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, in which he wrote
+largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Zaborowski Moindrin</b> (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b.
+La Cr&eacute;che, 1851. Has written on <i>The Antiquity of Man</i>,
+&rsquo;74; <i>Pre-historic Man</i>, &rsquo;78; <i>Origin of
+Languages</i>, &rsquo;79; <i>The Great Apes</i>, &rsquo;81;
+<i>Scientific Curiosities</i>, &rsquo;83.</p>
+<p><b>Zambrini</b> (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan.
+1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature
+and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19788" href="#xd20e19788" name=
+"xd20e19788">338</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Zarco</b> (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec.
+1829. Edited <i lang="es">El Siglo XIX</i> and <i lang="es">La
+Ilustracion</i>, in which he used the pen-name of &ldquo;Fortun.&rdquo;
+He was elected to Congress in &rsquo;55, and imprisoned by the
+reactionaries in &rsquo;60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and
+President of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec.
+1869.</p>
+<p><b>Zeller</b> (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar
+(W&uuml;rtemberg), 22 Jan. 1814. Studied theology at T&uuml;bingen and
+Berlin, became professor at Berne, &rsquo;47. He married a daughter of
+Baur; gave up theology for philosophy, of which he has been professor
+at Berlin since &rsquo;72. Has written a memoir of Strauss, &rsquo;74;
+<i>Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;83;
+<i>Frederick the Great as a Philosopher</i>, &rsquo;86; and other
+important works.</p>
+<p><b>Zijde</b> (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July,
+1838. Has been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten
+Bergen he wrote <i>The Devil&rsquo;s Burial</i>, 1874. Besides this he
+has written many literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and
+German at Zaandam.</p>
+<p><b>Zimmern</b> (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in
+England since &rsquo;50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of
+Schopenhauer and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi&rsquo;s <i>Shah
+Nahmeh</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Zola</b> (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2
+April, 1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as <i>Les
+Rougon Macquart</i>, he made himself the leader of the
+&ldquo;naturalist&rdquo; school, which claims to treat fiction
+scientifically, representing life as it is without the ideal.</p>
+<p><b>Zorrilla</b> (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma,
+1834, became a lawyer, and in &rsquo;56 was returned to the Cortes by
+the Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was
+prosecuted. In &rsquo;70 he became President of the Cortes, and has
+since been exiled for his Republicanism.</p>
+<p><b>Zouteveen</b> (H. H. H. van). See <a href=
+"#hartoghheysvanzouteveen">Hartogh</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Zuppetta</b> (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo,
+21 June, 1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic
+movement of &rsquo;48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been
+Professor of Penal Law in the University of Pavia. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19845" href="#xd20e19845" name=
+"xd20e19845">339</a>]</span></p>
+<div class="footnotes">
+<hr class="fnsep">
+<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id=
+"xd20e4620" href="#xd20e4620src" name="xd20e4620">1</a></span> So
+varied was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that his
+works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different persons
+of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single gentlemen will
+be rolled into one.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="div1">
+<h2 class="main">Supplement.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar"><i>Those which have already appeared are marked
+*</i></p>
+<p><b>Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin.</b> See <a href=
+"#sabin">Sabin</a>.</p>
+<p id="massara"><b>Abu Abd&rsquo;allah Muhammad ibn Massara al
+Jabali.</b> Arabian pantheist b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and
+studied the works of Empedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused
+of impiety, he left Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to
+Spain and collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the
+most eminent predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His
+works were publicly burned at Seville.</p>
+<p>* <b>Acosta</b> (Uriel), the name of his work was <i lang=
+"la">Examen Traditorum Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Acuna</b> (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid
+about 1854. Contributes to <i lang="es">Las Dominicales</i> of Madrid.
+Has written <i>The Doll&rsquo;s House</i>, and other educational
+works.</p>
+<p>* <b>Adams</b> (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and
+lecturer, the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became
+a sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written in
+<i>Secular Thought</i>, the <i>Truthseeker</i> and the <i><span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e19895" title=
+"Source: Freethinkers&rsquo;">Freethinker&rsquo;s</span> Magazine</i>,
+and published rational lectures under the title <i>Pioneer Pith</i>,
+&rsquo;89. In &rsquo;89 he was elected President of the Canadian
+Secular Union.</p>
+<p><b>Admiraal</b> (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede<span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e19906" title="Not in source">,</span> 13 Oct. 1833. At
+first a schoolmaster, he became in &rsquo;60 director of the telegraph
+bureau at Schoonhoven. He wrote from &rsquo;56 for many years in
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> over the anagram &ldquo;Aramaldi.&rdquo;
+In &rsquo;67 he published <i>The Religion of the People</i> under the
+pseudonym &ldquo;Bato van der Maas,&rdquo; a name he used in writing to
+many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble constitution.
+He died 12 Nov. 1878. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19915" href=
+"#xd20e19915" name="xd20e19915">340</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Airoldi</b> (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a
+poet and writer of talent.</p>
+<p><b>Albaida</b> (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one
+of the founders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his
+principles; returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in
+1869.</p>
+<p>* <b>Alchindus.</b> Died about 864.</p>
+<p>* <b>Aleardi</b> had better be deleted. I am now told he was a
+Christian.</p>
+<p><b>Alfarabi.</b> See <a href="#alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Algeri</b> (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was
+accused of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling
+oil, pitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.</p>
+<p><b>Alkemade</b> (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to
+<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and also published a work containing many
+Bible contradictions, 1862; and in &rsquo;59 a work on the Bible under
+the pen name &ldquo;Alexander de M.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Allais</b> (Denis de). See <a href="#vairasse">Vairasse</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Allais</b> (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino,
+1847.</p>
+<p><b>Almquist</b> (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor
+of philology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new
+ideas and Freethought.</p>
+<p><b>Altmeyer</b> (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20
+Jan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an
+<i>Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of
+Humanity</i>, &rsquo;36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept.
+1877.</p>
+<p><b>Amari</b> (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b.
+Palmero, 7 July, 1806. In &rsquo;32 he produced a version of
+Scott&rsquo;s <i>Marmion</i>. He wrote a standard History of the
+Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of Garibaldi, he was made head of
+public instruction in the island. He took part in the anti-clerical
+council of &rsquo;69. Died at Florence, July 1889.</p>
+<p>* <b>Amaury de Chartres.</b> According to L&rsquo;Abb&egrave;
+Ladvocat his disciples maintained that the sacraments were useless, and
+that there was no other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right,
+nor any other hell than ignorance and sin. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19987" href="#xd20e19987" name=
+"xd20e19987">341</a>]</span></p>
+<p id="anderson"><b>Anderson</b> (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b.
+the Hague, 2 Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in <i lang=
+"nl">de Dageraad</i>, and was for some time editress of a periodical
+<i lang="nl">De Twintigste Eeuw</i> (the twentieth century). She has
+also written some novels. She resides now at <span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e19998" title="Source: W&uuml;rmburg">W&uuml;rzburg</span>,
+Germany, and contributes still to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i>. As
+pen-name she formerly used that of &ldquo;<span class="corr" id=
+"xd20e20004" title="Source: Meirouw">Mevrouw</span>
+Quarl&egrave;s&rdquo; and now &ldquo;Dr. Al. Dondorf.&rdquo;</p>
+<p>* <b>Anthero de Quental</b>. This name would be better under
+Quental.</p>
+<p><b>Apono.</b> See <a href="#petrusdeabano">Petrus de Abano</a>. This
+would probably be best under Abano.</p>
+<p>* <b>Aquila.</b> Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila&rsquo;s
+version of the Scriptures.</p>
+<p><b>Aranda</b> (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), <i>Count</i>, Spanish
+statesman, b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was
+soldier and ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the
+Encyclop&aelig;dists, and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits
+from Spain in 1767. He also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was
+elected Spanish minister to France. He was recalled and exiled to
+Aragon, where he died in 1799.</p>
+<p><b>Argilleres</b> (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards
+a Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and
+his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561&ndash;2, for having eight
+years previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at
+Pont-de-Veyle in Bresse.</p>
+<p>* <b>Arnould</b> (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the
+Positivist <i lang="fr">Revue</i> and <i lang="fr">La Societ&eacute;
+Nouvelle</i>. From 1868 to &rsquo;73 he edited <i lang="fr">La
+Libert&eacute;</i>, in which many a battle for Freethought has been
+fought.</p>
+<p><b>Ascarate</b> (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the
+University of Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of
+the ablest Radical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a
+follower of Krause. He has written <i>Social Studies</i>,
+<i>Self-Government and Monarchy</i>, and other political works.</p>
+<p><b>Aszo y Del Rio</b> (Ignacio <span class="sc">Jordan</span> de),
+Spanish jurist and naturalist, b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at
+Madrid, and left many important works on various branches of science.
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20067" href="#xd20e20067" name=
+"xd20e20067">342</a>]</span>In his political works he advocated the
+abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.</p>
+<p>* <b>Aubert de Verse</b> (Noel) had probably better be omitted,
+although accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to
+Spinoza, which I have not been able to see.</p>
+<p><b>Auerbach</b> (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction, b.
+Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in &rsquo;41 he
+published a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works,
+having previously published an historical romance on the same subject.
+Died Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882.</p>
+<p>* <b>Aymon</b> (Jean). <i lang="fr">La vie et L&rsquo;Esprit de M.
+Benoit Spinoza</i> (La Haye, 1719) was afterwards issued under the
+famous title <i>Treatise of Three Impostors</i>.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bahrdt</b> (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this <i lang=
+"fr">enfant terrible</i> of the German <span lang=
+"de">Aufklarung</span> fill 120 volumes.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bailey</b> (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered
+much on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius
+Fisk erected a monument to his memory.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bancel</b> (Francis D&eacute;sir&eacute;). In his work <i lang=
+"fr">Les Harangues de l&rsquo;Exil</i>, 3 vols., 1863, his Freethought
+views are displayed. He also wrote in <i lang="fr">La Revue
+Critique</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Barnaud</b> (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphin&eacute;. Lived during
+the latter half of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France,
+Spain, and Germany, and to him is attributed the authorship of a
+curious work entitled <i lang="fr">Le Cabinet du Roy de France</i>,
+which is largely directed against the clergy.</p>
+<p><b>Barreaux.</b> See <a href="#desbarreaux">des Barreaux</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Barth</b> (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In
+&rsquo;48 he attained reputation as orator to working men and took part
+in the revolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and
+Zurich, where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his
+freethought.</p>
+<p><b>Bartrina</b>, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where
+he died in 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Bedingfield</b> (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May,
+1823, wrote in <i>National Reformer</i> as B.T.W.R., established
+<i>Freelight</i>, &rsquo;70. Died 14 Feb. 1876. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20149" href="#xd20e20149" name=
+"xd20e20149">343</a>]</span></p>
+<p>* <b>Berigardus</b> (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bertillon</b> (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup,
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e20160" title="Source: Apil">April</span>,
+&rsquo;68, he said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a
+Freethinker. Died 1883.</p>
+<p>* <b>Berwick</b> (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was
+the author of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the
+signature of &ldquo;Presbyter Anglicanus.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Blein</b> (F. A. A.), <i>Baron</i>, French author of <i lang=
+"fr">Essais Philosophiques</i>, Paris, 1843.</p>
+<p><b>Blum</b> (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov.
+1807. He took an active part in progressive political and religious
+movements, and published the <i>Christmas Tree</i> and other
+publications. In &rsquo;48 he became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament
+and head of the Republican party. He was one of the promoters at the
+insurrection of Vienna, and showed great bravery in the fights of the
+students with the troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.</p>
+<p>* <b>Blumenfleld</b> (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a
+pseudonym.</p>
+<p><b>Bolin</b> (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug.
+1835. Studied at Helsingford, &rsquo;52, and became Doctor of
+Philosophy in &rsquo;66, and Professor in &rsquo;73. He has written on
+the Freedom of the Will, The Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A
+subject of Russian Finland; he has been repeatedly troubled by the
+authorities for his radical views on religious questions.</p>
+<p><b>Bolivar</b> (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at
+the University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian
+ideas.</p>
+<p><b>Boppe</b> (Herman C.), editor of <i lang="de">Freidenker</i> of
+Milwaukee, U.S.A.</p>
+<p><b>Borsari</b> (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of
+a work of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous
+propagator of Freethought.</p>
+<p><b>Bostrom</b> (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b.
+4 Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant
+criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.</p>
+<p><b>Boucher</b> (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the <i lang=
+"fr">Rationaliste</i> at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work <i>Search
+for the Truth</i> was published at Avignon, 1884. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20224" href="#xd20e20224" name=
+"xd20e20224">344</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Bourneville</b> (Magloire D&eacute;sir), French deputy and
+physician, b. Garanci&egrave;res, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at
+Paris, and in &rsquo;79 was appointed physician to the asylum of
+Bic&ecirc;tre. He was Municipal Councillor of Paris from &rsquo;76 to
+&rsquo;83. On the death of Louis Blanc he was elected deputy in his
+place. Wrote <i>Science and Miracle</i>, &rsquo;75; <i>Hysteria in
+History</i>, &rsquo;76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the
+erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Boutteville</b> (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the
+Lycee Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism,
+1867; wrote in <i lang="fr">La Pens&eacute;e Nouvelle</i>, &rsquo;68;
+is author of a large and able work on the <i>Morality of the Church and
+Natural Morality</i>, &rsquo;66; and has edited the posthumous works of
+Proudhon, 1870.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bovio</b> (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate.
+Author of a dramatic piece, <i lang="it">Cristo alla festa di
+Purim</i>, and of a <i>History of Law in Italy</i>. Signor Bovio
+delivered the address at unveiling the monument to Bruno at Rome, 9
+June, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Boyer.</b> See <a href="#argens">Argens</a>.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bradlaugh</b> (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a
+Bill to repeal the Blasphemy Laws.</p>
+<p><b>Braga</b> (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843.
+Educated at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a <i>History of
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e20275" title=
+"Source: Portugese">Portuguese</span> Literature</i>. Is one of the
+Republican leaders.</p>
+<p><b>Branting</b> (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in
+&rsquo;88 to three months&rsquo; imprisonment for blasphemy in his
+paper <i lang="se">Social Democraten</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Braun</b> (Eugen), Dr. See <a href="#ghillany">F. W.
+Ghillany</a>.</p>
+<p><b>Braun</b> (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He
+satirised many of the Bible stories. Died 1860.</p>
+<p><b>Brewer</b> (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written
+numerous school books, and compiled a <i>Dictionary of Miracles</i>,
+1884.</p>
+<p><b>Brismee</b> (Desir&eacute;), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July,
+1822. As editor of <i lang="fr">Le Drapeau</i> he underwent eighteen
+months&rsquo; imprisonment. The principle founder of <i lang="fr">Les
+Solidaires</i>, he was the life-long secretary of that society, and his
+annual reports are a valuable contribution towards the history of
+Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of his Freethought
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20314" href="#xd20e20314" name=
+"xd20e20314">345</a>]</span>orations were printed in <i lang="fr">La
+Tribune du Peuple</i>. Died at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.</p>
+<p>* <b>Brothier</b> (L&eacute;on)<span class="corr" id="xd20e20324"
+title="Source: ,">.</span> Died about 1874.</p>
+<p>* <b>Brown</b> (G. W.) Dr. Brown&rsquo;s new work is published at
+Rockford, Illinois, and entitled <i>Researches in Jewish History</i>,
+including the rise and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation
+of Christianity.</p>
+<p>* <b>Bruno</b> (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The <i>Avisso di
+Roma</i> of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that
+he died impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister of
+Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was
+stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore his
+martyrdom with great fortitude.</p>
+<p><b>Buen</b> (Odon de), Spanish writer on <i>Las Dominicales</i>, of
+Madrid, b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University
+of Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition <i>From
+Christiania to Treggurt</i>, has translated <i>Memoirs of
+Garibaldi</i>. He married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was
+delegate to the Paris Freethought Conference, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Calderon</b> (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852.
+He edits <i>La Justicia</i>. Has written several books on law.</p>
+<p><b>Calderon</b> (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University
+of Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.</p>
+<p><b>Calderon</b> (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b.
+1846; professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific
+travels in Central America, and written largely on geological
+subjects.</p>
+<p><b>Calvo</b> (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A
+pronounced Republican and Freethinker.</p>
+<p>* <b>Canestrini</b> (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Cassels</b> (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the
+author of <i>Supernatural Religion</i>, a critical examination of the
+worth of the Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three &rsquo;79). Has written
+under his own name <i>Eidolon</i> and other poems, 1850, and
+<i>Poems</i>, &rsquo;56. In &rsquo;89 he published <i>A Reply to Dr.
+Lightfoot&rsquo;s Essays</i>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20397"
+href="#xd20e20397" name="xd20e20397">346</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Castro</b> (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was
+a priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and had
+a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.</p>
+<p><b>Cavia</b> (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859,
+editor of the <i>Liberal</i> of Madrid.</p>
+<p>* <b>Coke</b> (Henry), author of <i>Creeds of the Day</i>, is the
+third son of the first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He
+served in the navy during the first China War, 1840&ndash;42. Published
+accounts of the siege of Vienna, &rsquo;48, at which he was present,
+also &ldquo;Ride over Rocky Mountains,&rdquo; which he accomplished
+with great hardships in &rsquo;50. Was private secretary to Mr. Horsman
+when Chief Secretary for Ireland in &rsquo;54&ndash;&rsquo;58. Married
+Lady K. Egerton, 1861.</p>
+<p><b>Cornette</b> (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish
+literature at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in
+<i>L&rsquo;Avenir</i> of Brussels and the <i>Revue Socialite</i>, he
+has published separate works on <i>Freemasonry</i>, 1878; <i>Pessimism
+and Socialism</i>, &rsquo;80; <i>Freethought Darwinism</i>, etc.</p>
+<p><b>Curros</b> (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by
+the Bishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems
+entitled <i>Airs of my Country</i>, but he was acquitted by the
+jury.</p>
+<p><b>Czerski</b> (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West
+Prussia, 12 May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in &rsquo;44, broke
+with the Church, associated himself with Ronge, married, and was
+excommunicated. Has written several works against Roman Catholicism,
+and is still living at Schneidem&uuml;kl-Posen.</p>
+<p><b>D&rsquo;Ercole</b> (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in
+the University of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which
+he holds that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated
+and at variance both with reality and with themselves.</p>
+<p><b>Deschanel</b> (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov.
+1819. He wrote in the <i lang="fr">Revue Independante</i>, <i lang=
+"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> and <i lang="fr">Libert&eacute; de
+Penser</i>; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived
+of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e20465" href="#xd20e20465" name="xd20e20465">347</a>]</span>to
+Belgium. He has been Professor of Modern Literature at the College of
+France, and written many important works.</p>
+<p><b>Desnoiresterres</b> (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters,
+b. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of <i lang="fr">Epicurienes et Lettres
+XVII. and XVIII. <span class="corr" id="xd20e20473" title=
+"Source: Siecles">Si&egrave;cles</span></i>, 1881, and <i lang=
+"fr">Voltaire et la Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Fran&ccedil;aise au XVIII.
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e20478" title=
+"Source: Siecle">Si&egrave;cle</span></i>, an important work in eight
+vols.</p>
+<p>* <b>Desraimes</b> (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.</p>
+<p><b>Diogenes</b> (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who
+lived in the fifth century <span class="sc">B.C.</span> He is supposed
+to have got into trouble at Athens through his philosophical opinions
+being considered dangerous to the State. He held that nothing was
+produced from nothing or reduced to nothing; that the earth was round
+and had received its shape from whirling. He made no distinction
+between mind and matter.</p>
+<p><b>Donius</b> (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His
+work, <i>De Natura Dominis</i>, in two books, 1581, refers the power of
+the spirit, to motion. The title of his second book is &ldquo;Omnes
+operationes spiritus esse motum et semum.&rdquo;</p>
+<p><b>Dosamantes</b> (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of
+works on <i>Absolute Perfection</i>, Mexico, 1888, and <i>Modern
+Pharisees and Sadducees</i> (mystics and materialists), &rsquo;89.</p>
+<p><b>Druskowitz</b> (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss
+Druskowitz is Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life
+of Shelley, Berlin, &rsquo;84; a little book on <i>Freewill</i>, and
+<i>The New Doctrines</i>, &rsquo;83.</p>
+<p><b>Dufay</b> (Henri), author of <i lang="fr">La Legende du
+Christ</i>, 1880.</p>
+<p><b>Duller</b> (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18
+Nov. 1809. He wrote a <i>History of the Jesuits</i> (Leipsic,
+&rsquo;40) and <i>The Men of the People</i> (Frankfort,
+&rsquo;47&ndash;&rsquo;50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.</p>
+<p>* <b>Du Marsais</b> (C&eacute;sar Chesneau). He edited
+Mirabaud&rsquo;s anonymous work on <i>The World and its Antiquity</i>
+and <i>The Soul and its Immortality</i>, Londres, 1751.</p>
+<p>* <b>Fellowes</b> (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801.
+Died 6 Feb. 1847.</p>
+<p><b>Figueras-y-Moracas</b> (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator,
+b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican
+opinions. In &rsquo;51 he was elected to the <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20558" href="#xd20e20558" name=
+"xd20e20558">348</a>]</span>Cortes, was exiled in &rsquo;66, but
+returned in &rsquo;68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de
+Montpensi&eacute;r in &rsquo;69, and became President of the Spanish
+Republic 12 Feb. &rsquo;73. Died poor in 1879, and was buried without
+religious ceremony, according to his wish.</p>
+<p><b>Fitzgerald</b> (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near
+Woodbridge, Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his
+degree in &rsquo;30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a
+fine translation of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine
+rendering of the <i>Quatrains</i> of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June,
+1883.</p>
+<p><b>Galletti</b> (Baldassare), <i>cavalier</i> Pantheist of Palermo.
+Has translated Feuerbach on <i>Death and Immortality</i>, and also
+translated from Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Ganeval</b> (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815,
+author of a work on Egypt and <i>Jesus devant l&rsquo;histoire
+n&rsquo;a jamais v&eacute;cu</i>. The first part, published in
+&rsquo;74, was prohibited in France, and the second part was published
+at Geneva in &rsquo;79.</p>
+<p><b>Garrido</b> (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a
+Sceptic, Cadiz 1843, a work on <i>Contemporary Spain</i>, published at
+Brussels in &rsquo;62, <i>The Jesuits</i>, and a large <i>History of
+Political and Religious Persecutions</i>, a work rendered into English
+in conjunction with C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Gerling</b> (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of <i>Letter of a
+Materialist to an Idealist</i>, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig
+Henrich Wilhelmi contributes a preface.</p>
+<p><b>Geroult de Pival</b>, French librarian at Rouen; probably the
+author of <i>Doutes sur la Religion</i>, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris
+about 1772.</p>
+<p><b>Goffin</b> (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of
+Li&eacute;ge and President of La Libre Pens&eacute;e of Brussels, and
+one of the General Council of the International Federation of
+Freethinkers. Died 23 May, 1884.</p>
+<p><b>Goldhawke</b> (J. H.), author of the <i>Solar Allegories</i>,
+proving that the greater number of personages mentioned in the Old and
+New Testaments are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.</p>
+<p><b>Gorani</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e20627" title=
+"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span>), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was
+intimate with Beccaria, D&rsquo;Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a
+treatise on <i>Despotism</i>, published anonymously, 1770; defended the
+French <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20633" href="#xd20e20633"
+name="xd20e20633">349</a>]</span>Revolution and was made a French
+citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.</p>
+<p><b>Govett</b> (Frank), author of the <i>Pains of Life</i>, 1889, a
+pessimistic reply to Sir J. Lubbock&rsquo;s <i>Pleasures of Life</i>.
+Mr. Govett rejects the consolations of religion.</p>
+<p><b>Guimet</b> (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician,
+anthropologist and philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of
+the inventor of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has
+visited most parts of the world and formed a collection of objects
+illustrating religions. These he formed into a museum in his native
+town, where he also founded a library and a school for Oriental
+languages. This fine museum which cost several million francs, he
+presented to his country, and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts
+as curator. In 1880 he began publishing <i lang="fr">Annales du
+Mus&eacute;e Guimet</i>, in which original articles appear on Oriental
+Religions. He has also written many works upon his travels. He attended
+the banquet in connection with the International Congress of
+Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Guynemer</b> (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of
+astronomy, 1852, and an anonymous unbelievers&rsquo; dictionary,
+&rsquo;69, in which many points of theology are discussed in
+alphabetical order.</p>
+<p><b>Hamerling</b> (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24
+March, 1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus
+in Rome &rsquo;66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy.
+He translated Leopardis&rsquo; poems &rsquo;86. Died at Gratz, 13 July,
+1889.</p>
+<p><b>Heyse</b> (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b.
+Berlin, 15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to
+Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in &rsquo;54. Has produced
+many popular plays and romances, of <span class="corr" id="xd20e20664"
+title="Not in source">which</span> we specially mention <i>The Children
+of the World</i>, &rsquo;73, a novel describing social and religious
+life of Germany at the present day, and <i>In Paradise</i>, 1875.</p>
+<p><b>Hicks</b> (L. E.) American geologist, author of <i>A Critique of
+Design Arguments</i>. Boston, 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Hitchman</b> (William), English physician, b. Northleach,
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20684" href="#xd20e20684" name=
+"xd20e20684">350</a>]</span>Gloucestershire, 1819, became M.R.C.S. in
+&rsquo;41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established <i>Freelight</i>,
+and wrote a pamphlet, <i>Fifty Years of Freethought</i>. Died 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Hoeffding</b> (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the
+University of Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since
+&rsquo;83. Is absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on
+the newer philosophy in Germany, &rsquo;72, and in England, &rsquo;74.
+In the latter work special attention is devoted to the works of Mill
+and Spencer. German editions have been published of his works <i lang=
+"de">Grundlage der humanen Ethik</i> (Basis of Human Ethics &rsquo;80),
+<i lang="de">Psychologie im <span class="corr" id="xd20e20701" title=
+"Source: Umries">Umriss</span></i> (Outlines of Psychology &rsquo;87),
+and <i lang="de">Ethik</i> 1888.</p>
+<p><b>Holst</b> (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of
+the Swedish Society for Religious Liberty.</p>
+<p><b>Ignell</b> (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought
+up as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated
+Renan&rsquo;s <i>Life of Jesus</i>, and did much to arouse opposition
+to orthodox Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.</p>
+<p><b>Jacobsen</b> (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b.
+Thistede, 7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in
+Scandinavia, translating the <i>Origin of Species</i> and <i>Descent of
+Man</i>. Among his novels we may name <i lang="da">Fru Marie
+Grubbe</i>, scenes from the XVII. century, and <i>Niels Lyhne</i>, in
+which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This able young writer
+died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.</p>
+<p><b>Kleist</b> (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18
+Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795,
+quitted it in four years and took to study. Kant&rsquo;s Philosophy
+made him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian
+philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide
+together with a lady, near <span class="corr" id="xd20e20739" title=
+"Source: Potsdan">Potsdam</span>, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly known
+by his dramas and a collection of tales.</p>
+<p><b>Letourneau</b> (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray
+(Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La
+<span class="corr" id="xd20e20748" title=
+"Source: Pens&egrave;e">Pens&eacute;e</span> Nouvelle</i>, and has
+published <i>Physiology of the Passions</i>, &rsquo;68; <i>Biology</i>,
+&rsquo;75, translated into English by W. Maccall; <i>Science and
+Materialism</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e20760" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> &rsquo;79; <i>Sociology based on
+Ethnography</i>, &rsquo;80; and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id=
+"xd20e20767" href="#xd20e20767" name=
+"xd20e20767">351</a>]</span>Evolution of Marriage and the Family,
+&rsquo;85. He has also translated B&uuml;chner&rsquo;s <i>Man According
+to Science</i>, <i>Light and Life</i> and <i>Mental Life of
+Animals</i>, Haeckel&rsquo;s <i>History of Creation</i><a id=
+"xd20e20781" name="xd20e20781"></a>, <i>Letters of a Traveller in
+India</i>, and Herzen&rsquo;s <i>Physiology of the Will</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Lippert</b> (Julius), learned German author of works on <i>Soul
+Worship</i>, Berlin, 1881; <i>The Universal History of Priesthoods</i>,
+&rsquo;83; and an important Culture History of Mankind,
+&rsquo;86&ndash;7.</p>
+<p><b>Lloyd</b> (William Watkiss), author of <i>Christianity in the
+Cartoons</i>, London 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New
+Testament side by side. He has also written <i>The Age of Pericles</i>,
+and several works on Shakespeare.</p>
+<p><b>Lucian</b>, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on
+the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and
+Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He
+travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal
+works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed
+against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer, and
+torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance can be
+placed. On the ground of the dialogue <i>Philopatris</i>, he has been
+supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that piece is
+genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving, and an
+enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his account
+of Alexander, the false prophet.</p>
+<p><b>Maglia</b> (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June,
+1859, began writing in <i lang="es">La Tronada</i> at Barcelona, and
+afterwards published <i lang="es">L&rsquo;Union Republicana</i>. He
+founded the Freethinking group &ldquo;El Independiente&rdquo; and edits
+<i lang="es">El Clamor Setabense</i> and <i lang="es">El Pueblo
+Soberano</i>. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at
+Rome in &rsquo;85, and in &rsquo;89 at Paris. During this year he has
+been condemned to six years&rsquo; imprisonment and a fine of 4,000
+francs for attacking Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.</p>
+<p><span class="gap" title=
+"Missing one or more lines, for the following reason: missing in source.">
+[<i>missing text</i>]</span> disciples, whom he conducted from faith to
+scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or
+Averro&euml;s. Died Oct.&ndash;Nov. 931. His works were publicly burned
+at Seville.</p>
+<p><b>Mata</b> (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University
+<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20839" href="#xd20e20839" name=
+"xd20e20839">352</a>]</span>of Madrid. Author of a poem, <i>Glory and
+Martyrdom</i>, 1851; a Treatise on Human Reason, &rsquo;58&ndash;64;
+and on <i>Moral Liberty and Free Will</i>, &rsquo;68.</p>
+<p><b>Mendizabal</b> (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b.
+Cadiz, 1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed
+to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious
+orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid,
+3 Nov. 1853.</p>
+<p>* <b>Meredith</b> (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool
+College, he became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in
+the Welsh tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation
+into the claims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his
+<i>Prophet of Nazareth</i> he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on
+the gospels, but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July,
+1889.</p>
+<p><b>Miralta</b> (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish
+writer, b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is
+one of the writers on <i>Las Dominicales</i>. His most notable works
+are <i>Memoirs of a Poor Clerical</i>, <i>The Secrets of
+Confession</i>, and <i>The Sacrament Exposed</i>. His work on <a id=
+"xd20e20876" name="xd20e20876"></a><i>The Doctrine of Catholicism upon
+Matrimony</i> has greatly encouraged civil marriages.</p>
+<p><b>Moraita</b> (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is
+Professor of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of
+clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous <i>History
+of Spain</i>. In &rsquo;84 he made a discourse at the University
+against the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his
+excommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students,
+against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the
+Spanish Freemasons.</p>
+<p><b>Moya</b> (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825.
+Was deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the
+infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.</p>
+<p><b>Nakens</b> (Jos&eacute;), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder
+and editor of <i lang="es">El Motin</i>, a Republican and Freethought
+paper of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20899" href="#xd20e20899"
+name="xd20e20899">353</a>]</span>Madrid, in connection with which there
+is a library, in which he has written <i lang="es">La
+Piqueta</i>&mdash;the Pick-axe.</p>
+<p><b>Nees Von Esenbeck</b> (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist,
+b. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was
+Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, &rsquo;31. He was
+leader of the free religious movement in Silesia, and in &rsquo;48,
+took part in the political agitations, and was deprived of his chair.
+Wrote several works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March,
+1858.</p>
+<p><b>Nyblaus</b> (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has
+published some anti-Christian pamphlets.</p>
+<p><b>Offen</b> (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He
+emigrated to America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral
+Philanthropists at Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the
+Free Discussion Society. He wrote <i>A Legacy to the Friends of Free
+Discussion</i>, a critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12
+May, 1848.</p>
+<p><b>Palmaer</b> (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801.
+Author of <i>The Last Judgment in the Crow Corner</i>. Died at
+Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.</p>
+<p><b>Panizza</b><a id="xd20e20929" name="xd20e20929"></a> (Mario).
+Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a materialist work on
+<i>The Philosophy of the Nervous System</i>, Rome, 1887.</p>
+<p><b>Perez Galdos</b> (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b.
+Canary Islands<span class="corr" id="xd20e20939" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels
+we mention <i>Gloria</i>, which has been translated into English, and
+<i lang="es">La Familia de Leon Roch</i>, 1878, in which he stoutly
+attacks clericalism and religious intolerance. He has also written
+<i lang="es">Episodes nacionales</i>, and many historical novels.</p>
+<p><b>Regenbrecht</b> (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b.
+Brannsberg, 1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of
+the free religious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.</p>
+<p><b>Robert</b> (Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817.
+Became famous by his mordant style, his most celebrated works being
+<i>The Rogues of Antonio</i>, <i>The Times of Mari Casania</i>, <i>The
+Skimmer of the Centuries</i>. Died in 1870. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20968" href="#xd20e20968" name=
+"xd20e20968">354</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Rupp</b> (Julius), German reformer, b. K&ouml;nigsberg, 13 Aug.
+1809. Studied philosophy and theology, and became in &rsquo;42 a
+minister. He protested against the creeds, and became leader of the
+Free-religious movement in East Prussia.</p>
+<p><b>Ryberg</b> (Y. E.)<span class="corr" id="xd20e20977" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He
+has translated several of Mr. Bradlaugh&rsquo;s pamphlets and other
+secular literature.</p>
+<p><b>Sachse</b> (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At
+Magdeburg he did much to demolish the remains of theism in the
+Free-religious communities. Died 1883.</p>
+<p><b>Sales y Ferre</b> (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839.
+Professor at the University of Seville. Has published several works on
+geology and prehistoric times.</p>
+<p><b>Schneider</b> (Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim,
+1854. Author of <i>The Human Will from the standpoint of the New
+Development Theory</i> (Berlin, 1882), and other works.</p>
+<p><b>Schreiner</b> (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in
+South Africa. Authoress of &ldquo;The Story of an African Farm,&rdquo;
+1883.</p>
+<p><b>Serre</b> (... de la), author of an <i>Examination of
+Religion</i>, attributed to Saint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to
+be burnt by the Parliament of Paris.</p>
+<p><b>Suner y Capderila.</b> Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828.
+Became deputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses
+against Catholicism.</p>
+<p><b>Tocco</b> (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b.
+Catanzaro, 12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and
+Bologna, and became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the
+<i lang="it">Rivista Bolognese</i> on Leopardi, and on
+&ldquo;Positivism&rdquo; in the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e21019"
+title="Source: Rivasta">Rivista</span> Contemporanea</i>. He has
+published works on <i>A. Bain&rsquo;s Theory of Sensation</i>,
+&rsquo;72; <i>Thoughts on the History of Philosophy</i>, &rsquo;77;
+<i>The Heresy of the Middle Ages</i>, &rsquo;84; and <i>Giordano
+Bruno</i>, &rsquo;86.</p>
+<p><b>Tommasi</b> (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work
+on <i>Evolution, Science, and Naturalism</i>, Naples 1877, and a little
+pamphlet in commemoration of Darwin, &rsquo;82. <span class=
+"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e21043" href="#xd20e21043" name=
+"xd20e21043">355</a>]</span></p>
+<p><b>Tubino</b> (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville,
+1838, took part in Garibaldi&rsquo;s campaign in Sicily, and has
+contributed to the <i>Rivista Europea</i>.</p>
+<p><b>Tuthill</b> (Charles A. H.), author of <i>The Origin and
+Development of Christian Dogma</i>, London, 1889.</p>
+<p><b>Vernial</b> (Paul), French doctor and member of the <span class=
+"corr" id="xd20e21062" title=
+"Source: Antropological">Anthropological</span> Society of Paris,
+author of a work on the <i>Origin of Man</i>, 1881.</p>
+<p><b>Wheeler</b> (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24
+Jan<span class="corr" id="xd20e21072" title="Not in source">.</span>,
+1850. Converted from Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin,
+Spencer, etc. Has contributed to the <i>National Reformer
+Secularist</i>, <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, <i>Liberal</i>,
+<i>Progress</i>, and <i>Freethinker</i> which he has sub-edited since
+1882, using occasionally the signatures &ldquo;Laon,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Lucianus&rdquo; and other pseudonyms. Has published <i>Frauds
+and Follies of the Fathers</i> &rsquo;88, <i>Footsteps of the Past</i>,
+a collection of essays in anthropology and comparative religion
+&rsquo;86; and <i>Crimes of Christianity</i>, written in conjunction
+with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited <i>Sepher Toldoth
+Jeshu</i>. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge in the
+cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the service of
+Freethought. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e21103" href=
+"#xd20e21103" name="xd20e21103">356</a>]</span></p>
+</div>
+<div class="div1">
+<h2 class="main">Errata.</h2>
+<p class="firstpar transcribernote">The corrections indicated in this
+list have been applied to the text.</p>
+<div class="table">
+<table>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">Preface V. line 30, <i>for</i> Dal Volta <i>read</i>
+Dalla Volta.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">Page 8, line 17, <i>for</i> trauslated <i>read</i>
+translated.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 16, line 1, <i>for</i> Anaxagorus (some copies)
+<i>read</i> Anaxagoras.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 24<span class="corr" id="xd20e21143" title=
+"Not in source">,</span> <i>for</i> Rennaisance <i>read</i>
+Renaissance.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 30, line 18, <i>for</i> National Science
+<i>read</i> Natural Science.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 85, line 15, <i>for</i> Count <i>read</i>
+<i>Count</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 101, line 29<span class="corr" id="xd20e21176"
+title="Not in source">,</span> <i>read</i> lived near Wiesbaden. Died
+19 Feb. &rsquo;87.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 102, line 3, <i>for</i> Ouida <i>read</i>
+Ram&eacute;e.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 105, line 12, <i>for</i> 1836 <i>read</i> 15 Aug.
+1835.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 107, line 18, <i>for</i> Dyons <i>read</i>
+Lyons.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 107, line 26, <i>delete</i>
+&ldquo;before.&rdquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 112, line 17, <i>for</i> Williams <i>read</i>
+William.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 122, line 27, <i>after</i> Toronto <i>insert</i>
+1839.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 131, line 18, <i>for</i> 8 May <i>read</i> 3
+May.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 158, line 18, <i>for</i> Honton <i>read</i>
+Hontan.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 162, line 16, <i>for</i> surveyor <i>read</i>
+surgeon.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 171, line<a id="xd20e21264" name="xd20e21264"></a>
+4, <i>for</i> <span class="sc">Hidenin</span> <i>read</i> <span class=
+"sc">Hedin</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 172, line 7, <i>for</i> de voil&eacute;e
+<i>read</i> devoil&eacute;e.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 182, line 24, <i>after</i> Massara <i>insert</i> in
+Supplement.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 217, line 28, <i>for</i> Dupins <i>read</i>
+Dupuis.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 229, line 26, <i>for</i> Herzogenbusch <i>read</i>
+Herzogenbosch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 230, line 18, <i>for</i> Pelusuin <i>read</i>
+Pelusium.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 249, line 6, <i>insert</i> 11 Aug. <i>before</i>
+1805.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 255, line 21, <i>for</i> Dijp <i>read</i>
+Rijp.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 259, line 17, <i>for</i> National <i>read</i>
+Natural.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 282, line 2, <i>for</i> Laland <i>read</i>
+Lalande.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 284, line 33, <i>for</i> 1715 <i>read</i>
+1745.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 289, line 25, <i>for</i> 1821 <i>read</i>
+1851.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 313, line 36, <i>for</i> Guiseppe <i>read</i>
+Giuseppe.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 318, line 18, <i>for</i> Monk <i>read</i>
+work.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 319, line 35, <i>for</i> 1642 <i>read</i>
+1842.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr valign="top">
+<td valign="top">P. 320, line 7, <i>for</i> Tilia <i>read</i>
+Titia.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+<div class="back">
+<div class="transcribernote">
+<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2>
+<h3 class="main">Availability</h3>
+<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no
+cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give
+it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
+included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title=
+"External link" href=
+"http://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p>
+<p>This eBook is produced by Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and
+the the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at <a class="exlink"
+title="External link" href="http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p>
+<p>Scans of this work are available on <a class="exlink" title=
+"External link" href=
+"http://books.google.com/books?id=0J_WNYvPgYgC">Google Print</a>
+(<a class="exlink" title="External link" href=
+"http://www.archive.org/details/abiographicaldi00wheegoog">TIA
+Copy</a>).</p>
+<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3>
+<p class="firstpar">The source for this text contained numerous
+typographical mistakes. These have been fixed where possible. Factual
+errors have not been corrected, unless they were indicated in the
+errata of this work or are likely of a typographic nature. At two
+places in the source, one or more lines were missing. The location of
+those missing lines has been indicated in this edition.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3>
+<ul>
+<li>2010-11-21 Started.</li>
+</ul>
+<h3 class="main">External References</h3>
+<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These
+links may not work for you.</p>
+<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3>
+<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p>
+<table width="75%" summary=
+"Overview of corrections applied to the text.">
+<tr>
+<th>Page</th>
+<th>Source</th>
+<th>Correction</th>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e202">v</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Dal Volta</td>
+<td class="width40">Dalla Volta</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e207">v</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e257">7</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Christianty</td>
+<td class="width40">Christianity</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e305">8</a></td>
+<td class="width40">trauslated</td>
+<td class="width40">translated</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e336">9</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1858</td>
+<td class="width40">1853</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e494">13</a></td>
+<td class="width40">improvents</td>
+<td class="width40">improvements</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e540">14</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Lichfield</td>
+<td class="width40">Litchfield</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e626">16</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Anaxagorus</td>
+<td class="width40">Anaxagoras</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e918">21</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1023">23</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Bentbam</td>
+<td class="width40">Bentham</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1065">24</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Rennaisance</td>
+<td class="width40">Renaissance</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1207">26</a></td>
+<td class="width40">LLD</td>
+<td class="width40">LL.D</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1225">27</a></td>
+<td class="width40">LLD</td>
+<td class="width40">LL.D</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1228">27</a></td>
+<td class="width40">additon</td>
+<td class="width40">addition</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1322">28</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1418">30</a></td>
+<td class="width40">National</td>
+<td class="width40">Natural</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1496">31</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1696">36</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Alleghany</td>
+<td class="width40">Allegheny</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1716">36</a></td>
+<td class="width40">acceeded</td>
+<td class="width40">acceded</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1755">37</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Beranger</td>
+<td class="width40">B&eacute;ranger</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1787">37</a></td>
+<td class="width40">psuedonyms</td>
+<td class="width40">pseudonyms</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1912">40</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Puy-en Velay</td>
+<td class="width40">Puy-en-Velay</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2145">44</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Bjornson</td>
+<td class="width40">Bj&ouml;rnson</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2267">47</a></td>
+<td class="width40">demonomaina</td>
+<td class="width40">demonomania</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2365">48</a></td>
+<td class="width40">eigthteenth</td>
+<td class="width40">eighteenth</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2433">49</a></td>
+<td class="width40">&rdquo;</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2499">50</a></td>
+<td class="width40">contemtemporary</td>
+<td class="width40">contemporary</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2568">52</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">?</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2572">52</a></td>
+<td class="width40">?</td>
+<td class="width40">;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2688">54</a></td>
+<td class="width40">died</td>
+<td class="width40">Died</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2691">54</a></td>
+<td class="width40">4705</td>
+<td class="width40">1705</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2962">59</a></td>
+<td class="width40">pubtished</td>
+<td class="width40">published</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3129">62</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Indianopolis</td>
+<td class="width40">Indianapolis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3171">63</a></td>
+<td class="width40">pnblished</td>
+<td class="width40">published</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3287">66</a></td>
+<td class="width40">year</td>
+<td class="width40">years</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3559">71</a></td>
+<td class="width40">compatative</td>
+<td class="width40">comparative</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3578">71</a></td>
+<td class="width40">dynesty</td>
+<td class="width40">dynasty</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3652">72</a></td>
+<td class="width40">their</td>
+<td class="width40">there</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3738">73</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td>
+<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3741">73</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3754">73</a></td>
+<td class="width40">)</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3813">75</a></td>
+<td class="width40">buisness</td>
+<td class="width40">business</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3936">77</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Andre</td>
+<td class="width40">Andr&eacute;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3939">77</a></td>
+<td class="width40">etait</td>
+<td class="width40">&eacute;tait</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3980">78</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4184">81</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Medeterranean</td>
+<td class="width40">Mediterranean</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4187">81</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4488">88</a></td>
+<td class="width40">a</td>
+<td class="width40">in</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4495">88</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Cincinatti</td>
+<td class="width40">Cincinnati</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4513">89</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4657">92</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Feirburg</td>
+<td class="width40">Freiburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4768">94</a></td>
+<td class="width40">n&rsquo;etait</td>
+<td class="width40">n&rsquo;&eacute;tait</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4806">94</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4834">95</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Many</td>
+<td class="width40">Mary</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4964">97</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4970">97</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5206">101</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Millivenen</td>
+<td class="width40">Millioenen</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5241">102</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ramee</td>
+<td class="width40">Ram&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5382">104</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5403">104</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Francaise</td>
+<td class="width40">Fran&ccedil;aise</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5447">105</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5467">105</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1836</td>
+<td class="width40">15 Aug. 1835</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5494">105</a></td>
+<td class="width40">feasts</td>
+<td class="width40">feast</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5565">107</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Dyons</td>
+<td class="width40">Lyons</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5574">107</a></td>
+<td class="width40">before</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5618">108</a></td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;34</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;54</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5702">110</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Schoolmsters</td>
+<td class="width40">Schoolmasters</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5713">110</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Geissen</td>
+<td class="width40">Giessen</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5716">110</a></td>
+<td class="width40">fly</td>
+<td class="width40">flee</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5813">112</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Williams</td>
+<td class="width40">William</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5855">113</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5863">113</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Lieben</td>
+<td class="width40">Leben</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5868">113</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Physchology</td>
+<td class="width40">Psychology</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6023">115</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Menscheit</td>
+<td class="width40">Menschheit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6092">117</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6107">117</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pizraro</td>
+<td class="width40">Pizarro</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6155">118</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ratiocinato ry</td>
+<td class="width40">Rationcinatory</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6211">118</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Gottlichkeit</td>
+<td class="width40">G&ouml;ttlichkeit</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6218">118</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td>
+<td class="width40">Hamburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6273">119</a></td>
+<td class="width40">for for</td>
+<td class="width40">for</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6362">121</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Prosessor</td>
+<td class="width40">Professor</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6429">122</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">, 1839</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6477">123</a></td>
+<td class="width40">culminated</td>
+<td class="width40">calumniated</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6540">124</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Esproceda</td>
+<td class="width40">Espronceda</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6559">124</a></td>
+<td class="width40">and</td>
+<td class="width40">of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6583">125</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Naturlichen</td>
+<td class="width40">Nat&uuml;rlichen</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6622">126</a></td>
+<td class="width40">obliquy</td>
+<td class="width40">obloquy</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6672">126</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Coucil</td>
+<td class="width40">Council</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6675">126</a></td>
+<td class="width40">writen</td>
+<td class="width40">written</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6749">127</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Vrye</td>
+<td class="width40">Vrije</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6814">128</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ferriere</td>
+<td class="width40">Ferri&egrave;re</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6945">130</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Bewusstein</td>
+<td class="width40">Bewusstsein</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7074">132</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rdquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7205">134</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Barmese</td>
+<td class="width40">Burmese</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7210">135</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7255">136</a></td>
+<td class="width40">principle</td>
+<td class="width40">principal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7366">138</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Freret</td>
+<td class="width40">Fr&eacute;ret</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7369">138</a></td>
+<td class="width40">philososophy</td>
+<td class="width40">philosophy</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7380">138</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Religous</td>
+<td class="width40">Religious</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7388">138</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Fr&egrave;ret</td>
+<td class="width40">Fr&eacute;ret</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7497">141</a></td>
+<td class="width40">whath</td>
+<td class="width40">wrath</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7656">145</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Petrucelli</td>
+<td class="width40">Petruccelli</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7848">148</a></td>
+<td class="width40">heterdox</td>
+<td class="width40">heterodox</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7879">149</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7891">149</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Reign</td>
+<td class="width40">Field</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7902">149</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Curiosities von</td>
+<td class="width40">Curiositeiten van</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8073">153</a></td>
+<td class="width40">bnt</td>
+<td class="width40">but</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8227">156</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Tanha&uuml;ser</td>
+<td class="width40">Tanh&auml;user</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8231">156</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Tanha&uuml;ser</td>
+<td class="width40">Tanh&auml;user</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8275">156</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Biograpical</td>
+<td class="width40">Biographical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8316">157</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guepin</td>
+<td class="width40">Gu&eacute;pin</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8367">158</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Honton</td>
+<td class="width40">Hontan</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8376">158</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8380">158</a></td>
+<td class="width40">on</td>
+<td class="width40">Of</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8399">158</a></td>
+<td class="width40">edittons</td>
+<td class="width40">editions</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8430">159</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Greely</td>
+<td class="width40">Greeley</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8435">159</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Gunst</td>
+<td class="width40">G&uuml;nst</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8452">159</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Spaanische</td>
+<td class="width40">Spaansche</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8638">162</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Harwicke</td>
+<td class="width40">Hardwicke</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8641">162</a></td>
+<td class="width40">surgeon</td>
+<td class="width40">surveyor</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8705">163</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Van</td>
+<td class="width40">van</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8777">164</a></td>
+<td class="width40">philanthrophist</td>
+<td class="width40">philanthropist</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8937">167</a></td>
+<td class="width40">n&egrave;e</td>
+<td class="width40">n&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8999">168</a></td>
+<td class="width40">principle</td>
+<td class="width40">principal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9104">170</a></td>
+<td class="width40">imprisoment</td>
+<td class="width40">imprisonment</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9129">171</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Hidenin</td>
+<td class="width40">Hedin</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9135">171</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9236">172</a></td>
+<td class="width40">beame</td>
+<td class="width40">became</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9392">175</a></td>
+<td class="width40">oppulent</td>
+<td class="width40">opulent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9520">177</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Causalitatgesatz</td>
+<td class="width40">Causalit&auml;tgesetz</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9657">179</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">a</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9676">179</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9684">180</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9747">181</a></td>
+<td class="width40">him him</td>
+<td class="width40">him</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9808">182</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">in Supplement</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9848">182</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pier</td>
+<td class="width40">Peer</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9938">184</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Preseervation</td>
+<td class="width40">Preservation</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9960">184</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ffve</td>
+<td class="width40">Five</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10043">185</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10087">186</a></td>
+<td class="width40">phanton</td>
+<td class="width40">phantom</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10159">188</a></td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10172">188</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10181">188</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Schaduwbulden</td>
+<td class="width40">Schaduwbeelden</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10205">189</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10264">190</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1647</td>
+<td class="width40">1747</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10281">190</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10284">190</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1871</td>
+<td class="width40">1827</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10309">191</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10395">192</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Culenborg</td>
+<td class="width40">Culemborg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10412">193</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10546">195</a></td>
+<td class="width40">appartment</td>
+<td class="width40">apartment</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10592">196</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Louisana</td>
+<td class="width40">Louisiana</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10609">196</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10644">197</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Brussells</td>
+<td class="width40">Brussels</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10713">198</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Muncipal</td>
+<td class="width40">Municipal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10831">201</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Espanola</td>
+<td class="width40">Espa&ntilde;ola</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10850">201</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Examnation</td>
+<td class="width40">Examination</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10881">202</a></td>
+<td class="width40">supressed</td>
+<td class="width40">suppressed</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11193">207</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11270">208</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Deism&eacute;</td>
+<td class="width40">D&eacute;isme</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11336">209</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Muncipal</td>
+<td class="width40">Municipal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11763">215</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11768">215</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Trag&eacute;diaja</td>
+<td class="width40">Trag&eacute;di&aacute;ja</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11888">217</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Dupins</td>
+<td class="width40">Dupuis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12032">220</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12038">220</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12041">220</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12050">220</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Liberte</td>
+<td class="width40">Libert&eacute;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12210">222</a></td>
+<td class="width40">and and</td>
+<td class="width40">and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12213">222</a></td>
+<td class="width40">P&igrave;sa</td>
+<td class="width40">Pisa</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12291">224</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pensee</td>
+<td class="width40">Pens&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12361">224</a></td>
+<td class="width40">parishoners</td>
+<td class="width40">parishioners</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12395">225</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12422">225</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12466">226</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12625">228</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12694">229</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Herzogenbusch</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;s Hertogenbosch</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12733">230</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pelusuin</td>
+<td class="width40">Pelusium</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12754">230</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Indianopolis</td>
+<td class="width40">Indianapolis</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12776">231</a></td>
+<td class="width40">scais je</td>
+<td class="width40">s&ccedil;ais-je</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12820">232</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Heidelburg</td>
+<td class="width40">Heidelberg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12826">232</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12846">232</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12872">232</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Miseltoe</td>
+<td class="width40">Mistletoe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13200">237</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Portugese</td>
+<td class="width40">Portuguese</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13502">242</a></td>
+<td class="width40">privat-doceut</td>
+<td class="width40">privat-docent</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13610">243</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Apostolike</td>
+<td class="width40">Apostolic</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13746">246</a></td>
+<td class="width40">a an</td>
+<td class="width40">an</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13867">248</a></td>
+<td class="width40">principle</td>
+<td class="width40">principal</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13882">249</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13892">249</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13895">249</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">11 Aug.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13911">249</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13938">249</a></td>
+<td class="width40">de voil&eacute;e</td>
+<td class="width40">devoil&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13968">250</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Evariste</td>
+<td class="width40">&Eacute;variste</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14008">250</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Etienne</td>
+<td class="width40">&Eacute;tienne</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14011">250</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14016">250</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Jesuites</td>
+<td class="width40">J&eacute;suites</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14117">252</a></td>
+<td class="width40">C&rsquo;etait</td>
+<td class="width40">C&rsquo;&eacute;tait</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14233">253</a></td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;83</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;63</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14256">254</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Orgin</td>
+<td class="width40">Origin</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14334">255</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Dijp</td>
+<td class="width40">Rijp</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14461">257</a></td>
+<td class="width40">. He</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14478">257</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14517">258</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1808</td>
+<td class="width40">1708</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14571">259</a></td>
+<td class="width40">National</td>
+<td class="width40">Natural</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14578">259</a></td>
+<td class="width40">erruption</td>
+<td class="width40">eruption</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14715">262</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.)</td>
+<td class="width40">).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14980">266</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pueckler Muskau</td>
+<td class="width40">P&uuml;ckler Muskau</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15066">267</a></td>
+<td class="width40">&Pi;&upsilon;&rho;&rho;&omicron;&nu;</td>
+<td class="width40"><span class="trans" title=
+"Pyrr&#333;n"><span class="Greek" lang=
+"el">&Pi;&#8059;&rho;&rho;&omega;&nu;</span></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15091">268</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.)</td>
+<td class="width40">).</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15235">270</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Italia</td>
+<td class="width40">Italian</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15286">271</a></td>
+<td class="width40">l&rsquo;abbe</td>
+<td class="width40">l&rsquo;abb&eacute;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15296">271</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15310">271</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Martrydom</td>
+<td class="width40">Martyrdom</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15317">271</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15428">273</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15441">273</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15459">274</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Wolfenb&uuml;ltel</td>
+<td class="width40">Wolfenb&uuml;ttel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15527">275</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15734">277</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td>
+<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15753">277</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Eucumenical</td>
+<td class="width40">Ecumenical</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15773">278</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Leon</td>
+<td class="width40">L&eacute;on</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15860">279</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Malthusiasm</td>
+<td class="width40">Malthusianism</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15928">280</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Bibliotheque</td>
+<td class="width40">Biblioth&egrave;que</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15956">280</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Vienese</td>
+<td class="width40">Viennese</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16015">282</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Laland</td>
+<td class="width40">Lalande</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16114">284</a></td>
+<td class="width40">orignality</td>
+<td class="width40">originality</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16121">284</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Commitee</td>
+<td class="width40">Committee</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16160">284</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1715</td>
+<td class="width40">1751</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16166">284</a></td>
+<td class="width40">stories</td>
+<td class="width40">story</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16248">286</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ruedt</td>
+<td class="width40">R&uuml;dt</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16338">287</a></td>
+<td class="width40">centnry</td>
+<td class="width40">century</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16485">289</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1821</td>
+<td class="width40">1851</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16488">289</a></td>
+<td class="width40">bacame</td>
+<td class="width40">became</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16555">290</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Chateau</td>
+<td class="width40">Ch&acirc;teau</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16586">291</a></td>
+<td class="width40">mathematican</td>
+<td class="width40">mathematician</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16716">293</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">(</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16785">294</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16823">294</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16889">296</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16937">296</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17072">299</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17085">299</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">from</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17097">299</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Woolstonecraft</td>
+<td class="width40">Wollstonecraft</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17148">300</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17182">300</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17437">303</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Worlds</td>
+<td class="width40">World&rsquo;s</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17481">304</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Spinosa</td>
+<td class="width40">Spinoza</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17487">304</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Spinosa</td>
+<td class="width40">Spinoza</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17599">305</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guerini</td>
+<td class="width40">Guerrini</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18032">311</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Aristotlelian</td>
+<td class="width40">Aristotelian</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18043">312</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18128">313</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Aristotleian</td>
+<td class="width40">Aristotelian</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18148">313</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td>
+<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18433">318</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18455">318</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Monk</td>
+<td class="width40">work</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18542">319</a></td>
+<td class="width40">1642</td>
+<td class="width40">1842</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18550">319</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Turgeuev</td>
+<td class="width40">Turgenev</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18572">320</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Tilia</td>
+<td class="width40">Titia</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18582">320</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Krel</td>
+<td class="width40">Kiel</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18645">321</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Madgeburg</td>
+<td class="width40">Magdeburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18885">325</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Atheisme</td>
+<td class="width40">Ath&eacute;isme</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18930">325</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">. He</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18964">325</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Ponnerania</td>
+<td class="width40">Pomerania</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19005">326</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">&rsquo;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19010">326</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Freireligioses</td>
+<td class="width40">Freireligi&ouml;ses</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19014">326</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Magdenburg</td>
+<td class="width40">Magdeburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19108">328</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Montreaux</td>
+<td class="width40">Montreux</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19199">330</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">to</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19226">330</a></td>
+<td class="width40">aftewards</td>
+<td class="width40">afterwards</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19640">335</a></td>
+<td class="width40">assailad</td>
+<td class="width40">assailed</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19895">339</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Freethinkers&rsquo;</td>
+<td class="width40">Freethinker&rsquo;s</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19906">339</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19998">341</a></td>
+<td class="width40">W&uuml;rmburg</td>
+<td class="width40">W&uuml;rzburg</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20004">341</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Meirouw</td>
+<td class="width40">Mevrouw</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20160">343</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Apil</td>
+<td class="width40">April</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20275">344</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Portugese</td>
+<td class="width40">Portuguese</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20324">345</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20473">347</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Siecles</td>
+<td class="width40">Si&egrave;cles</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20478">347</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Siecle</td>
+<td class="width40">Si&egrave;cle</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20627">348</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td>
+<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20664">349</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">which</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20701">350</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Umries</td>
+<td class="width40">Umriss</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20739">350</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Potsdan</td>
+<td class="width40">Potsdam</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20748">350</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Pens&egrave;e</td>
+<td class="width40">Pens&eacute;e</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20760">350</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20781">351</a></td>
+<td class="width40">and</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20876">352</a></td>
+<td class="width40">the</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20929">353</a></td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20939">353</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20977">354</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21019">354</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Rivasta</td>
+<td class="width40">Rivista</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21062">355</a></td>
+<td class="width40">Antropological</td>
+<td class="width40">Anthropological</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21072">355</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21143">356</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21176">356</a></td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21264">356</a></td>
+<td class="width40">,</td>
+<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of
+Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers
+of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations
+
+Author: Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
+Release Date: November 30, 2010 [EBook #34513]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+(This book was produced from scanned images of public
+domain material from the Google Print project.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+                                   A
+                        Biographical Dictionary
+                                  of
+                              FREETHINKERS
+                                  of
+                         All Ages and Nations.
+
+
+                                   By
+                             J. M. WHEELER.
+
+
+                                London:
+                    Progressive Publishing Company,
+                      28 Stonecutter Street, E.C.
+
+                                 1889.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+John Stuart Mill in his "Autobiography" declares with truth that
+"the world would be astonished if it knew how great a proportion
+of its brightest ornaments, of those most distinguished even in
+popular estimation for wisdom and virtue are complete sceptics in
+religion." Many of these, as Mill points out, refrain from various
+motives from speaking out. The work I have undertaken will, I trust,
+do something to show how many of the world's worthiest men and women
+have been Freethinkers.
+
+My Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who
+have rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation
+would rather be the task of an international society than of an
+individual. Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now
+inaccessible. Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom
+the world was not worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom
+in prison or at the stake. Some of the names of these are only known
+by the vituperation of their adversaries. I have done my best to
+preserve some trustworthy record of as many as possible.
+
+The only complete work with a similar design of which I have any
+knowledge, is the Dictionnaire des Athees anciens et modernes,
+by Sylvain Marechal with its supplements by Jerome de Lalande the
+Astronomer, An. VIII. (1800)-1805. That work, which is now extremely
+rare, gave scarcely any biographical details, and unfortunately
+followed previous orthodox atheographers, such as Buddeus, Reimmann,
+Hardouin, Garasse, Mersenne, in classing as Atheists those to whom
+the title was inapplicable. I have taken no names from these sources
+without examining the evidence.
+
+A work was issued by Richard Carlile in 1826, entitled A Dictionary of
+Modern Anti-Superstionists; or, "an account, arranged alphabetically,
+of those who, whether called Atheists, Sceptics, Latitudinarians,
+Religious Reformers, or etc., have during the last ten centuries
+contributed towards the diminution of superstition. Compiled by
+a searcher after Truth." The compiler, as I have reason to know,
+was Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task adequate scholarship
+and leisure. It was, however, conceived on too extensive a scale,
+and in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only reached to the name of
+Annet. Julian Hibbert also compiled chronological tables of English
+Freethinkers, which were published in the Reasoner for 1855.
+
+Of the Anti-Trinitarian Biography of the Rev. Robert Wallace, or of
+the previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but little
+use. To include the names of all who reject some of the Christian
+dogmas was quite beside my purpose, though I have included those of
+early Unitarians and Universalists who, I conceive, exhibited the true
+spirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the Freydenker
+Lexikon of J. A. Trinius (1759) my obligations are slight, but should
+be acknowledged. To Bayle's Dictionary, Hoefer's Nouvelle Biographie
+Generale, Meyer's Konversations Lexikon, Franck's Dictionnaire des
+Sciences Philosophiques, and to Larousse's Grand Dictionnaire Universel
+I must also express my indebtedness. In the case of disputed dates
+I have usually found Haydn's Dictionary of Biography (1886) most
+trustworthy, but I have also consulted Oettinger's valuable Moniteur
+des Dates.
+
+The particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available
+sources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives
+dealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and
+relation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works
+of authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full
+a list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive
+Freethought works; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone
+wishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only
+work of a bibliographical kind is the Guide du Libre Penseur, by
+M. Alfred Verliere, but his list is very far from complete even of
+the French authors, with whom it is almost entirely occupied. I should
+also mention La Lorgnette Philosophique, by M. Paquet, as giving lively
+sketches, though not biographies, of some modern French Freethinkers.
+
+In the compilation of my list of names I have received assistance
+from my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for
+the opportunity of publication), Mr. W. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and
+Mr. F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers
+I am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and
+Mr. E. T. Craig, while Professor Dalla Volta, of Florence, has kindly
+assisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my
+indebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose Dizionario Biografico degli
+Scrittori Contemporanei I have found of considerable service. My thanks
+are also due to G. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the
+titles of all Freethought works in the British Museum.
+
+Some readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while
+omitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted
+many foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who,
+ostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be
+found in my purpose, which is to record the names of those who have
+contributed in their generation to the advance of Freethought. No one
+can be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than myself,
+but I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that "though it
+be the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide wood, it is
+no discredit if he do not find it all"; and the hope that what I have
+attempted some other will complete.
+
+The most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the
+claims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in
+this dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I
+designed it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and
+leave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of
+"the good old cause"; a history which has yet to be written, and for
+which, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe.
+
+Should this volume be received with an encouraging share of favor,
+I hope to follow it with a History of Freethought in England, for
+which I have long been collecting materials.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FREETHINKERS.
+
+
+Abaelardus (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher of philosophy at Paris, renowned
+for being loved by the celebrated Eloise. He was accused of teaching
+erroneous opinions, chiefly about the Creation and the Trinity, and was
+condemned by a council at Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140,
+at the instigation of St. Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent
+his last days as a monk at Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. "Abelard,"
+observes Hallam, "was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the
+age of darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence."
+
+Abano (Petrus de). See Petrus, de Abano.
+
+Abauzit (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian family
+which settled in the South of France early in the ninth century,
+b. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted
+with Bayle, attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by
+Voltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels,
+and an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority
+of that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His Miscellanies were
+translated in English by E. Harwood, 1774.
+
+Abbot (Francis Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, 6
+Nov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a
+Unitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned
+in 1869. He started the Index, a journal of free religious inquiry
+and anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he
+edited 1870-80. In 1872 appeared his Impeachment of Christianity. In
+addition to his work on the Index, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great
+deal, and has contributed to the North American Review and other
+periodicals. He was the first president of the American National
+Liberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and defends
+his views in Scientific Theism, 1886.
+
+Ablaing van Giessenburg (R.C.) See Giessenburg.
+
+Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail (Abu J'afar) Al Isbili. Spanish Arabian
+philosopher, b. at Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic
+tendency Hai Ibn Yakdan, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671,
+and into English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of The Improvement
+of Human Reason. Died at Morocco 1185.
+
+Abu-Fazil (Abu al Fadhl ibn Mubarak, called Al Hindi), vizier to
+the great Emperor Akbar from 1572. Although by birth a Muhammadan,
+his investigations into the religions of India made him see equal
+worth in all, and, like his master, Akbar, he was tolerant of all
+sects. His chief work is the Ayin Akbary, a statistical account of
+the Indian Empire. It was translated by F. Gladwin, 1777. He was
+assassinated 1604.
+
+Abul-Abbas-Abdallah III. (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, caliph,
+son of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was a patron
+of science and literature, collected Greek and Hebrew manuscripts,
+and invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He wrote
+several treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug. 833.
+
+Abul-Ola (Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn Sulaiman), celebrated Arabian poet,
+b. at Maari, in Syria, Dec., 973. His free opinions gave much scandal
+to devout Moslems. He was blind through small-pox from the age of
+four years, but his poems exhibit much knowledge. He called himself
+"the doubly imprisoned captive," in allusion to his seclusion and
+loss of sight. He took no pains to conceal that he believed in no
+revealed religion. Died May, 1057, and ordered the following verse
+to be written on his tomb:--"I owe this to the fault of my father:
+none owe the like to mine."
+
+Abu Tahir (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at Bahrein,
+on the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of followers
+captured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He suddenly
+attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the head of
+thirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943.
+
+Achillini (Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b. Bologna 29
+Oct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote largely
+upon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were published
+at Venice, 1545.
+
+Ackermann (Louise-Victorine, nee Choquet), French poetess, b. Paris 30
+Nov. 1813. She travelled to Germany and there married (1853) a young
+theologian, Paul Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his
+Christian faith, and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick
+William (afterwards Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four
+(1846). Both were friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann's poems
+(Paris 1863-74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and
+Atheist. "God is dethroned," says M. Caro of her poems (Revue des
+Deux Mondes, 15 May, 1874). She professes hatred of Christianity
+and its interested professors. She has also published Thoughts of a
+Solitary. Sainte Beuve calls her "the learned solitary of Nice."
+
+Acollas (Pierre Antoine Rene Paul Emile), French jurisconsult and
+political writer, b. La Chatre 25 June, 1826, studied law at Paris. For
+participating in the Geneva congress of the International Society
+in 1867 he was condemned to one year's imprisonment. In 1871 he was
+appointed head of the law faculty by the Commune. He has published
+several manuals popularising the legal rights of the people, and has
+written on Marriage its Past, Present, and Future, 1880. Mrs. Besant
+has translated his monograph on The Idea of God in the Revolution,
+published in the Droits de l'Homme.
+
+Acontius (Jacobus--Italian, Giacomo Aconzio). Born at Trent early
+in sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in the Church of
+Rome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland in 1557. He
+subsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as a military
+engineer. To her he dedicated his Strategems of Satan, published at
+Basle 1565. This was one of the earliest latitudinarian works, and
+was placed upon the Index. It was also bitterly assailed by Protestant
+divines, both in England and on the Continent. An English translation
+appeared in 1648. Some proceedings were taken against Acontius before
+Bishop Grindall, of the result of which no account is given. Some
+passages of Milton's Areopagitica may be traced to Acontius, who,
+Cheynell informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen's Dictionary of National
+Biography says he is believed to have died shortly after 1566.
+
+Acosta (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a Christianised Jew;
+he was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching maturity, rejected
+that faith. He went to Holland, where he published a work equally
+criticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was excommunicated by the
+Synagogue, fined and put in prison by the Amsterdam authorities,
+and his work suppressed. After suffering many indignities from both
+Jews and Christians, he committed suicide 1647.
+
+Adams (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one month's
+imprisonment for selling the Oracle of Reason.
+
+Adams (Robert C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. Author
+of Travels in Faith from Tradition to Reason (New York, 1884), also
+Evolution, a Summary of Evidence.
+
+Adler (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a Jewish rabbi,
+was b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at Columbia
+College, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature
+at Cornell University from '74 to May '76, when he established in
+New York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he discourses on
+Sundays. In 1877 he published a volume entitled Creed and Deed, in
+which he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has also contributed
+many papers to the Radical literature of America.
+
+AEnesidemus. A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first century. He
+adopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were in course
+of change, and argued against our knowledge of ultimate causes.
+
+Airy (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. Alnwick
+27 July, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior
+wrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance
+astronomical science. His Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures 1876,
+proves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker.
+
+Aitkenhead (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who was
+indicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having
+called the Old Testament "Ezra's Fables," and having maintained
+that God and nature were the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696,
+and hanged for blasphemy, 8 Jan. 1697.
+
+Aitzema (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum 19
+Nov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, between
+1621-68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at the Hague 23
+Feb. 1669.
+
+Akbar (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the emperors of
+Hindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide administration and
+improvement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration alike to Christians,
+Muhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith. He had the Christian
+gospels and several Brahmanical treatises translated into Persian. The
+result of his many conferences on religion between learned men of
+all sects, are collected in the Dabistan. Akbar was brought up as a
+Muhammadan, but became a Theist, acknowledging one God, but rejecting
+all other dogmas. Died Sept. 1605.
+
+Alberger (John). American author of Monks, Popes, and their Political
+Intrigues (Baltimore, 1871) and Antiquity of Christianity (New York,
+1874).
+
+Albini (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he
+studied medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many
+other physiological subjects.
+
+Alchindus. Yakub ibn Is'hak ibn Subbah (Abu Yusuf) called Al Kindi,
+Arab physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the
+companions of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about
+840. He was a rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies
+he was set down as a magician.
+
+Alciati (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At first
+a Romanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually
+advanced to Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters
+to Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that
+Alciati deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but
+Bayle takes pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.
+
+Aleardi (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, b. Verona, 4
+Nov. 1812. He was engaged in a life-long struggle against the Austrian
+dominion, and his patriotic poems were much admired. In 1859 he was
+elected deputy to Parliament for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.
+
+Alembert (Jean le Rond d'), mathematician and philosopher, b. at
+Paris 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of Canon Destouches
+and Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from a church
+near which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards resided
+for forty years with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the most
+tempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy of
+Sciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of
+Berlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the
+problem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation
+of the earth's axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose opinions
+he was in complete accord, in compiling the famous Encyclopedie, for
+which he wrote the preliminary discourse. In addition to this great
+work he published many historical, philosophical and scientific essays,
+and largely corresponded with Voltaire. His work on the Destruction
+of the Jesuits is a caustic and far-reaching production. In a letter
+to Frederick the Great, he says: "As for the existence of a supreme
+intelligence, I think that those who deny it advance more than they
+can prove, and scepticism is the only reasonable course." He goes on
+to say, however, that experience invincibly proves the materiality of
+the "soul." Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous
+essays were printed in Paris. His works prove d'Alembert to have been
+of broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge.
+
+Alfieri (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist, b. Asti,
+Piedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are justly
+celebrated, and in his Essay on Tyranny he shows himself as favorable
+to religious as to political liberty. Written in his youth, this work
+was revised at a more advanced age, the author remarking that if he
+had no longer the courage, or rather the fire, necessary to compose
+it, he nevertheless retained intelligence, independence and judgment
+enough to approve it, and to let it stand as the last of his literary
+productions. His attack is chiefly directed against Catholicism,
+but he does not spare Christianity. "Born among a people," he says,
+"slavish, ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the
+Christian religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience,
+and is unacquainted even with the name of liberty." Alfieri's tragedy
+of Saul has been prohibited on the English stage. Died Florence,
+8 Oct. 1803.
+
+Alfonso X., surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon; b. in
+1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. He
+compiled a complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and
+had drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By
+his liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish
+literature. For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his
+independence towards the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical
+revenues, he has been stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed
+the well-known remark that had he been present at the creation of the
+world he would have proposed some improvements. Father Lenfant adds
+the pious lie that "The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy
+when a thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to
+ashes." Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.
+
+Algarotti (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, b. at
+Venice, 11 Dec. 1712. A visit to England led him to write Newtonianism
+for the Ladies. He afterwards visited Berlin and became the friend
+both of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his
+Chamberlain. Died with philosophical composure at Pisa, 3 May, 1764.
+
+Alger (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts, 30
+Dec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the
+advanced type. His Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future
+Life, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot,
+is a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view.
+
+Allen (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. in
+Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, Oxford,
+and graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of Logic
+in Queen's College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to '77 he was
+its principal. Since then he has resided in England, and become
+known by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published works
+include Physiological AEsthetics (1877), The Evolutionist at Large
+(1881), Nature Studies (1883), Charles Darwin (1885), and several
+novels. Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle,
+and has written on Force and Energy (1888).
+
+Allen (Ethan) Col., American soldier, b. at Litchfield, Connecticut,
+10 Jan. 1737. One of the most active of the revolutionary heroes,
+he raised a company of volunteers known as the "Green Mountain Boys,"
+and took by surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing
+100 guns, 10 May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and L100 offered
+for his arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken
+prisoner and sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was
+eventually exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member
+of the state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition
+of Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 Reason
+the only Oracle of Man, the first publication in the United States
+openly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently
+reprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont,
+13 Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.
+
+Allsop (Thomas). "The favorite disciple of Coleridge," b. 10 April,
+1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he lived till 1880. A friend
+of Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was implicated in the attempt
+of Orsini against Napoleon III. In his Letters, Conversations and
+Recollections of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he has imported many of
+his Freethought views.
+
+Alm (Richard von der). See Ghillany (F. W.)
+
+Alpharabius (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called
+Al Farabi, Turkish philosopher, termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest
+philosopher the Moslems ever had, travelled to Bagdad, mastered
+the works of Aristotle, and became master of Avicenna. Al Farabi is
+said to have taught the eternity of the world and to have denied the
+permanent individuality of the soul. His principal work is a sort
+of encyclopaedia. Renan says he expressly rejected all supernatural
+revelation. Died at Damascus Dec. 950, aged upwards of eighty.
+
+Amaury or Amalric de Chartres, a heretic of the thirteenth century,
+was a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at Paris, where he gave
+lessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of Physion, condemned
+by a bull of Pope Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have taught a
+kind of Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son must give
+place to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were burnt at
+Paris 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and placed
+in the flames.
+
+Amberley (John Russell) Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell,
+b. 1843. Educated at Harrow, Edinburgh and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where ill-health prevented him reading for honors. He
+entered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member for Nottingham. Lord
+Amberley contributed thoughtful articles to the North British,
+the Fortnightly and Theological Reviews, and will be remembered by
+his bold Analysis of Religious Belief (1876), in which he examines,
+compares and criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley
+left his son to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of
+great ability and force of character; but the will was set aside, on
+appeal to the Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding's
+heretical views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.
+
+Amman (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b. Lake Zurich
+1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt, and
+afterwards published a curious book called Voyage in the Promised
+Land. Died at Zurich, 1658.
+
+Ammianus (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth century,
+b. at Antioch. He wrote the Roman history from the reign of Nerva to
+the death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen
+are lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. He served
+under Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of the period
+to that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him "an accurate and faithful
+guide." Died about 395 A.D.
+
+Ammonius, surnamed Saccas or the Porter, from his having been obliged
+in the early part of his life to adopt that calling, was born of
+Christian parents in Alexandria during the second century. He,
+however, turned Pagan and opened a school of philosophy. Among his
+pupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He undoubtedly originated
+the Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most serious opposition
+to Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died A.D. 243, aged
+over eighty years.
+
+Anaxagoras, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, b. about 499 B.C.,
+lived at Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 B.C. he
+was accused of Atheism for maintaining the eternity of matter and was
+banished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428 B.C. It is related that,
+being asked how he desired to be honored after death, he replied,
+"Only let the day of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys
+in the schools." He taught that generation and destruction are only
+the union and separation of elements which can neither be created
+nor annihilated.
+
+Andre-Nuytz (Louis), author of Positivism for All, an elementary
+exposition of Positive philosophy, to which Littre wrote a preface,
+1868.
+
+Andrews (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton, Mass.,
+22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent speaker,
+and the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His principle
+work is entitled The Basic Outline of Universology (N. Y., 1872). He
+also wrote The Church and Religion of the Future (1886). He was a
+prominent member and vice-president of the Liberal Club of New York,
+a contributor to the London Times, the New York Truthseeker, and many
+other journals. Died at New York, 21 May, 1886.
+
+Andrieux (Louis). French deputy, b. Trevoux 20 July, 1840. Was
+called to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his political
+pleading. He took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples in 1869,
+and in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three months
+for his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the Republic he
+was nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal council of
+that city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of Deputies. In
+1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in 1881 and was
+elected deputy by his constituents at Lyons. He has written Souvenirs
+of a Prefect of Police (1885).
+
+Angelucci (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near Tolentino
+1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was banished
+from Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in Italy,
+he also made an excellent translation of the AEneid of Virgil. Died
+Montagnana, 1600.
+
+Angiulli (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. 1837,
+author of a work on philosophy and Positive research, Naples 1868. He
+became professor of Anthropology at Naples in 1876, and edits a
+philosophical review published in that city since 1881.
+
+Annet (Peter). One of the most forcible writers among the English
+Deists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a schoolmaster
+and invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at school
+and corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on
+Freethinking the Great Duty of Religion, by P. A., minister of
+religion. This was followed by the Conception of Jesus as the
+Foundation of the Christian Religion, in which he boldly attacks
+the doctrine of the Incarnation as "a legend of the Romanists,"
+and The Resurrection of Jesus Considered (1744) in answer to Bishop
+Sherlock's Trial of the Witnesses. This controversy was continued in
+The Resurrection Reconsidered and The Resurrection Defenders Stript
+of all Defence. In An Examination of the History and Character of
+St. Paul he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and
+even questions the authenticity of his epistles. In Supernaturals
+Examined (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761
+he issued nine numbers of the Free Inquirer, in which he attacked
+the authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this he was
+brought before the King's Bench and sentenced to suffer one month's
+imprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, once at
+Charing Cross and once at the Exchange, with a label "For Blasphemy,"
+then to have a year's hard labor in Bridewell and to find sureties
+for good behavior during the rest of his life. It is related that
+a woman seeing Annet in the pillory said, "Gracious! pilloried for
+blasphemy. Why, don't we blaspheme every day!" After his release Annet
+set up a school at Lambeth. Being asked his views on a future life
+he replied by this apologue: "One of my friends in Italy, seeing the
+sign of an inn, asked if that was the Angel." "No," was the reply,
+"do you not see it is the sign of a dragon." "Ah," said my friend,
+"as I have never seen either angel or dragon, how can I tell whether
+it is one or the other?" Died 18 Jan. 1769. The History of the Man
+after God's Own Heart (1761) ascribed to Annet, was more probably
+written by Archibald Campbell. The View of the Life of King David
+(1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also falsely attributed to Annet.
+
+Anthero de Quental, Portuguese writer, b. San Miguel 1843. Educated
+for the law at the University of Coimbra, he has published both poetry
+and prose, showing him to be a student of Hartmann, Proudhon and Renan,
+and one of the most advanced minds in Portugal.
+
+Anthony (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker family
+at South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a teacher,
+a temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent advocate
+of women's rights. Of the last movement she became secretary. In
+conjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury she conducted
+The Revolutionist founded in New York in 1868, and with Mrs. Stanton
+and Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the History of Woman's Suffrage,
+1881. Miss Anthony is a declared Agnostic.
+
+Antoine (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and divinity of
+Jesus, and was strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, 1632.
+
+Antonelle (Pierre Antoine) Marquis d', French political economist,
+b. Arles 1747. He embraced the revolution with ardor, and his article
+in the Journal des Hommes Libres occasioned his arrest with Baboeuf. He
+was, however, acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.
+
+Antoninus (Marcus Aurelius). See Aurelius.
+
+Apelt (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 March,
+1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the standpoint
+of reason, and wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near Gorlitz,
+27 Oct. 1859.
+
+Aquila, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselyte to Christianity, but
+afterwards left that religion. He published a Greek version of the
+Hebrew scriptures to show that the prophecies did not apply to Jesus
+(A.D. 128). The work is lost. He has been identified by E. Deutsch
+with the author of the Targum of Onkelos.
+
+Arago (Dominique Francois Jean), French academician, politician,
+physicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was elected to
+the French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three. He made
+several optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated
+the undulatory theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and
+Freethinker, and took part in the provisional Government of 1848. He
+opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the
+oath of allegiance after the coup d'etat of December, 1851. Died 2
+Oct. 1853. Humboldt calls him a "zealous defender of the interests
+of Reason."
+
+Ardigo (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone (Cremona)
+28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to philosophy. In
+1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, followed next year
+by Psychology as a Positive Science. Signor Ardigo has also written on
+the formation of the solar system and on the historical formation of
+the ideas of God and the soul. An edition of his philosophical works
+was commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one of the leaders of the
+Italian Positivists. His Positivist Morals appeared in Padua 1885.
+
+Argens (Jean Baptiste de Boyer) Marquis d', French writer, b. at
+Aix, in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and
+served with distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great
+he invited d'Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his
+chamberlains. Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to
+Aix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were
+published in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are Lettres
+Juives, Lettres Chinoises and Lettres Cabalistiques, which were
+joined to La Philosophie du bon sens. He also translated Julian's
+discourse against Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity
+of the World. Argens took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to
+that philosopher.
+
+Argental (Charles Augustin de Ferriol) Count d', French diplomat,
+b. Paris 20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother
+of D'Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship
+for Voltaire. He was said to be the author of Memoires du Comte de
+Comminge and Anecdotes de la cour d'Edouard. Died 5 Jan. 1788.
+
+Aristophanes, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Socrates,
+Plato, and Euripides, b. about 444 B.C. Little is known of his life. He
+wrote fifty-four plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned
+in a public assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost
+boldness he satirised not only the the political and social evils
+of the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology
+of the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes' works
+under his pillow. Died about 380 B.C.
+
+Aristotle, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was born at
+Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 B.C. He was employed by Philip of Macedon
+to instruct his son Alexander. His inculcation of ethics as apart
+from all theology, justifies his place in this list. After the death
+of Alexander, he was accused of impiety and withdrew to Chalcis,
+where he died B.C. 322. Grote says: "In the published writings of
+Aristotle the accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for
+sustaining their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that
+prayer and sacrifices to the gods were of no avail." His influence
+was predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante
+speaks of him as "the master of those that know."
+
+Arnold of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against the papal
+authority and the temporal power, and the vices of the clergy. He
+was condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and retired
+from Italy. He afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his exertions
+against sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and burnt at
+Rome in 1155. Baronius calls him "the patriarch of political heretics."
+
+Arnold (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby,
+b. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford,
+where he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the Strayed
+Reveller, and other Poems, signed A. In 1851 he married and became
+an inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared Empedocles on Etna, a poem
+in which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives much secular
+philosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In
+1871 he published an essay entitled St. Paul and Protestantism; in 1873
+Literature and Dogma, which, from its rejection of supernaturalism,
+occasioned much stir and was followed by God and the Bible. In 1877
+Mr. Arnold published Last Essays on Church and State. Mr. Arnold
+has a lucid style and is abreast of the thought of his age, but he
+curiously unites rejection of supernaturalism, including a personal
+God, with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said
+in his own words to wander "between two worlds, one dead, the other
+powerless to be born." Died 15 April, 1888.
+
+Arnould (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As
+journalist he wrote on l'Opinion Nationale, the Rappel, Reforme and
+other papers. In 1864 he published a work on Beranger, and in '69 a
+History of the Inquisition. In Jan. 1870 he founded La Marseillaise
+with H. Rochefort, and afterwards the Journal du Peuple with Jules
+Valles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of
+the Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He
+has also written many novels and dramas.
+
+Arnould (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. 1838,
+advocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a History of the
+Church 1874, and a little work on the Philosophy of Liberalism 1877.
+
+Arouet (Francois Marie). See Voltaire.
+
+Arpe (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 May,
+1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (i.e., Rotterdam,
+1712). A reply to La Monnoye's treatise on the book De Tribus
+Impostoribus is attributed to him. Died, Hamburg, 4 Nov. 1740.
+
+Arthur (John) is inserted in Marechal's Dictionnaire des Athees
+as a mechanic from near Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and
+republished the Invocation to Nature in the last pages of the System
+of Nature. Julian Hibbert inserted his name in his Chronological
+Tables of Anti-Superstitionists, with the date of death 1792.
+
+Asseline (Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829, became an
+advocate in 1851. In 1866 he established La Libre Pensee, a weekly
+journal of scientific materialism, and when that was suppressed
+La Pensee Nouvelle. He was one of the founders of the Encyclopedie
+Generale. He wrote Diderot and the Nineteenth Century, and contributed
+to many journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected
+mayor of the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards
+one of the Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878.
+
+Assezat (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was a son
+of a compositor on the Journal des Debats, on which Jules obtained a
+position and worked his way to the editorial chair. He was secretary of
+the Paris Society of Anthropology, contributed to La Pensee Nouvelle,
+edited the Man Machine of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works
+of Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.
+
+Assollant (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 March,
+1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.
+
+Ast (Georg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29
+Dec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Landshut and
+Munich. Wrote Elements of Philosophy, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31
+Dec. 1841.
+
+Atkinson (Henry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was educated
+at the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in
+the Zoist. In 1851 he issued Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature
+and Development, in conjunction with Harriet Martineau, to whom he
+served as philosophic guide. This work occasioned a considerable
+outcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the National
+Reformer and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec. 1884, at Boulogne,
+where he had resided since 1870.
+
+Aubert de Verse (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth century,
+who wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of blasphemy.
+
+Audebert (Louise). French authoress of the Romance of a Freethinker
+and of an able Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of Orleans, 1868.
+
+Audifferent (Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste Comte,
+was born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at Marseilles,
+and is the author of several medical and scientific works.
+
+Aurelius (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, b. at
+Rome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated, and lived a laborious,
+abstemious life. On the death of his uncle Antoninus Pius, 161, the
+Senate obliged him to take the government, but he associated with
+himself L. Verus. On the death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed
+sole authority, which he exercised with wise discretion and great
+glory. Much of his time was employed in defending the northern
+frontiers of the empire against Teutonic barbarians. He had no
+high opinion of Christians, speaking of their obstinacy, and it is
+pretended many were put to death in the reign of one of the best
+emperors that ever ruled. If so we may be assured it was for their
+crimes. Ecclesiastical historians have invented another pious miracle
+in a victory gained through the prayers of the Christians. Antoninus
+held that duty was indispensable even were there no gods. His
+Meditations, written in the midst of a most active life, breathe a
+lofty morality, and are a standing refutation of the view that pure
+ethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, 180.
+
+Austin (Charles), lawyer and disciple of Bentham, b. Suffolk 1799. At
+Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won,
+much to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions,
+the Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he
+was sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley "I could
+have written a much better essay on the other side." He afterwards
+wrote on the other side in the Westminster Review. Successful as a
+lawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his
+influence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his
+heretical opinions. He says "He inclined to Darwinism, because as he
+said, it is so antecedently probable; but, long before this theory
+broke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up." Died
+21 Dec. 1874.
+
+Austin (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, 1790. A
+friend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he shared,
+he is chiefly known by his profound works on jurisprudence. Died 17
+Dec. 1859.
+
+Avempace, i.e., Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called
+Ibn al-Saigh (the son of the goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and
+poet, b. at Saragossa, practised medicine at Seville 1118, which he
+quitted about 1120, and became vizier at the court of Fez, where he
+died about 1138. An admirer of Aristotle, he was one of the teachers
+of Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn Khakan represents him as an infidel and
+Atheist, and says: "Faith disappeared from his heart and left not a
+trace behind; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did [the holy]
+name cross his lips." He is said to have suffered imprisonment for
+his heterodoxy.
+
+Avenel (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828. One of
+the promoters of the Encyclopedie Generale. His vindication of Cloots
+(1865) is a solid work of erudition. He became editor of la Republique
+Francaise and edited the edition of Voltaire published by Le Siecle
+(1867-70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was,
+by his express wish, buried without religious ceremony.
+
+Averroes (Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), Abu al Walid, Arabian
+philosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at Morocco 10
+Dec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of Aristotle,
+and resolutely placed the claims of science above those of theology. He
+was prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the Muhammadan doctors,
+was spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the hour of prayer,
+and afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions, which incline
+towards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being condemned
+by the University of Paris in 1240. They were opposed by St. Thomas
+Aquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the Renaissance
+through the Paduan school were again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.
+
+Avicenna (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called Ibn Sina), Arabian physician and
+philosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the district of Bokhara. From his early
+youth he was a wonderful student, and at his death 15 June, 1037,
+he left behind him above a hundred treatises. He was the sovereign
+authority in medical science until the days of Harvey. His philosophy
+was pantheistic in tone, with an attempt at compromise with theology.
+
+Aymon (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphine 1661. Brought up in the
+Church, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the Hague. He
+published Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion, and is said to have
+put forward a version of the Esprit de Spinoza under the famous title
+Treatise of Three Impostors. Died about 1734.
+
+Bagehot (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian parents,
+Langport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died at the same place 24
+March, 1877. He was educated at London University, of which he became
+a fellow. For the last seventeen years of his life he edited the
+Economist newspaper. His best-known works are The English Constitution,
+Lombard Street and Literary Studies. In Physics and Politics (1872),
+a series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he applies Darwinism
+to politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very original thinker,
+who rejected historic Christianity.
+
+Baggesen (Jens Immanuel), Danish poet, b. Koesor, Zealand. 15
+Feb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzerland; at
+Berne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote popular poems
+both in Danish and German, among others Adam and Eve, a humorous mock
+epic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire. Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.
+
+Bahnsen (Julius Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern,
+Schleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil,
+1847. He fought against the Danes in '49, and afterwards studied at
+Tuebingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and
+Hartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written
+several works, among which we mention The Philosophy of History,
+Berlin, 1872, and The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the
+Nature of the World (2 vols), Berlin 1880-82.
+
+Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25
+Aug. 1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor
+of biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered
+from place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called
+New Revelations of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and
+Thinkers, Berlin, 1787, and a Catechism of Natural Religion, Halle,
+1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792.
+
+Bailey (James Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the
+Torch, and the Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna: its Monarch
+and Inhabitants; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the
+"Social Reformer's Cabinet Library," and some interesting Essays on
+Miscellaneous Subjects, at Leeds, 1842.
+
+Bailey (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His
+essay on the Formation and Publication of Opinions appeared in 1821. He
+vigorously contends that man is not responsible for his opinions
+because they are independent of his will, and that opinions should
+not be the subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work
+was Letters from an Egyptian Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search
+of Religion. This was at first issued privately 1839, but afterwards
+printed as a Reasoner tract. He also wrote The Pursuit of Truth,
+1829, and a Theory of Reasoning, 1851. He was acquainted with both
+James and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the
+philosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving
+L90,000 to his native town.
+
+Bailey (William S.), editor of the Liberal, published in Nashville,
+Tennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death, March, 1886. In
+a slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of abolition.
+
+Baillie (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff in one
+of the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the Glasgow
+Eclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best essay on
+Christianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara Hennell. In
+1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether Jesus
+prophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of his
+followers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated
+in his Prophet of Nazareth. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself
+of his fortune (L18,000) which was to be applied to the erection
+and endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative
+classes by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining
+only the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few years.
+
+Bailliere (Gustave-Germer), French scientific publisher, b. at Paris
+26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted himself to bringing out
+scientific publications such as the Library of Contemporary Philosophy,
+and the International Scientific Series. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as
+Republican and anti-clerical member of the Municipal Council of Paris.
+
+Bain (Alexander) LL.D. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818. He
+began life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College 1836-40, and
+graduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to contribute to the Westminster
+Review, and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose Logic
+he discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published The Senses and
+The Intellect, and in 1859 The Emotions and the Will, constituting
+together a systematic exposition of the human mind. From 1860 to
+1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of Aberdeen,
+his accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and provoking
+disorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree of
+LL.D. In addition to numerous educational works Dr. Bain published a
+Compendium of Mental and Moral Science (1868), Mind and Body (1875),
+and Education as a Science (1879), for the International Scientific
+Series. In 1882 he published James Mill, a Biography, and John Stuart
+Mill: a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. In 1881 he was elected
+Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed
+in 1884, in which year he published Practical Essays.
+
+Bainham (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, author
+of the Supplycacion of Beggars, an attack upon the clergy of the
+period. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other things
+denied transubstantiation, the confessional, and "the power of the
+keys." It was asserted that he had said that he would as lief pray
+to his wife as to "our lady," and that Christ was but a man. This
+he denied, but admitted holding the salvation of unbelievers. He was
+burnt 30 April, 1532.
+
+Baissac (Jules), French litterateur, b. Vans, 1827, author of several
+studies in philology and mythology. In 1878 he published Les Origines
+de la Religion in three volumes, which have the honor of being put
+upon the Roman Index. This was followed by l'Age de Dieu, a study
+of cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to
+publish Histoire de la Diablerie Chretienne, the first part of which
+is devoted to the person and "personnel" of the devil.
+
+Bakunin (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Torshok
+(Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated at
+St. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he
+became embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841,
+studied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical
+writings under the name of Jules Elisard. In '43 he visited Paris and
+became a disciple of Proudhon. In '48 he was expelled from France
+at the demand of Russia, whose government set the price of 10,000
+silver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and became a member of the
+insurrectionary government. He was arrested and condemned to death,
+May '50, but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He
+escaped into Austria, was again captured and sentenced to death,
+but was handed over to Russia and deported to Siberia. After several
+years' penal servitude he escaped, travelled over a thousand miles
+under extreme hardship, reached the sea and sailed to Japan. Thence he
+sailed to California, thence to New York and London, where with Herzen
+he published the Kolokol. He took part in the establishment of the
+International Society, but being at issue with Karl Marx abandoned
+that body in 1873. He died at Berne 1 July 1876, leaving behind a
+work on God and the State, both being vigorously attacked. Laveleye
+writes of him as "the apostle of universal destruction."
+
+Ball (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated at
+Birkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather
+than teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University
+1866. Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan's service 1870-71. Received
+the order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the
+bursting of a mortar. Upon his return published Poems from Turkey
+(1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the National Reformer since 1878
+and since 1884 has been on the staff of the Freethinker. He has
+published pamphlets on Religion in Schools, the Ten Commandments
+and Mrs Besant's Socialism, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the
+Bible Handbook. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of
+Evolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages
+of Progress. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the
+Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?
+
+Ballance (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary, Antrim, Ireland,
+March 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist and started
+the Wanganui Herald. He entered Parliament in 1875 and became Colonial
+Treasurer in '78. With Sir Robert Stout he has been a great support
+to the Freethought cause in New Zealand.
+
+Baltzer (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. 1814, at
+Hohenleine in Saxony. He was educated as a Protestant minister, but
+resigned and founded at Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took
+part in the Parliament of Frankfort in '48; has translated the life
+of Apollonius of Tyana, and is the author of a history of religion
+and numerous other works. Died 24 June, 1887.
+
+Bancel (Francois Desire). French politician, b. Le Mastre,
+2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly. After the coup d'etat he retired to Brussels,
+where he became Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected
+deputy at Paris in opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work
+on Rationalism by Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on Mysteries, 1871,
+besides many political works. Died 23 June, 1871.
+
+Barbier (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin, Lubbock,
+and Tylor. Died 1883.
+
+Barbier d'Aucour (Jean). French critic and academician, b. Langres,
+1642. Most of his writings are directed against the Jesuits. Died
+Paris, 13 Sept. 1694.
+
+Barlow (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his volumes,
+Under the Dawn and Poems, Real and Ideal, he gives utterance to many
+Freethought sentiments.
+
+Barlow (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b. Reading,
+Connecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the
+revolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession,
+taking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published Advice to the
+Privileged Orders. In France he translated Volney's Ruins of Empires,
+and contributed to the political literature of the Revolution. Paine
+entrusted him with the MS. of the first part of the Age of Reason. His
+chief work is entitled the Columbiad, 1808. He was sent as minister
+to France, 1811, and being involved in the misfortunes following the
+retreat from Moscow, died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.
+
+Barni (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 June,
+1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the works
+of Kant into French. He contributed to La Liberte de Penser (1847-51)
+and to l'Avenir (1855). During the Empire he lived in Switzerland
+and published Martyrs de la Libre Pensee (1862), La Morale dans
+la Democratie (1864), and a work on the French Moralists of the
+Eighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to the National Assembly,
+1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died at Mers, 4 July,
+1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.
+
+Barnout (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris 1816,
+published a Rational Calendar 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 he established
+a journal entitled L'Athee, the Atheist, which the clerical journals
+declared drew God's vengeance upon France. He is also author of a
+work on aerial navigation.
+
+Barot (Francois Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau 1830. He
+has been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary to
+Gustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and
+Contemporary Literature in England (1874).
+
+Barrett (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker parents, both
+grandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at Queenwood
+College, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford with honors
+in Natural Science and Mathematics, contributed to the National
+Reformer between 1865 and 1870, published an acute examination of
+Gillespie's argument, a priori, for the existence of God (1869),
+which in 1871 reached a second edition. He also wrote A New View
+of Causation (1871), and an Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics
+(1877). Mr. Barrett has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical
+Society, and edited a short-lived publication, The Present Day, 1886.
+
+Barrier (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, became
+professor of medicine at Lyons, wrote A Sketch of the Analogy of Man
+and Humanity (Lyons 1846), and Principles of Sociology (Paris 1867),
+and an abridgment of this entitled Catechism of Liberal and Rational
+Socialism. Died Montfort-L'Amaury 1870.
+
+Barrillot (Francois). French author, b. of poor parents at Lyons in
+1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to read from shop
+signs, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his songs and
+satires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to Pope Pius
+IX. on the OEcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean Populus, and a
+philosophical work entitled Love is God. Died at Paris, 11 Dec. 1874.
+
+Barthez (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11 Dec. 1734. A
+friend of D'Alembert, he became associate editor of the Journal des
+Savants and Encyclopedie Methodique. He was made consulting physician
+to the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the Archbishop of
+Sens a number of works relating to the rites of his see he said,
+"These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me the sense
+[Sens] of ceremonies." His principal work is New Elements of the
+Science of Man. Died 15 Oct. 1806.
+
+Basedow (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational reformer,
+b. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic, became
+professor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753-1761, and at
+Altona, 1761-1768. While here he published Philalethea, the Grounds of
+Religion, and other heterodox works, which excited so much prejudice
+that he was in danger of being stoned. He devoted much attention to
+improving methods of teaching. Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.
+
+Baskerville (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley,
+Worcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at
+first a stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and
+devoted it to perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As
+a printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions
+of Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius,
+Terence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes
+once visited him and was "shocked at his infidelity" (!) He died
+8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had
+designed a monumental urn with this inscription: "Stranger, beneath
+this cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of
+mankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute
+to emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the
+wicked arts of priesthood." His will expresses the utmost contempt
+for Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a
+complete edition of Voltaire.
+
+Bassus (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of Seneca in
+the time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in the
+presence of death.
+
+Bate (Frederick), Socialist, author of The Student 1842, a drama
+in which the author's sceptical views are put forward. Mr. Bate
+was one of the founders of the social experiment at New Harmony,
+now Queenswood College, Hants, and engraved a view representing the
+Owenite scheme of community.
+
+Baudelaire (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April 1821,
+the son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He
+first became famous by the publication of Fleurs du Mal, 1857, in
+which appeared Les Litanies de Satan. The work was prosecuted and
+suppressed. Baudelaire translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe,
+a poet whom he resembled much in life and character. The divine
+beauty of his face has been celebrated by the French poet, Theodore
+de Banville, and his genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English
+poet, Algernon Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.
+
+Baudon (P. L.), French author of a work on the Christian Superstition,
+published at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop Dupanloup under
+the pseudonym of "Aristide."
+
+Bauer (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of Germany,
+b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of Berlin,
+in 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first attained
+celebrity by a review of the Life of Jesus by Strauss (1835). This
+was followed by his Journal of Speculative Theology and Critical
+Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament. He then proceeded
+to a Review of the Gospel History, upon the publication of which
+(1840) he was deprived of his professorship at Bonn. To this followed
+Christianity Unveiled (1843), which was destroyed at Zurich before
+its publication. This work continued his opposition to religion,
+which was carried still further in ironical style in his Proclamation
+of the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel the Atheist. Bauer's heresy
+deepened with age, and in his Review of the Gospels and History of
+their Origin (1850), to which Apostolical History is a supplement,
+he attacked the historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In
+his Review of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul (1852) he tries to
+show that the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been
+questioned, were not written by Paul, but are the production of the
+second century. In his Christ and the Caesars he shows the influence
+of Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died
+near Berlin, 13 April, 1882.
+
+Bauer (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the
+preceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled
+Bruno Bauer and his Opponents (1842) was seized by the police. For
+his next publication, The Strife of Criticism with Church and State
+(1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written on
+English freedom, Capital, etc.
+
+Baume-Desdossat (Jacques Francois, de la), b. 1705, a Canon of
+Avignon who wrote La Christiade (1753), a satire on the gospels,
+in which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It was suppressed by
+the French Parliament and the author fined. He died 30 April, 1756.
+
+Baur (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological critic, b. 21
+June, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. He was educated
+at Tuebingen, where in 1826 he became professor of Church history. Baur
+is the author of numerous works on dogmatic and historic theology, in
+which he subverts all the fundamental positions of Christianity. He was
+an Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important works are Christianity
+and the Church in the First Three Centuries and Paul: His Life and
+Works. These are translated into English. He acknowledges only four
+of the epistles of Paul and the Revelation as genuine products of
+the apostolic age, and shows how very far from simplicity were the
+times and doctrines of primitive Christianity. After a life of great
+literary activity he died at Tuebingen, 2 Dec. 1860.
+
+Bayle (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at Carlat,
+France, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was converted
+to Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, 1669. His
+Romanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled to
+Switzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from Thoughts on the
+Comet, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism with
+those of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous Dictionnaire
+Critique, a work still of value for its curious learning and shrewd
+observation. In his journal Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres
+he advocates religious toleration on the ground of the difficulty of
+distinguishing truth from error. His criticism of Maimbourg's History
+of Calvinism was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted
+him, and he was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second
+edition of his dictionary. He died at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. Bayle
+has been called the father of free discussion in modern times.
+
+Bayrhoffer (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 Oct.,
+1812, wrote The Idea and History of Philosophy (1838), took part in
+the revolution of '48, emigrated to America, and wrote many polemical
+works. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. 1888.
+
+Beauchamp (Philip). See Bentham and Grote.
+
+Beausobre (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted by
+Frederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre,
+the author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at
+Frankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the
+wise (Pyrrhonisme du Sage, Berlin, 1754), a work condemned to be burnt
+by the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote anonymously The Dreams of
+Epicurus, and an essay on Happiness (Berlin, 1758), reprinted with
+the Social System of Holbach in 1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.
+
+Bebel (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22
+Feb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since '63, he became
+distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to
+the German Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6
+March) to two years' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected
+in '74. His principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future
+which is translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on
+the Mohammedan Culture Period (1884) and on Christianity and Socialism.
+
+Beccaria (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan,
+15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on
+Crimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the
+criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.
+
+Beesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Worcestershire,
+1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854,
+and M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College,
+London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of
+Positive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political
+and social questions.
+
+Beethoven (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers,
+b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the
+age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many
+compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera "Fidelio,"
+two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas,
+and are characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense
+passion, and tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally
+deaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March,
+1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed
+for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican
+sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in
+the Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a
+"Freethinker," and says the remarkable mass in C. "might scarcely
+have proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker." Sir George Grove,
+in his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: "Formal religion he
+apparently had none," and "the Bible does not appear to have been one
+of his favorite books." At the end of his arrangement of "Fidelio"
+Moscheles had written, "Fine. With God's help." To this Beethoven
+added, "O man, help thyself."
+
+Bekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland)
+20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity,
+and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly
+to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched
+(1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are
+denied. His book, which contains much curious information, raised
+a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the
+Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June,
+1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have "looked like
+the devil, though he did not believe in him."
+
+Belinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811,
+educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of
+Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works
+were issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61.
+
+Bell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He
+was employed in the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day,
+1852, and assisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over
+the signature "Undecimus." He contemplated selling his commission to
+devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his
+friends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January,
+1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired
+in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12
+Sept. 1887.
+
+Bell (William S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10
+Feb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for
+mixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In
+1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in
+Dec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought
+lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution,
+and some pamphlets.
+
+Bender (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology at Bonn,
+b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary,
+1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was incompleted
+and must be carried on by the Rationalists.
+
+Bennett (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New York
+Truthseeker, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At
+the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here
+he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the
+Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a
+drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him
+a Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to
+some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of
+his own. The result was the Truthseeker, which in January, 1876 became
+a weekly, and has since become one of the principal Freethought organs
+in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment
+for sending through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the
+marriage question. A tract, entitled An Open Letter to Jesus Christ,
+was read in court to bias the jury. A petition bearing 200,000
+names was presented to President Hayes asking his release, but was
+not acceded to. Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage
+round the world. He wrote A Truthseeker's Voyage Round the World,
+Letters from Albany Penitentiary, Answers to Christian Questions and
+Arguments, two large volumes on The Gods, another on the World's Sages,
+Infidels and Thinkers, and published his discussions with Humphrey,
+Mair, and Teed, and numerous tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.
+
+Bentham (Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political
+economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the
+publisher of Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation. Was educated
+at Westminster and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham
+is justly regarded as the father of the school of philosophical
+Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism;
+as a jurist he did much to disclose the defects of and improve our
+system of law. Macaulay says he "found jurisprudence a gibberish and
+left it a science." His most pronounced Freethought work was that
+written in conjunction with Grote, published as An Analysis of the
+Influence of Natural Religion, by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his
+numerous other works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science
+of Mortality, an exposition of utilitarianism; Church of Englandism
+and its Catechism Examined; Not Paul, but Jesus, published under the
+pseudonym of Gamaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for
+the purposes of science.
+
+Beranger (Jean Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet,
+b. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured
+for him imprisonment. He was elected to the Constituant Assembly
+1848. Beranger has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs
+breathe the spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised
+as impious. He died 16 July, 1857.
+
+Bergel (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders,
+Leipsic, 1881, and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882.
+
+Berger (Moriz), author of a work on Materialism in Conflict with
+Spiritualism and Idealism, Trieste, 1883.
+
+Bergerac de (Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano.
+
+Bergk (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June,
+1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both
+under his own name and pseudonyms. He published the Art of Thinking,
+Leipsic, 1802, conducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under
+the name of Frey the True Religion, "recommended to rationalists
+and destined for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics,
+etc." Died Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.
+
+Bergk (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. Leipsic,
+22 May, 1812, author of a good History of Greek Literature, 1872.
+
+Berigardus (Claudius), or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet), French
+physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a
+professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His
+Circulus Pisanus, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic
+work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses
+of the formation of the world. The work was forbidden and is very
+rare. His book entitled Dubitationes in Dialogum Galilaei, also brought
+on him a charge of scepticism. Died in 1664.
+
+Berkenhout (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731,
+the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he
+had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and
+in 1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on
+medical science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain
+and Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal
+work is entitled Biographia Literaria, a biographical history of
+English literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity
+of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his
+praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.
+
+Berlioz (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical composers,
+b. Isere, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his dramatic symphony
+of Romeo and Juliet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion
+of Honor. Among his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his
+Memoirs he relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn "by laughing at
+the Bible." Died Paris, 9 March, 1869.
+
+Bernard (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 July,
+1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the
+Institute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote
+La Science Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10
+Feb. 1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert
+calls him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.
+
+Bernier (Abbe). See Holbach.
+
+Bernier (Francois), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about
+1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, and he
+defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joli
+philsophe. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to
+India, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On his return he
+published an account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great
+Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.
+
+Bernstein (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic
+1812. His first work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published
+under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself
+to natural science and published works on The Rotation of Planets,
+Humboldt and the Spirit of the Time, etc. His essay on The Origin of
+the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was translated by a German
+lady and published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin,
+12 Feb. 1884.
+
+Berquin (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. Erasmus,
+his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred of
+the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was
+commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment
+was pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to
+the Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of
+the 17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to
+be burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon
+at the Place de la Greve. He died with great constancy and resolution.
+
+Bert (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17
+Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after
+being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869
+obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris,
+and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he
+offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in
+'72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised himself
+by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him
+Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French
+education on a Secular basis. His First Year of Scientific Instruction
+is almost universally used in the French primary schools. It has been
+translated into English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His
+strong anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published
+several scientific and educational works and attacked The Morality of
+the Jesuits, '80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at
+Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France
+and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow.
+
+Bertani (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a
+physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising
+the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy
+to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86.
+
+Berti (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. Author
+of many scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council and
+of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.
+
+Bertillon (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and physician,
+b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical study
+of the French population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with
+A. Hovelacque and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological
+Sciences ('83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b. '53),
+prosecute similar studies.
+
+Bertrand de Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician,
+b. Puy-en-Velay 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The
+Original Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work
+on Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organisation,
+1848. Has also written on Descartes as a Physiologist, 1869.
+
+Berwick (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company
+in 1828, retired in '52. Author of Awas-i-hind, or a Voice from the
+Ganges; being a solution of the true source of Christianity. By an
+Indian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the
+Universe, '70. Died about 1872.
+
+Besant (Annie) nee Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Educated in
+Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned
+to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In "Holy Week"
+of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the week from the
+gospel. Their contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts
+as sin. In Dec. '67 she married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and
+wrote extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough
+caused doubts as to the goodness of God. A study of Greg's Creed
+of Christendom and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her
+scepticism. She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas
+Scott, for whom she wrote an Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth,
+"by the wife of a beneficed clergyman." This led to her husband
+insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter
+course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own
+resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in My Path
+to Atheism ('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote
+in the National Reformer over the signature of "Ajax." Next year she
+took to the platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to
+the front rank as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor
+of the National Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution
+were republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested
+with Mr. Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy. After a
+brilliant defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt
+motives, and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed
+in Feb. '78, and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a petition
+in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the
+ground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted
+the petition. In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University
+and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued
+many pamphlets to be found in Theological Essays and Debates. She
+wrote the second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with
+Christian evidence; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and
+the Evolution of Society. She has translated Jules Soury's Religion
+of Israel, and Jesus of the Gospels; Dr. L. Buechner on the Influence
+of Heredity and Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of
+Force and Matter. From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since
+'85 has given much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many
+Socialist pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member
+of the London School Board.
+
+Beverland (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew of Isaac
+Vossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and
+became an advocate, but devoted himself to literature. He was at the
+university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum
+Originale (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin
+of Adam and Eve was sexual inclination, caused a great outcry. It
+was burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his name struck from the
+rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other curious works and
+died about 1712.
+
+Bevington (Louisa S.), afterwards Guggenberger; English poetess and
+authoress of Key Notes, 1879; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82; wrote
+"Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock" in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and
+Dec. '79), and on "The Moral Demerits of Orthodoxy" in Progress,
+Sept. '84.
+
+Beyle (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous under the
+name of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier,
+merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being
+congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De l'Amour
+is his most notable work. He was an original and gifted critic and
+romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March,
+1842. Prosper Merimee has published his correspondence. One of his
+sayings was "Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas"--God's
+excuse is that he does not exist.
+
+Bianchi (Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man
+of letters, b. of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted
+several papers in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life
+of Father Paoli Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward
+he was in constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on
+the clergy in Il Republicano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to
+seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote
+a History of the Hebrews, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account
+of the Revolution. His principal works are the History of the Popes
+until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism
+of the Gospels, 1853, which has gone through several editions. Died
+16 May, 1862.
+
+Biandrata or Blandrata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer,
+b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier,
+1533. He was thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia,
+but contrived to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to
+Calvin. He left Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a
+leader of the Socinian party. He was assassinated 1591.
+
+Bichat (Marie Francois Xavier), a famous French anatomist and
+physiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the
+Physiology of Life and Death was translated into English. He died a
+martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.
+
+Biddle or Bidle (John), called the father of English Unitarianism,
+b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his
+M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester
+Grammar School, but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He
+was also imprisoned there for some time, and afterwards cited at
+Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet
+was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained
+in prison till 1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and
+was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to
+the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658,
+but after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was again seized,
+and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.
+
+Bierce (M. H.) see Grile (Dod).
+
+Billaud-Varenne (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Rochelle,
+23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; denounced
+the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy
+1 July, 1791, and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew
+from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying "Thou
+beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme Being." Was exiled 1 April,
+1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819.
+
+Bion, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian
+philosopher who flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave
+to a rhetorician, who afterwards gave him freedom and made him his
+heir. Upon this he went to Athens and applied himself to the study
+of philosophy. He had several teachers, but attached himself to
+Theodorus the Atheist. He was famous for his knowledge of music,
+poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved,
+as that "only the votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the
+temples, not those of the drowned" and "it is useless to tear our
+hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness."
+
+Birch (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4
+Jan. 1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at
+New Inn Hall. Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
+of Shakespeare, 1848; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion
+of the Bible, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by "Rudolf
+Charles;" Paul an Idea, not a Fact; and the Real and Ideal. In the
+stormy time of '42 Mr. Birch did much to support the prosecuted
+publications. He brought out the Library of Reason and supported
+The Reasoner and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has
+resided much in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity
+and Freedom. He is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch
+has been a contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals,
+and has devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity,
+having many manuscripts upon the subject.
+
+Bithell (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, of pious
+parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of
+Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the
+service of the Rothschilds. Has written Creed of a Modern Agnostic,
+1883; and Agnostic Problems, 1887.
+
+Bjoernson (Bjoernstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His
+father was a Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national
+literature for Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged
+to leave his country and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been
+translated into English. In 1882 Bjoernson published at Christiania,
+with a short introduction, a resume of C. B. Waite's History of the
+Christian Religion, under the title of Whence come the Miracles of the
+New Testament? This was the first attack upon dogmatic Christianity
+published in Norway, and created much discussion. The following year
+he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North
+American Review upon the "Christian Religion," with a long preface,
+in which he attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation
+was entitled Think for Yourself. The first edition rapidly sold out
+and a second one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing,
+repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had several controversies
+with the clergy.
+
+Blagosvyetlov (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus,
+1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection
+of Women he translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo
+(Cause). Died about 1885.
+
+Blanqui (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805,
+a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming
+a Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment
+under successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but
+his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to
+brutal treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He
+was soon again imprisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles
+on Monotheism in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70,
+Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned,
+but was liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by
+Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious book, Eternity
+and the Stars, in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of
+matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto "Ni Dieu
+ni maitre"--Neither God nor master.
+
+Blasche (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April,
+1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He wrote
+Kritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief),
+Philosophische Unsterblichkeitslehre (Teaching of Philosophical
+Immortality), and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.
+
+Blignieres (Celestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic
+school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and
+religion, Paris 1857; The Positive Doctrine, 1867; Studies of Positive
+Morality, 1868; and other works.
+
+Blind (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied
+at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary leader
+among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and
+proscribed. In Sept. '48 he led the second republican revolution in
+the Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight year's
+imprisonment. In the spring of '49 he was liberated by the people
+breaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon,
+then president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and
+banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived
+in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history,
+and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her
+literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the
+name of Claude Lake. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and
+the New, and written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland
+in the Eminent Women series.
+
+Blount (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at Holloway 27
+April, 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared in his
+opinions, and helped him in his anti-religious work, Anima Mundi,
+1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In 1680 he
+published Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the Origin of Idolatry,
+and the two first books of Apollonius Tyanius, with notes, in which
+he attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was condemned and
+suppressed. Blount also published The Oracles of Reason, a number
+of Freethought Essays. By his Vindication of Learning and Liberty
+of the Press, and still more by his hoax on Bohun entitled William
+and Mary Conquerors, he was largely instrumental in doing away with
+the censorship of the press. He shot himself, it is said, because
+he could not marry his deceased wife's sister (August, 1693). His
+miscellaneous works were printed in one volume, 1695.
+
+Blumenfeld (J. C.), wrote The New Ecce Homo or the Self Redemption of
+Man, 1839. He is also credited with the authorship of The Existence of
+Christ Disproved in a series of Letters by "A German Jew," London,
+1841.
+
+Boerne (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b. Frankfort
+22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in which he had
+been bred, nominally for Protestantism, but really he had, like his
+friend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in favor of
+political liberty and translated Lammenais' Paroles d'un Croyant. Died
+12 Feb. 1837.
+
+Bodin (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He studied
+at Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the law,
+and became secretary to the Duc d'Alencon. His book De la Republique
+is highly praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of
+Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws." He wrote a work on demonomania, in
+which he seems to have believed, but in his Colloquium Heptaplomeron
+coloquies of seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a
+Pagan, a Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript,
+he put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at
+Laon in 1596.
+
+Boggis (John) is mentioned by Edwards in his Gangrena, 1645, as an
+Atheist and disbeliever in the Bible.
+
+Boichot (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820, entered
+the army. In '49 he was chosen representative of the people. After
+the coup d'etat he came to England, returned to France in '54,
+was arrested and imprisoned at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived
+at Brussels, where he has written several works and is one of the
+council of International Freethinkers.
+
+Boindin (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and academician,
+b. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and resorted
+with other Freethinkers to the famous cafe Procope. There, in order to
+speak freely, they called the soul Margot, religion Javotte, liberty
+Jeanneton, and God M. de l'Etre. One day a spy asked Boindin, "Who
+is this M. de l'Etre with whom you seem so displeased?" "Monsieur,"
+replied Boindin, "he is a police spy." Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse
+was refused "Christian burial."
+
+Boissiere (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French writer, b. Valognes
+Dec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He compiled an analogical
+dictionary of the French language. Under the name of Sierebois he
+has published the Autopsy of the Soul and a work on the foundations
+of morality, which he traces to interest. He has also written a book
+entitled The Mechanism of Thought, '84.
+
+Boissonade (J. A.), author of The Bible Unveiled, Paris, 1871.
+
+Boito (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose opera
+"Mefistofele," has created considerable sensation by its boldness.
+
+Bolingbroke (Henry Saint John) Lord, English statesman and philosopher,
+b. at Battersea, 1 Oct. 1672. His political life was a stormy
+one. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his Essay on Man
+avowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at Battersea
+12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who in 1754
+published his works, which included Essays Written to A. Pope, Esq.,
+on Religion and Philosophy, in which he attacks Christianity with
+both wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, believing in God
+but scornfully rejecting revelation. He much influenced Voltaire,
+who regarded him with esteem.
+
+Bonavino (Francesco Cristoforo) see Franchi (Ausonio).
+
+Boni (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. Editor of
+a standard Biography of Artists, published at Venice, 1840. He also
+wrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on Reason and Dogma, Siena,
+'66, and contributed to Stefanoni's Libero Pensiero. De Boni was
+elected deputy to the Italian Parliament. He has written on "Italian
+Unbelief in the Middle Ages" in the Annuario Filosofico del Libero
+Pensiero, '68.
+
+Boniface VIII., Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of Christendom,
+24 Dec. 1294. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of France charges
+were sworn on oath against Pope Boniface that he neither believed in
+the Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the Virgin Mary
+"was no more a virgin than my mother"; that he did not observe the
+fasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the cardinals, monks,
+and friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the Pope had said
+"God may do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I
+believe as every educated man does, the vulgar believe otherwise. We
+have to speak as they do, but we must believe and think with the
+few." Died 11 Oct. 1303.
+
+Bonnycastle (John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, about
+1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathematics and became
+Professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,
+where he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private
+information assures me he was a Freethinker.
+
+Booms (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by trade,
+who wrote early in the eighteenth century, and on 1 Jan. 1714,
+was banished.
+
+Bonnot de Condillac (Etienne) see Condillac.
+
+Bonstetten (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept
+1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and
+England to finish his education. Among his works are Researches on
+the Nature and Laws of the Imagination, 1807; and Studies on Man,
+1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.
+
+Borde (Frederic), editor of La Philosophie de l'Avenir, Paris, 1875,
+etc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.
+
+Born (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by the
+Jesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the
+Empress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works
+on Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and
+published with the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated
+satire entitled Monchalogia, or the natural history of monks.
+
+Bosc (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, 29
+Jan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose Memoirs he
+published. He wrote many works on natural history. Died 10 July, 1828.
+
+Boucher (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809; contributed to
+the Rationalist of Geneva, where he died 1882. Author of a work on
+Revelation and Rationalism, entitled Search for the Truth, Avignon,
+1884.
+
+Bougainville (Louis Antoine de) Count, the first French voyager
+who made the tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729. Died 31
+Aug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his travels.
+
+Bouillier (Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July 1813, has
+written several works on psychology, and contributed to la Liberte de
+Penser. His principal work is a History of the Cartesian Philosophy. He
+is a member of the Institute and writes in the leading reviews.
+
+Bouis (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited La Libre
+Pensee and wrote a satire on the Jesuits entitled Calottes et Soutanes,
+1870. Sent to New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he
+has since his return published a volume of political verses entitled
+Apres le Naufrage, After the Shipwreck, 1880.
+
+Boulainvilliers (Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French historian and
+philosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical work is an
+account of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a defence of
+Spinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an analysis of
+Spinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at the end of Doubts
+upon Religion, Londres, 1767. A Life of Muhammad, the first European
+work doing justice to Islam, and a History of the Arabs also proceeded
+from his pen, and he is one of those to whom is attributed the treatise
+with the title of the Three Impostors, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.
+
+Boulanger (Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b. 11 Nov. 1722. Died
+16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as engineer, and
+afterwards became surveyor of public works. After his death his works
+were published by D'Holbach who rewrote them. His principal works
+are Antiquity Unveiled and Researches on the Origin of Oriental
+Despotism. Christianity Unveiled, attributed to him and said by
+Voltaire to have been by Damilavile, was probably written by D'Holbach,
+perhaps with some assistance from Naigeon. It was burnt by order of
+the French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. A Critical Examination of the
+Life and Works of St. Paul, attributed to Boulanger, was really made
+up by d'Holbach from the work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations
+on Elisha, Enoch and St. Peter, and some articles for the Encyclopedie.
+
+Bourdet (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. Author of
+several works on medicine and Positivist philosophy and education.
+
+Boureau-Deslands (A. F.) See Deslandes.
+
+Bourget (Paul), French litterateur, b. at Amiens in 1852. Has made
+himself famous by his novels, essays on contemporary psychology,
+studies of M. Renan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but
+his methods are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His
+insight is most subtle, and his style is exquisite.
+
+Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee
+Bonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and published an
+able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, 1866,
+for which the clergy turned him out of a professorship he held at
+Sainte-Barbe.
+
+Bovio (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the University
+of Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent
+Freethinker. Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio
+opposes the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between
+Church and State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience
+and has promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University
+of Rome. He has written a work on The History of Law, a copy of which
+he presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.
+
+Bowring (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and writer,
+b. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant
+Carpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles
+he maintained in the Westminster Review, of which he was editor,
+1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight's imprisonment
+he was released without trial. He published Bentham's Deontology
+(1834), and nine years after edited a complete collection of the
+works of Bentham. Returned to Parliament in '35, and afterwards was
+employed in important government missions. In '55 he visited Siam,
+and two years later published an account of The Kingdom and People
+of Siam. He translated Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of
+many countries; was an active member of the British Association and
+of the Social Science Association, and did much to promote rational
+views on the Sunday question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.
+
+Boyle (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the purpose of
+serving in R. Carlile's shop when the right of free publication was
+attacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted and tried as
+"a man with name unknown" for publishing a blasphemous and seditious
+libel. In his defence he ably asserted his right to hold and publish
+his opinions. He read portions of the Bible in court to prove he was
+justified in calling it obscene. Upon being sentenced, 27 May, 1822,
+to eighteen months' imprisonment and to find sureties for five years,
+he remarked "I have a mind, my lord, that can bear such a sentence
+with fortitude."
+
+Bradlaugh (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. Educated
+in Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his Sunday-school
+teachership and from his first situation through the influence of the
+Rev. J. G. Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In
+Dec. 1850 he entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here
+he met James Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which
+lasted for many years. He got his discharge, and in '53 returned to
+London and became a solicitor's clerk. He began to write and lecture
+under the nom de guerre of "Iconoclast," edited the Investigator, '59;
+and had numerous debates with ministers and others. In 1860 he began
+editing the National Reformer, which in '68-9 he successfully defended
+against a prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities
+against blasphemy. In '68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament,
+and in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle
+with the House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took
+his seat in 1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation
+into which he was plunged will become as historic as that of John
+Wilkes. Prosecuted in '76 for publishing The Fruits of Philosophy, he
+succeeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous
+debates, several of which are published. He has also written many
+pamphlets, of which we mention New Lives of Abraham, David, and
+other saints, Who was Jesus Christ? What did Jesus Teach? Has Man
+a Soul, Is there a God? etc. His Plea for Atheism reached its 20th
+thousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also published When were our
+Gospels Written?, 1867; Heresy, its Utility and Morality, 1870;
+The Inspiration of the Bible, 1873; The Freethinker's Text Book,
+part i., dealing with natural religion, 1876; The Laws Relating to
+Blasphemy and Heresy, 1878; Supernatural and Rational Morality,
+1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh commenced a commentary on the Bible,
+entitled The Bible, What is it? In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form,
+dealing only with the Pentateuch. In 1882 he published Genesis, Its
+Authorship and Authenticity. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become
+a conspicuous figure, and has introduced many important measures. In
+1888 he succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations
+permissible instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30
+April, 1856, has written on Mind Considered as a Bodily Function,
+1884. Died 2 Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,
+b. 31 March, 1858, has written "Princess Vera" and other stories,
+"Chemistry of Home," etc.
+
+Braekstad (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept. 1845. Has made
+English translations from Bjoernson, Asbjoernsen, Andersen, etc., and
+has contributed to Harper's Magazine and other periodical literature.
+
+Brandes (Georg Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew,
+b. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills'
+Subjection of Women, and in the following year took a doctor's
+degree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is entitled the
+Main Current of Literature in the Nineteenth Century. His brother,
+Dr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish Parliament in 1881,
+despite his declaration that he did not believe either in the God of
+the Christians or of the Jews.
+
+Bray (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. 1811. He was
+brought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to Freethought. Early
+in life he took an active part in promoting unsectarian education. His
+first work (1835) was on The Education of the Body. This was followed
+by The Education of the Feelings, of which there were several
+editions. In 1836 he married Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell,
+and took the System of Nature and Volney's Ruins of Empires "to
+enliven the honeymoon." Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans ("George
+Eliot"), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to Italy. His works on
+The Philosophy of Necessity (1841) and Cerebral Psychology (1875)
+give the key to all his thought. He wrote a number of Thomas Scott's
+series of tracts: Illusion and Delusion, The Reign of Law in Mind as
+in Matter, Toleration with remarks on Professor Tyndall's "Address,"
+and a little book, Christianity in the Light of our Present Knowledge
+and Moral Sense (1876). He also wrote A Manual of Anthropology and
+similar works. In a postscript to his last volume, Phases of Opinion
+and Experience During a Long Life, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated
+that he has no hope or expectation or belief even in the possibility
+of continued individuality after death, and that as his opinions have
+done to live by "they will do to die by." He died 5 Oct. 1884.
+
+Bresson (Leopold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, 1817. Educated at
+the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and served on public
+works. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian Railway
+Company. Wrote Idees Modernes, 1880.
+
+Bridges (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, graduated
+B.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on Religion and
+Progress, contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and translated Comte's
+General View of Positivism (1865) and System of Positive Polity (1873).
+
+Bril (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. 1639. Died
+1700. His works were published at Amsterdam, 1705.
+
+Brissot (Jean Pierre) de Warville, active French revolutionist,
+b. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to the law, but took to
+literature. He wrote for the Courier de l'Europe, a revolutionary
+paper suppressed for its boldness, published a treatise on Truth,
+and edited a Philosophical Law Library, 1782-85. He wrote against the
+legal authority of Rome, and is credited with Philosophical Letters
+upon St. Paul and the Christian Religion, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784
+he was imprisoned in the Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second
+imprisonment he went to England and America, returning to France
+at the outbreak of the Revolution. He wrote many political works,
+became member of the Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party,
+protested against the execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph
+of the Mountain was executed with twenty-one of his colleagues,
+31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish,
+and an earnest lover of freedom in every form.
+
+Bristol (Augusta), nee Cooper, American educator, b. Croydon, New
+Haven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850 became teacher and gained repute by
+her Poems. In Sept. 1880, she represented American Freethinkers at
+the International Conference at Brussels. She has written on Science
+and its Relations to Human Character and other works.
+
+Broca (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. A
+hard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In
+1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils
+Gratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated
+his treatise on Hybridity. He established The Review of Anthropology,
+published numerous scientific works and was made a member of the
+Legion of Honor. In philosophy he inclined to Positivism. Died Paris,
+9 July, 1880.
+
+Brooksbank (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he wrote
+in Carlile's Lion, and has since contributed to the Reasoner, the
+Pathfinder, and the National Reformer. He was an intimate friend
+of James Watson. He wrote A Sketch of the Religions of the Earth,
+Revelation Tested by Astronomy, Geography, Geology, etc., 1856, and
+some other pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age
+at Nottingham.
+
+Brothier (Leon), author of a Popular History of Philosophy, 1861,
+and other works in the Bibliotheque Utile. He contributed to the
+Rationalist of Geneva.
+
+Broussais (Francois Joseph Victor), French physician and philosopher,
+b. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in 1792 he served
+as volunteer in the army of the Republic. He studied medicine at
+St. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple of Bichat,
+he did much to reform medical science by his Examination of Received
+Medical Doctrines and to find a basis for mental and moral science in
+physiology by his many scientific works. Despite his bold opinions, he
+was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died poor at St. Malo 17
+Nov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in which he declares
+his disbelief in a creator and his being "without hope or fear of
+another life."
+
+Brown (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in Essex Co.,
+N.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he was expelled
+the church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. Dr. Brown
+edited the Herald of Freedom, Kansas. In 1856 his office was destroyed
+by a pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the river, and himself
+and others arrested but was released without trial. Dr. Brown has
+contributed largely to the Ironclad Age and other American Freethought
+papers, and is bringing out a work on the Origin of Christianity.
+
+Brown (Titus L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.). Studied
+at the Medical College of New York and graduated at the Homoeopathic
+College, Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where he had a large
+practice. He contributed to the Boston Investigator and in 1877 was
+elected President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug. 1887.
+
+Browne (Sir Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct. 1605. He
+studied medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his doctor's
+degree at Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich, where he had
+a good practice. His treatise Religio Medici, famous for its fine
+style and curious mixture of faith and scepticism, was surreptitiously
+published in 1642. It ran through several editions and was placed on
+the Roman Index. His Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar
+and Common Errors, appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular
+superstitions he showed he partook of others. This curious work
+was followed by Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, in which he treats
+of cremation among the ancients. To this was added The Garden of
+Cyrus. He died 19 Oct. 1682.
+
+Bruno (Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near Naples, about
+1548. He was christened Filippo which he changed to Filoteo, taking
+the name of Giordano when he entered the Dominican order. Religious
+doubts and bold strictures on the monks obliged him to quit Italy,
+probably in 1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no safe abiding
+place, and quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but refused to attend
+mass. In 1583 he visited England, living with the French ambassador
+Castelnau. Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip Sidney, he
+dedicated to him his Spaccio della Bestia Triomfante, a satire on all
+mythologies. In 1585 he took part in a logical tournament, sustaining
+the Copernican theory against the doctors of Oxford. The following year
+he returned to Paris, where he again attacked the Aristotelians. He
+then travelled to various cities in Germany, everywhere preaching
+the broadest heresy. He published several Pantheistic, scientific and
+philosophical works. He was however induced to return to Italy, and
+arrested as an heresiarch and apostate at Venice, Sept. 1592. After
+being confined for seven years by the Inquisitors, he was tried,
+and burnt at Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last moments a crucifix was
+offered him, which he nobly rejected. Bruno was vastly before his age
+in his conception of the universe and his rejection of theological
+dogmas. A statue of this heroic apostle of liberty and light, executed
+by one of the first sculptors of Italy, is to be erected on the spot
+where he perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the
+site in face of the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The
+list of subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced
+thinkers in Europe and America.
+
+Brzesky (Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See Liszinski.
+
+Bucali or Busali (Leonardo), a Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent,
+who became a follower of Servetus in the sixteenth century, and had
+to seek among the Turks the safety denied him in Christendom. He died
+at Damascus.
+
+Buchanan (George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn,
+Feb. 1506. Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to
+Paris at the age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became
+distinguished for his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his
+natural son. He composed his Franciscanus et Fratres, a satire on the
+monks, which hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to
+the vengeance of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist,
+Archbishop Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew's
+Castle, from whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found,
+as he said, Henry VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same
+stake for religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to
+the persecution of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of
+a patron at Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and
+immured for a year and a half in a monastery, where he translated
+the Psalms into Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he
+espoused the party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28
+Sept. 1582, leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems,
+satires, and political writings, the most important of which is a
+work of republican tendency, De Jure Regni, the Rights of Kings.
+
+Buchanan (Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was successively a
+schoolmaster, a Socialist missionary and a journalist. He settled in
+Manchester, where he published works on the Religion of The Past and
+Present, 1839; the Origin and Nature of Ghosts, 1840. An Exposure
+of Joseph Barker, and a Concise History of Modern Priestcraft also
+bear the latter date. At this time the Socialists were prosecuted for
+lecturing on Sunday, and Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the
+oath of supremacy, etc. After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for
+the Northern Star, and edited the Glasgow Sentinel. He died at the
+home of his son, the poet, at Bexhill, Sussex, 4 March, 1866.
+
+Buchanan (Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort, Kentucky,
+11 Dec. 1814. He graduated M.D. at Louisville University, 1842, and
+has been the teacher of physiology at several colleges. From 1849-56
+he published Buchanan's Journal of Man, and has written several works
+on Anthropology.
+
+Buchner (Ludwig). See Buechner.
+
+Buckle (Henry Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent, 24
+Nov. 1821. In consequence of his delicate health he was educated at
+home. His mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory,
+but a visit to the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He
+ever afterwards held travelling to be the best education. It was his
+ambition to write a History of Civilisation in England, but so vast was
+his design that his three notable volumes with that title form only
+part of the introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created a
+great sensation by its boldness. In the following year he championed
+the cause of Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the
+prosecution of infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East,
+in the hope of improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May,
+1862. Much of the material collected for his History has been published
+in his Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works, edited by Helen Taylor,
+1872. An abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.
+
+Buechner (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), German materialist,
+b. Darmstadt, 29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in Geissen, Strassburg
+and Vienna. In '55 he startled the world with his bold work on
+Force and Matter, which has gone through numerous editions and been
+translated into nearly all the European languages. This work lost
+him the place of professor which he held at Tuebingen, and he has
+since practised in his native town. Buechner has developed his ideas
+in many other works such as Nature and Spirit (1857), Physiological
+Sketches, '61; Nature and Science, '62; Conferences on Darwinism,
+'69; Man in the Past, Present and Future, '69; Materialism its History
+and Influence on Society, '73; The Idea of God, '74; Mind in Animals,
+'80; and Light and Life, '82. He also contributes to the Freidenker,
+the Dageraad, and other journals.
+
+Buffon (Georges Louis Leclerc), Count de, French naturalist,
+b. Montford, Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His Natural
+History in 36 volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind
+and his capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in
+seclusion, and attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his
+sentences were attacked by the Sorbonne. Herault de Sechelles says
+that Buffon said: "I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary
+to take out the word and substitute the power of nature." Died at
+Paris 16 April, 1788.
+
+Buitendijk or Buytendyck (Gosuinus van), Dutch Spinozist, who wrote an
+Apology at the beginning of the eighteenth century and was banished
+1716.
+
+Bufalini (Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787. In 1813 he
+published an essay on the Doctrine of Life in opposition to vitalism,
+and henceforward his life was a conflict with the upholders of that
+doctrine. He was accused of materialism, but became a professor at
+Florence and a member of the Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence
+31 March, 1875.
+
+Burdach (Karl Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12 June,
+1776. He occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works on
+physiology and anthropology did much to popularise those sciences,
+and the former is placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for its
+materialistic tendency. He died at Konigsberg, 16 July, 1847.
+
+Burdon (William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764. Graduated
+at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a clergyman,
+but want of faith made him decline that profession. His principal work
+is entitled Materials for Thinking. Colton largely availed himself of
+this work in his Lacon. It went through five editions in his lifetime,
+and portions were reprinted in the Library of Reason. He also addressed
+Three Letters to the Bishop of Llandaff, wrote a Life and Character of
+Bonaparte, translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the
+Memoirs of Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual
+subscription to the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.
+
+Burigny (Jean Levesque de), French writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became
+a member of the French Academy, wrote a treatise on the Authority
+of the Pope, a History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and
+is credited with the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the
+Christian Religion, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon,
+1766. Levesque de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier's
+Proofs of Christianity, which is published in Naigeon's Recueil
+Philosophique. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.
+
+Burmeister (Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15 Jan. 1807. In
+1827 he became a doctor at Halle. In '48 he was elected to the National
+Assembly. In 1850 he went to Brazil. His principal work is The History
+of Creation, 1843.
+
+Burmeister or Baurmeister (Johann Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist
+and colleague of Ronge. Born at Flensburg, 1805. He resided in
+Hamburg, and wrote in the middle of the present century under the
+name of J. P. Lyser.
+
+Burnet (Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through the
+interest of a pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the mastership
+of the Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his Telluris
+Theoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth, appeared in Latin, and
+was translated and modified in 1684. In 1692 Burnet published, both
+in English and in Latin, his Archaeologiae Philosophicae, or the Ancient
+Doctrine of the Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile
+his theory with Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation;
+and a ludicrous dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great
+offence. In a popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying--
+
+
+                That all the books of Moses
+                Were nothing but supposes.
+
+
+He had to resign a position at court. In later life he wrote De Fide
+et Officiis Christianorum (on Christian Faith and Duties), in which
+he regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature,
+and rejects original sin and the "magical" theory of sacraments;
+and De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and
+Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment
+and shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself
+to avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for
+private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract
+entitled Hell Torments not Eternal was published in 1739.
+
+Burnett (James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge,
+was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession,
+became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His
+work on the Origin and Progress of Language (published anonymously
+1773-92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the
+animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on
+civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied
+to the human species. He also wrote on Ancient Metaphysics. He was
+a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and
+Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.
+
+Burnouf (Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He
+became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author
+of many works, including a translation of selections from the Novum
+Organum of Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas,
+a history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles
+in the Revue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work
+on the Science of Religions, 1878, in his Contemporary Catholicism,
+and Life and Thought, 1886.
+
+Burnouf (Eugene), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding;
+b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali
+language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially
+Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted
+for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He
+translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuable Introduction
+to the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.
+
+Burns (Robert), Scotland's greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25
+Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The
+life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His
+Freethought is evident from such productions as the "Holy Fair,"
+"The Kirk's Alarm," and "Holy Willie's Prayer," and many passages in
+private letters to his most familiar male friends. Died at Dumfries,
+21 July, 1796.
+
+Burr (William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y.,
+graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter
+to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary
+research. He is the anonymous author of Revelations of Antichrist, a
+learned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity,
+and seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century
+before the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:
+Thomas Paine was Junius, 1880: Self Contradictions of the Bible;
+Is the Bible a Lying Humbug? A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has
+also frequently contributed to the Boston Investigator, the New York
+Truthseeker, and the Ironclad Age of Indianapolis.
+
+Burton (Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author,
+b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church,
+he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India
+Company's service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon
+acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In '51 he returned to
+England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines
+unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the
+Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and
+dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened
+the lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of
+Brazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and
+since 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest
+work is a new translation of The Thousand Nights and a Night in 10
+vols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying
+"literal naturalism" from the Bible. Burton's knowledge of Arabic is
+so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would
+roll on the ground in fits of laughter.
+
+Butler (Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In
+early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting,
+and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became
+clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell's Generals, whom he has
+satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663
+and became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with
+its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity
+till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed
+the opinion that
+
+
+        "Religion is the interest of churches
+        That sell in other worlds in this to purchase."
+
+
+Buttmann (Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5
+Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited
+many of the Greek Classics, wrote on the Myth of the Deluge, 1819,
+and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.
+
+Buzot (Francois Leonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as
+an ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born
+at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after
+the suppression of his party June, 1793.
+
+Byelinsky (Vissarion G.) See Belinsky.
+
+Byron (George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded
+his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In
+1807 he published his Hours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find
+himself famous. His power was, however, first shown in his English
+Bards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He
+then travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in his
+Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815,
+but a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then
+resided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823
+he devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution,
+but was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His
+drama of Cain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance,
+and it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling
+is also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem, The Vision
+of Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In
+his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says:
+"I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing
+to do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life,
+without the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of
+your religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate,
+the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty," etc.
+
+Cabanis (Pierre Jean George), called by Lange "the father of the
+materialistic physiology," b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil
+of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last
+illness, of which he published an account 1791. He was also intimate
+with Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished
+Freethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the
+Council of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly
+medical, the chief being Des Rapports du Physique et du Morale de
+l'Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the
+brain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.
+
+Caesalpinus (Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance,
+b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and
+Linnaeus admits his obligations to his work, De Plantis, 1583. He also
+wrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the
+circulation of the blood. In a work entitled Demonum Investigatio,
+he contends that "possession" by devils is amenable to medical
+treatment. His Quaestionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva,
+1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to
+that of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.
+
+Caesar (Caius Julius), the "foremost man of all this world," equally
+renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July,
+100 B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are
+well known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy,
+courage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope,
+"Caesar the world's great master and his own." His military talents
+elevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against
+him a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated,
+15 March, 44 B.C. His Commentaries are a model of insight and clear
+expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of
+a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says:
+"His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any
+religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically
+interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and
+to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that
+there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it."
+
+Cahuac (John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer's Principles
+of Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the
+"Vice Society," but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted
+for selling the Republican, 1820.
+
+Calderino (Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445,
+in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor
+of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the
+Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.
+
+Calenzio (Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about
+1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the
+King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires,
+fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.
+
+Call (Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at
+Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about
+1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his
+preface to Reverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school,
+and has contributed largely to the Fortnightly and Westminster Reviews.
+
+Callet (Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27
+Oct. 1812; became editor of the Gazette of France till 1840. In 1848
+he was nominated Republican representative. At the coup d'etat of 2
+Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was
+imprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again
+elected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief
+Freethought work is L'Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine
+of hell, 1861.
+
+Camisani (Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor
+of Languages in Milan. He has translated the Upas of Captain R. H. Dyas
+and other works.
+
+Campanella (Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria,
+5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much
+attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590
+his Philosophia Sensibus Demonstratio was printed at Naples. Being
+prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice,
+and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the
+Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was
+acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges
+of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples,
+and having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment
+in the prison of the Holy Office. He was put to the torture seven
+times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but
+he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for
+twenty-seven years, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of
+the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May,
+1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He
+was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He
+also visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that
+his Atheismus Triumphatus--Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better
+entitled Atheismus Triumphans--Atheism Triumphant--as the author puts
+his strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In his City of the Sun,
+Campanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a
+time when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says "The
+strength of Campanella's genius lay in his imagination." His "Sonnets"
+have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.
+
+Campbell (Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning
+of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at
+the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote
+a memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist
+missionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative
+movement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he
+was tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833-4. About 1849 he returned
+to Glasgow and wrote on the Sentinel. In 1867 he was presented with
+a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions
+in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.
+
+Campion (William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile's
+shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine's Age of Reason. After
+a spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years'
+imprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke,
+E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, the Newgate Monthly Magazine, to which
+he contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826,
+when he was removed to the Compter.
+
+Canestrini (Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rero, 1835. He studied
+at Vienna, and in '60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at
+Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed to the Annuario Filosofico del
+Libero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works
+of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written
+upon the Origin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan,
+'66-'70, and on the Theory of Evolution, Turin, '77. He was appointed
+Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua,
+where he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, '82.
+
+Cardano (Girolamo), better known as Jerome Cardan, Italian
+mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied
+medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on
+account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time
+compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his
+first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate
+cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the
+medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was
+arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of
+his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said,
+starved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite
+some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially
+by his work on Algebra, and in his works De Subtilitate Rerum and De
+Varietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality
+of natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused
+him of Atheism. Puenjer says "Cardanus deserves to be named along with
+Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy."
+
+Carducci (Giosue), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at
+the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca,
+27 July, 1836. As early as '49 he cried, Abasso tutti i re! viva la
+republica--Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into
+fame by his Hymn to Satan, '69, by which he intended the spirit of
+resistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits
+himself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of '57 he
+wrote his famous verse "Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia"--"This
+vile christianising century." In '60 he became professor of Greek
+in Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in '67 for
+an address to Mazzini. In '76 he was elected as republican deputy to
+the Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.
+
+Carlile (Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from
+Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831,
+delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the Isis,
+which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The Isis was dedicated
+to the young women of England "until superstition is extinct,"
+and contained Frances Wright's discourses, in addition to those
+by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till '61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with
+Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three
+children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is
+still living.
+
+Carlile (Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business
+during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two
+years' imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred,
+and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the Regenerator,
+a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.
+
+Carlile (Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English
+free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a
+tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six,
+when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like
+Wooler's Black Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin
+offered him the dangerous post of publisher of the Republican, which
+he accepted. He then published Southey's Wat Tyler, reprinted the
+political works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but
+which cost Carlile eighteen weeks' imprisonment. In 1818 he published
+Paine's Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to
+go on printing similar works, such as Palmer's Principles of Nature,
+Watson Refuted, Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six
+indictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16
+October. He read the whole of the Age of Reason in his defence, in
+order to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and
+sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years'
+imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business
+was kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities
+not to publish, he was kept in prison till 18 Nov. 1835, when he
+was liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited
+the Republican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited
+the Deist, the Moralist, the Lion (four volumes), the Prompter (for
+No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months' imprisonment),
+and the Gauntlet. Amongst his writings are An Address to Men of
+Science, The Gospel according to R. Carlile, What is God? Every
+Woman's Book, etc. He published Doubts of Infidels, Janus on Sion,
+Sepher Toldoth Jeshu, D'Holbach's Good Sense, Volney's Ruins, and
+many other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his
+body to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.
+
+Carlyle (Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the
+century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his
+father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early
+ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University
+of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure
+in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826,
+and wrote in the London Magazine and Edinburgh Review many masterly
+critical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German
+literature. In 1833-4 his Sartor Resartus appeared in Fraser's
+Magazine. In '34 he removed to London and began writing the French
+Revolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill,
+with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without
+complaint, and it was published in '37. He then delivered a course
+of lectures on "German Literature" and on "Heroes, Hero-Worship, and
+the Heroic in History," in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet
+"we are freest to speak of." His Past and Present was published in
+'43. In '45 appeared Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches. In
+'50 he published Latter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most
+distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year
+his Life of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His
+largest work is his History of the Life and Times of Frederick the
+Great, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in
+'65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his Biography of Carlyle, says,
+"We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his
+friend did in the Christian religion." ... "the special miraculous
+occurrences of sacred history were not credible to him."
+
+Carneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went
+early to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning
+logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other
+deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on
+the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention
+by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of
+a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and
+design. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero's Academics
+and De Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views
+seem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He died
+B.C. 129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His
+ethics were of elevated character.
+
+Carneri (Bartholomaeus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3
+Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian
+Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work on Morality and
+Darwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also written Der Mensch als Selbstweck,
+"Humanity as its own proper object," 1877; Grundlegung der Ethik,
+Foundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and
+Happiness, Stuttgart, 1886.
+
+Carra (Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at
+Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and
+Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to
+France he became employed in the King's library and wrote a History
+of Moldavia and an Essay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused
+the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin
+club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI.,
+but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought
+sentiments are evident from his System of Reason, 1773; his Spirit
+of Morality and Philosophy, 1777; New Principles of Physic, 1782-3,
+and other works.
+
+Carrel (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve "the
+Junius of the French press," b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a
+soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish
+revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but
+escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry,
+edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established the Nation in
+conjunction with Thiers and Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms
+of high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing
+articles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de
+Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed,
+says M. Littre, he said "Point de pretres, point d'eglise"--no
+priests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a History of the
+Counter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own
+country.
+
+Carus (Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has
+been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin's
+works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.
+
+Carus (Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic,
+3 Jan. 1789. He taught comparative anatomy at the university of that
+town, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also
+wrote Psyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846,
+and Nature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.
+
+Castelar y Ripoll (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz,
+8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his
+novel Ernesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he
+delivered lectures on "Civilisation during the first three centuries of
+Christendom." La Formula del Progresso contains a sketch of democratic
+principles. On the outbreak of the revolution of '68 he advocated
+a Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however
+offered to Amadeus of Savoy. "Glass, with care," was Castelar's verdict
+on the new dynasty, and in Feb. '73 Castelar drew up a Republican
+Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement
+to France he wrote a sketchy History of the Republican Movement in
+Europe. In '76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes,
+where he has continued to advocate Republican views. His Old Rome and
+New Italy, and Life of Lord Byron have been translated into English.
+
+Castelli (David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since
+1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior
+Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with
+notes, and written rationalistic works on Talmudic Legends, 1869;
+The Messiah According to the Hebrews, '74; the Bible Prophets, '82;
+and The History of the Israelites, 1887.
+
+Castilhon (Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in
+1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited the Journal of
+Jurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had
+some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in his Essay
+on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765;
+his Philosophical Almanack, 1767; and his History of Philosophical
+Opinions, 1769. Died 1793.
+
+Cattell (Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals,
+author of Search for the First Man; Against Christianity; The Religion
+of this Life, etc.
+
+Caumont (Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering
+from consumption, he wrote Judgment of a Dying Man upon Life,
+and humorous and familiar Conversations of a Sick Person with the
+Divinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.
+
+Cavalcante (Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence,
+1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He
+married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, "it is said
+his speculation has as their aim to prove there is no God. Dante places
+his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of
+the soul." Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published
+in 1813.
+
+Cavallotti (Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist,
+b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a
+pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament
+in 1873.
+
+Cayla (Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan
+(Lot) 1812. Became in '37 editor of the Emancipator of Toulouse,
+a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to the
+Siecle, the Republique Francaise and other journals, and published
+European Celebrities and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as
+The Clerical Conspiracy, '61; The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay,
+'64; Hell Demolished, '65; Suppression of Religious Orders, '70;
+and The History of the Mass,'74. He died 2 May, 1877.
+
+Cazelles (Emile), French translator of Bentham's Influence of Natural
+Religion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill's Subjection of Women
+and his Autobiography and Essays on Religion.
+
+Cecco d'Ascoli, i.e., Stabili (Francesco degli), Italian poet,
+b. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In
+1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the
+faith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused
+at Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His
+best known work is entitled Acerba, a sort of encyclopaedia in rhyme.
+
+Cellarius (Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first
+avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages
+with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists
+acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity
+of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland,
+where he died 11 Oct. 1564.
+
+Celsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was
+a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False
+Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, called The True Word. The
+work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by
+his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high
+attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that
+his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.
+
+Cerutti (Giuseppe Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit,
+b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of
+the Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau, adopted the
+principles of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote
+and published a Philosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism,
+Christianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of
+Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem, Les Jardins
+de Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.
+
+Chaho (J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets,
+Basses-Pyrenees, 10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a Philosophy of
+Comparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited
+the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23
+Oct. 1858.
+
+Chaloner (Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks,
+1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond (Yorks),
+1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles's
+Judges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he "was as
+far from being a Puritan as the east is from the west," and that he
+"was of the natural religion." He wrote a pretended True and Exact
+Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire
+directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to
+the Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.
+
+Chambers (Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopaedia of Arts and Sciences,
+b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728,
+and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation
+gave rise to Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclopedie. Chambers also
+edited the Literary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were
+well known, and the Cyclopaedia was placed upon the Index, but he was
+buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.
+
+Chamfort (Sebastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in
+Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother,
+a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself
+necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his
+eulogy on Moliere. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary
+and wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy,
+being patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau,
+who called him une tete electrique. In 1790 he commenced a work called
+Pictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary
+of the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre,
+he desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13
+April, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection of Maxims,
+Thoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and
+knowledge of human nature.
+
+Chapman (John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the
+Westminster Review, of which he is proprietor.
+
+Chappellsmith (Margaret), nee Reynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early
+in life she read the writings of Cobbett. In '36 she began writing
+political articles in the Dispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist
+and Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in '39,
+and in '42 she began business as a bookseller. In '37 she expressed
+a preference for the development theory before that of creation. In
+'50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith
+contributed many articles to the Boston Investigator.
+
+Charles (Rudolf). See Giessenburg.
+
+Charma (Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In '30 he was
+nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for
+his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers,
+and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical
+works, and an account of Didron's Histoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.
+
+Charron (Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was
+an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a Treatise on
+Wisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck
+says "the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to 'sensualisme'
+and even to materialism." Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.
+
+Chasseboeuf de Volney (Constantin Francois). See Volney.
+
+Chastelet du or Chatelet Lomont (Gabrielle Emilie le Tonnelier de
+Breteuil), Marquise, French savante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was
+learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English
+and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy
+entitled Institutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French
+translation of Newton's Principia. She lived some years with Voltaire
+at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to him Doubts on Revealed
+Religions, published in 1792. She also wrote a Treatise on Happiness,
+which was praised by Condorcet.
+
+Chastellux (Francois Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and
+writer, b. Paris 1734. Wrote On Public Happiness (2 vols., Amst. 1776),
+a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to the Encyclopedie;
+one article on "Happiness," being suppressed by the censor because
+it did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.
+
+Chatterton (Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov,
+1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley
+in the fourteenth century and discovered by him in an old chest in
+Redcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London
+in hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of
+writing for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25
+Aug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.
+
+Chaucer (Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first
+English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to
+the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the
+expedition to France 1359-60, was captured by the French, and ransomed
+by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign
+missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he
+met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance,
+and in his Canterbury Pilgrims he boldly attacks the vices of the
+ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Chaumette (Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French
+revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was
+in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney's clerk. In early youth he
+received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution
+with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became
+popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with
+Proudhomme in the journal Les Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member
+of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show
+his little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur
+Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished
+the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for
+fallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books
+sent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded
+the Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day
+(under the ancien regime they were only open two hours per week),
+replaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put
+a graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor,
+and was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of
+the churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots
+"to efface all idea of the Deity," and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.
+
+Chaussard (Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris,
+8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and
+published patriotic odes, Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was
+preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor of belles
+lettres at Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.
+
+Chemin-Dupontes (Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of
+French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of
+which is entitled What is Theophilanthropy?
+
+Chenier (Marie Andre de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29
+Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient
+Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his
+genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and
+sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He
+took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte
+Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in the Journal de
+Paris. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the
+Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed
+the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was
+executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation
+of Lucretius, entitled Hermes, which warrants the affirmation of de
+Chenedolle, that "Andre Chenier etait athee avec delices."
+
+Chenier (Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer,
+brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served
+two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His
+first successful drama, "Charles IX.," was produced in 1789, and was
+followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member
+of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his Nouveaux Saints
+(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many
+poems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.
+
+Chernuishevsky or Tchernycheiosky (Nikolai Gerasimovich),
+Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of
+St. Petersburg, translated Mill's Political Economy, and wrote on
+Superstition and the Principles of Logic, '59. His bold romance,
+What is to be Done? was published '63. In the following year he was
+sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties,
+he has become insane.
+
+Chesneau Du Marsais (Cesar). See Dumarsais.
+
+Chevalier (Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol, 21 March,
+1806, is the author of an able book on "The Soul from the standpoint
+of Reason and Science," Paris, '61. He died at Amiens in 1865.
+
+Chies y Gomez (Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar,
+Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican,
+educated him without religion. In '65 Chies went to Madrid, and
+followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon
+after wrote for a Madrid paper La Discusion. He took an active part
+in the Revolution of '65, and at the proclamation of the Republic,
+'73, became civil governor of Valencia. In '81 he founded a newspaper
+El Voto Nacional, and since '83 has edited Las Dominicales del Libre
+Pensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost
+Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.
+
+Child (Lydia Maria) nee Francis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass.,
+11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishing Hobomok, a Tale
+of Early Times, in '21. From '25 she kept a private school in Watertown
+until '28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with
+him, edited the Anti-Slavery Standard, '41, etc., and by her numerous
+writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She
+was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well
+known. Her principal work is The Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.;
+'55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by
+Wendell Phillips.
+
+Chilton (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was
+a bricklayer, but in '41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in
+starting the Oracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which
+he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles
+on the Theory of Development to the Library of Reason, and wrote in
+the Movement and the Reasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.
+
+Chubb (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near Salisbury, 29
+Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common
+people. Beginning by contending for the Supremacy of the Father, he
+gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus
+Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving
+behind two vols. which he calls A Farewell to his Readers, from which
+it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.
+
+Church (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis's
+Shakespeare, wrote Woman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to
+the Investigator when edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.
+
+Clapiers (Luc de). See Vauvenargues.
+
+Claretie (Jules Armand Arsene), French writer, b. Limoges, 3
+Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite Free Speech,
+'68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his work Camille
+Desmoulins, '75.
+
+Clarke (John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his
+opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile's shopmen. He
+was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17,
+vol. ix., of The Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which
+he read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to
+three years' imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior
+during life. He wrote while in prison, A Critical Review of the Life,
+Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness
+much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the
+Newgate Magazine and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and
+'39.
+
+Clarke (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to
+Victoria, '63; joined the staff of Melbourne Argus. In '76 was made
+assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of
+Australia, and written The Peripatetic Philosopher (a series of clever
+sketches), His Natural Life (a powerful novel), and some poems. An able
+Freethought paper, "Civilisation without Delusion," in the Victoria
+Review, Nov. '79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with
+Clarke's answer, which was suppressed, was published in '80. Died 1884.
+
+Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers' Catechism published at
+Paris in 1875.
+
+Clavel (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble,
+1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the
+nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.
+
+Clavel (F. T. B.), French author of a Picturesque History of
+Freemasonry, and also a Picturesque History of Religions, 1844,
+in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.
+
+Clayton (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher,
+b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of
+Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several
+publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the
+omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and
+stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty
+years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it
+is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter
+was decided.
+
+Cleave (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap
+political press. Started the London Satirist, and Cleave's Penny
+Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, '44. He published
+many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt's
+History of Priestcraft. In May, '40, he was sentenced to four months'
+imprisonment for selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy.
+
+Clemenceau (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician,
+b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris,
+he took his doctor's degree in '65. His activity as Republican
+ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted
+as correspondent on the Temps. He returned at the time of the war
+and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded La
+Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and
+Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was
+largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.
+
+Clemetshaw (C.), French writer, using the name Cilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864
+of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to
+the International Congress, London, of '87, and is editor of Le Danton.
+
+Clemens (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as
+"Mark Twain," b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In '55 he served
+as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used
+in sounding. In Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim's Progress,
+'69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with "sacred"
+subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.
+
+Clifford (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse,
+1671, and published anonymously a treatise of Human Reason, London,
+'74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author's
+name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was
+dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, "'twas no
+matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because
+it made every man's private fancy judge of religion." Clifford died 10
+Dec. 1677. In the Nouvelle Biographie Generale Clifford is amusingly
+described as an "English theologian of the order des Chartreux," who,
+it is added, was "prior of his order."
+
+Clifford (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist,
+of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age
+of fifteen he was sent to King's College, London, where he showed an
+early genius for mathematics, publishing the Analogues of Pascal's
+Theorem at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
+in '63. In '67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college,
+he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse
+expedition to the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed
+Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till
+his death. He was chosen F.R.S. '74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April,
+'75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he
+visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in '79 took a voyage to
+Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the
+first volume of his great mathematical work, Elements of Dynamic. Since
+his death have been published The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,
+and Lectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and
+Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought
+lectures and contributions to the Fortnightly and other reviews. He
+intended to form them into a volume on The Creed of Science. Clifford
+was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion
+which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.
+
+Cloots or Clootz (Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val
+de Grace, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a
+nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published the The Certainty
+of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber,
+an anagram of Bergier, whose Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity
+he parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris
+and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large
+fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke
+in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head
+of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation,
+and henceforward was styled "orator of the human race." He was, with
+Paine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen,
+and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He
+debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover
+in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He
+declared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of
+Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two
+and a half months' imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to
+the scaffold with the Hebertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly,
+uttering materialist sentiments to the last.
+
+Clough (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was
+educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed
+himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, "He never became
+bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its
+dogmas as imperfect and untenable." In '48 he visited Paris, and the
+same year produced his Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation
+Pastoral. Between '49 and '52 he was professor of English literature
+in London University. In '52 he visited the United States, where
+he gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised
+the Dryden translation of Plutarch's Lives. Died at Florence, 13
+Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include
+an essay on Religious Tradition and some notable poems. He is the
+Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold's exquisite Monody.
+
+Cnuzius (Matthias). See Knutzen.
+
+Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, or collated opinions of
+reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.
+
+Cole (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the
+castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the
+mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, "but he would not recant." See Hamont.
+
+Colenso (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John's,
+Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his
+valuable Treatise on Algebra, '49, he became first Bishop of Natal,
+'54. Besides other works, he published The Pentateuch and Book of
+Joshua Critically Examined, 1862-79, which made a great stir, and
+was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared
+deposed. The Privy Council, March '65, declared this deposition
+"null and void in law." Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at
+the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.
+
+Colins (Jean Guillaume Cesar Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de,
+Belgian Socialist and founder of "Collectivism," b. Brussels, 24
+Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied
+alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of
+the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate
+his opinions in the Philosophie de l'Avenir.
+
+Collins (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June,
+1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and
+became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He
+was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made
+him his executor. He wrote an Essay on Reason, 1707; Priestcraft
+in Perfection, 1710; a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, and a
+Discourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry,
+as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and
+that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural
+revelation. In 1719 he published An Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty,
+a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729 A Discourse
+on Liberty and Necessity. In 1724 appeared his Discourse on the
+Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed
+by The Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful
+disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited with A
+Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London,
+13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, "appears to have been
+an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to
+the use of a free library." Professor Fraser calls him "a remarkable
+man," praises his "love of truth and moral courage," and allows that in
+answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity
+he "states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force
+unsurpassed by any necessitarian." A similar testimony to Collins as
+a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.
+
+Colman (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent
+most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women's rights,
+and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in the
+Life of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to the Truthseeker
+and Boston Investigator.
+
+Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he
+was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master's teachings. He
+held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.
+
+Combe (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh,
+15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with
+Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of
+Owen's New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune
+to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He
+wrote Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systems and other
+works advocating Owenism.
+
+Combe (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh,
+27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George
+in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on the
+Principles of Physiology and the Management of Infancy. Died near
+Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.
+
+Combe (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh,
+21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with
+Spurzheim, and published Essays on Phrenology, 1819, and founded the
+Phrenological Journal. In '28 he published the Constitution of Man,
+which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of
+special providence and efficacy of prayer. In '33 he married a daughter
+of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral
+Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work was The Relations
+between Science and Religion, '57, in which he continued to uphold
+Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his
+friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him
+in '52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the
+cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.
+
+Combes (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written
+on Darwinism, '83, and other works popularising science.
+
+Commazzi (Gian-Battista), Count author of Politica e religione trovate
+insieme nella persona di Giesu Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols.,
+1706-7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was
+rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.
+
+Comparetti (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor
+Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome,
+and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces
+his Pagan partialities.
+
+Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier), French philosopher,
+mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at
+Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his
+mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon,
+agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based
+upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon ('25) Comte
+devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific
+thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to
+be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as
+the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In '25 he married, but the
+union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke
+down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention
+in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in '28 resumed his lectures,
+which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot,
+etc. In '30 he put forward the first volumes of his Course of Positive
+Philosophy, which in '42 was completed by the publication of the sixth
+volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet
+Martineau, '53. In '45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement
+to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having
+profoundely influenced Comte's life. In consequence of his opinions,
+he lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples--Mill,
+Molesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte
+published A General View of Positivism, '48, translated by Dr. Bridges,
+'65; A System of Positive Polity, '51, translated by Drs. Bridges,
+Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., '75-79; and A Positive Catechism, '54,
+translated by Dr. Congreve, '58. He also wrote on Positive Logic,
+which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive
+Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He
+resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates
+the sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of
+God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says "He belonged to that small class
+of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating
+than other men's truths." He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris,
+5 Sept. 1857.
+
+Condillac (Etienne Bonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble,
+about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much
+acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal being A Treatise on the
+Sensations, 1764; A Treatise on Animals, and An Essay on the Origin
+of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life
+is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.
+
+Condorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de),
+French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17
+Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept
+in girl's clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit's school,
+he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical
+thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated
+to Turgot a Profession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he
+was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual
+secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheistic Letters of a
+Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and
+in favor of American independence and against negro slavery. In
+1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he
+became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year,
+all orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of
+the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of
+the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to
+bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his
+fine Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding, he left,
+but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered,
+at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.
+
+Condorcet (Sophie de Grouchy Caritat, Marquise de), wife of above,
+and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She
+married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful
+women of her time. She shared her husband's sentiments and opinions
+and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait
+painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the
+fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith's Theory of the Moral
+Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy,
+addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married
+Gen. Arthur O'Connor.
+
+Confucius (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a
+Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about
+B.C. 551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his
+nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher,
+rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When
+past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding
+the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel,
+he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics
+of China. He died about B.C. 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the
+Lun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character,
+and did not include any religious dogmas.
+
+Congreve (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at
+Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of
+Wadham College 1844-54. In '55 he published his edition of Aristotle
+Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace
+Positivism. Translated Comte's Catechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858,
+and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head
+of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small
+"Church of Humanity."
+
+Connor (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family,
+1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John
+Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitled Evangelium Medici
+(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles
+on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died
+in London 27 Oct. 1698.
+
+Constant de Rebecque (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne,
+25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In
+1795 he entered Paris as a protege of Mme. de Stael, and in 1799
+became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote
+on Roman Polytheism and an important work on Religion Considered in
+its Source, its Forms and its Developments (6 vols.; 1824-32). Died
+8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a
+sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor
+to Auguste Comte.
+
+Conta (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied
+in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy,
+Moldavia. In '77 he published in Brussels, in French, a theory of
+fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.
+
+Conway (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford
+co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry '50,
+but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and
+Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where
+he graduated in '54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until
+dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In '57 he preached in
+Cincinnati and there published The Natural History of the Devil, and
+other pamphlets. In '63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister
+of South Place from the close of '63 until his return to the States
+in '84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has
+also published The Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing
+Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; collected a Sacred Anthology from the
+various sacred books of the world 1873, which he used in his pulpit;
+has written on Human Sacrifices, 1876, and Idols and Ideals, 1877. His
+principal work is Demonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much
+information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title of
+Lessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on
+the Wandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged
+on a life of Thomas Paine.
+
+Cook (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son
+of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother
+by such questions as, "If God was omnipotent could he make what had
+happened not have happened." He was intended for the Church, but
+declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in '66, and
+took LL.D. in '75. In '77 he became editor of the Dublin University
+Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian
+doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title of The
+Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died
+July, 1886.
+
+Cooper (Anthony Ashley), see Shaftesbury.
+
+Cooper (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a schoolfellow
+of Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the battle of the
+Nile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and acquired some
+fame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 July, 1821, for
+which the report of the trial was dedicated to him by R. Carlile. He
+was a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he commenced. Died 19
+Sept. 1824.
+
+Cooper (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, 1723. Educated
+at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An enthusiastic
+disciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of "Philaretes" he
+contributed to Dodsley's Museum. In 1749 he published a Life of
+Socrates, for which he was coarsely attacked by Warburton. He wrote
+some poems under the signature of Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London,
+14 April, 1769.
+
+Cooper (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 Feb. 1791. He
+devoted over half a million dollars to the Cooper Institute, for
+the secular instruction and elevation of the working classes. Died
+4 April, 1883.
+
+Cooper (Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec. 1819,
+at Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of being
+brought up in a Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher
+in the Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and
+by seventeen became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a
+public discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were
+published--one on Original Sin sold twelve thousand copies--when he was
+scarcely eighteen. The Holy Scriptures Analysed (1832) was denounced
+by the Bishop of Exeter in the House of Lords. Cooper was dismissed
+from a situation he had held ten years, and in 1841 became a Socialist
+missionary in the North of England and Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845)
+he wrote Free Agency and Orthodoxy, and compiled the Infidel's Text
+Book. About '50 he came to London, lecturing with success at John
+Street Institution. In '54 he started the London Investigator, which
+he edited for three years. In it appears his lectures on "Science
+v. Theology," "Admissions of Distinguished Men," etc. Failing health
+obliged him to retire leaving the Investigator to "Anthony Collins"
+(W. H. Johnson), and afterwards to "Iconoclast" (C. Bradlaugh). At
+his last lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled
+his Infidel Text-Book into a work on The Bible and Its Evidences. He
+devoted himself to political reform until his death, 3 May, 1868.
+
+Cooper (Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher, politician,
+jurist and author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at Oxford, he
+afterwards studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar and lived
+at Manchester, where he wrote a number of tracts on "Materialism,"
+"Whether Deity be a Free Agent," etc., 1789. Deputed with James
+Watt, the inventor, by the Constitutional clubs to congratulate
+the Democrats of France (April, 1792), he was attacked by Burke
+and replied in a vigorous pamphlet. In '94 he published Information
+Concerning America, and in the next year followed his friend Priestly
+to Philadelphia, established himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He
+also conducted the Emporium of Arts and Sciences in that city. He was
+Professor of Medicine at Carlisle College, '12, and afterwards held
+the chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in South Carolina
+College, of which he became President, 1820-34. This position he was
+forced to resign on account of his religious views. He translated
+from Justinian and Broussais, and digested the Statutes of South
+Carolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a Freethinker,
+in politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many pamphlets. One on
+The Right of Free Discussion, and a little book on Geology and the
+Pentateuch, in reply to Prof. Silliman, were republished in London
+by James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, 1840. [1]
+
+[1] So varied was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that
+his works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different
+persons of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single
+gentlemen will be rolled into one.
+
+Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, poet and writer,
+b. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through Spain
+and Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became
+thereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a
+profound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and
+Calvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by
+Satan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he
+communed neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of
+Delft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero's De Officiis,
+and other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.
+
+Cordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe. See Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de).
+
+Corvin-Wiersbitski (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole of noble
+family, who traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b. Gumbinnen,
+12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met his friend
+Friedrich von Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went to Leipsic
+and entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the Dutch
+Revolution, 1841; the History of Christian Fanaticism, 1845, which
+was suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats in '48;
+was condemned to be shot 15 Sept. '49, but the sentence was commuted;
+spent six years' solitary confinement in prison; came to London,
+became correspondent to the Times; went through American Civil War,
+and afterwards Franco-Prussian War, as a special correspondent. He
+has written a History of the New Time, 1848-71. Died since 1886.
+
+Cotta (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, Thuringia,
+24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in Freiberg,
+where he was appointed professor in '42. His first production, The
+Dendroliths, '32, proved him a diligent investigator. It was followed
+by many geological treatises. Cotta did much to support the nebular
+hypothesis and the law of natural development without miraculous
+agency. He also wrote on phrenology. Died at Freiburg, 13 Sept 1879.
+
+Cotta (C. Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman,
+b. B.C. 124. In '75 he became Consul. On the expiration of his
+office he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had a high opinion of
+him and gives his sceptical arguments in the third book of his De
+Natura Deorum.
+
+Courier (Paul Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. He entered
+the army and became an officer of artillery, serving with distinction
+in the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, directed against
+the clerical restoration, which place him foremost among the literary
+men of the generation. His writings are now classics, but they brought
+him nothing but imprisonment, and he was apparently assassinated,
+10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the bigots would kill him.
+
+Coventry (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, Fellow
+of Magdalene College, author of Letters of Philemon to Hydaspus on
+False Religion (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.
+
+Coward (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at Wadham
+College, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards
+at London. Published, besides some medical works, Second Thoughts
+Concerning Human Soul, which excited much indignation by denying
+natural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered
+his work to be burnt. He died in 1725.
+
+Cox (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was educated at
+Rugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the Church,
+but has devoted himself to history and mythology. His most pretentious
+work is Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870). He has also written
+an Introduction to Comparative Mythology and several historical
+works. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with
+the authorship of the English Life of Jesus, published under the name
+of Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an heretical
+paper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a Life of Bishop
+Colenso, 2 vols, 1888.
+
+Coyteux (Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of a
+materialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on
+physiology, Paris, 1875, etc.
+
+Craig (Edward Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4
+Aug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre '19; helped to form
+the Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. In
+'31 he became editor of the Lancashire Co-operator. In Nov. of the same
+year he undertook the management of a co-operative farm at Rahaline,
+co. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an history, '72. Mr. Craig
+has edited several journals and contributed largely to Radical and
+co-operative literature. He has published a memoir of Dr. Travis and
+at the age of 84 he wrote on The Science of Prolonging Life.
+
+Cramer (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, 18
+Feb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy
+'36; ordained priest in '42; he resigned in '58. In religion he
+denies revelation and insists on the separation of Church and
+State. Among his works we mention Separation from the Church, a
+Freethinker's annotations on the reading of the Bible, Stockholm,
+1859. A Confession of Faith; Forward or Back? (1862). He has also
+written on the Punishment of Death (1868), and other topics.
+
+Cranbrook (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents about
+1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, became
+a teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent Church
+at Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies' College,
+Liverpool, some of his lectures there being published '57. In Jan. '65,
+he went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but his views being too broad
+for that congregation, he left in Feb. '67 but continued to give
+Sunday lectures until his death, 6 June, 1869. In '66 he published
+Credibilia: an Inquiry into the grounds of Christian faith and two
+years later The Founders of Christianity, discourses on the origin of
+Christianity. Other lectures on Human Depravity, Positive Religion,
+etc., were published by Thomas Scott.
+
+Cranch (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. Alexandria,
+Virginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, Cambridge,
+Mass. '35, but left the ministry in '42. He shows his Freethought
+sentiments in Satan, a Libretto, Boston, '74, and other works.
+
+Craven (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the Bible
+entitled Triumph of Criticism, published at Philadelphia, 1869.
+
+Cremonini (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, 1550, was
+professor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he died. A
+follower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of religion and
+his teaching the mortality of the soul. He was frequently ordered by
+the Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave currency
+to, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused. Like most
+of the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between religious
+and philosophic truth. Bayle says. "Il a passe pour un esprit fort,
+qui ne croyait point l'immortalite de l'ame." Larousse says, "On peut
+dire qu'il n'etait pas chretien." Ladvocat says his works "contain
+many things contrary to religion."
+
+Cross (Mary Ann). See Eliot (George).
+
+Crousse (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of
+Principles, or First Philosophy, 1839, and Thoughts, 1845.
+
+Curtis (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of Theology Displayed,
+1842. He has been credited with The Protestant's Progress to
+Infidelity. See Griffith (Rees). Died 1847.
+
+Croly (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New York, 3
+Nov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in '54, and was
+subsequently a reporter on the New York Herald. He became editor of
+the New York World until '72. From '71 to '73 he edited The Modern
+Thinker, an organ of the most advanced thought, and afterwards the
+New York Graphic. Mr. Croly has written a Primer of Positivism, '76,
+and has contributed many articles to periodicals. His wife, Jane
+Cunningham, who calls herself "Jennie June," b. 1831, also wrote in
+The Modern Thinker.
+
+Cross (Mary Ann), see Eliot (George).
+
+Crozier (John Beattie), English writer of Scottish border parentage,
+b. Galt, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a scholarship
+to the grammar school of the town, and thence won another scholarship
+to the Toronto University, where he graduated '72, taking the
+University and Starr medals. He then came to London determined to study
+the great problems of religion and civilisation. He took his diploma
+from the London College of Physicians in '73. In '77 he wrote his first
+essay, "God or Force," which, being rejected by all the magazines, he
+published as a pamphlet. Other essays on the Constitution of the World,
+Carlyle, Emerson, and Spencer being also rejected, he published them in
+a book entitled The Religion of the Future, '80, which fell flat. He
+then started his work Civilisation and Progress, which appeared in
+'85, and was also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices
+in '87, when it received a chorus of applause, for its clear and
+original thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography,
+after which he proposes to deal with the Social question.
+
+Cuffeler (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law,
+who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht
+towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on
+logic in three parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.,
+published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht,
+1684. It was without name but with the author's portrait.
+
+Cuper (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected to have
+been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting
+him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His
+work entitled Arcana Atheismi Revelata, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced
+as written in bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God
+could not be proved by the light of reason.
+
+Cyrano de Bergerac (Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March,
+1619. After finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth
+he devoted himself to literature. His tragedy "Agrippine" is full of
+what a bookseller called "belles impietes," and La Monnoye relates that
+at its performance the pit shouted "Oh, the wretch! The Atheist! How
+he mocks at holy things!" Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi,
+Lamothe Le Vayer, Liniere, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of
+a short fragment on Physic, a collection of Letters, and a Comic
+History of the States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano
+took the idea of this book from F. Godwin's Man in the Moon, 1583,
+and it in turn gave rise to Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Voltaire's
+Micromegas. Died Paris, 1655.
+
+Czolbe (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819,
+studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on
+the Principles of Physiology, '44. In '55 he published his New
+Exposition of Sensationalism, in which everything is resolved into
+matter and motion, and in '65 a work on The Limits and Origin of Human
+Knowledge. He was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at Koenigsberg,
+19 Feb. 1873. Lange says "his life was marked by a deep and genuine
+morality."
+
+D'Ablaing. See Giessenburg.
+
+Dale (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work
+on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the
+charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn,
+under the title of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan
+Priests, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress
+of Idolatry and Superstition, applied the historical method to his
+subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old and as
+extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708.
+
+Damilaville (Etienne Noel), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At
+first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who
+became his friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d'Alembert,
+Grimm, and d'Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclopedie, and in
+1767 published an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological
+Honesty. The book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and
+Holbach] was attributed by Voltaire, who called it Impiety Unveiled,
+and by La Harpe and Lalande to Damilaville. Voltaire called him
+"one of our most learned writers." Larousse says "he was an ardent
+enemy of Christianity." He has also been credited with a share in
+the System of Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768.
+
+Dandolo (Vincenzo) Count, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758,
+wrote Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on The New
+Men, in which he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful
+works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.
+
+Danton (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28
+Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred
+to study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him conspicuous
+at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the
+administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight
+of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension,
+and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm
+caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a
+member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the
+crisis of the struggle with Robespierre, Danton declined to strike
+the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said
+when interrogated by the judge, "My name is Danton, my dwelling will
+soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of
+history." He maintained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he
+perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called
+fils de Diderot. Carlyle calls him "a very Man."
+
+Dapper (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with history and
+geography, on which he produced important works. He had no religion
+and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia,
+etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of
+the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the
+City of Amsterdam, 1663. Died at Amsterdam 1690.
+
+Darget (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and became
+reader and private secretary to Frederick the Great (1745-52), who
+corresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.
+
+Darwin (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury,
+12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and
+Cambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing
+natural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by
+Humboldt's Personal Narrative, resolved to travel. He accompanied
+Captain Fitzroy in the "Beagle" on a voyage of exploration, '31-36,
+which he narrated in his Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World, which
+obtained great popularity. In '39 he married, and in '42 left London
+and settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined with the reading of
+Lamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on The Origin of Species
+by means of Natural Selection, '59, which made a great outcry and
+marked an epoch. Darwin took no part in the controversy raised by the
+theologians, but followed his work with The Fertilisation of Orchids,
+'62; Cross and Self Fertilisation of Plants, '67; Variations of
+Plants and Animals under Domestication, '65; and in '71 The Descent
+of Man and Selection in relation to Sex, which caused yet greater
+consternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued The
+Expression of the Emotions of Men and Animals. He also published
+works on the Movements of Plants, Insectivorous Plants, the Forms of
+Flowers, and Earthworms. He died 19 April, 1882, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey, despite his expressed unbelief in revelation. To
+a German student he wrote, in '79, "Science has nothing to do with
+Christ, except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes
+a man cautious in admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe
+that there ever has been any revelation." In his Life and Letters
+he relates that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see "that the
+Old Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the
+Hindoos." He rejected design and said "I for one must be content to
+remain an Agnostic."
+
+Darwin (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, grandfather
+of the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. 1731. Educated
+at Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician, first at Lichfield
+and afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with Rousseau, Watt and
+Wedgwood. His principal poem, The Botanic Garden was published in 1791,
+and The Temple of Nature in 1803. His principal work is Zoomania,
+or the laws of organic life (1794), for which he was accused of
+Atheism. He was actually a Deist. He also wrote on female education
+and some papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Died at Derby,
+18 April, 1802.
+
+Daubermesnil (Francois Antoine), French conventionalist. Elected
+deputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a member of the Council of
+Five Hundred. He was one of the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died
+at Perpignan 1802.
+
+Daudet (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at Nimes, 13 May 1840, author
+of many popular romances, of which we mention L'Evangeliste, '82,
+which has been translated into English under the title Port Salvation.
+
+Daunou (Pierre Claude Francois), French politician and historian,
+b. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the congregation
+of the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the Revolution. The
+department of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas Paine to
+the Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at the
+Pantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt Tracy,
+Ginguene and Benj. Constant. Wrote Historical Essay on the Temporal
+Power of the Popes, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, 1840, noted for
+his benevolence.
+
+Davenport (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed to
+Carlile's Republican; wrote an account of the Life, Writings and
+Principles of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and published a
+volume of verse, entitled The Muses' Wreath (1827). Died at Highbury,
+London, 1846.
+
+Davenport (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a teacher. He
+wrote An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran, 1869; Curiositates
+Eroticoe Physiologae, or Tabooed Subjects Freely Treated, and several
+educational works. Died in poverty 11 May, 1877.
+
+David of Dinant, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the twelfth
+century. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent
+III. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Chartres, and his work
+Quaterini was condemned and burnt (1209). He only escaped the stake
+by rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was the author of
+a philosophical work De Tomis, "Of Subdivisions," in which he taught
+that all things were one. His system was similar to that of Spinoza.
+
+David (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. 1748,
+was made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became
+a member of the Convention, voted for the king's death and for the
+civic festivals, for which he made designs. On the restoration he
+was banished. Died at Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest
+enthusiast and a thorough Freethinker.
+
+Davidis or David (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. about
+1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an
+Antitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there
+was "as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other
+dead saints as to Jesus Christ." He was in consequence accused of
+Judaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, 1579.
+
+Davies (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in 1797
+published a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of The
+Scripturian's Creed, for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. The
+work was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at Manchester, 1839.
+
+Davidson (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted by the Vice
+Society in Oct. 1820, for selling the Republican and a publication
+of his own, called the Deist's Magazine. For observations made in
+his defence he was summoned and fined L100, and he was sentenced to
+two years' imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. He died 16 Dec. 1826.
+
+Debierre (Charles), French writer, author of Man Before History, 1888.
+
+De Dominicis. See Dominicis.
+
+De Felice (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, 1821,
+took part in the revolution of '43, and when Garibaldi landed in
+Sicily was appointed president of the provisional council of war. Has
+written on the reformation of elementary schools.
+
+De Greef (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of Appeal,
+b. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important Introduction to
+Sociology, 1886. Wrote in La Liberte, 1867-73, and now writes in La
+Societe Nouvelle.
+
+De Gubernatis (Angelo), Italian Orientalist and writer, b. Turin,
+7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and became doctor of
+philosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber at Berlin. Sig. de
+Gubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many important
+works, of which we mention his volumes on Zoological Mythology,
+which has been translated into English, '72: and on the Mythology of
+Plants. He has compiled and in large part written a Universal History
+of Literature, 18 vols. '82-85; edited La Revista Europea and the
+Revue Internationale, and contributed to many publications. He is a
+brilliant writer and a versatile scholar.
+
+De Harven (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, the
+anonymous author of a work on The Soul: its Origin and Destiny
+(Antwerp, 1879).
+
+Dekker (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and Freethinker of
+this century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In '39 he accompanied his
+father, a ship's captain, to the Malayan Archipelago. He became officer
+under the Dutch government in Sumatra, Amboina, and Assistant-Resident
+at Lebac, Java. He desired to free the Javanese from the oppression of
+their princes, but the government would not help him and he resigned
+and returned to Holland, '56. The next four years he spent, in poverty,
+vainly seeking justice for the Javanese. In '60 he published under the
+pen name of "Multatuli" Max Havelaar, a masterly indictment of the
+Dutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French
+and English. Then follow his choice Minnebrieven (Love Letters),
+'61; Vorstenschool (A School for Princes), and Millioenen Studien
+(Studies on Millions). His Ideen, 7 vols. '62-79, are full of the
+boldest heresy. In most of his works religion is attacked, but in the
+Ideas faith is criticised with much more pungency and satire. He wrote
+"Faith is the voluntary prison-cell of reason." He was an honorary
+member of the Freethought Society, De Dageraad, and contributed to its
+organ. During the latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where
+he died 19 Feb. 1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.
+
+De Lalande (see Lalande).
+
+Delambre (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. Amiens,
+19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his master,
+an Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the
+Academy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of Astronomy
+at the College de France. He is the author of a History of Astronomy
+in five volumes, and of a number of astronomical tables and other
+scientific works He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of
+Sciences. Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at Pere la Chaise. Cuvier
+pronouncing a discourse over his grave.
+
+De la Ramee. See Ramee.
+
+Delboeuf (Joseph Remi Leopold), Belgian writer, b. Liege, 30
+Sept. 1831; is Professor at the University of Liege, and has
+written Psychology as a Natural Science, its Present and its Future;
+Application of the Experimental Method to the Phenomena of the Soul,
+'73, and other works. In his Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry
+he suggests that even mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.
+
+Delbos (Leon), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish father and Scotch
+mother. Educated in Paris, Lycee Charlemagne. Is an M.A. of Paris and
+officier d'Academie. Speaks many languages, and is a good Arabic and
+Sanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the Franco-German
+War. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has written L'Athee,
+the Atheist, a Freethought romance '79, and in English The Faith in
+Jesus not a New Faith, '85. He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual,
+and is a decided Agnostic.
+
+Delepierre (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, 12 March,
+1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to England. His
+daughter married N. Truebner, who published his work L'Enfer, 1876,
+and many other bibliographical studies. Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.
+
+Delescluze (Louis Charles), French journalist and revolutionary,
+b. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in '34 for sedition. Implicated in
+a plot in '35, he took refuge in Belgium. In '48 he issued at Paris La
+Revolution Democratique et Sociale, but was soon again in prison. He
+was banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to
+France in '53 was arrested. In '68 he published the Reveil, for
+which he was again fined and sentenced to prison for ten years. In
+'59 he was amnestied and imprisoned. He became head of the Commune
+Committee of Public Safety, and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.
+
+Deleyre (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near Bordeaux, 6
+Jan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, but changed
+his faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He contributed
+to the Encyclopedie, notably the article "Fanatisme," and published
+an analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint
+Evremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with
+ardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member
+of the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.
+
+Delisle de Sales. See Isoard Delisle (J. B. C.)
+
+Dell (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. Contributed
+to Progress, wrote Nature Pictures, '71, and The Dawning Grey, '85,
+a volume of vigorous verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and
+freethought. Died 31 Jan. 1888.
+
+Deluc (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. Paris,
+1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on La Libre Recherche.
+
+De Maillet. See Maillet (Benoit de).
+
+Democritus, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, Thrace,
+B.C. 460. He travelled to Egypt and over a great part of Asia,
+and is also said to have visited India. He is supposed to have
+been acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works were ascribed to
+him. Died B.C. 357. He taught that all existence consisted of atoms,
+and made the discovery of causes the object of scientific inquiry. He
+is said to have laughed at life in general, which Montaigne says
+is better than to imitate Heraclitus and weep, since mankind are
+not so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the forerunner of Epicurus,
+who improved his system.
+
+Demonax, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second century of
+the Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of him was
+written by Lucian.
+
+Demora (Gianbattista), director of the Libero Pensatore of Milan,
+and author of some dramatic works.
+
+Denis (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political economy
+and philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 April,
+1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to La
+Liberte, la Philosophie Positive, etc. Is one of the Council of the
+International Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Denslow (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on Modern
+Thinkers, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an introduction. He
+contributed a paper on the value of irreligion to the Religio
+Philosophic journal of America, Jan. '78, and has written in the
+Truthseeker and other journals.
+
+Denton (William F.), poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington,
+Durham, 8 Jan. 1823. After attaining manhood he emigrated to the
+United States, '48, and in '56 published Poems for Reformers. He was
+a prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology,
+geology, and Freethought. In '72 he published Radical Discourses
+on Religious Subjects (Boston, '72), and Radical Rhymes, '79. He
+travelled to Australasia, and died of a fever while conducting
+scientific explorations in New Guinea 26 Aug. 1883.
+
+De Paepe (Cesar) Dr., Belgian Socialist, b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He
+was sent to the college of St. Michel, Brussels. He obtained the
+Diploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on the death of his father
+became a printer with Desire Brismee (founder of Les Solidaires,
+a Rationalist society). Proudhon confided to him the correction of
+his works. He became a physician and is popular with the workmen's
+societies. He was one of the foremost members of the International and
+attended all its congresses, as well as those of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene,
+political economy, and psychology, collaborating in a great number of
+the most advanced journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic
+man, capable both as a speaker and writer.
+
+Depasse (Hector), French writer, b. at Armentieres in 1843, is
+editor of La Republique Francaise, and member of the Paris Municipal
+Council. He has written a striking work on Clericalism, in which he
+urges the separation of Church and State, 1877; and is author of many
+little books on Contemporary Celebrities, among them are Gambetta,
+Bert, Ranc, etc.
+
+De Ponnat. See Ponnat (--de), Baron.
+
+De Pontan. See Ponnat.
+
+De Potter (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, b. Brussels, 11
+Nov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science, and has
+collaborated to La Ragione (Reason), '56, and La Philosophie de
+l'Avenir.
+
+De Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian politician and writer,
+father of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges, 26 April, 1786. In
+1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome. In '21 he wrote the
+Spirit of the Church, in 6 vols., which are put on the Roman Index. A
+strong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested
+more than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen
+months in '28. In Sept. '30 he became a member of the provisional
+government. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote
+a philosophical and anti-clerical History of Christianity, in 8 vols.,
+1836-37. He also wrote a Rational Catechism, 1854, and a Rational
+Dictionary, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died Bruges, 22 July, 1859.
+
+Deraismes (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, 15
+Aug. 1835. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote
+an appeal on behalf of her sex, Aux Femmes Riches, '65. The Masonic
+Lodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to become a member, and she
+was duly installed under the Grand Orient of France. The first female
+Freemason, was president of the Paris Anti-clerical Congress of 1881,
+and has written much in her journal, Le Republicain de Seine et Oise.
+
+De Roberty (Eugene). See Roberty.
+
+Desbarreaux (Jacques Vallee), Seigneur, French poet and sceptic,
+b. Paris, 1602, great-nephew of Geoffrey Vallee, who was burnt in
+1574. Many stories are related of his impiety, e.g. the well-known
+one of his having a feast of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des
+Barreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, "What an amount
+of noise over an omelette." It was said he recanted and wrote a poem
+beginning, "Great God, how just are thy chastisements." Voltaire,
+however, assigns this poem to the Abbe Levau. Died at Chalons,
+9 May, 1673.
+
+Descartes (Rene), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, 31 March,
+1596. After leaving college he entered the army in '16, and fought
+in the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, and in
+'29 settled in Holland. In '37 he produced his famous Discourses upon
+the Method of Reasoning Well, etc., and in '41 his Meditations upon
+First Philosophy. This work gave such offence to the clergy that he
+was forced to fly his country "parce qu'il y fait trop chaud pour
+lui." He burnt his Traite du Monde (Treatise on the World) lest
+he should incur the fate of Gallilei. Though a Theist, like Bacon,
+he puts aside final causes. He was offered an asylum by Christina,
+Queen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.
+
+Deschamps (Leger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, a French
+philosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the Order
+of Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of
+the Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau,
+d'Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. "Ce pretre athee,"
+as Ad. Franck calls him, was the author of a treatise entitled La
+Verite, ou le Vrai Systeme, in which he appears to have anticipated
+all the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from
+existing things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable
+work, which remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century,
+has been published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at
+Montreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.
+
+Deslandes (Andre Francois Boureau), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member
+of the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil
+of anonymity, the principal being A Critical History of Philosophy,
+3 vols(1737). His Pygmalion, a philosophical romance, was condemned by
+the parliament of Dijon, 1742. His Reflexions sur les grands hommes
+qui sont mort en Plaisantant (Amsterdam, 1732) was translated into
+English and published in 1745 under the title, Dying Merrily. Another
+work directed against religion was On the certainty of Human Knowledge,
+a philosophical examination of the different prerogatives of reason
+and faith (London, 1741). Died Paris, 11 April, 1757.
+
+Des Maizeaux (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, 1673. He
+studied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who introduced
+him to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. He edited
+the works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he wrote,
+as well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was his
+friend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he transferred
+to Collins's widow and they were burnt. He repented and returned the
+money, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He became Secretary of
+the Royal Society of London, where he died, 11 July, 1745.
+
+Desmoulins (Lucie Simplice Camille Benoit), French revolutionary
+writer, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a fellow-student of Robespierre
+at Paris, and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In
+July '89 he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille,
+and thus began the Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile
+Laridon-Duplessis. He edited Le Vieux Cordelier and the Revolutions
+de France et de Brabant, in which he stated that Mohammedanism was
+as credible as Christianity. He was a Deist, preferring Paganism to
+Christianity. Both creeds were more or less unreasonable; but, folly
+for folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying the Erymanthean boar
+to Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. He was executed
+with Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, who was an
+Atheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). Carlyle
+calls Desmoulins a man of genius, "a fellow of infinite shrewdness,
+wit--nay, humor."
+
+Des Periers (Jean Bonaventure), French poet and sceptic,
+b. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a convent,
+only to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in Lyons
+and assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as
+"Francoys Insigne." Attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois,
+he defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French version
+of the Psalms. He wrote the Cymbalum Mundi, a satire upon religion,
+published under the name of Thomas de Clenier a Pierre Tryocan,
+i.e., Thomas Incredule a Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed
+and the printer, Jehan Morin, imprisoned. Des Periers fled and
+died (probably by suicide, to escape persecution) 1544. An English
+version of Cymbalum Mundi was published in 1712. P. G. Brunet, the
+bibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author of the
+famous Atheistic treatise, The Three Impostors.
+
+Destriveaux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, b. Liege,
+13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public right. Died
+Schaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.
+
+Destutt de Tracy (Antoine Louis de Claude) Count, French materialist
+philosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of Scotch origin. At
+first a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at the Revolution
+to despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, Condorcet,
+and Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an analysis
+of Dupuis' Origine de tous les Cultes (1804), edited Montesquieu and
+Cabanis, was made a member of the French Academy (1808), and wrote
+several philosophical works, of which the principal is Elements of
+Ideology. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died Paris, 9 March, 1836.
+
+Des Vignes (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. (1245-49). Mazzuchelli
+attributes to him the treatise De Tribus Impostoribus.
+
+Detrosier (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, the
+illegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a Frenchwoman. In
+his early years he was "for whole days without food." Self-educated,
+he established the first Mechanics' Institute in England at Hulme,
+gave Sunday scientific lectures, and published several discourses
+in favor of secular education. He became secretary of the National
+Political Union. He was a Deist. Like Bentham, who became his friend,
+he bequeathed his body for scientific purposes. Died in London,
+23 Nov. 1834.
+
+Deubler (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near Ischl,
+Upper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties,
+he became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as
+"the Peasant Philosopher." In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy,
+and was sentenced to two years' hard labor and imprisonment during
+pleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. '54, till Nov. '56 at Bruenn,
+and afterwards at Olmutz, where he was released 24 March, 1857. He
+returned to his native place, and was visited by Feuerbach. In '70
+he was made Burgomaster by his fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.
+
+Deurhoff (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. Educated
+for the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the works of
+Descartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. Forced to
+leave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to Holland,
+where he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.
+
+De Wette. (See Wette M. L. de).
+
+D'Holbach. See Holbach (P. H. D. von), Baron.
+
+Diagoras, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as "the Atheist,"
+b. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said to have freed him from
+slavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he became an Atheist after
+being the victim of an unpunished perjury. He was accused (B.C. 411)
+of impiety, and had to fly from Athens to Corinth, where he died. A
+price was put upon the Atheist's head. His works are not extant,
+but several anecdotes are related of him, as that he threw a wooden
+statue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish of lentils, saying the
+god had a thirteenth task to perform; and that, being on his flight
+by sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his fellow-passengers say it
+was because an Atheist was on board, he pointed to other vessels
+struggling in the same storm without being laden with a Diagoras.
+
+Di Cagno Politi (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. Bari,
+1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern culture
+and on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed articles on
+Positivism to the Rivista Europea.
+
+Diderot (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. His
+father, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits,
+at the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for
+books, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he
+supported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published
+Philosophic Thoughts, which was condemned to be burnt. It did much
+to advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his Letters on the
+Blind occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its materialistic
+Atheism. Rousseau, who called him "a transcendent genius," visited
+Diderot in prison, where he remained three years. Diderot projected the
+famous Encyclopedie, which he edited with Alembert, and he contributed
+some of the most important articles. With very inadequate recompense,
+and amidst difficulties that would have appalled an ordinary editor,
+Diderot superintended the undertaking for many years (1751-65). He also
+contributed to other important works, such as Raynal's Philosophic
+History, L'Esprit, by Helvetius, and The System of Nature and other
+works of his friend D'Holbach. Diderot's fertile mind also produced
+dramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, 1784. Comte calls
+Diderot "the greatest thinker of the eighteenth century."
+
+Diercks (Gustav), German author of able works on the History of the
+Development of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881-2) and on Arabian Culture
+in Spain, 1887. Is a member of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Dilke (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, travelled
+in Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of Turgenev's
+Virgin Soil. He purchased and edited the Weekly Dispatch; was returned
+as M.P. for Newcastle in 1880, but, owing to ill health, resigned in
+favor of John Morley, and died at Algiers 12 March, 1883.
+
+Dinter (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, near
+Leipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His Bible for Schoolmasters is his best-known
+work. It sought to give rational notes and explanations of the Jew
+books, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 May, 1831.
+
+Dippel (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10
+Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His Papismus vapulans
+Protestantium (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of
+Giessen, and he had to flee for his life. Attempting to find out the
+philosopher's stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In 1705 he published
+his satires against the Protestant Church, Hirt und eine Heerde,
+under the name of Christianus Democritos. He denied the inspiration
+of the Bible, and after an adventurous life in many countries died
+25 April, 1734.
+
+Dobrolyubov (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. 1836, at
+Nijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St. Petersburg, he
+became a radical journalist. His works were edited in four vols. by
+Chernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.
+
+Dodel-Port (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, Thurgau,
+16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in '63 teacher in
+the Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from '64-'69 at Geneva,
+Zuerich, and Munich, becoming privat docent in the University of
+Zuerich, '70. In '75 he published The New History of Creation. In
+'78 he issued his world-famous Botanical Atlas, and was in '80 made
+Professor of Botany in the Zuerich University and Director of the
+Botanical Laboratory. He has also written Biological Fragments (1885),
+the Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler, "the peasant philosopher"
+(1886), and has just published Moses or Darwin? a School Question,
+1889. Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society
+and Vice-President of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Dodwell (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, was
+b. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth
+century. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A.,
+9 Feb. 1726. In '42 he published a pamphlet entitled Christianity
+not Founded on Argument, which in a tone of grave irony contends that
+Christianity can only be accepted by faith. He was brought up to the
+law and was a zealous friend of the Society for the Promotion of Arts,
+Manufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.
+
+Doebereiner (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15
+Dec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where
+he added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and
+instructor to Goethe.
+
+Dolet (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. 1509. He
+studied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to fly
+from Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he established
+a printing-press and published some of his works, for which he was
+imprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and other
+advanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books
+to be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of
+Atheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and
+burnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd,
+he said: "Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba dolet."--Dolet grieves
+not, but the generous crowd grieves. His goods being confiscated,
+his widow and children were left to beggary. "The French language,"
+says A. F. Didot, "owes him much for his treatises, translations,
+and poesies." Dolet's biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him "le
+Christ de la pensee libre." Philosophy has alone the right, says
+Henri Martin, to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer,
+R. C. Christie, says he was "neither a Catholic nor a Protestant."
+
+Dominicis (Saverio Fausto de), Italian Positivist philosopher,
+b. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of Philosophy at Bari, and has
+written on Education and Darwinism.
+
+Dondorf (Dr. A.), See Anderson (Marie) in Supplement.
+
+Doray de Longrais (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. Manvieux,
+1736. Author of a Freethought romance, Faustin, or the Philosophical
+Age. Died at Paris, 1800.
+
+Dorsch (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10
+Jan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In '49 he went to America
+and settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of poems,
+some being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.
+
+Dorsey (J. M.), author of the The True History of Moses, and others,
+an attack on the Bible, published at Boston in 1855.
+
+Draparnaud (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 June, 1772,
+at Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural History. His
+discourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the Philosophy of
+the Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his scepticism. Died 1
+Feb. 1805.
+
+Draper (John William), scientist and historian, b. St. Helens,
+near Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was
+educated at London University. In '32 he emigrated to America,
+where he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New
+York University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the
+first who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works,
+notably on Human Physiology. His history of the American Civil War
+is an important work, but he is chiefly known by his History of the
+Intellectual Development of Europe and History of the Conflict of
+Religion and Science, which last has gone through many editions and
+been translated into all the principal languages. Died 4 Jan. 1882.
+
+Dreyfus (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the Evolution
+of Worlds and Societies, 1888.
+
+Droysen (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 July,
+1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the Hallische Jahrbuecher; was
+Professor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena '51 and Berlin '59. Has edited
+Frederick the Great's Correspondence, and written other important
+works, some in conjunction with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15
+June, 1882.
+
+Drummond (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and author,
+b. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St. Mawes, Cornwall,
+1795. In the following year he became envoy to the court of Naples,
+and in 1801 ambassador to Constantinople. His principal work is
+Origines, or Remarks on the Origin of several Empires, States,
+and Cities (4 vols. 1824-29). He also printed privately The OEdipus
+Judaicus, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and learning,
+many legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an astronomical
+signification. It was reprinted in '66. Sir William Drummond also
+wrote anonymously Philosophical Sketches of the Principles of Society,
+1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.
+
+Duboc (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b. Hamburg, 10
+Oct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt and Giessen, is a clever journalist,
+and has translated the History of the English Press. Has written
+an Atheistic work, Das Leben Ohne Gott (Life without God), with the
+motto from Feuerbach "No religion is my religion, no philosophy my
+philosophy," 1875. He has also written on the Psychology of Love,
+and other important works.
+
+Dubois (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published The True
+Catechism of Believers--a work ordered by the Court of Assizes to
+be suppressed, and for which the author (Sept. '35) was condemned to
+six months' imprisonment and a fine of one thousand francs. He also
+wrote The Believer Undeceived, or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and
+Absurdity of Christianity; a work put on the Index in '36.
+
+Du Bois-Reymond (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French
+mother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for
+the Church, but left it to follow science, '37. Has become famous as
+a physiologist, especially by his Researches in Animal Electricity,
+'48-60. With Helmholtz he has done much to establish the new era
+of positive science, wrongly called by opponents Materialism. Du
+Bois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the brain and nervous
+system, and that "soul" has arisen as the gradual results of natural
+combinations, but in his Limits of the Knowledge of Nature, '72, he
+contends that we must always come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du
+Bois-Reymond has written on Voltaire and Natural Science, '68; La
+Mettrie, '75; Darwin versus Galiani, '78; and Frederick II. and
+Rousseau, '79. Since '67 he has been perpetual secretary of the
+Academy of Sciences, Berlin.
+
+Dubuisson (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, b. Lauat,
+1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the scaffold, 24
+March, 1794.
+
+Dubuisson (Paul), living French Positivist, author of Grand Types
+of Humanity.
+
+Du Chatelet Lomont. See Chastelet.
+
+Duclos (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 Feb. 1704. He
+was admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its secretary,
+1755. A friend of Diderot and d'Alembert. His Considerations sur les
+Moeurs is still a readable work. Died 27 March, 1772.
+
+Ducos (Jean Francois), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux in 1765. Elected
+to the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. 1791, demanded
+the complete separation of the State from religion. He shared the
+fate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last breath,
+"Vive la Republique!"
+
+Du Deffand (Marie), Marchioness, witty literary Frenchwoman,
+b. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent she preached
+irreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in Massillon, to
+whom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away saying "She
+is charming." Her house in Paris was for fifty years the resort of
+eminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for many years with
+Horace Walpole, D'Alembert and Voltaire. Many anecdotes are told of
+her; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke of the miracle of
+St. Denis walking when beheaded, she said "Il n'y a que le premier
+pas qui coute." Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the cure of Saint Sulpice,
+who came to her death-bed, she said "Ni questions, ni raisons, ni
+sermons." Larousse calls her "Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais
+sceptique et materialiste."
+
+Dudgeon (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were published
+(privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.
+
+Dudnevant (A. L. A. Dupin), Baroness. See Sand (Georges).
+
+Duehring (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. 1833; studied
+law. He has, though blind, written many works on science and political
+economy, also a Critical History of Philosophy, '69-78, and Science
+Revolutionized, '78. In Oct. 1879, his death was maliciously reported.
+
+Dulaure (Jacques Antoine), French archaeologist and historian,
+b. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788-90 he published six volumes
+of a description of France. He wrote many pamphlets, including one
+on the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected to the Convention in
+1792, he voted for the death of the King. Proscribed as a Girondist,
+Sept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was one of the Council of Five
+Hundred, 1796-98. Dulaure wrote a learned Treatise on Superstitions,
+but he is best known by his History of Paris, and his Short History
+of Different Worships, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism
+and phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.
+
+Dulaurens (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 March, 1719. He
+was brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. 1727. Published
+a satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to fly to
+Holland, where he lived in poverty. He edited L'Evangile de la Raison,
+a collection of anti-Christian tracts by Voltaire and others, and
+wrote L'Antipapisme revele in 1767. He was in that year condemned
+to perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in the convent of
+Mariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, cynical and
+vivacious. He is also credited with the Portfolios of a Philosopher,
+mostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, 1770.
+
+Dulk (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. Konigsberg,
+17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for aiding
+in the Revolution of '48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. In '65
+he published Jesus der Christ, embodying rationalism in prose and
+verse. He has also written Stimme der Menschheit, 2 vols., '76,
+'80, and Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu, '84, besides numerous plays
+and pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.
+
+Dumont (Leon), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. Studied for
+the bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early embraced
+Darwinism, and wrote on Haeckel and the Theory of Evolution, '73. He
+wrote in La Revue Philosophique, and other journals. Died Valenciennes,
+17 Jan. 1877.
+
+Dumarsais (Cesar Chesneau), French grammarian and philosopher,
+b. Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation
+of the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris,
+where he married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against
+the pretensions of Rome and contributed to the Encyclopedie. He is
+credited with An Analysis of the Christian Religion and with the
+celebrated Essai sur les Prejuges, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was
+probably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. Le Philosophe,
+published in L'Evangile de la Raison by Dulaurens, was written by
+Voltaire. Died 11 June, 1756. Dumarsais was very simple in character,
+and was styled by D'Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.
+
+Dumont (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 July,
+1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became
+secretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where
+he became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died
+Milan, 29 Sept. 1829.
+
+Duncker (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, 15
+Oct. 1811. His chief work, the History of Antiquity, 1852-57,
+thoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and profane
+history, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A translation in
+six volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an active part
+in the events of '48 and '50, and was appointed Director-General of
+the State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.
+
+Dupont (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of the
+National Convention, known as the Abbe Dupont, who, 14 Dec. 1792,
+declared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. Died
+at Paris in 1813.
+
+Dupont de Nemours (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. Paris, 14
+Dec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly, and was
+a Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.
+
+Dupuis (Charles Francois), French astronomer and philosopher,
+b. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the Church, which
+he left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, and wrote on
+the origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became a member of
+the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was chosen a member
+of the Convention. During the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at
+his own risk. He was afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and
+president of the legislative body. His chief work is on the Origin of
+Religions, 7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various
+faiths, including Christianity. This has been described as "a monument
+of the erudition of unbelief." Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. 1809.
+
+Dutrieux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 July,
+1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.
+
+Dutton (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. Educated
+by the Moravians. In 1795 he published a Vindication of the Age of
+Reason by Thomas Paine. He translated Kotzebue's Pizarro in Peru,
+1799, and edited the Dramatic Censor, 1800, and the Monthly Theatrical
+Reporter, 1815.
+
+Duvernet (Theophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at Ambert
+1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abbe, but mocked at
+religion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a political
+pamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he wrote a
+curious and rare romance, Les Devotions de Mme. de Bethzamooth. He
+wrote on Religious Intolerance, 1780, and a History of the Sorbonne,
+1790, but is best known by his Life of Voltaire (1787). In 1793
+he wrote a letter to the Convention, in which he declares that
+he renounces the religion "born in a stable between an ox and an
+ass." Died in 1796.
+
+Dyas (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of The Upas. He resided
+long in Italy and translated several of the works of C. Voysey.
+
+Eaton (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated at the
+Jesuits' College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the Bible, he did
+so, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In 1792 he was
+prosecuted for publishing Paine's Rights of Man, but the prosecution
+fell through. He afterwards published Politics for the People, which
+was also prosecuted, 1793, as was his Political Dictionary, 1796. To
+escape punishment, he fled to America, and lived there for three years
+and a half. Upon returning to England, his person and property were
+seized. Books to the value of L2,800 were burnt, and he was imprisoned
+for fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at his
+"Rationcinatory or Magazine for Truths and Good Sense," 8 Cornhill,
+in 1810, The True Sense and Meaning of the System of Nature. The Law
+of Nature had been previously translated by him. In '11 he issued
+the first and second parts of Paine's Age of Reason, and on 6 March,
+'12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy
+for issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen
+months' imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence evoked
+Shelley's spirited Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Eaton translated and
+published Freret's Preservative against Religious Prejudices, 1812,
+and shortly before his death, at Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again
+prosecuted for publishing George Houston's Ecce Homo.
+
+Eberhard (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 Aug. 1739,
+was brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in his New
+Apology for Socrates, 1772, was patronised by Frederick the Great,
+and appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he opposed
+the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a History of Philosophy,
+1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.
+
+Eberty (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author of some
+controversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.
+
+Echtermeyer (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, 1805. He
+studied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the Hallische
+Jahrbuecher, which contained many Freethought articles, 1837-42. He
+taught at Halle and Dresden, where he died, 6 May, 1844.
+
+Edelmann (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, Saxony,
+9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians,
+but left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent
+of Spinozism. His principal works are his Unschuldige Wahrheiten,
+1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no religion is of
+importance, and Moses mit Aufgedecktem Angesicht (Moses Unmasked),
+1740, an attack on the Old Testament, which, he believed, proceeded
+from Ezra; Die Goettlichkeit der Vernunft (The Divinity of Reason),
+1741, and Christ and Belial. His works excited much controversy, and
+were publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, 1750. Edelmann was chased
+from Brunswick and Hamburg, but was protected by Frederick the Great,
+and died at Berlin, 15 Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot
+calls him a "fameux esprit fort."
+
+Edison (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10
+Feb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read,
+however, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He
+afterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator,
+studied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen,
+the telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an
+Agnostic and to pay no attention to religion.
+
+Eenens (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. Eenens
+was an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and
+anti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote La Verite, a work on the
+Christian faith, 1859; Le Paradis Terrestre, '60, an examination of
+the legend of Eden, and Du Dieu Thaumaturge, '76. He used the pen
+names "Le Pere Nicaise," "Nicodeme Polycarpe" and "Timon III." Died
+at Brussels in 1883.
+
+Effen (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 Feb. 1684. Edited the
+Misanthrope, Amsterdam, 1712-16; translated Robinson Crusoe, Swift's
+Tale of a Tub, and Mandeville's Thoughts on Religion, 1722; published
+the Dutch Spectator, 1731-35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. 1735.
+
+Eichhorn (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and rationalist, b. 16
+Oct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature and afterwards
+Professor of Theology at Gottingen. He published Introductions to
+the Old and New Testaments and A Commentary on the Apocalypse, in
+which his criticism tends to uproot belief in the Bible as a divine
+revelation. He lectured every day for fifty-two years. Died 25 June,
+1827.
+
+"Elborch (Conrad von)," the pseudonym of a living learned Dutch writer,
+whose position does not permit him to reveal his true name. Born
+14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to De Dageraad (The Daybreak),
+under various pen-names, as "Fra Diavolo," "Denis Bontemps," "J. Van
+den Ende," etc. He has given, in '88, a translation of the rare and
+famous Latin treatise, De Tribus Impostoribus (On Three Impostors)
+[Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important bibliographic and
+historical introduction.
+
+"Eliot (George)," the pen-name of Mary Ann Lewes (nee Evans) one of
+the greatest novelists of the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff,
+Warwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819. In '41 the family removed to Foleshill,
+near Coventry. Here she made the friendship of the household of
+Charles Bray, and changed her views from Evangelical Christianity
+to philosophical scepticism. Influenced by The Inquiry into the
+Origin of Christianity, by C. C. Hennell (Bray's brother-in-law),
+she made an analysis of that work. Her first literary venture was
+translating Strauss' Leben Jesu, published in 1846. After the death
+of her father ('49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent,
+and upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the
+Westminster Review, to which she contributed several articles. She
+translated Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity, '54, the only work
+published with her real name, and also translated from Spinoza's
+Ethics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer to George Henry Lewes, she
+linked her life with his in defiance of the conventions of society,
+July, '54. Both were poor, but by his advice she turned to fiction,
+in which she soon achieved success. Her Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam
+Bede, Mill on the Floss, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt, Middlemarch,
+Daniel Deronda, and Theophrastus Such have become classics. As a poet,
+"George Eliot" does not rank so high, but her little piece, "Oh,
+may I join the choir invisible," well expresses the emotion of the
+Religion of Humanity, and her Spanish Gipsy she allowed was "a mass
+of Positivism." Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married
+his friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died
+22 Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.
+
+Ellero (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. 1833,
+Counsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of Criminal
+Law in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on legal and
+social questions. His Scritti Minori, Scritti Politici and La Question
+Sociale have the honor of a place on the Roman Index.
+
+Elliotson (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. London,
+1791. He became physician at St. Thomas's Hospital in 1822, and made
+many contributions to medical science. By new prescriptions of quinine,
+creasote, etc., he excited much hostility in the profession. He was
+the first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He
+was also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk
+stockings, and to wear a beard. In '31 he was chosen Professor at
+University College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism,
+he resigned his appointments, '38. He was founder and President of the
+London Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works,
+edited the Zoist (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach's Physiology,
+and wrote an introduction to Engledue's Cerebral Physiology, defending
+materialism. Thackeray dedicated Pendennis to him, '50, and he received
+a tribute of praise from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.
+
+Eichthal (Gustave d'), French writer, b. of Jewish family, Nancy,
+22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was one of the
+founders of the Societe d'Ethnologie, and published Les Evangiles, a
+critical analysis of the gospels, 2 vols, Paris, '63. This he followed
+by The Three Great Mediterranean Nations and Christianity and Socrates
+and our Time, '84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son published
+his Melanges de Critique Biblique (Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism),
+in which there is an able study on the name and character of "Jahveh."
+
+Emerson (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and philosopher,
+b. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, and was
+brought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and ordained
+as a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the Church,
+he resigned in '32. In the next year he came to Europe, visiting
+Carlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving occasional
+lectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the Dial, a
+transcendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic pantheism, but without
+systematic philosophy, all his writings are most suggestive, and he
+is always the champion of mental freedom, self-reliance, and the free
+pursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27 April, 1882. Matthew Arnold
+has pronounced his essays "the most important work done in prose"
+in this century.
+
+Emerson (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near Darlington,
+14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous works on
+Mathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality attracted
+Carlyle, who said to Mrs. Gilchrist, "Emerson was a Freethinker who
+looked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have
+defended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy
+clamor and unreal stuff going on around him." Died 21 May, 1782. He
+compiled a list of Bible contradictions.
+
+Emmet (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was educated
+as a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his sympathy with
+the National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but returned in
+1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was executed 20
+Sept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving sentence,
+and on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is well
+known that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the daughter
+of Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.
+
+Engledue (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After taking his
+degree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and was elected
+President of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He returned
+to Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth Hospital and
+established public baths and washhouses. He contributed to the Zoist
+and published an exposition of materialism under the title of Cerebral
+Physiology, 1842, republished by J. Watson, 1857. Died Jan. 1859.
+
+English (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. Cambridge,
+Mass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and graduated
+at Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published Grounds of
+Christianity Examined, 1813. The work excited some controversy,
+and has been reprinted at Toronto, 1839. He joined the Egyptian
+service and became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius
+and a gift of languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with
+a Turkish ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation
+of Cherokees by disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a
+reply to his critics, entitled Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook,
+and two letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died
+at Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.
+
+Ense (Varnhagen von). See Varnhagen.
+
+Ensor (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated at
+Trinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was
+a friend of liberty in every country. Besides other political works
+he published, The Independent Man, 1806; On National Government,
+1810; A Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the
+Old and New Testaments, first printed as Janus on Sion, 1816, and
+republished 1835; and Natural Theology Examined, 1836, the last being
+republished in The Library of Reason. Bentham described him as clever
+but impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. 1843.
+
+Epicurus, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, B.C. 342. He repaired to
+Athens, B.C. 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he occupied
+himself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in which he
+established his school. Although much calumniated, he is now admitted
+to have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he had no
+belief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order not
+to offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted the
+atomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is the
+sovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, but
+permanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are
+lost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius,
+De Rerum Natura. Died B.C. 270, leaving many followers.
+
+"Erdan (Alexandre)," the pen-name of Alexandre Andre Jacob, a French
+writer, b. Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished
+prelate. Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon,
+and refused to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate
+of phonography. His work, La France Mystique (1855), in which he
+gives an account of French religious eccentricities, was condemned
+for its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to a year's
+imprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he took refuge in
+Italy. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.
+
+Ernesti (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4
+Aug. 1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed
+professor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he
+insisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died
+Leipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.
+
+Escherny (Francois Louis d') Count, Swiss litterateur, b. Neufchatel,
+24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in travel. At Paris he became
+the associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and particularly Rousseau, whom he
+much admired. He wrote Lacunes de la Philosophie (Amsterdam, 1783) and
+a work on Equality (1795), in which he displays his Freethought. Died
+at Paris, 15 July, 1815.
+
+Espinas (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, 1844. Has
+translated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer's Principles of Psychology,
+and has written studies on Experimental Philosophy in Italy, and on
+Animal Societies (1877).
+
+Espronceda (Jose), popular Spanish poet, b. Almendralejo (Estremadura)
+in 1810. After the War of Independence he went to Madrid and studied
+under Alberto Lista, the poet and mathematician. He became so obnoxious
+to the government by his radical principles that he was imprisoned
+about the age of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed
+several years in London and Paris, and was brought under the influence
+of Byron and Hugo. He fought with the people in the Paris Revolution
+of July, 1830. On the death of the Spanish King in '33 he returned
+to Madrid, but was again banished for too free expression of his
+opinions. He returned and took part in the revolutionary contest of
+'35-36. He was elected to the Cortes in '41, and appointed secretary
+of embassy to The Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are
+lyrical poems, which often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic,
+El Pelayo; and El Diablo-Mundo (the Devil-World), a fine poem, due
+to the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. Espronceda was a thorough
+sceptic. In his Song of the Pirate he asks, "Who is my God?--Liberty";
+and in his concluding lines to a star he says:
+
+
+                I unheedingly follow my path,
+                At the mercy of winds and of waves.
+                Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,
+                What care I if lost or saved.
+
+
+Estienne (Henri), the ablest of a family of learned French printers,
+known in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. At the age of
+eighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of Dionysius
+of Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a printing office of his
+own, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572 the Thesaurus Linguae
+Graecae. His Apologie pour Herodote (Englished as a World of Wonders)
+is designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed against
+priests and priestcraft. He was driven from place to place. Sir
+Philip Sidney highly esteemed him, and "kindly entertained him in
+his travaile." Died 1598. Garasse classes him with Atheists.
+
+Esteve (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the beginning of the
+eighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy and an anonymous
+work on the Origin of the Universe explained from a Principle of
+Matter; Berlin, 1748.
+
+Ettel (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at Neuhof,
+Sternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish of his
+parents at the Theological Seminary Olmuetz, which he left to study
+philosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. His
+Grundzuge der Natuerlichen Weltanschauung (Sketch of a Natural View
+of the World), a Freethinker's catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth
+edition.
+
+Evans (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 March,
+1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set up
+as a printer, and published the Correspondent, the first American
+Freethought paper. He also published the Working Man's Advocate, Man,
+Young America, and the Radical. He labored for the transportation
+of mails on Sundays, the limitation of the right to hold lands,
+the abolition of slavery, and other reforms. His brother became one
+of the chief elders of the Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey,
+2 Feb. 1855.
+
+Evans (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of Robert
+Owen. He established The Potter's Examiner and Workman's Advocate,
+'43, and wrote in the Co-operative journals under the anagram of
+"Millway Vanes." Died 14 March, 1887.
+
+Evanson (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, Lancashire,
+21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of South
+Mimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts
+on the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury
+without obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the
+Litany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771,
+he was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity
+in the proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the
+Trinity. In 1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield
+on the Prophecies of the New Testament, in which he tried to show
+that either Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In the
+following year he resigned both his livings and took pupils. In
+1792 he published his principal work, The Dissonance of the Four
+Generally-Received Evangelists, in which he rejected all the gospels,
+except Luke, as unauthentic. This work involved him in a controversy
+with Dr. Priestley, and brought a considerable share of obloquy and
+persecution from the orthodox. Died 25 Sept. 1805.
+
+Eve'merus or Euhemerus, a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander
+the Great, who sought to rationalise religion, and treated the gods
+as dead heroes. He is usually represented as an Atheist.
+
+Eudes (Emile Francois Desire), French Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He
+became a chemist, and was condemned, with Regnard, to three months'
+imprisonment for writing in La Libre Pensee, '67, of which he was
+director. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When
+the Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On
+his return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public
+meeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.
+
+Ewerbeck (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events of 1848,
+he lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet's Voyage en Icarie,
+and in an important work entitled Qu'est ce que La Religion? (What
+is Religion), '50, translated into French Feuerbach's "Essence of
+Religion," "Essence of Christianity," and "Death and Immortality." In
+a succeeding volume What is the Bible? he translated from Daumer,
+Ghillany, Luetzelberger and B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French
+an historical work on Germany and the Germans; Paris, 1851.
+
+Fabre D'Eglantine (Philippe Francois Nazaire), French revolutionist and
+playwriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. After some success as a poet
+and playwright he was chosen as deputy to the National Convention. He
+voted for the death of Louis XVI., and proposed the substitution of
+the republican for the Christian calendar, Sept. 1793. He was executed
+with his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.
+
+Fabricatore (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. His father
+Antonio had the honor of having a political work placed on the Index,
+1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought Council of 1869,
+and has written works on Dante, etc.
+
+Farinata. See Uberti (Farinata degli).
+
+Fauche (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May,
+1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays
+of Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to La
+Liberte de Penser. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.
+
+Fausto (Sebastiano), Da Longiano, Italian of the beginning of the 16th
+century, who is said to have projected a work The Temple of Truth,
+with the intention of overturning all religions. He translated the
+Meditations of Antoninus, also wrote observations on Cicero, 1566.
+
+Feer (Henri Leon), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 Nov. 1830, is
+chiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies, 1871-75.
+
+Fellens (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b. Bar-sur-Aube,
+1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.
+
+Fellowes (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at Oxford. He
+took orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually quitted the
+doctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions maintained in
+his work entitled The Religion of the Universe (1836). Dr. Fellowes
+was proprietor of the Examiner and a great supporter of the London
+University. Died 5 Feb. 1847.
+
+Fenzi (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. 1822. Educated
+by the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in '49 the Revista
+Britannica, writer on the journal L'Italiano, and has written a credo
+which is a non-credo.
+
+Feringa (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, 1840. Studied
+mathematics. A contributor to De Dageraad (The Daybreak) over the
+signature, "Muricatus"; he has written important studies, entitled
+Democratie en Wetenschap (Democracy and Science), 1871, also wrote
+in De Vrije Gedachte (Freethought).
+
+Fernau (Rudolf), Dr., German author of Christianity and Practical
+Life, Leipsic, 1868; The Alpha and Omega of Reason, Leipsic, 1870;
+Zoologica Humoristica, 1882; and a recent work on Religion as Ghost
+and God Worship.
+
+Feron (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. Councillor
+of the International Freethought Federation.
+
+Ferrari (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, 1811. A
+disciple of Romagnosi, a study of whose philosophical writings he
+published '35. He also published the works of Vico, and in '39 a work
+entitled Vico and Italy, and in the following year another on the
+Religious Opinions of Campanella. Attacked by the Catholic party,
+he was exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with
+Proudhon and a contributor to the Revue de Deux Mondes. In '42 he
+was made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but appointment was
+soon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a History of the
+Revolution of Italy, '55, and a work on China and Europe. His history
+of the Reason of the State, '60, is his most pronounced work. In '59,
+he was elected to the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of
+the most radical members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.
+
+Ferri (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly professor
+of criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua under
+Professor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence of
+Free Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian
+school of criminal law reform.
+
+Ferri (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. Studied
+in Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of History
+of Philosophy in Italy, Paris 1868; The Psychology of Pomponazzi, etc.
+
+Ferriere (Emile), French writer and licentiate of letters, b. Paris,
+1830; author of Literature and Philosophy, 1865; Darwinism, 1872,
+which has gone through several editions; The Apostles, a work
+challenging early Christian Morality, 1879; The Soul the Function
+of the Brain, a scientific work of popular character in two vols.,
+1883; and Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity,
+1884. All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferriere has
+also announced a work Jesus bar Joseph.
+
+Feuerbach (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a famous German jurist, was
+b. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied philology, but set himself to
+preach what his brother Ludwig taught. He wrote Theanthropos, a series
+of Aphorisms (Zurich, '38), and an able work on the Religion of the
+Future, '43-47; and Thoughts and Facts, Hamburg, '62. Died Nurenberg,
+24 Jan. 1880.
+
+Feuerbach (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the preceding, b. Landshut,
+Bavaria, 28 July 1804. He studied theology with a view to the Church,
+but under the influence of Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In '28
+he was made professor at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence
+of his first published work, Thoughts upon Death and Immortality,
+'30, in which he limited immortality to personal influence on the
+human race. After a wandering life he married in '37, and settled
+near Anspach. He published there a history of modern philosophy from
+Bacon to Spinoza. This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In '38
+he wrote on philosophy and Christianity, and in '41 his work called
+the The Essence of Christianity, in which he resolves theology
+into anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans,
+'53. He also wrote Principles of the Philosophy of the Future. After
+the revolution of '48 he was invited to lecture by the students of
+Heidelberg, and gave his course on The Essence of Religion, published
+in '51. In '57 he published Theogony from the Sources of Classical,
+Hebrew, and Christian Antiquity, and in '66 Theism, Freedom, and
+Immortality from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Died at Rechenberg,
+near Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872. His complete works were published at
+Leipsic in 1876. He was a deep thinker and lucid writer.
+
+Fichte (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German thinkers,
+b. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, Leipsic,
+and Wittenberg, embraced "determinism," became acquainted with Kant,
+and published anonymously, A Criticism of all Revelation. He obtained
+a chair of philosophy at Jena, where he developed his doctrines
+of science, asserting that the problem of philosophy is to seek
+on what foundations knowledge rests. He gave moral discourses in
+the lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of holding atheistical
+opinions. He was in consequence banished from Saxony, 1799. He appears
+to have held that God was not a personal being, but a system of
+intellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte took deep interest in
+the cause of German independence, and did much to rouse his countrymen
+against the domination of the French during the conquest which led to
+the fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications, in which he expounds
+his philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on The Vocation of Man,
+The Nature and Vocation of the Scholar, The Way Towards the Blessed
+Life, etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.
+
+"Figaro." See Larra (Mariano Jose de).
+
+Figuiera (Guillem), Provencal troubadour and precursor of the
+Renaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed against
+the priests and Court of Rome.
+
+Filangieri (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. Naples,
+18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work is
+La Scienza della Legislazione, 1780. In the fifth volume he deals
+with pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the Index. Died 21
+July, 1788.
+
+Fiorentino (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, Nicastro,
+1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at Spoletto,
+in '62 at Bologna, and in '71 at Naples. He was elected deputy
+to Parliament, Nov. '70. A disciple of Felice Tocco, he paid
+special attention to the early Italian Freethinkers, writing upon
+The Pantheism of Giordano Bruno, Naples, '61; Pietro Pomponazzi,
+Florence, '68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 vols., '72-74. He
+has also written on Strauss and Spinoza. In the Nuova Antologia he
+wrote on J. C. Vanini, and on Caesalpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A
+friend of Bertrando Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in
+'83. Died 22 Dec. 1884.
+
+Fischart (Johann), German satirist called Mentzer, b. Strasbourg about
+1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of Rabelais, whom he
+in part translated, and are often directed against the Church. Died
+at Forbach in 1614.
+
+Fischer (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the freedom of
+the will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious,
+'72; Das Bewusstsein, '74. Died 1888.
+
+Fischer (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at Sandewald,
+Silesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was appointed
+Professor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are History of Modern
+Philosophy, '52-72; Life and Character of Spinoza; Francis Bacon,
+'56; and Lessing, '81.
+
+Fiske (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 March,
+1842. Graduated at Harvard, '63. In '69-71 was Lecturer on Philosophy
+at that University, and from '72-9 Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured
+largely, and has written Myths and Mythmakers, '72; Outlines of
+Cosmic Philosophy, 2 vols. '74; Darwinism, and other essays, '79;
+Excursions of an Evolutionist, '83; The Idea of God as Affected by
+Modern Knowledge, '85.
+
+Flaubert (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. The son
+of a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father's profession for
+literature. His masterpiece, Madame Bovary, published in '56 in the
+Revue de Paris, drew a prosecution upon that journal which ended
+in a triumph for the author. For his next great work, Salammbo,
+'62, an epic of Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian
+studies. His intellectual tendencies are displayed in The Temptation
+of Saint Anthony. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for
+his artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Theophile Gautier, Ivan
+Turgenev, Emile Zola and "George Sand." His correspondence with the
+last of these has been published. He distinctly states therein that
+on subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died
+at Rouen, 9 May, 1880.
+
+Flourens (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near Beziers, 15
+April, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences,
+after having published a work on the nervous system of vertebrates;
+he became perpetual secretary in '33. A work on Human Longevity and
+the Quantity of Life on the Globe was very popular. Died near Paris,
+6 Dec. 1867.
+
+Flourens (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris,
+4 Aug. 1838. In '63 he took his father's chair at the College of
+France, and his course on "Ethnography" attracted much attention. In
+the following year he published his work on The Science of Man. His
+bold heresy lost him his chair, and he collaborated on Larousse's
+Grand Dictionnaire. In '65 he left France for Crete, where for three
+years he fought in the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon
+his return he was arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He
+showed himself an ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish
+near Nanterre, 3 April, 1871.
+
+Fonblanque (Albany William), English journalist, b. London, 1793;
+the son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the
+Times, and contributed to the Westminster Review. In '30 he became
+editor of the Examiner, and retained his post until '47. His caustic
+wit and literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal
+views. A selection of his editorials was published under the title,
+England under Seven Administrations. Died 13 Oct. 1872.
+
+Fontanier (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place
+de Greve, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled Le Tresor
+Inestimable. Garasse, with little reason, calls him an Atheist.
+
+Fontenelle (Bernard le Bovier de), nephew of Corneille, called
+by Voltaire the most universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV.,
+b. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657. Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard,
+he was educated at the Jesuits' College. He went to Paris in 1674;
+wrote some plays and Dialogues of the Dead, 1683. In 1686 appeared
+his Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, and in the following
+year his History of Oracles, based on the work of Van Dale, for which
+he was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the Church
+Fathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in 1699,
+a post he held forty-two years. He wrote Doubts on the Physical
+System of Occasional Causes, and is also credited with a letter
+on the Resurrection of the Body, a piece on The Infinite, and a
+Treatise on Liberty; "but," says l'Abbe Ladvocat, "as these books
+contain many things contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are
+not his." Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short
+time before he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain,
+"I only feel," he replied, "a difficulty of existing."
+
+Foote (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11
+Jan. 1850. Was "converted" in youth, but became a Freethinker by
+reading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868, and was soon a
+leading member of the Young Men's Secular Association. He taught in the
+Hall of Science Sunday School, and became secretary of the Republican
+League. Devoting his time to propagating his principles, he wrote
+in the Secular Chronicle and National Reformer, and in '76 started
+the Secularist in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after
+the ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the
+Secular Review. In '79 Mr. Foote edited the Liberal, and in Sept. '81,
+started the Freethinker, which he still edits. In the following year
+a prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who attempted
+to connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued a
+Christmas number with an illustrated "Comic Life of Christ." For
+this a prosecution was started by the City authorities against him
+and his publisher and printer, and the trial came on first in March,
+'83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North refused to discharge the
+prisoners, and they were tried again on the 5th March; Judge North
+directing that a verdict of guilty must be returned, and sentencing
+Mr. Foote to one year's imprisonment as an ordinary criminal subject
+to the same "discipline" as burglars. "I thank you, my lord; your
+sentence is worthy of your creed," he remarked. On 24 April, '83,
+Mr. Foote was brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special
+jury on the first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which
+he was highly complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has
+debated with Dr. McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard,
+the Rev. H. Chapman, and others. Mr. Foote has written much,
+and lectures continually. Among his works we mention Heroes and
+Martyrs of Freethought (1876); God, the Soul, and a Future State;
+Secularism the True Philosophy of Life (1879); Atheism and Morality;
+The Futility of Prayer; Bible Romances; Death's Test, afterwards
+enlarged into Infidel Death-Beds; The God Christians Swear by; Was
+Jesus Insane? Blasphemy No Crime; Arrows of Freethought; Prisoner
+for Blasphemy (1884); Letters to Jesus Christ; What Was Christ? Bible
+Heroes; and has edited The Bible Hand-book with Mr. W. P. Ball, and
+the Jewish Life of Christ with the present writer, in conjunction
+with whom he has written The Crimes of Christianity. From 1883-87
+he edited Progress, in which appeared many important articles from
+his pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London Secular Federation,
+and a Vice-President of the National Secular Society.
+
+Fouillee (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Poueze, near Angers,
+18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably at
+Bordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two
+works on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor
+of Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained
+a thesis at the Sorbonne on Liberty and Determinism, which was
+violently attacked by the Catholics. This work has gone through
+several editions. M. Fonillee has also written an able History of
+Philosophy, 1875, Contemporary Social Science, and an important
+Critique of Contemporary Moral Systems (1883). He has written much
+in the Revue des Deux Mondes, and is considered, with Taine, Ribot,
+and Renan, the principal representative of French philosophy. His
+system is known as that of idees-forces, as he holds that ideas are
+themselves forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.
+
+Forberg (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, 30
+Aug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent
+at Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte's philosophy, he wrote with
+Fichte in Niethammer's Philosophical Journal on "The Development
+of Religious Ideas," and an article on "The Ground of our Faith in
+Divine Providence," which brought on them a charge of Atheism, and
+the journal was confiscated by the Electorate of Saxony. Forberg held
+religion to consist in devotion to morality, and wrote An Apology
+for Alleged Atheism, 1799. In 1807 he became librarian at Coburg,
+and devoted himself to the classics, issuing a Manuel d'Erotologie
+Classique. Died Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.
+
+Forder (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to Woolwich,
+he became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He took part
+in the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, and was
+sent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In '77 he
+was appointed paid secretary to the National Secular Society, a post
+he has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of Messrs. Foote,
+Ramsey, and Kemp, in '83, Mr. Forder undertook charge of the publishing
+business. He has lectured largely, and written some pamphlets.
+
+Forlong (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. Lanarkshire,
+Scotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the Indian
+army '43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign '45-6, and in the second
+Burmese war. On the annexation of Barma he became head of the Survey,
+Roads and canal branches. In '58-9 he travelled extensively through
+Egypt, Palestine, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From '61-71 was
+a superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, North-west
+Provinces, and Rajputana, and '72-76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer
+to the Government of Oudh. He retired in '77 after an active service of
+33 years, during which he frequently received the thanks of the Indian
+and Home Governments. In his youth he was an active Evangelical,
+preaching to the natives in their own tongues. He has, however,
+given his testimony that during his long experience he has known no
+one converted solely by force of reasoning or "Christian evidences." A
+great student of Eastern religions, archaeology, and languages, he has
+written in various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied
+the result of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes
+called Rivers of Life, setting forth the evolution of all religions
+from their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised
+developments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the
+movements of thought from 10,000 B.C. to the present time.
+
+Fourier (Francois Marie Charles), French socialist, b. Besancon, 7
+April, 1772. He passed some of the early years of his life as a common
+soldier. His numerous works amid much that is visionary have valuable
+criticisms upon society, and suggestions for its amelioration. He
+believed in the transmigration of souls. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.
+
+Fox (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near Wrentham,
+Suffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he became
+a Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place, Finsbury,
+where he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books
+besides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of
+toleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He
+gradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete
+rejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent
+and able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained
+his seat until his retirement in '61. He was a prominent worker for
+Radicalism, contributing to the Westminster Review, Weekly Dispatch,
+and Daily News. For some years he edited the Monthly Repository. His
+works, which include spirited Lectures to the Working Classes, and a
+philosophical statement of Religions Ideas, were published in twelve
+volumes, '65-68. Died 3 June, 1864.
+
+"Franchi (Ausonio)," the pen name of Francesco Cristoforo Bonavino,
+Italian ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church
+and ordained priest in '44, the practice of the confessional made
+him sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to
+believe in its dogmas, '49. In '52 he published his principal work,
+entitled The Philosophy of the Italian Schools. The following year
+he published The Religion of the Nineteenth Century. He established
+La Razione (Reason) and Il Libero Pensiero at Turin, '54-57; wrote
+on the Rationalism of the People, Geneva, '56, and became an active
+organiser of anti-clerical societies. In '66 he published a criticism
+of Positivism, and has since written Critical and Polemical Essays,
+3 vols. Milan, '70-72. In '68 was appointed Professor of Philosophy
+in the Academy of Milan by Terenzio Mamiani.
+
+Francis (Samuel), M.D., author of Watson Refuted, published by
+Carlile, 1819.
+
+Francois de Neufchateau (Nicolas Louis), Count, French statesman,
+poet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his youth he
+became secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his successor. He
+favored the Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly
+in '91. As Member of the Directory, '97, he circulated d'Holbach's
+Contagion Sacree. He became President of the Senate, '14-16. He wrote
+numerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan. 1828.
+
+Franklin (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. Boston 17
+Jan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came to
+England and worked at his trade '24-26; returned to Philadelphia,
+where he published a paper and became known by his Poor Richard's
+Almanack. He founded the public library at Philadelphia, and
+made the discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric
+fluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was sent to
+England as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he spoke
+boldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with this
+country, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to France,
+and effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. '78,
+which secured the independence of the American colonies. Turgot summed
+up his services in the fine line Eripuit caelo fulmen, sceptrumque
+tyrannis. "He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre
+from kings." Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.
+
+Fransham (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a teacher of
+mathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed Paganism,
+writing several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died 1810.
+
+Frauenstaedt (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and disciple
+of Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He studied
+philosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at
+Frankfort in '47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made
+him his literary executor. Among Frauenstaedt's works are Letters on
+Natural Religion, '58, The Liberty of Men and the Personality of God,
+'38; Letters on the Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '54, etc. Died at
+Berlin, 13 Jan. 1879.
+
+Frederick II. (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the thirteenth
+century and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was elected
+to the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, founded
+the Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of Aristotle
+and Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able men of
+his time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was
+twice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope
+(Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in '28. He made a treaty
+with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of Jerusalem. For
+some heretical words in his letter, in which he associates the names
+of Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported author of the famous
+work De Tribus Impostoribus. He addressed a series of philosophical
+questions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is said to have called
+the Eucharist truffa ista, and is credited also with the saying
+"Ignorance is the mother of devotion." Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.
+
+Frederick the Great (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was educated in
+a very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He ascended
+the throne and soon displayed his political and military ability. By
+a war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several deistical
+pieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying "every man
+must get to heaven his own way." He attracted to his court men like
+Lamettrie, D'Argens, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle,
+continued all his days Friedrich's chief thinker. In 1756 France,
+Austria, Sweden, and Russia united against him, but he held his own
+against "a world in arms." After a most active life Frederick died
+at Potsdam, 17 Aug. 1786. The Philosophical Breviary attributed to
+him was really written by Cerutti.
+
+Fredin (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published
+translation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll's writings. In
+'80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish Academy for an original
+poem.
+
+Freeke (William), b. about 1663, wrote A Brief but Clear Confutation
+of the Trinity, which being brought before the notice of the House of
+Lords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman,
+and the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General was fined L500.
+
+Freiligrath (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, 1810. In
+'35 he acquired notice by some poems. In '44 he published his
+profession of faith Mein Glaubensbekenntniss, and was forced to
+fly the country. In '48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the
+Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London,
+devoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a
+high place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart,
+18 March 1876.
+
+Freret (Nicolas), French historical critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a
+pupil of Rollin, and was patronised by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished
+by his attainments in ancient history, philosophy and chronology,
+he became member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse
+on the "Origin of the Franks," he was incarcerated for four months in
+the Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat
+much from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic
+Letters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe on Natural and Revealed Religion,
+and perhaps of La Moisade, a criticism of the Pentateuch, translated
+by D. I. Eaton, as A Preservative against Religious Prejudices. The
+Letters to Eugenie, attributed to Freret, were written by D'Holbach,
+and the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian
+Religion by J. Levesque de Burigny. A Critical Examination of the New
+Testament, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been wrongly
+attributed to Freret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.
+
+Frey (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist
+and philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general,
+1839. Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he
+became teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the
+oppression and degradation of his country he went to New York in
+1866 where he established co-operative communities and also Russian
+colonies in Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to
+influence his countrymen. In '87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.
+
+Fries (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23
+Aug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of
+the Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a System
+of Metaphysics, 1824; a Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and
+Philosophical AEsthetics, Heidelberg '32; in which he resolves religion
+into poetry. He criticised Kant's proofs of God and immortality,
+and wrote a History of Philosophy. Died Jena, 10 Aug. 1843.
+
+Frothingham (Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26
+Nov. 1822. Graduated at Harvard, '43, and became Unitarian minister. In
+'60 he became pastor of the most radical Unitarian congregation in
+New York. In '67 he became first president of the Free Religious
+Association, but, becoming too advanced, resigned in '79 and came
+to Europe. Since his return to Boston, '81, he has devoted himself
+to literature. He has published The Religion of Humanity, N.Y.,
+'73; Life of Theodore Parker, '74; The Cradle of the Christ, '77;
+Life of Gerrit Smith, 78; and numerous sermons.
+
+Froude (James Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son of an
+Archdeacon of Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818, and
+educated at Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in '40,
+was elected fellow of Exeter College and received deacon's orders. At
+first, under the influence of the Romanising movement, he became
+a rationalist and abandoned his fellowship and clerical life. His
+Nemesis of Faith, '48, showed the nature of his objections. Mr. Froude
+devoted his abilities to a literary career, and fell under the
+influence of Carlyle. For many years he edited Fraser's Magazine,
+in which he wrote largely. His essays are collected under the title
+of Short Studies on Great Subjects, '71-83. His largest work is the
+History of England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the
+Spanish Armada, '56-76. His Life of Carlyle, '82, and publication
+of Carlyle's Reminiscenses provoked much controversy. His magical
+translation of Lucian's most characteristic Dialogue of the Gods
+is done with too much verve to allow of the supposition that the
+translator is not in sympathy with his author.
+
+Fry (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he was
+elected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was
+declared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was
+called to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted
+for Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence
+was passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote The Accuser
+Shamed, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking against
+"that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the Godhead." He
+also wrote The Clergy in their Colors, 1650.
+
+Fuller (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b. Cambridgeport,
+Massachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In '40-42 she edited the Dial. She
+also published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, '44. Among friends
+she counted Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, and Mazzini. She visited
+Europe and married at Rome the Marquis D'Ossoli. Returning she was
+shipwrecked and drowned off the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.
+
+Furnemont (Leon), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 April,
+1861. Entered the school of Mines Liege in '76, and founded the Circle
+of Progressive Students. Became president of International Congress
+of Students, '84, and represented Young Belgium at the funeral of
+Victor Hugo. Radical candidate at the Brussels municipal elections,
+he obtained 3,500 votes, but was not elected. He is a Councillor
+of the International Federation of Freethinkers and director of a
+monthly journal, La Raison, 1889.
+
+Gabarro (Bartolome) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, Barcelona,
+27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college with a view to
+taking the clerical habit, he refused and went to America. After
+travelling much, he established a day school in Barcelona and founded
+an Anti-clerical League of Freethinkers pledged to live without
+priests. This induced much clerical wrath, especially when Dr. Gabarro
+founded some 200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For
+denouncing the assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel,
+sentenced to four years' imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere
+on the frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal La
+Tronada. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an important
+work on Pius IX. and History.
+
+Gabelli (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, 1830. Author
+of The Religious Question in Italy, '64, Man and the Moral Sciences,
+'69, in which he rejects all metaphysics and supernaturalism, and
+Thoughts, 1886.
+
+Gage (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New
+York, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active
+abolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in '45 she
+married Henry H. Gage. From '52 till '61 she wrote and spoke against
+slavery. In '72 she was made President of the National Woman's
+Suffrage Association. She is joint author of The History of Woman
+Suffrage with Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton, and with them considers
+the Church the great obstacle to woman's progress.
+
+Gagern (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. Educated at
+Berlin, travelled in '47 to Paris where he became acquainted with
+Humboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in the Pyrenees;
+served in the Prussian army, became a friend of Wislicenus and the
+free-religious movement. In '52 he went to Mexico; here he had an
+appointment under General Miramon. In the French-Mexican expedition
+he was taken prisoner in '63; released in '65 he went to New York. He
+was afterwards military attache for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought
+appears in his memoirs entitled Dead and Living, 1884, and in his
+volume Sword and Trowel, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.
+
+Gall (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 March, 1758. He
+practised as a physician in Vienna, devoting much time to the study of
+the brain, and began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he
+was prohibited from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught
+their system in various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.
+
+Galton (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in
+1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King's College,
+London, and graduated at Cambridge, '24. In '48 and '50 he travelled in
+Africa. He wrote a popular Art of Travel, and has distinguished himself
+by many writings bearing on heredity, of which we name Hereditary
+Genius, '69, English Men of Science, '70. In his Inquiries into Human
+Faculty and Developement, '83, he gives statistical refutation of the
+theory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the British Association
+from '63-68, President of the Geographical Section in '62 and '72,
+and of the Anthropological Section in '77 and '85. He is President
+of the Anthropological Institute.
+
+Gambetta (Leon Michel), French orator and statesman, b. Cahors, 30
+Oct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished him to become
+one. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study for the
+law. In '59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of Delescluze
+(14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, made
+him famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, he
+became the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he proclaimed
+the Republic and organised the national defences, leaving Paris, then
+invested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he invigorated every
+department, and was the inspiration of the few successes won by the
+French. Gambetta preserved the Republic against all machinations,
+and compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the alternatives,
+"Se soumettre ou se demettre." He founded the Republique Francaise,
+and became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was a professed
+disciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open opponent of
+clericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were Freethinkers. Died
+31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of the largest
+gatherings ever witnessed.
+
+Gambon (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 March,
+1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the Journal des
+Ecoles. In '48 he was elected representative. The Empire drove him
+into exile, he returned at amnesty of '59. In '69 he refused to pay
+taxes. In '71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the last
+defenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in '82. Formed
+a League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. 1887.
+
+Garat (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator and
+writer, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of
+d'Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the
+Assembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As
+minister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He
+afterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,
+and president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.
+
+Garborg (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. Brought
+up as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the University of
+Christiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper Fedraheimen, written in
+the dialect of the peasantry. Held an appointment for some years
+in the Government Audit Office. In '81 he published a powerfully
+written tale, A Freethinker, which created a deal of attention. Since
+he has published Peasant Students, Tales and Legends, Youth, Men,
+etc. He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on
+the Norwegian press.
+
+Garcia-Vao (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and miscellaneous
+writer, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of Cardinal
+Cisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards studied
+at the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing several
+papers, he attached himself to the staff of Las Dominicales del Libre
+Pensiamento. Among his numerous works are a volume of poems, Echoes
+of a Free Mind, Love and the Monks, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman
+philosophy, etc. This promising student was stabbed in the back at
+Madrid, 18 December, 1886.
+
+Garde (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four little
+blasphemous books at Paris in 1537.
+
+Garibaldi (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4
+July, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a
+priest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a sailor's life. A trip to
+Rome made him long to free his country. He joined Mazzini's movement,
+"Young Italy," and being implicated in the Genoese revolt of '33,
+he fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he learnt he was
+sentenced to death. He went to South America and fought on behalf of
+the republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his beautiful and
+brave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures. Returning to
+Italy he fought against the Austrians in '48, and next year was the
+soul of resistance to the French troops, who came to restore Papal
+authority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he escaped
+with difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working for
+an Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In '54 he returned
+and bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In '59 he again fought the
+Austrians, and in May, '60, landed at Marsala, Sicily, took Palermo,
+and drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a Republican he saluted
+Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the cessation of Nice to
+France, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by Victor Emanuel's
+troops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he wrote his Rule
+of the Monk, a work exhibiting his love of liberty and hatred of
+the priesthood. In '64 he visited England, and was enthusiastically
+received. In '67 he again took part in an attempt to free Rome from
+the Papal government. In '71 he placed his sword at the service of
+the French Republic, and the only standard taken from the Germans was
+captured by his men. Elected Member of the Italian Parliament in his
+later years he did much to improve the city of Rome. In one of his
+laconic letters of '80, he says "Dear Friend,--Man has created God,
+not God man,--Yours ever, Garibaldi." He died 2 June, '82, and directed
+in his will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.
+
+Garrison (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet on The
+Absence of Design in Nature, 1876.
+
+Garth (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. Yorkshire,
+1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish dispensaries,
+and lashed the opposition in his poem The Dispensary. He was made
+physician to King George I. Died 18 June 1719.
+
+Gaston (H.), French author of a brochure with the title Dieu, voila,
+l'ennemi, God the enemy, 1882.
+
+Gattina (F. P. della). See Petruccelli.
+
+Gautama (called also Gotama, Buddha, and Sakyamuni), great Hindu
+reformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 B.C. Many
+legends are told of his birth and life. He is said to have been a
+prince, who, pained with human misery, left his home to dedicate
+himself to emancipation. His system was rather a moral discipline
+than a religion. Though he did not deny the Hindu gods he asserted
+that all beings were subject to "Karma," the result of previous
+actions. He said, "If a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the
+forest, and if he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul
+is grounded in true knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice
+for a hundred years." According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha
+died at Kusinagara, B.C. 543.
+
+Gautier (Theophile), exquisite French poet and prose writer, b. Tarbes,
+31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against priestcraft or
+superstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is Pagan. His
+romanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with "sacred themes"
+as well as conventional morality. Baudelaire called him an impeccable
+master of French literature, and Balzac said that of the two men who
+could write French, one was Theophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.
+
+Geijer (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and critic,
+b. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the Swedish
+Academy's first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a Conservative
+in religious, philosophical, and political matters he became through
+his historical researches an ardent adherent of the principles of the
+French revolution. His historical work and indictment against "The
+Protestant creed" was published in 1820 in a philosophical treatise,
+Thorild, which was prosecuted. His acquittal by an enlightened jury
+stayed religious prosecutions in Sweden for over sixty years. He
+died 23 April 1847. A monument was erected to him last year at the
+University of Upsala, where he was professor of history. His works
+have been republished.
+
+Geijerstam (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the
+Freethinking group of Young Sweden.
+
+Geismar (Martin von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of
+the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some of the works
+of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846-7. He also added pamphlets
+entitled Germany in the Eighteenth Century.
+
+Gellion-Danglar (Eugene), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became
+Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pensee Nouvelle, was
+made sous prefect of Compiegne, '71, wrote History of the Revolution
+of 1830, and A Study of the Semites, '82.
+
+Gemistos (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan
+learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost
+his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court
+at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Palaelogus in 1438,
+where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by
+which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of
+the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused
+him of Paganism. Died 1450.
+
+Genard (Francois), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote
+an irreligious work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age,
+with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in
+the Bastille, where it is believed he finished his days.
+
+Gendre (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15
+Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a
+gold medal. By reading the works of Buechner, Buckle, and Darwin
+she became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed
+to the Revue Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the
+Nouvelle Revue, etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under
+the title Etudes Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by
+Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.
+
+Gener (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member
+of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution
+of ideas entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, '80. This able work is
+dedicated to Renan and has a preface by Littre. The author has since
+translated it into Spanish.
+
+Genestet (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam,
+21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant
+minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal,
+2 July, 1861.
+
+Genin (Francois), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He
+became one of the editors of the National, of Paris, about '37, and
+wrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works
+on The Jesuits and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In
+'45 the French Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language
+of Moliere. He edited Diderot, '47, and is known for his researches
+into the origin of the French language and literature. Died Paris,
+20 Dec. 1856.
+
+Genovesi (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1
+Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his
+substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself
+many attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is
+his Italian Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.
+
+Gensonne (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the
+Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the
+Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the
+struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonne was one of the most active and
+eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues
+31 Oct. 1793.
+
+Gentilis (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples,
+about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558
+he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of
+sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,
+where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his
+innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland,
+where he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial
+he was condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne,
+26 (?) Sept. 1566. Ladvocat says "He died very impiously, saying he
+thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father,
+whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of
+the Son."
+
+Geoffrin (Marie Therese, nee Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a
+patroness of learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She
+was a friend of Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot,
+and the encyclopaedists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at
+Paris, 6 Oct. 1777.
+
+Gerhard (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at
+an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy,
+and Switzerland, and in '61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De
+Dageraad, and was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July,
+1886.
+
+Gerhard (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April,
+1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of
+De Dageraad.
+
+Germond (J. B. L.), editor of Marechal's Dictionnaire des Athees,
+Brussels, 1833.
+
+Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.
+
+Ghillany (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18
+April, 1807. In '35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His
+principal work is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg,
+'42. He also wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first
+four centuries. Under the pseudonym of "Richard von der Alm" he wrote
+Theological Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of
+the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries
+upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.
+
+Giannone (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May,
+1676. He devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples,
+in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled
+to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was
+removed on his avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria
+and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone
+was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He
+found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed
+into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia,
+and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.
+
+Gibbon (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney,
+27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a
+Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting
+the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing
+the Decline and Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the
+appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application,
+his investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and
+political activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental
+work, bridging the old world and the new, is an historic exposure
+of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to
+Parliament in '74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy,
+in London, 16 Jan. 1794.
+
+Gibson (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May,
+1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought
+her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil
+War she organised Ladies' Soldiers' Aid Societies, and was elected
+chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln
+endorsed the appointment, which was questioned. She has written
+anonymously Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the
+Truthseeker, Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own
+signature and that of "Lilian."
+
+Giessenburg (Rudolf Charles d'Ablaing van), one of the most notable of
+Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever
+in youth, in '47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a
+bookseller under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and Guenst,
+he started de Dageraad, and from '56-68 was one of the contributors,
+usually under his name "Rudolf Charles." He is a man of great
+erudition, has written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of
+Freethought); de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary
+in the Field of Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal
+of Inquiry); Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity);
+Curiositeiten van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has
+also published the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch
+and Brooksbank's work on Revelation. He was the first who published
+a complete edition of the famous Testament du Cure Jean Meslier in
+three parts ('64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other
+writers, and also Curieuse Gebruiken.
+
+Gilbert (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had
+printed at Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle
+des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du
+Christianisme. The book has neither the name of author or printer. It
+was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought
+in 1784 by the Duc de La Valliere for 120 livres. It was in form of a
+dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert
+married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.
+
+Gill (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University
+of that city. In '83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution
+of Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before
+Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his
+name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on
+the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop
+Laurence's Book of Enoch, 1883.
+
+Giles (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26
+Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he
+graduated B.A. as a double first-class in '28. He was appointed
+head-master of the City of London School, which post he left for
+the Church. The author of over 150 volumes of educational works,
+including the Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed
+Freethinker, intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on
+theology show his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850,
+Christian Records 1854. These two were published together in amended
+form in 1877. He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852,
+Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and
+Apostolic Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.
+
+Ginguene (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April,
+1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a
+teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais,
+and collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French
+Revolution. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the
+fall of Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His
+principal work is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11
+Nov. 1816.
+
+Gilliland (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little
+work on The Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.
+
+Gioja (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20
+Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a
+bureau of statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo
+he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and
+Rewards and The Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.
+
+Girard (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France,
+24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760;
+rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle
+in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest
+merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole
+of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels
+after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire,
+Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public improvements
+and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests to
+Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a college
+for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister
+of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or
+even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the
+institution are required to instruct the pupils in secular morality
+and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has
+been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.
+
+Glain (D. de Saint). See Saint Glain.
+
+Glennie (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and
+writer, author of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and
+transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter
+of which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and
+Osiris. He has also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion
+in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle,
+1875.
+
+Glisson (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham,
+Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there
+appointed Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He
+discovered Glisson's capsule in the liver, and was the first to
+attribute irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura
+substantiae energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in
+considering matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account
+for the operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey,
+and Boerhaave called him "the most accurate of all anatomists that
+ever lived." Died in 1677.
+
+Godwin (Mary). See Wollstonecraft.
+
+Godwin (William), English historian, political writer and novelist,
+b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting
+minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton
+College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making
+the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his
+views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection
+of the supernatural. In '93 he published his republican work on
+Political Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful
+novel of Caleb Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, '96; wrote,
+in addition to several novels and educational works, On Population,
+in answer to Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, '24-28;
+Thoughts on Man, '31; Lives of the Necromancers, '34. Some Freethought
+essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius
+of Christianity Unveiled, were first published in '73. They comprise
+papers on such subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles,
+and character of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian
+religion. Died 7 April, 1836.
+
+Goethe (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany's greatest poet,
+b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his
+seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his
+mind with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several
+languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic
+University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed
+his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771,
+and in the same year composed his drama "Goetz von Berlichingen." He
+went to Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at
+once made him famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of
+Saxe-Weimar and loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy
+of distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and
+his own dramas, of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work
+is Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He
+declared himself "decidedly non-Christian," and said his objects of
+hate were "the cross and bugs." He was averse to abstractions and
+refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy
+he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular
+creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: "You look upon the gospel as
+it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not
+convince me that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives
+without a man, and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is
+more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of
+ancient and modern inspired men are equally beautiful." Goethe was
+opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits "stood in opposition
+to Christianity not merely on points of theological form, but to
+a certain extent on points of substance too." Goethe devoted much
+attention to science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis
+of plants on evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.
+
+Goldstuecker (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a
+Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn
+under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing
+himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and
+assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A
+democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of '49 and came
+to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his
+Sanskrit-English Dictionary. He contributed important articles on
+Indian literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athenaeum
+and Chambers' Encyclopaedia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.
+
+Goldziher (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg,
+1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is
+author of Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated
+by Russell Martineau, '77, and has written many studies on Semitic
+theology and literature.
+
+Gordon (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells,
+Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he
+supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished
+himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which
+recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and
+with whom he published Cato's Letters and a periodical entitled The
+Independent Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard's
+death, marrying that writer's widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and
+translated from Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All
+Ages. He also translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died
+28 July, 1750, leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial
+for Low Spirits and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.
+
+Gorlaeus (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end
+of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account
+of his speculations in a work published after his death entitled
+Exercitationes Philosophicae, Leyden 1620.
+
+Govea or Gouvea [Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet,
+b. 1505, studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal
+writings. Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers,
+as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin,
+5 March, 1565.
+
+Gratiolet (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July
+1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the
+brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.
+
+Graves (Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865,
+and The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue,
+but little value.
+
+Gray (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co.,
+New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote
+Elements of Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard,
+and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an
+Examination of Darwin's Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of
+Smithsonian Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge,
+Mass., 30 Jan. 1888.
+
+Green (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the
+Freethinker's Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.
+
+Greg (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated
+at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic studies
+and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester
+Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League,
+and author of one of its prize essays. In '40 he wrote on Efforts for
+the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In '50 he published his
+Creed of Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in
+1872 his Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in
+his life. He published also Essays on Political and Social Science,
+and was a regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works
+exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at
+Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.
+
+Grenier (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord,
+1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free will,
+'68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans,
+imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of
+Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.
+
+"Grile (Dod)," pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who
+wrote on the San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and
+Fiend's Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and
+published Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.
+
+Grimm (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in
+French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted
+with D'Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but
+afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans,
+and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary
+bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. In
+1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,
+and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia
+her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is
+chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published
+in seventeen vols. 1812-1813.
+
+Gringore (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised
+the pope and clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.
+
+Grisebach (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied
+law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at
+Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of
+which the best known is The New Tanhaeuser, first published anonymously
+in '69, and followed by Tanhaeuser in Rome, '75. Has also translated
+Kin Ku Ki Kuan, Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose
+bibliography he has compiled, 1888.
+
+Grote (George), the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent,
+17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for
+the employment of a banker and was put to business at the age of
+sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and became
+a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he
+married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in '22 his Analysis of
+the Influence of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under
+the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster
+Review. In '33 he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London
+and retained his seat till '41. He was chiefly known in Parliament
+for his advocacy of the ballot. In '46-'56 he published his famous
+History of Greece, which cost him the best years of his life; this was
+followed by Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review
+of J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,
+'61, showed he retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He
+died 18 June '71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Grote (Harriet) nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his
+opinions and wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.
+
+Gruen (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, Luedenschied, Westphalia,
+studied at Bonn and Berlin. In '44 he came to Paris, was a friend
+to Proudhon and translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in
+'49 and condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till '62, when he was
+made professor at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the
+College of Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening
+News and he wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, '44, and Feuerbach,
+'71. A Culture History of the 16th-17th Centuries, and The Philosophy
+of the Present, '76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.
+
+Gruet (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for
+blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death
+papers were found in his possession directed against religion. They
+were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.
+
+Gruyer (Louis Auguste Jean Francois-Philippe), Belgian philosopher,
+b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy,
+1828, Tablettes Philosophiques, '42. Principles of Physical
+Philosophy, '45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter
+was eternal. Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.
+
+Guadet (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde),
+20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in
+'81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was
+elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins
+contributed to the destruction of his party, after which he took
+refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.
+
+Gubernatis (Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.
+
+Guepin (Ange), French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became
+M.D. in '28. After the revolution of July, '30, Dr. Guepin was made
+Professor at the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first
+scientific and philosophical congress, held there in '33. In '48 he
+became Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in '50 was deprived
+of his situation. In '54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth
+Century. After the fall of the Empire, M. Guepin became Prefet of La
+Loire Inferieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes,
+21 May, 1873, and was buried without any religious ceremony.
+
+Gueroult (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29
+Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote
+to the Journal des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and
+founded l'Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in '63,
+when he advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy,
+21 July, 1872.
+
+Guerra Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a
+poem on The Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of
+Jehovah, an assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of
+Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.
+
+Guerrini (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated
+at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine
+poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova
+Polemica he declares "Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio" ("First
+of all I say do not believe in God.")
+
+Gueudeville (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a
+Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness
+of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped
+to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature
+and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la
+Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels
+of La Hontan, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter
+criticism of Christian usages. He translated Erasmus's Praise of Folly
+(1713), More's Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and
+Vanity of Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.
+
+Guichard (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became
+Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He
+was exiled in '52, but again elected in '71. His principal work is
+La Liberte de Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris,
+11th Nov. 1884.
+
+Guild (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In '35 he became
+a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became turned
+Universalist. In '44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference,
+which went through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con,
+in which he gives the arguments for and against Christianity.
+
+Guirlando (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice
+for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.
+
+Gundling (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher,
+b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy
+of Morals, 1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German
+eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived
+all ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.
+
+Gunning (William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg,
+Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life
+History of our Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open
+Court. Died Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.
+
+Guenst (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam,
+19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied
+at Berne, where he was promoted '47. Returning to Holland he became
+bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of
+the City Theatre. Guenst contributed to many periodicals, and became
+a friend of Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of
+the Dutch Freethinkers, which he edited from '55 to '67. He usually
+contributed under pseudonyms as "Mephistho" or ([therefore]). He was
+for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,
+"Post Nubila Lux," and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of
+the Freemasons. He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken
+(Holy Water for the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche
+Inquisitie (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, '63); and Heidenen
+en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits,
+a comparison of their morals, '67). In his life and conversation he
+was frater gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.
+
+Guyau (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the
+age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian
+morality. In the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy
+at the Condorcet lycee at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of
+work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself
+with literature. His principal works are La Morale d'Epicure (the
+morality of Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878,
+La Morale Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), '79,
+crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,
+'81. Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of
+morality without obligation or sanction,) '84, and L'Irreligion de
+l'Avenir (the Irreligion of the Future) '87. M. Guyau was a follower of
+M. Fouillee, but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and
+originality. A chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone,
+31 March, 1888.
+
+Guyot (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote
+with Sigismond Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity,
+'73, and a work on morality in the Bibliotheque Materialiste. Elected
+on the Municipal Council of Paris '74-78, he has since been a deputy
+to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has written
+the Principles of Social Economy, '84, and many works on that topic;
+has edited Diderot's La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l'homme
+and le Bien public.
+
+Gwynne (George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National
+Reformer, under the pen-name of "Aliquis." His reply to J. H. Newman's
+Grammar of Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by
+pen and purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.
+
+Gyllenborg (Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was
+one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor
+of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc.,
+among which may be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were
+Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.
+
+Haeckel (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam,
+16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at Wuerzburg, Berlin,
+and Vienna. In '59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples,
+and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between
+'66 and '75 he travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt,
+and later he visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account
+of his travels. He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his
+Natural History of Creation, '68, having gone through many editions,
+and been translated into English '76, as have also his Evolution
+of Man, 2 vols. '79, and Pedigree of Man, '83. Besides numerous
+monographs and an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel
+has published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on
+Freedom in Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by
+Professor Huxley, '79.
+
+Hagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year
+1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they
+received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen,
+and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby,
+where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also
+deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.
+
+Halley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime
+as "the Infidel Mathematician," b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656;
+educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets
+and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena
+where he prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, '79. He also
+found how to take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of
+Mercury or Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later
+he made observation on "Halley's comet," and in '83 published his
+theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir
+Isaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he
+commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he
+was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He
+then undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz:
+to observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He
+lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who
+conceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in
+his Biographical Dictionary says, "It must be deeply regretted that
+he cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought
+it not beneath them to be Christians."
+
+Hammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.
+
+Hamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright,
+of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding
+"that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly,
+a human invention, a mere fable." He had previously been set in the
+pillory and had both his ears cut off.
+
+Hannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some
+time editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical
+Theology, '46; Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of Philosophical
+Studies, '72; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life
+by sensibility.
+
+Hanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia,
+b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in
+London, and wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took
+part in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he
+became Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief
+Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865,
+The Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters
+to and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by
+C.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.
+
+Hardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke,
+F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and
+in '86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent
+of the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school
+of Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific
+periodicals.
+
+Hardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26
+Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a
+member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the
+principal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for
+Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up
+a press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the
+publishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of
+Mr. Foote ('84), and Evolution and Creation ('87). He has contributed
+to the Agnostic Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain,
+Italy and Morocco ('89).
+
+Harriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied
+Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was
+noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says "He was a Deist." Died
+21 July 1621.
+
+Harrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831,
+educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He
+was called to the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor
+of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important
+articles in the high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning
+of History, Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other
+Literary Pieces, '86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte's Positive
+Polity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70,
+and of Newton Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine
+articles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters.
+
+Hartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist
+philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian
+army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the
+publication of his Philosophy of the Unconscious in '69, he became
+famous, though it was not translated into English until '84. He
+has since written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution
+of Christianity and The Religion of the Future, '75, The Crisis of
+Christianity in Modern Theology, '80, The Religious Consciousness of
+Mankind, '81, and Modern Problems, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned
+his attention to the philosophy of politics.
+
+Hartogh Heys van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer,
+b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden,
+and graduated doctor of law in '64 and doctor of natural philosophy in
+'66. In '66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a
+treatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time
+professor of chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at
+Delft, where he was made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled
+through Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the
+guest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of
+Man and Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations
+of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works
+of Ludwig Buechner and "Carus Sterne," from the German, and works from
+the French, besides writing several original essays on anthropology,
+natural history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely
+to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In '72 he visited the
+United States and the Pacific coast. Since '73 he has resided at
+Assen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could
+not take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of
+the Provincial Archaeological Museum at Assen, and a member of the
+Dutch Literary Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India,
+and other scientific associations. For a long while he was a member
+of the Dutch Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became
+president. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works,
+such as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin
+of Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.
+
+Haslam (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April,
+1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a
+Socialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations,
+showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their
+doctrines, '38. This work went through several editions, and the
+publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to
+the Bishop of Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question
+whether or not the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who
+are the Infidels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since
+lived. In '85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.
+
+Hassell (Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years
+imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May,
+1824. He died in October 1826.
+
+Hattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a
+follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had
+several followers. Died 1706.
+
+Haureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the
+age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work
+on The Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced
+many important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy,
+'44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite
+Critical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50.
+
+Hauy (Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He
+devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the
+institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders
+of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till
+1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris
+18 March, 1822.
+
+Havet (Ernest August Eugene), French scholar and critic, b. Paris,
+11 April, 1813. In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature
+at the Normal School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence
+at the College de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de Jesus in
+the Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards
+published separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins,
+4 vols. 1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.
+
+Hawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about
+1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine and editor of
+the Adventurer. In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that
+author. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis,
+Carteret, and Cook for government, for which he received L6,000;
+but the work was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of
+Providence. His novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at
+Bromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773.
+
+Hawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the
+terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.
+
+Hebert (Jacques Rene), French revolutionist, b. Alencon 15 Nov. 1757,
+published the notorious Pere Duchesne, and with Chaumette instituted
+the Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined
+2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few
+days later.
+
+Hegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart,
+27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tuebingen, but, becoming acquainted
+with Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclopaedia
+of the Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and
+two schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement
+of Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel
+said students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to
+have remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him,
+and he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg,
+and Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried
+beside Fichte.
+
+Heine (Heinrich), German poet and litterateur, b. of Jewish parents
+at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and
+Goettingen; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and
+Hegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and
+was baptised. The change was only formal. He satirised all forms
+of religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with
+favor and translated by himself into French. His other principal
+works are the Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany,
+The Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other
+poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris,
+where "the Voltaire of Germany" became more French than German. About
+1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed
+himself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After
+an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his
+"mattress grave," he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and
+most influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a
+Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the
+forces of reaction.
+
+Heinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician,
+b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn,
+and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne
+1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work
+on the Prussian Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to
+seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune
+and the Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but
+returned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again
+"the regicide" had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He
+wrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker),
+first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from
+'59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism,
+which appeared in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The
+Heroes of German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal,
+Six Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century,
+and What is Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.
+
+Hellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842,
+and in addition to many works on various countries has written an
+able Culture History, 1875.
+
+Helmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam
+31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics
+and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers
+in Europe. Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847),
+and Popular Scientific Lectures (1865-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects
+the design hypothesis.
+
+Helvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18
+Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a
+large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted
+by reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general
+to devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work
+On the Mind (De L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII,
+31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the
+hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said "he told
+everybody's secret." It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He
+also wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and
+Education. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest
+of Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, nee Anne Catherine
+De Lingville, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her
+house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet,
+Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was
+known as the Societe d'Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.
+
+Henault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century,
+son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to
+see Spinoza. Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three
+different systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet
+is on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.
+
+Henin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer,
+b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice,
+and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at
+Arcola, 26 Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in
+1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of
+his Archives du Magnetisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of
+Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt
+in Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes
+committed in the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy
+of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.
+
+Hennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809,
+author of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity,
+first published in '38, a work which powerfully influenced "George
+Eliot," and a translation of which was introduced to German readers
+by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced "George Eliot"
+to translate Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian
+Theism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married
+at London in '39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.
+
+Herault de Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of
+noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and
+Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the
+Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made
+President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known
+as the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at
+the national festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmity
+of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins,
+5 April, 1794.
+
+Herbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was
+made professor of philosophy at Goettingen, and in 1808 became Kant's
+successor at Koenigsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously
+disposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was
+recalled to Goettingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.
+
+Herbert (Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery
+Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his
+travels. On his return he was made one of the king's counsellors,
+and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the
+Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself
+by romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in
+'31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of
+Parliament. His principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of
+which was to assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from
+revelation. He also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History
+of Henry VIII., etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.
+
+Hertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some
+years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three
+small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence
+in favour of State secularization.
+
+Hertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of
+the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at
+Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was
+arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished
+to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in '37. He was expelled
+from Russia in '42, visited Italy, joined the "Reds" at Paris in '48,
+took refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set
+up in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works
+prohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in
+large numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42;
+Letters on the Study of Nature, '45-46; Who's to Blame? '57; Memoirs
+of the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the
+magazine the Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son,
+Alessandro Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes,
+learnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, where
+he did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated
+Maudsley's Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis
+of human free will.
+
+Herwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31
+May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for
+Literature. His Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man)
+aroused attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop
+and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and
+Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.
+
+Hetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho,
+London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic
+of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He
+also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which
+was the germ both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He
+resisted the "taxes upon knowledge" by issuing unstamped The Poor Man's
+Guardian, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to
+"law," to try the power of "might" against "right," '31-35. For this
+he twice suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards
+published The Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing
+the taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence
+of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40,
+he was tried for "blasphemous libel" for publishing Haslam's Letters
+to the Clergy, and received four month's imprisonment. Hetherington
+published A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought
+works. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He
+died 24 Aug. 1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.
+
+Hetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland;
+was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of
+the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance
+on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.
+
+Heusden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several
+works, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer,
+etc.
+
+Hibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the
+imprisonment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his
+publications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had
+received a gift of L1,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner
+should not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same
+amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly L1,000 in fitting up Carlile's
+shop in Fleet Street. He contributed "Theological Dialogues" to the
+Republican, and also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
+set up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns,
+'27, and also Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which
+he wrote a life of Plutarch and appended valuable essays "on the
+supposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar"; "various definitions
+of an important word" [God], and a catalogue of the principal
+modern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary
+of Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British
+Freethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James
+Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left L500 each. Died
+December 1834.
+
+Hedin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the "Andra Kammaren" [House
+of Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical
+candidate, '61. Edited the Aftonbladet, '74-76. Has written many
+radical works.
+
+Higgins (Godfrey), English archaeologist, b. Skellow Grange, near
+Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar,
+but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's
+property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he
+reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was
+entitled Horae Sabbaticae, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In
+'29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and
+Celtic Druids, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure
+of priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the
+origin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily
+for about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,
+under the title of "Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of
+the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations,
+and Religions."
+
+Hillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at
+Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor
+at Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany,
+Karl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to
+France. He taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary
+to Heine. On the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a
+naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During
+the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was
+taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he
+translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to
+the Fortnightly Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes,
+North American Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the
+French in the second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence,
+18 Oct. 1884.
+
+Hins (Eugene), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal
+Athenaeum, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the
+International, he edited L'Internationale, in which he laid stress
+on anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Liberte, and was
+one of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and
+La Libre-pensee of Brussels. He has written La Russie de voilee au
+moyen de sa litterature populaire, 1883, and other works.
+
+Hippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen,
+Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law,
+and became in 1780 burgomaster of Koenigsberg. His writings, which were
+published anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg,
+23 April, 1796.
+
+Hittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences
+against Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for
+Pantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California,
+a History of San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York,
+1875), and St. Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883).
+
+Hoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July,
+1836. He studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar,
+and in '51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He
+afterwards resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one
+of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in
+the public schools.
+
+Hobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,
+1588. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,
+with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the
+acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650
+appeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following
+year his famous Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension,
+but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness,
+passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter
+years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire,
+Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.
+
+Hodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's
+System of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two
+years for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison
+he wrote The Commonwealth of Reason.
+
+Hoelderlin (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet,
+b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at
+Tuebingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a
+fine romance (1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of
+thought. Died Tuebingen, 7 June, 1843.
+
+Hoijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi,
+Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University '83,
+and teacher of philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his
+liberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he
+contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor
+of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.
+
+Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim
+Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich
+and generous he was the patron of the Encyclopaedists. Buffon, Diderot,
+d'Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac,
+and other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin,
+and Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the
+German several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English,
+Mark Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many
+articles to the Encyclopedie. In 1765 he visited England, and from
+this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put
+out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam
+Christianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the
+Clergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was
+partly rewritten by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural
+History of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard
+and Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the
+French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published
+The History of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ,
+Letters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed
+to Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais],
+Religious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from
+the English. He also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland,
+and Collins's Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a
+work with the title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly
+conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the
+secret of their authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach
+escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The
+System of Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This
+text-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted
+by Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made
+a great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary
+under the title of Good Sense, attributed to the cure Meslier. In
+1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last
+important work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded
+upon Nature. D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to
+by many, was depicted in Rousseau's Nouvelle Heloise as the benevolent
+Atheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789.
+
+Holcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively
+a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies
+"Duplicity," 1781, and "The Road to Ruin," 1792, were very
+successful. He translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the
+Great, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he
+was indicted for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794,
+but was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.
+
+Holland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836,
+graduated at Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister
+at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has
+since written in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His
+principal work is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.
+
+Hollick (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was
+educated at the Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of
+the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion
+with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on "What is Christianity?" On
+the failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works
+popularising medical science have had a large circulation.
+
+Hollis (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious
+Reasons for Scepticism, 1796; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed
+Religion, 1799; and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks
+26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an opulent dissenting family, was
+distinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom,
+and by his beneficence.
+
+Holmes (William Vamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up
+from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced
+to two years' imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous
+and seditious libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain,
+and when in prison was told that "if hard labor was not expressed in
+his sentence, it was implied." On his release Holmes went to Sheffield
+and commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.
+
+Holwell (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black
+Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon,
+went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah
+Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the
+"Black Hole," 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He
+succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England
+he published a dissertation directed against belief in a special
+providence, and advocating the application of church endowments to
+the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.
+
+Holyoake (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27
+Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of
+Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the
+abolition of the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk and danger had
+to be met--and he co-operated with his brother in the production of
+the Reasoner and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after
+this he printed and sub-edited the National Reformer, in which
+many of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may
+be mentioned Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,
+Thoughts on Atheism, the Book of Esther, and Daniel the Dreamer. He
+also composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride
+in the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting
+its welfare. His amiable spirit endeared him to all who knew him. He
+died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed,
+in which he repudiated all belief in theology.
+
+Holyoake (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became
+mathematical teacher of the Mechanics' Institution. Influenced by Combe
+and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in '40 a Socialist missionary. In
+'42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in the Oracle of Reason,
+Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wrote The Spirit of
+Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech
+at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put
+the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. '42, he was sentenced to six months
+imprisonment, of which he gave a full account in his Last Trial by
+Jury for Atheism in England. In Dec. '43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall
+the Movement, bearing the motto from Bentham, "Maximise morals,
+minimise religion." The same policy was pursued in The Reasoner,
+which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must
+notice the Logic of Death, '50, which went through numerous editions,
+and was included in his most important Freethought work, The Trial
+of Theism. In '49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In
+'51 he first used the term "Secularist," and in Oct. '52 the first
+Secular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In
+Jan. '53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,
+and again in Oct. '54. He purchased the business of James Watson,
+and issued many Freethought works, notably The Library of Reason--a
+series, The Cabinet of Reason, his own Secularism, The Philosophy of
+the People, etc. In '60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out
+to Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge,
+and has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a
+history of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.
+
+Home (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was
+made known by his publication of Remarkable Decisions of the Court of
+Session, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He
+published Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion
+(1751), Elements of Criticism (1762), and Sketches of the History
+of Man, in which he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27
+Dec. 1782.
+
+Hon, Le (Henri). See Le Hon.
+
+Hooker (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He
+studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D '39. In '55 he
+became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from '65-85 sole
+director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of
+science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.
+
+Hope (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his
+anonymous Anastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an
+original work on The Origin and Prospects of Man '31. Died at London
+3 Feb. 1831.
+
+Houten (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837;
+he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In '69 he was
+chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on
+political economy. In '88 he wrote a book entitled Das Causalitaetgesetz
+(The Law of Causality).
+
+Houston (George). Was the translator of d'Holbach's Ecce Homo, first
+published in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph
+Webb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and
+was imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of L200. He afterwards
+went to New York, where he edited the Minerva (1822). In Jan. 1827,
+he started The Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly
+Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He
+also republished Ecce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a
+"Free Press Association" and a Society of Free Inquirers.
+
+Hovelacque (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied
+law and made part of the groupe of la Pensee Nouvelle, with Asseline,
+Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca
+and published many articles in the Revue d'Anthropologie. He founded
+with Letourneau, Thulie, Asseline, etc. The "Bibliotheque des sciences
+contemporains" and published therein La Linguistique. He also founded
+with the same the library of anthropological science and published in
+collaboration with G. Herve a precis of Anthropology and a study of
+the Negroes of Africa. He has also contributed to the Dictionary of
+Anthropology. For the "Bibliotheque Materialiste" he wrote a work on
+Primitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works
+of Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language,
+and a work on the Avesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In '78 he was made a
+member of the municipal council of Paris, and in '81 was elected deputy
+to the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.
+
+Howdon (John), author of A Rational Investigation of the Principles
+of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington,
+1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.
+
+Huber (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,
+1694. In a work on the System of Theologians, 1731, she opposed
+the dogma of eternal punishment. In '38 published Letters on the
+Religion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the
+same year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections
+from the Spectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.
+
+Hudail (Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)
+
+Huet (Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He
+became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his
+Freethought left the church in '63, and became editor of various
+newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary
+value, and published Letters on the Bible, '57, etc. Died 1887.
+
+Hugo (Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besancon, 26
+Feb. 1802. Was first noted for his Odes, published in '21. His dramas
+"Hernani," '30, and "Marion Delorme," '31, were highly successful. He
+was admitted into the French Academy in '41, and made a peer in
+'45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of '48, and was
+elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis
+Napoleon, and after the coup d'etat was proscribed. He first went to
+Brussels, where he published Napoleon the Little, a biting satire. He
+afterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of
+the Empire, producing The Legend of the Ages, '59, Les Miserables, '62,
+Toilers of the Sea, '69, and other works. After his return to Paris he
+produced a new series of the Legend of the Ages, The Pope, Religions
+and Religion, Torquemada, and other poems. He died 22 May, 1885,
+and it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon
+was secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his
+death a poem entitled The End of Satan has been published.
+
+Hugues (Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes,
+3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the
+influence of Hugo left the black business. In '71 he became head
+of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three
+years' imprisonment. In '81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the
+extreme left.
+
+Humboldt (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German
+naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under
+Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England
+with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general
+of mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico,
+and in 1804 returned with a rich collection of animals, plants and
+minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed
+the friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living
+distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions
+to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his
+celebrated Cosmos, the first volume of which appeared in '45 and the
+fourth in '58. To Varnhagen von Ense he wrote in 1841: "Bruno Bauer
+has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote,
+'Toutes les religions positives offrent trois parties distinctes;
+un traite de moeurs partout le meme et tres pur, un reve geologique,
+et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier element obtient
+le plus d'importance.'" Later on he says that Strauss disposes of
+"the Christian myths." Humboldt was an unwearied student of science,
+paying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to
+his essay On the Province of the Historian, because he considered it
+to acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which
+seemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle
+of life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.
+
+Humboldt (Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher,
+b. Potsdam, 22 June, 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in
+1789, and hailed the revolution with enthusiasm. In '92 he published
+Ideas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller
+and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took
+part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at
+the Congress of Vienna, '14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but
+finding the King averse, retired at the end of '19, and devoted himself
+to the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things
+he could not comprehend--orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He
+died 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.
+
+Hume (David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April,
+1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote his Treatise
+on Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest
+friendly or hostile. Hume's Essays Moral and Political appeared in
+1742, and in 1752 his Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals which
+of all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published his
+Natural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton
+in an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his
+History of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became
+secretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was
+cordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing
+Rousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767,
+and in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After
+his death his Dialogues on Natural Religion were published, and also
+some unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul,
+etc. Hume's last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous
+Dr. Adam Smith, considered him "as approaching as nearly to the idea
+of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human
+frailty will permit."
+
+Hunt (James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the
+Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, '63. He
+was the author of the Negro's Place in Nature, a work on Stammering,
+etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.
+
+Hunt (James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate,
+Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at
+Christ's Hospital, London. He joined his brother John in editing
+first the Sunday News, 1805, and then the Examiner, 1808. They were
+condemned to pay a fine, each of L500, and to be imprisoned for
+two years, 1812-14, for a satirical article, in which the prince
+regent was called an "Adonis of fifty." This imprisonment procured
+him the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing
+the Indicator he was associated in editing the Liberal. He wrote many
+choice books of poems and criticisms, and in his Religion of the Heart,
+'53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.
+
+Hutten (Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family
+Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda
+to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied
+humaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510,
+and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to
+Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His
+great object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and
+most of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and
+clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of
+Zurich drove him out of their territory and he died on the isle of
+Ufnau, Lake Zuerich, 29 Aug. 1523.
+
+Hutton (James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3
+June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated
+the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation
+on Light, Heat, and Fire, and in his Theory of the World, 1795,
+attributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote
+a work entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge,
+the opinions of which, says Chalmers, "abound in sceptical boldness
+and philosophical infidelity." Died 26 March 1797.
+
+Huxley (Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He
+studied medicine, and in '46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant
+naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of
+natural history. In '51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and
+in '54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In '60 he lectured on
+"The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals," and afterwards published
+Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863). In addition to numerous
+scientific works, Professor Huxley has written numerous forcible
+articles, addresses, etc., collected in Lay Sermons, '70; Critiques
+and Addresses, '73; and American Addresses, '79. A vigorous writer,
+his Hume in the "English Men of Letters" series is a model of clear
+exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles
+on the Evolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the
+Rev. Mr. Wace in the Nineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all
+his freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological
+fictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own
+life aims "The popularising of science and untiring opposition to
+that ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England,
+as everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong,
+is the deadly enemy of science."
+
+Hypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in
+the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished
+lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of
+her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by
+St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked,
+cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story
+of Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of
+St. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).
+
+Ibn Bajjat. See Avenpace.
+
+Ibn Massara. See Massara in Supplement.
+
+Ibn Rushd. See Averroes.
+
+Ibn Sabin. See Sabin.
+
+Ibn Sina. See Avicenna.
+
+Ibn Tofail. See Abu Bakr.
+
+Ibsen (Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien,
+20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his
+attention to literature. In '52, through the influence of Ole Bull,
+he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a
+great deal. From '57 to '63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In
+the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an
+annual pension for his services to literature. His dramas, Brand,
+(Peer Gynt), Kejser og Galilaer (Caesar [Julian] and the Galilean),
+Nora, and Samfundets Stotler (the Pillars of Society), and Ghosts
+exhibit his unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in
+Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty,
+individuality, and education without superstition.
+
+Ilive (Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about
+1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751,
+and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in Some
+Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock's Sermons, and sentenced to
+two years' imprisonment, 15 June, 1756-10 June, 1758. He was confined
+in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets
+exposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for
+its improvement. He died in 1768.
+
+Imray (I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile's Republican and Lion,
+and published "Altamont," an atheistic drama, in 1828.
+
+Ingersoll (Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York,
+11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He
+studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In '62 he
+became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war,
+being taken prisoner. In '66 he was appointed attorney-general for
+Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, '76, he proposed
+Blaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In
+'77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted
+many important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for
+blasphemy in '86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in
+America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is
+well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against
+Christianity. He had published the Gods, Ghosts, Some Mistakes
+of Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, '83, and Prose Poems
+and Extracts, '84. Most of his lectures have been republished in
+England. We mention What must I do to be Saved? Hell, The Dying Creed,
+Myth and Miracle, Do I Blaspheme? Real Blasphemy. In the pages of the
+North American Review Col. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against
+Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.
+
+Inman (Thomas), B.A., physician and archaeologist, b. 1820. Educated
+at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with
+the well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by
+his work on Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he
+deals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other
+nations. It was first published in '69. A second edition appeared in
+'73. He also wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed
+and Explained, '69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled
+Ancient Faiths and Modern, published at New York '76. Dr. Inman was
+for some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical
+Society, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His
+professional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several
+medical works, including two volumes on the Preservation and
+Restoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.
+
+Iron (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.
+
+Isnard (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work
+on Spiritualism and Materialism, 1879.
+
+Isnard (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He
+was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, "The Law,
+behold my God. I know no other." He voted for the death of the
+King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of
+the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of
+Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died
+1830.
+
+Isoard (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval
+officer in '48 but arrested as socialist in '49. In '70 he was made
+sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux Jesuites.
+
+Isoard Delisle (Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales,
+French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the
+Congregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769
+he published the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to
+be irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in
+prison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription
+was opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He
+went to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published
+many works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.
+
+Jacob (Andre Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)
+
+Jacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe,
+Chicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.
+
+"Jacobus (Dom)" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.
+
+Jacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2
+vols. Berlin 1874-76.
+
+Jacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought
+up to the law, in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused
+attention by his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written
+on Genesis of Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu
+and Muhammad, '80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity,
+'84, and several works of travel.
+
+Jantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first
+in 1826, the second in '28, have published together able Apercus
+Philosophiques on Renan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale
+Materialiste, 1866.
+
+Jaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the
+Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm,
+b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden,
+furnished the Encyclopedie with many articles, and conducted the
+Bibliotheque Raisonnee. Died at Compiegne, 3 Feb. 1779.
+
+Jefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his
+descriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a
+Southern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart
+(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died
+Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.
+
+Jefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April
+1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became
+a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published
+his Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted
+and reported to Congress the "Declaration of Independence" which
+was unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia
+from 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the
+State. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state
+from 1789-93, vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the
+United States 1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of
+which he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his
+Dictionary of Biography says "In religion he was what is denominated a
+freethinker." He spoke in old age of "the hocus-pocus phantom of God,
+which like another Cerberus had one body and three heads." See his
+life by J. Parton.
+
+Johnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman,
+b. Bryant's Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington,
+studied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky
+Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought
+with distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress
+from 1807-19, and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29,
+and Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his
+report against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor
+of rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.
+
+Johnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10
+Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a "Free
+Church" at Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination,
+although in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians
+and Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with
+S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental
+Religions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume
+on India appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover,
+19 Feb. 1882.
+
+Jones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin,
+25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover,
+who became his godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following
+year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes
+to the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for
+making a seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment,
+during which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for
+Halifax in '47, and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He
+was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died
+26 Jan. 1869.
+
+Jones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French
+Revolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding
+Society. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of
+acquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for
+impugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained
+till his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament,
+June 21. On 26 Dec. '11 he was again convicted for "a seditious and
+blasphemous libel." He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free
+publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers
+Town, 4 April, 1838.
+
+Jones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork,
+Ireland, in March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and
+in '32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became "a social
+missionary," and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on
+"The Influence of Christianity" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at
+Manchester, in '39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation
+and trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes
+between masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit
+of the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail,
+Newcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May,
+1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.
+
+Joseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa,
+b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and
+in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought
+many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count
+Falkenstein, saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished
+serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents,
+regulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy,
+and mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says "a mighty
+reformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him,
+its admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about,
+hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any
+inn or hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad
+and based or dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt,
+severe, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely
+ambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich;
+bent to imitate him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich,
+'but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the
+second step without having taken the first.'" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.
+
+Jouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles
+1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of
+the Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple,
+he was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own
+day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.
+
+Julianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17
+Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine
+he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but
+returned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Caesar. He
+made successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul
+and in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience
+and sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of
+which only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,
+tact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned
+of the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363),
+comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while
+seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by
+the triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.
+
+Junghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld,
+Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz
+studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for
+botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and
+was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There
+he simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz,
+whence he escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the
+Malay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making
+a botanical and geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht
+en Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow
+pictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God,
+religion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the
+manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from
+the pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to
+the establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the
+Dutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and
+died 21 April, '64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and
+Shadow pictures have been several times reprinted.
+
+Kalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania,
+16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he
+studied under Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a
+political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild
+family. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a
+volume on Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67
+and '72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school
+of Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77,
+and discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned
+work entitled Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's
+series of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.
+
+Kames (Lord). See Home (Henry).
+
+Kant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. Koenigsberg, 22
+April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he
+published his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied
+all knowledge of the "Thing itself," and overthrew the dogmatism of
+earlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal
+censorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant
+effected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate
+influence is not yet exhausted. Died at Koenigsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.
+
+Kapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as
+the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an
+important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms
+have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.
+
+Karneades. See Carneades.
+
+Keeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the
+Bible, being a popular account of the formation and development of
+the canon, published at Chicago 1881.
+
+Keim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart,
+17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tuebingen, and became professor of
+theology at Zuerich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara
+('67-'72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity
+('78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His
+rationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of
+his days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.
+
+Keith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685,
+was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being
+confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and
+like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died
+Berlin, 25 May, 1778.
+
+Keith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie,
+Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was
+wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction
+in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the
+Empress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great
+as field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him
+"a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the
+more he knows him, likes him the better." From their correspondence
+it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After
+brilliant exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and
+Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.
+
+Kenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts,
+about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of
+Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first
+poetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral
+(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In
+1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked
+Soame Jenyns's work on Christianity. He translated some of the works
+of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.
+
+Kerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western
+Pennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature
+'56, and elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the
+tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia,
+19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.
+
+Ket, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the
+rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted
+for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe
+says he was burnt for "divers detestable opinions against Christ
+our Saviour."
+
+Khayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur
+Khorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was
+distinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his
+verses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in
+English. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to
+the Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests,
+and told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and
+the Hereafter. He makes his soul say, "I myself am Heaven and Hell."
+
+Kielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18
+Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His
+stories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his
+bold opinions.
+
+Kleanthes. See Cleanthes.
+
+Klinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19
+Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand
+Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the
+revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him "a true
+apostle of the Gospel of nature." Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.
+
+Kneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774,
+became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented
+a new system of orthography, published a translation of the New
+Testament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch
+and the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter,
+'29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series
+of lectures delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to
+Boston, and in April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest
+Freethought journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy
+for saying that he "did not believe in the God which Universalists
+did." He was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and
+fine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts
+of Appeal in '36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland
+was a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and
+soon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and
+Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,
+1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary,
+was published in two volumes in 1852.
+
+Knoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He
+was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against
+supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.
+
+Knowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton,
+Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which
+he was imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston
+Investigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with
+the Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements
+of Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.
+
+Knutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost
+his parents, and was brought to an uncle at Koenigsberg, where he
+studied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering
+scholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he
+preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who
+were called "Gewissener," from their acknowledging no other authority
+but conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What
+became of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his
+principles. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed
+churches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond
+the present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the
+place of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also
+wrote two dialogues.
+
+Koerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became
+a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden
+of all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold
+explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled
+to Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a
+work entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief
+things of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of
+truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy,
+heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be
+followed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.
+
+Kolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14
+Sept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at
+Munich 15 May, 1884.
+
+Koornhert (Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)
+
+Korn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague,
+26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of "F. Nork,"
+he wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with
+profit. A list is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention
+Christmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36;
+Brahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth,
+'37; The Gods of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and
+New Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,
+16 Oct. 1850.
+
+Krause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig
+22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische
+Zeitung and Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of
+"Carus Sterne," a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in
+'76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he
+established with Haeckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger,
+the monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This
+he conducted till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book
+on Erasmus Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary
+notice. As "Carus Sterne" he has also written essays entitled Prattle
+from Paradise, The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work
+in parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.
+
+Krekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March,
+1815. Went with parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In
+'42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county
+attorney. In '52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He
+served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of
+the constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of
+emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was
+appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced
+Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife
+not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died
+at Kansas 14 July, 1888.
+
+Krekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana
+13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became
+a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her
+services to the Freethought platform.
+
+Kropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow
+9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to
+Siberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went
+to Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested
+in Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped
+'76 and came to England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le Revolte was
+expelled. Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at
+Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in
+'86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated
+Herbert Spencer's "Biology" into Russian, died in Siberia in the
+autumn of 1886.
+
+Laas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has
+written three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also
+on Kant's Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and
+Science, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg,
+where he died 25 July, 1885.
+
+Labanca (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University
+of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of
+'48, and in '51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He
+has written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive
+Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought,
+'86.
+
+Lachatre (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a "Library
+of Progress," in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition,
+and History of the Popes, '83.
+
+Lacroix (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph
+Krzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He
+wrote with Yves Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In '74 he
+was elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In '77 he was sentenced
+to three months' imprisonment for calling Jesus "enfant adulterin"
+in Le Radical. In Feb. '81 he was elected president of the municipal
+council, and in '83 deputy to the French parliament.
+
+Laffitte (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823
+at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his
+executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of
+his master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former
+apartment of Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The
+General History of Humanity, '59, and The Great Types of Humanity,
+'75-6. In '78 he founded La Revue Occidentale.
+
+Lagrange (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25
+Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is
+considered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became
+a friend of D'Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he
+believed it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.
+
+La Hontan (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In
+his account of Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was
+translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in
+Hanover, 1715.
+
+Lainez (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same
+family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian
+life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.
+
+Laing (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of
+S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree
+'32; called to the bar '42; became secretary of the railway department
+of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall '52;
+helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In '60 he became
+finance minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought,
+'85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and
+new view of the universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, '87, he gives
+the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by
+Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In '88 he entered
+into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of
+Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.
+
+Lakanal (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied
+for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the
+Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792-5, and there protected
+the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to
+America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the
+University of Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of
+'30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.
+
+Lalande (Joseph Jerome le Francais de), distinguished French
+astronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits,
+he was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In
+1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In
+1764 he published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined
+a memoir, which formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the
+idea of which he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded
+his own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he
+concealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande's
+observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande's
+instigation Sylvain Marechal published his Dictionary of Atheists,
+to which the astronomer contributed supplements after Marechal's
+death. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than
+of being an astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by
+Prof. de Morgan "a perfect model of scientific bibliography." It was
+said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without
+receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.
+
+Lamarck (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist,
+b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army
+in 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went
+to Paris, studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which
+opened to him the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the
+Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological
+Philosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History
+of Invertebrate Animals (1815-22) was justly celebrated. He became
+blind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.
+
+Lamborelle (Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times,
+Brussels, 1874; The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience,
+Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post
+under government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the
+council of the Belgian Freethought party.
+
+Lamettrie (Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher,
+b. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated
+under the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying
+under Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon
+to the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and
+Dettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with
+his physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The
+boldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he
+took refuge in Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the
+Soul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English
+of Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748),
+a work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the
+author's arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second
+edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D'Argens. Lamettrie
+held that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it
+is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will
+religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the
+Great, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he
+published Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750),
+translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired
+by his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great
+king thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.
+
+La Mothe Le Vayer (Francois de). French sceptical philosopher,
+b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to
+the Duke of Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues
+after the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his
+scepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither
+of these contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606,
+probably a false date). Died 1672.
+
+Lancelin (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a
+constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction
+to the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801-3, and a physico-mathematical
+theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.
+
+Land (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has
+written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of
+the philosopher's works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.
+
+Landesmann (Heinrich). See Lorm.
+
+Landor (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire,
+30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting
+a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a
+volume of poems in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he
+served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon
+from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to
+the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His
+reputation chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in
+which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor
+was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While
+nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments
+over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.
+
+Lanessan (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint Andre de
+Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and
+M.D. in '68. He was elected in '79 as Radical member of the Municipal
+Council of Paris, and re-elected in '81. In August of the same year
+he was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded
+Le Reveil, edited the Marseillaise, and started the International
+Biological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine
+of Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and has written
+vol. iii. of the "Materialists' Library," on the Evolution of Matter.
+
+Lanfrey (Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chambery, 26 Oct. 1828,
+became known by a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the
+Eighteenth Century, '55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon
+I. '67-75. M. Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes,
+a work placed on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.
+
+Lang (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated
+at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation
+of the Odyssey with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and
+ballads. He has written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other
+pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth,
+'84, and Myth, Ritual and Religion, '87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor,
+Mr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.
+
+Lang (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology
+under Baur at Tuebingen, and became teacher at Zuerich, where he died,
+13 Jan. 1876.
+
+Lange (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald,
+near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in
+the gymnasium of Cologne, '52. In '53 he returned to Bonn as teacher
+of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became
+proprietor and editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various
+municipal offices. In '70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at
+Zuerich, but resigned in '72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg,
+where he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History
+of Materialism, which has been translated into English.
+
+Langsdorf (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author
+of God and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some
+mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.
+
+Lankester (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15
+May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul's School and Oxford. Has published
+many scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel's History
+of Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876
+he exposed the spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He
+is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of
+London.
+
+La Place (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers,
+b. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor
+peasant. Through the influence of D'Alembert, La Place became professor
+of mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary
+abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which
+he enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition
+of the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work
+on Celestial Mechanics, 1799-1825. Among his sayings were, "What we
+know is but little, what we know not is immense." "There is no need
+for the hypothesis of a God." Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.
+
+Larevelliere-Lepaux (Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu
+25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was
+elected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He
+was a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was
+doomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself
+by seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural
+religion. He wrote Reflections on Worship and the National Fetes. He
+became President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired,
+refusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by
+Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.
+
+Larousse (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents,
+23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited
+many school books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du
+XIXe. Siecle, 1864-77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may
+be called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse's
+colleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.
+
+Larra (Mariano Jose de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid,
+4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his
+education. He returned to Spain in '22. At eighteen he published
+a collection of poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico
+(The Satirical Goblin). In '31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor
+Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs
+and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He
+edited in the following year the Revista Espanola, signing his articles
+"Figaro." He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid
+edited El Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais'
+Paroles d'un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself,
+13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra's scepticism,
+adds, "Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All
+the truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a
+cigarette paper!"
+
+Larroque (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He
+became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830-36,
+and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836-49. In
+the latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas
+and lost his place. Among his numerous works we mention De l'Esclavage
+chez les Nations Chretiennes, '57, in which he proves that Christianity
+did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination
+of the Christian Religion, '59, and a work on Religious Renovation,
+'59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were
+for a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion
+and Politics, '78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.
+
+Lassalle (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social
+Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau,
+studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a
+follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, '46, was charmed
+with him. Humboldt called him "Wunderkind." In 1858 he published
+a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an
+insurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but
+won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.
+
+Lastarria (Jose Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist,
+b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching
+and journalism, and in '38 was appointed teacher of civil law and
+literature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals
+and literary societies. From '43 he has been at different times deputy
+to the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has
+also served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In '73 he founded the
+Santiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works,
+and his Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into
+French by E. de Riviere and others, 1879.
+
+Lau (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at Koenigsberg, 15 June
+1670, studied at Koenigsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled
+through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin,
+at Frankfort, Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man,
+which excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was
+suppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official
+positions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed
+atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.
+
+Laurent (Francois), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July,
+1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In '35 he was made
+Professor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held,
+despite clerical protests, till his retirement in '80. A voluminous
+author on civil and international law, his principal work is entitled
+Studies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the
+separation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858-60. He also
+wrote Letters on the Jesuits, '65. Died in 1887.
+
+Law (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the
+secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the
+Secular Chronicle, 1876-1879.
+
+Lawrence (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good
+Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted
+with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with
+English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of
+the Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote
+in German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English,
+a curious booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a
+poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the
+religions of the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died
+at London 26 Sept. 1841.
+
+Lawrence (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted
+M.R.C.S., 1805, in '13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later
+was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of
+Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man,
+which on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his
+early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform;
+but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative
+practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.
+
+Layton (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray's Inn, being
+called to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley's
+Confutation of Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual
+Observations in Man (1700).
+
+Leblais (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,
+1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism
+and Spiritualism (1865), to which Littre contributed a preface.
+
+Le Bovier de Fontenelle. See Fontenelle.
+
+Lecky (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March,
+1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are
+characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are
+A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe ('65),
+A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne ('69),
+and A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-87).
+
+Leclerc (Georges Louis). See Buffon.
+
+Leclerc de Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis
+XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay
+on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande,
+he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at
+Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.
+
+Leconte de Lisle (Charles Marie Rene), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon,
+23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took
+part in the revolution of '48, but has since devoted himself mainly
+to poetry, though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A
+Popular History of Christianity ('71). One of his finest poems is
+Kain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in
+'87, he gave umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking
+of Moses as "the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads."
+
+Lecount (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in
+the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the
+construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote
+a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A
+Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old
+Matters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington ('43). The
+author's name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as "the Rev. Peter Lecount."
+
+Leenhof (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became
+a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on
+Earth (1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was
+translated into German in 1706.
+
+Lefevre (Andre), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became,
+at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin
+Pittoresque. He wrote much in La Libre Pensee and La Pensee Nouvelle;
+has translated Lucretius in verse ('76), and written Religions and
+Mythologies Compared ('77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy
+to the Library of Contemporary Science ('78); has written Man Across
+the Ages ('80) and the Renaissance of Materialism ('81). He has also
+edited the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire,
+and Diderot's La Religieuse ('86).
+
+Lefort (Cesar), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method
+of modern science (Paris, 1864).
+
+Lefrancais de Lalande. See Lalande.
+
+Legate (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572,
+was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had
+many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him
+if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in
+the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. "Away,
+base fellow!" said His Majesty, "It shall never be said that one
+stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven
+years together." He was burnt at Smithfield by the King's writ, De
+Haeretico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons
+so punished in England.
+
+Leguay de Premontval. See Premontval.
+
+Le Hon (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommeroeul (Hainault) 1809,
+was captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of
+Brussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L'Homme
+Fossile en Europe, '66. Translated Professor Omboni's exposition of
+Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.
+
+Leidy (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9
+Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of
+Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American
+palaeontology.
+
+Leigh (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions
+of the World, 1869.
+
+Leland (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited
+with Wakeman the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.
+
+Lemaire (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin,
+author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled
+Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.
+
+Lemonnier (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845,
+author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he
+evinces his freethought sentiments.
+
+Lenau (Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau,
+Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German,
+are pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into
+insanity. Died Ober-Doebling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.
+
+Lennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,
+30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish
+Utilitarian Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of
+250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he
+was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written
+several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In
+company with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ
+of Swedish freethought.
+
+Leontium, Athenian Hetaera, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She
+acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against
+Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and
+elegant manner.
+
+Leopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati
+(Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by
+his lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by
+eloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are
+esteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's
+short life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the
+highest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is
+among the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.
+
+Lequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau,
+1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to
+the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the
+death of Louis XVI. "regretting that the safety of the state did not
+permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life." In 1792 he
+published Prejudices Destroyed, signed "Citizen of the World," in
+which he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the
+Feasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.
+
+Lermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded
+the Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical
+dictionary of contemporary France, 1884-5.
+
+Lermontov (Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow,
+3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow
+University, from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military
+Academy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In
+'37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to
+the Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English,
+'53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love,
+has been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A
+Hero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.
+
+Leroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy,
+near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he
+invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In
+1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian,
+he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud
+L'Encyclopedie Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George
+Sand the Revue Independante ('41), which became noted for its pungent
+attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In
+June '48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'etat
+he returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.
+
+Leroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles,
+b. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclopedie. He defended the work
+of Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical
+Letters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768),
+a work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.
+
+Lespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May,
+1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and
+afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he
+wrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of "Titus," and
+translated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to
+America and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange
+City (Iowa) 1881.
+
+L'Espinasse (Julie Jeanne Eleonore de). French beauty and wit,
+b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the protege of Madame du Deffand, and
+gained the favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility
+and spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.
+
+Lessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz,
+22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted
+with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenbuettel he
+published Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of
+Rational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended
+that Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy
+credence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the
+Wise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration
+and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly
+sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German
+emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.
+
+Lessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has
+translated some of the works of Darwin.
+
+Leucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.
+
+L'Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering
+the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44,
+but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the
+Iliad, he became convinced that the "cooking" process there described,
+has been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas
+Scott's series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church
+History, Irenaeus, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues
+on Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.
+
+Levallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he
+became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote Deisme et Christianisme, 1866.
+
+Lewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18
+April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6
+appeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher
+power. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales
+to Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to
+Comte in his account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In
+'49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote
+till '54. In that year he began his association with "George Eliot"
+(q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he
+began to give his attention to scientific, especially biological,
+studies. In '64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On
+the foundation of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed
+editor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79,
+was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed
+his books to Dr. Williams's library.
+
+Lichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist,
+b. Ober-Ramstaedt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many
+thoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died Goettingen, 24 Feb. 1799.
+
+Lick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25
+Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune
+by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed
+large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other
+philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.
+
+Lilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied
+at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man;
+his Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.
+
+Lincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,
+b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery,
+his election (Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation
+of slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he "read Volney
+and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein
+he reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but
+he never denied or regretted its composition." Mrs. Lincoln said,
+"Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those
+words." Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.
+
+Lindet (Robert Thomas), "apostate" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was
+elected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He
+embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop
+of L'Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced
+his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place
+of religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died
+Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.
+
+Lindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied
+at Helsingfors University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is
+now a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many
+poems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has
+published Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy
+with the clergy.
+
+Lindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of
+pious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European
+literature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin,
+and Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and
+April Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating
+from the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer
+from Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on
+a Stockholm daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in
+propagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment
+for having translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He
+now edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.
+
+Lindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28
+Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained
+in several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from
+'63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.
+
+Liniere (Francois Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628;
+known as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety
+he ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her
+finger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have
+undertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.
+
+Linton (Eliza, nee Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar
+of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely
+to the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of
+fiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of
+the Family. In '72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson,
+Christian and Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher
+Kirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed
+largely to periodical literature.
+
+Linton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London,
+1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with
+the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press,
+and also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner
+tract on "The Worth of Christianity." He was one of the founders of
+the Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English
+Republic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a
+memoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to
+America, but has recently returned.
+
+Liscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists,
+b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became
+acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War
+at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature
+until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The
+Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and
+Utility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his
+works show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.
+
+Lisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of
+Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).
+
+Liszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an
+Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated
+and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon
+and scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was
+that man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.
+
+Littre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher,
+b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of
+the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of
+the National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved
+the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte,
+and in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He
+translated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary
+History of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he
+applied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal
+works ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive
+Philosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his
+later vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie
+Positive. Littre also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy,
+'73; Literature and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy
+and Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in
+'63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in
+'71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in
+'75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion
+of Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris,
+2 June 1881.
+
+Lloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English
+stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly
+self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became
+assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became
+an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.
+
+Lohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a
+good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he
+practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror
+of Faith. Died 1642.
+
+Lollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of
+thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected
+the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose
+twelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many
+followers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying
+with great courage.
+
+Loman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He
+holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline
+Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many
+critical works.
+
+Lombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836,
+has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to
+Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology
+of criminals.
+
+Longet (Francois Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye,
+1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several
+medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.
+
+Longiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.
+
+Longue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of
+the house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople,
+1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt
+31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint
+Tranquebar, 1735.
+
+Lorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied
+law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of
+Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen
+associations. He edits La Reforme at Brussels, the ablest daily
+exponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has
+lately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.
+
+"Lorm (Hieronymus)," the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German
+pessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many
+philosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit,
+Vienna, '84.
+
+Lozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre
+Pensamiento, where he uses the signature "Demofilo." He has written
+Battles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and
+Galeote, etc.
+
+Lubbock (Sir John), banker, archaeologist, scientist and statesman,
+b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into
+his father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in
+'56. By his archaeological works he has most distinguished himself. He
+has written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains,
+and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin
+of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).
+
+Lucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about
+B.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised
+by his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the
+finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to
+have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full
+of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the
+grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.
+
+Luetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist
+b. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He
+wrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a
+work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In
+'56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.
+
+Lunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its
+Folly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.
+
+Luys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician
+at l'Hopital de la Charite, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain
+and its Functions in the "International Scientific Series."
+
+Lyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14
+Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself
+to geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of
+Geology, which went through numerous editions. His last important
+work was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he
+accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.
+
+Maccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at
+Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left
+as insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47),
+translated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as
+"Atticus," contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc.,
+published Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's
+Biology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong
+individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.
+
+Macchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became
+professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming
+obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was
+deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism,
+founded l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He
+was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero
+Pensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association
+of Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for
+Cremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24
+Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.
+
+Macdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker,
+b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in
+New York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed
+to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.
+
+Macdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker,
+and now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with
+S. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound
+Freethinker.
+
+McDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The
+Heathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.
+
+Mackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect,
+1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The
+Tubingen School, '63.
+
+Mackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich,
+who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote
+The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24,
+Pious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by
+W. D. Saull, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age
+of Mental Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad,
+a rare book. Died 1846.
+
+Mackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the
+Universe, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died
+1850.
+
+MacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to
+London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his
+views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National
+Reformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet
+on Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.
+
+Madach (Imre), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at
+Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards
+lived at Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having
+given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61
+delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember
+Tragediaja (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as
+Adam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in
+this poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.
+
+Maier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.
+
+Maillet (Benoit de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April,
+1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at
+Marseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published "Telliamed"
+(the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land
+was originally covered with water and that every species of animal,
+man included, owes its origin to the sea.
+
+"Mainlaender" (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist,
+author of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption,
+the first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that
+"Mainlaender" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of
+his work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place
+to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. "God is dead,
+and his death was the life of the world."
+
+Malherbe (Francois de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in
+the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry
+IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many
+stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon
+his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others
+and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.
+
+Mallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible,
+its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).
+
+Malon (Benoit). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One
+of the founders of the International; he has written a work on that
+organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor
+on L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written
+on the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.
+
+Malvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author
+of La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned
+and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's
+imprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternite.
+
+Mandeville (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made
+a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published
+a poetical satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In
+1709, he published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on
+Religion the Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared
+his Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work
+was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was
+attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley
+in A Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the
+Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and
+Usefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.
+
+Mantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31
+Oct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled
+considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first
+book The Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology
+of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy,
+Love and other topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown
+god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian
+writers.
+
+Manzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied
+philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the
+doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il
+Prete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a
+Pathological Phenomenon, etc.
+
+Marchena (Jose), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought
+up for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers
+brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became
+a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai
+de Theologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Moliere's Tartufe,
+and some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis' Origine de tous
+les Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.
+
+Marechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750;
+was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of
+literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his
+place by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech
+(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In
+1781 he wrote Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of
+Honest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside
+that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the
+hands of the hangman, and Marechal imprisoned for four months. He
+welcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In
+1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men without God,
+and Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned
+work, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,
+Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Marechal puts a host of bold
+philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published
+his famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and
+interdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared
+his For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His
+beneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.
+
+Maret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March,
+1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical;
+was elected deputy in '81.
+
+Marguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at
+Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to
+religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.
+
+Marguetel de Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (C.)
+
+Mario (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the
+Tribune and Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married
+Jessie White, an English lady. In '60 he wrote a polemic against the
+papacy entitled Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.
+
+Marlow (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury,
+8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his
+degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according
+to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June,
+1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him
+for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed in
+Tamburlaine and Dr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said "How greatly
+is it all planned." Swinburne says "He is the greatest discoverer,
+the most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature."
+
+Marr (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of Religious Excursions,
+1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.
+
+Marsais (Cesar Chesneau du). See Du Marsais.
+
+Marselli (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author
+of advanced works on the Science of History, Nature and Civilisation,
+the Origin of Humanity, the Great Races of Humanity, etc.
+
+Marston (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He
+became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of
+D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and
+sincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his
+own wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious
+service.
+
+Marsy (Francois Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He
+brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in
+the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.
+
+Marten (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where
+he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and
+expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat
+6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles's
+judges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal
+of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought
+to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words "and all
+fools." Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow
+Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him "sworn foe of
+Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better."
+
+Martin (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought
+up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She
+wrote the Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims
+of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy
+led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake
+and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the
+"crime" for which they were imprisoned. In '43 she published Baptism A
+Pagan Rite. This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no
+Revelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God's Gifts and Men's Duties,
+a conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote
+on the Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died
+Oct. 1851.
+
+Martin (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin, 20
+Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for
+history. His History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838-53), is
+a monumental work of erudition. A confirmed Republican, he warmly
+opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the
+National Assembly, '71, and senator, '76. He was elected member of
+the Academy, '78. In addition to his historical works he contributed
+to le Siecle, la Liberte de penser, and l'Encyclopedie Nouvelle,
+etc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.
+
+Martin (Louis), author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by Victor
+Hugo cette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist
+Socialist.
+
+Martin (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811,
+editor of the Morale Independante and member of the Institute of
+Geneva. For his True and False Catholics ('58), he was fined three
+thousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published the
+Annuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the Roman
+Index. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.
+
+Martinaud (M.), an ex-abbe who refused ordination, and wrote Letters
+of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop,
+Paris, 1868, in which he says, "Religion is the infancy of peoples,
+Atheism their maturity."
+
+Martineau (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from
+a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing
+Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature
+as a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations
+of political economy. The Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and
+Development, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in
+'51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In
+'53 she issued a condensed account of Comte's philosophy. She wrote
+a History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace, and numerous
+other works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Autobiography,
+published after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.
+
+Masquerier (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1
+March, 1802. Wrote The Sataniad, established Greenpoint Gazette,
+and contributed to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.
+
+Massenet (Jules Emile Frederic), French musical composer, b. Montard,
+12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie
+Magdeleine, and an opera, Herodiade.
+
+Massey (Gerald), poet and archaeologist, b. of poor parents at
+Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent
+to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen
+he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way,
+and became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the
+men of '48, he started The Spirit of Freedom, '49. It cost him five
+situations in eleven months. In '53 his Ballad of Babe Christabel,
+with other Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine
+taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of
+Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his Book of Beginnings
+and Natural Genesis, '81-83, in which he shows the mythical nature of
+Christianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as
+Why Don't God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical
+Christ, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming
+Religion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the title My
+Lyrical Life.
+
+Massey (James). See Tyssot. (S.)
+
+Massol (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March,
+1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in '30 and became a Saint
+Simonian. In '48 he wrote on Lamennais' La Reforme, and on the Voix
+du Peuple with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In
+'65 he established La Morale Independante with the object of showing
+morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.
+
+Maubert de Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20
+Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon
+army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal
+nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This
+he did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this
+he went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by
+Lord Bolingbroke. He published Lettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752,
+and other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as
+a fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died
+at Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.
+
+Maudsley (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5
+Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated
+M.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon
+reached eminence in his profession. From '69-'79 he was professor
+of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works on
+The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind ('67), Body and Mind ('70),
+Responsibility in Mental Disease ('73), and Body and Will ('83) have
+attracted much attention. His Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings
+('80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.
+
+Mauvillon (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in
+body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of
+Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the
+Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the
+French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux
+(Amsterdam, 1768) and The Only True System of the Christian Religion
+(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title of False Reasonings
+of the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.
+
+Mazzini (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In '26 he
+graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics,
+becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the
+nation. Condemned to death in '33, he went to Switzerland and was
+expelled, then came to England in '37. In '48 he returned, and in March
+'49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled,
+after a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He
+wrote in the Westminster Review and other periodicals and his works are
+numerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished
+by highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called
+Mazzini "a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity,
+humanity and nobleness of mind." Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was
+a Deist.
+
+Meissner (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written
+Ziska, an epic poem, The Son of Atta Troll, Recollections of Heine,
+etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.
+
+Meister (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bueckeburg, 6
+Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and
+became acquainted with D'Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short
+life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious
+Principles, 1762, and Natural Morality, 1787.
+
+Menard (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In
+'48-'49 he wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged
+to leave France. Has written on Morality before the Philosophers,
+'60, Studies on the Origin of Christianity, '67, and Freethinkers'
+Religious Catechism, '75.
+
+Mendoza (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of
+distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he
+studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university
+he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,
+Lazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent
+on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at
+his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his History
+of the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through
+the intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza's satires and burlesques
+were also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and
+translated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.
+
+Mendum (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston
+Investigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer,
+and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his
+imprisonment engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland
+left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the
+paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the
+founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of
+Freethought in that city.
+
+Mentelle (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11
+Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crevier. His
+Precis de l'Histoire des Hebreux (1798), and Precis de l'Histoire
+Universelle are thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever
+existed. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion
+of Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.
+
+Mercier (L. A.), author of La Libre Pensee, Brussels, 1879.
+
+Meredith (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of The Prophet of Nazareth
+(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, and Amphilogia,
+a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, '67.
+
+Meredith (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire,
+1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law,
+he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet
+with Poems ('51). Of his powerful novels we mention the Ordeal of
+Richard Feveril ('59), Emilia in England ('64), now Sandra Belloni,
+with Vittoria ('66) for a sequel. Rhoda Fleming, Beauchamp's Career
+('76), The Egoist ('79), The Tragic Comedians ('81) and Diana of
+the Crossways ('85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his
+writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of
+verse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart
+from the throng of contemporary singers.
+
+Merimee (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808,
+author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General
+of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in '44. In his
+anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), '64,
+there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.
+
+Merritt (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June,
+1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed
+to the Reasoner, using the signature "Christopher." He wrote on Dirt
+and Pictures and Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died
+in London, 10 July, 1877.
+
+Meslier or Mellier (Jean), cure of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny,
+Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was
+discovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated
+Christianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His
+property he left to his parishioners. Voltaire published it under
+the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier
+has been attributed the work entitled Le Bon Sens, written by Baron
+D'Holbach. Le Testament de Jean Meslier has been published in three
+volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles
+(R. C. d'Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas
+of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention
+to erect a statue to this "honest priest."
+
+Metchnikov (Leon), Russian writer in French; author of a work on
+Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in
+the Revue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.
+
+Metrodorus of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 B.C., a disciple
+and intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles
+of which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Died B.C. 277.
+
+Mettrie, see La Mettrie.
+
+Meunier (Amedee Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has
+done much to popularise science by his Scientific Essays, 1851-58,
+the Ancestors of Adam, '75, etc.
+
+Meyer (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of
+Spinoza, who published Exercitatio Paradoxa on the philosophical
+interpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has
+been wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch
+in 1667. He is also credited with Lucii Antistic Constantes, de
+jure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli (Amst.), 1665. This work is also
+attributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.
+
+Mialhe (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn), 1834. From
+'60-62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has
+organised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited L'Union
+des Libres-Penseurs, and has written Memoires d'un libre Penseur
+(Nevers, 1888).
+
+Michelet (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became
+a Professor of History in 1821. Has written a History of France and
+of the French Revolution; The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, '43;
+The Priest, Woman and the Family, '44; The Sorceress, dealing with
+witchcraft in the Middle Ages, '62; The Bible of Humanity, '64. His
+lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and
+after the coup d'etat he was deprived of his chair. All Michelet's
+works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he
+was a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at
+Hyeres, 9 Feb. 1874.
+
+Michelet (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin,
+4 Dec. 1801. In '29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple
+of Hegel, he edited his master's works, '32. His principle work is A
+System of Philosophy as an Exact Science, '76-81. He has also written
+on the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.
+
+Middleton (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters
+from Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from
+Paganism, and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed
+to have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow
+to hitherto received "Christian Evidences." He also wrote a classic
+Life of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.
+
+Mignardi (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un
+Nuovo Credente (Memoirs of a New Believer).
+
+Milelli (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family
+intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as
+may be seen in his Odi Pagane, '79, Canzonieri, '84, and other works.
+
+Mill (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose,
+6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his
+attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher
+in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor
+of the Literary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published,
+'17-'19, his History of British India. He contributed many articles to
+the fifth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. A friend of Bentham,
+he wrote largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward
+the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind,
+'39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading
+Bishop Butler's Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.
+
+Mill (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding,
+b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he
+became clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to
+the Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint
+editor in '35. His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally
+known. This was followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In
+'59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he
+defends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent
+works were Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67;
+Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy '65; Dissertations
+and Discussions, '59-'75; and the Subjection of Women, '69. In '65
+he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in
+'68. In '67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the
+students an able address. Prof. Bain says "in everything characteristic
+of the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He
+admitted neither its truth nor its utility." Died at Avignon, 8 May,
+1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on
+"Nature," "Theism," and "Religion."
+
+Mille (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at
+Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy,
+from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano,
+and after the latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Mille
+contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the Vuetorul, edited by
+C. Pilitis.
+
+Milliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche
+(Cote d'Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the
+Proletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he
+was, after the coup d'etat, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of
+'59. In '69 Milliere started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of
+which he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the
+National Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although
+he took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary,
+he was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May,
+1871. He died crying "Vive l'Humanite."
+
+Mirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He
+translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the
+French Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a
+Critical Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name
+of Freret), The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of
+a Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection
+entitled Nouvelle libertes de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System
+of Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud
+died 24 June, 1760.
+
+Mirabeau (Honore Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman
+and orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He
+inherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper,
+and a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767,
+but by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom
+he was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and
+employed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his
+Erotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he
+was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials
+for his work on The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of
+the States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being
+in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated
+the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the
+spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him
+"far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time." He died
+2 April, 1791. Among his last words were, "Envelop me with perfumes
+and crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep."
+
+Miranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas
+1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free
+Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and
+became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend
+of Thomas Paine. In 1806-11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from
+the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon
+at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic
+of James Mill.
+
+Miron. See Morin (Andre Saturnin.)
+
+Mitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876)
+and Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also
+written in the National Reformer, using his initials only.
+
+Mitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian
+Mythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title
+Superstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in
+Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of L500 to any bookseller who had
+the courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens,
+and was republished in '81.
+
+Mittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich,
+5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became
+professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained
+a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in
+Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part
+in the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction
+of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.
+
+Mittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make
+money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by
+other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.
+
+Mocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian
+philosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva,
+1588, with the Peripatetic Question of Caesalpinus and the books of
+Telesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum
+Philosophicarum.
+
+Moleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's
+Hertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated
+M.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at
+Turin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator,
+and in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has
+written Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches,
+and other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him "the father
+of the modern Materialistic movement."
+
+Molesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth
+baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was
+returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In
+'53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary
+for the Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the
+Westminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition
+of Hobbes was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to
+the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.
+
+Mommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30
+Nov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became
+Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zuerich and Berlin. Is best known by his
+History of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness
+in which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world
+was improved by Christianity.
+
+Monboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James).
+
+Monge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught
+physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a
+member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence
+of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of
+the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator,
+created him Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many
+services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was
+deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Marechal and
+Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.
+
+Mongez (Antoine), French archaeologist, b. Lyons, 30 June
+1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy
+of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said "he had
+the honor to be an Atheist." He was one of the most ardent members of
+the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.
+
+Monroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age,
+b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford,
+where he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the
+Rochford Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil
+War he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some
+hard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published
+his dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became
+more Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to
+Indianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards
+Monroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man,
+with a remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are
+poems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible
+Stories.
+
+Montaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family
+castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge
+at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous "Essays,"
+which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent
+spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in
+literature. Emerson says, "Montaigne is the frankest and honestest
+of all writers." Montaigne took as his motto: Que scais-je? [What
+know I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of
+custom. Buckle says, "Under the guise of a mere man of the world,
+expressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a
+spirit of lofty and audacious inquiry." Montaigne seems to have been
+the first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning
+people for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of
+the Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.
+
+Monteil (Charles Francois Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire,
+26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During
+the Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un
+Frere Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,
+and condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000
+francs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published
+at Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La Republique Francaise. In '80
+he was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected
+in '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has
+compiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.
+
+Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer,
+b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was
+entitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of
+the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground
+that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the
+Spirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the
+positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery
+are written in a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced
+to be worthy of Moliere. Died 10 Feb. 1755.
+
+Montgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh
+1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer,
+and afterwards attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and
+Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and
+published at Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted
+from the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On
+the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to
+Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written
+in the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and
+Mind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God,
+but that there is evidence to the contrary.
+
+Montgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first
+to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and
+La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26
+June 1810.
+
+Mook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied
+philosophy and theology at Tuebingen, but gave up the latter to study
+medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to
+a free congregation at Nuerenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus,
+published at Zuerich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in
+the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847,
+is a physician who has published some poems.
+
+Moor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu
+Pantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.
+
+Moreau (Hegesippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical
+and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and
+satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe
+and the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery,
+terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected,
+with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.
+
+Moreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a
+distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral
+Faculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological
+works.
+
+Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century,
+b. Vitry-le-Francais, author of a work called Code de la Nature,
+sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges
+that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.
+
+Morgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The
+Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for
+Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited
+Radicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks
+to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses "a more fabulous
+romantic writer than Homer or Ovid," and attacks the evidence of
+miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication
+of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny
+Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over
+the signature "Philalethes." His last work was on Physico-Theology,
+1741. Lechler calls Morgan "the modern Marcion." Died at London,
+14 Jan. 1743.
+
+Morgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In
+1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm
+friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of
+Sketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals,
+'19. The Examiner says, "He was never at a loss for a witty or wise
+passage from Rabelais or Bayle." Died 28 Aug. 1843.
+
+Morin (Andre Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28
+Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30
+he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48
+he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated
+vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the
+signature "Miron," in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pensee
+of Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was
+intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni,
+and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination
+of Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his
+True Value has gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique
+Religieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders
+of the Bibliotheque Democratique, to which he contributed several
+anti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into
+English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal
+Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing
+a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.
+
+Morison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters,
+b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In
+'63 he published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of
+the founders of the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as
+in the Athenaeum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to
+Morley's "Men of Letters" Series. In '86 he published his striking work
+The Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which
+shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and
+its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He
+collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would
+have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of
+a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did
+justice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until
+he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a
+brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George
+Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead,
+26 Feb. 1888.
+
+Morley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn,
+24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was
+J.C. Morison. He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review,
+edited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which
+appeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise,
+Voltaire, '72; Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclopaedists
+'78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in
+that review. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall
+Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected
+to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by
+Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+
+Morselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena,
+1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide
+in the International Scientific Series, and a study on "The Religion
+of Mazzini." He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has
+translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.
+
+Mortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan
+(Isere), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in
+'49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He
+has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written
+Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man,
+'64. The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution
+to the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man,
+'82. He contributed to the Revue Independante, Pensee Nouvelle,
+etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was
+elected Deputy in 1885.
+
+Moss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written
+numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of
+Freethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower
+Animals, Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to
+the Secular Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker,
+and other journals, and has had a written debate on "Was Jesus God
+or Man." A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from
+lecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been
+published, 1889.
+
+Mothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer.
+
+Mott (Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3
+Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society
+in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A
+strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist
+movement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention
+in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of
+Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights
+conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.
+
+Muhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder
+of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died
+about 849.
+
+Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.
+
+Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.
+
+Muhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar.
+
+Muller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed
+good articles to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of
+modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.
+
+Murger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue
+des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in
+"Winter Nights" he says in answer to the inquiring priest "Reponds
+lui que j'ai lu Voltaire." His most popular work is entitled Scenes
+of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.
+
+Musset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11
+Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the
+Romantic school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Siecle,
+'36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among
+his finest works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to
+the Revue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in
+'52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.
+
+Naber (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July,
+1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium,
+and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenaeum. He has edited a journal
+of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia
+(1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character
+of the Epistles attributed to Paul.
+
+Nachtigal (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23
+Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became
+private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and
+wrote an account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul
+General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.
+
+Naigeon (Jacques Andre), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an
+art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became
+copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to
+Amsterdam to be printed. He contributed to the Encyclopedie, notably
+the articles Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe,
+or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This
+was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He
+took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in the
+Theologie Portative. He published the Recueil Philosophique, 2 vols.,
+Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his
+Morale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays
+of Montaigne and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His
+principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in
+the Encyclopedie Methodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National
+Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold
+the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of
+man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.
+
+Naquet (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834,
+became M.D. in '59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for
+belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue
+Encyclopedique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack
+on theism. In '69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family,
+which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment,
+a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil
+rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he
+has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new
+law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's
+energetic advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late
+has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.
+
+Nascimento (Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23
+Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Moliere's
+Tartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life
+from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of
+"Filinto Elysio." Died 25 Feb. 1819.
+
+Navez (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pensee,
+of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International
+Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Nelson (Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to
+be the author of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions,
+a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been
+taken from Paganism.
+
+Newcomb (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova
+Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was
+appointed computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior
+professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated
+with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many
+works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political
+Economy, 1885.
+
+Newman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London
+1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol
+College '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to
+comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then
+went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission,
+but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously
+undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical
+teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at
+London University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49,
+he states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he
+explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A
+History of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical,
+'58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of
+the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the
+Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History,
+'77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its
+Cradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.
+
+Neymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and
+colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.
+
+Nicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural
+philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon
+returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published
+useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted
+the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He
+also wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of
+Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and
+also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.
+
+Nicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March,
+1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted
+for founding "The Universal German Library." He wrote anecdotes of
+Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.
+
+Nietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844,
+author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of
+Morgenroethe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.
+
+Nieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht,
+3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25,
+'77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in
+Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed
+to De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds
+(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist
+paper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and
+Freethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against
+Socialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason,
+The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one
+years' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and
+was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was
+liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.
+
+Noeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,
+1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been
+professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He
+has written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and
+a Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated
+into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.
+
+Noire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen,
+and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of
+Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist
+philosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends
+that language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in
+associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.
+
+Noorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an
+Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with
+the Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.
+
+Nordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He
+became a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels
+and made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our
+Civilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.
+
+Nork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).
+
+Nott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South
+Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish
+Race, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55;
+the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of
+disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile,
+31 March, 1873.
+
+Noun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.
+
+Noyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.
+
+Nunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He
+has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is
+a follower of Mill and Spencer.
+
+Nuytz (Louis Andre). See Andre-Nuytz.
+
+Nystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15
+Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund,
+'68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian
+war of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has
+established a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written
+a History of Civilisation.
+
+Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the
+eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a
+translation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an
+English version.
+
+Ochino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A
+popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to
+the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited
+to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached
+in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went
+to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about
+1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the
+Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He
+went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,
+and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of
+Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the
+special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.
+
+O'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near
+Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went
+to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried
+for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to
+distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet,
+whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the
+Journal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.
+
+O'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about
+1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin,
+but became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry
+into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element
+in religion, at New York, 1880.
+
+Oest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems
+published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.
+
+Offen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He
+emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of
+Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism
+and A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the
+Correspondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York,
+12 May, 1848.
+
+Offray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.
+
+O'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On
+the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks
+disparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was
+classed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.
+
+O'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author
+of Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers,
+published by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of
+short papers suggestive of religious Theism.
+
+Oken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg,
+2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Goettingen and became a privat-docent in
+that university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802,
+he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work
+on Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He
+was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From
+'17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became
+a professor at Zuerich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.
+
+Oliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.
+
+Omar Khayyam. See Khayyam.
+
+Omboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June,
+1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific
+works.
+
+Onimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near
+Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,
+and wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological
+Sciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition,
+and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the
+Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the
+Revue Positive and other periodicals.
+
+Oort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied
+theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many
+works, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated
+by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with
+Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.
+
+Orelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zuerich,
+13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of
+Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed
+Professor at Zuerich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.
+
+Osborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an
+adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was
+popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint
+against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was
+passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.
+
+Oscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its
+Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion "a belief in conflict
+with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies" of animism and
+mythology. One of his chapters is entitled "The Crucifixion of the
+Son of God as Christian mythology."
+
+Ossoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).
+
+Oswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular
+school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.
+
+Oswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated
+as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history,
+and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has
+contributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other
+journals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the
+Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education,
+'82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity
+is derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles
+of Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural
+History in Brazil.
+
+O'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at
+Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he
+"denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie
+of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the
+flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the
+Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the
+Apostolic see erronious."
+
+"Ouida," See Ramee (Louise de la).
+
+Ouvry (Henry Aime), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics
+of the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several
+works on the land question.
+
+Overton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics,
+1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam,
+1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.
+
+Owen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14
+March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that
+he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter
+of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager
+at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and
+improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New
+Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he
+caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world
+were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In
+'24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the
+Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure,
+as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In
+'28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of
+Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's
+Journal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social
+System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind
+began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,
+17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in
+the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for
+his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.
+
+Owen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was
+educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's
+school, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid
+in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the
+failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28,
+the publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till
+'32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on
+the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he
+ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts
+of which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;
+Prossimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He
+was elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he
+secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He
+became charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he
+strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a
+Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.
+
+Paalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark),
+26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of
+the Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity
+(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz,
+1800). Died 20 May, 1824.
+
+Paepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.
+
+Pagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian
+jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at
+Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor
+of criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes
+(1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal
+Process and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional
+Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner
+by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.
+
+Page (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of
+introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through
+many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited
+Life Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?,
+'67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He
+became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert
+Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges
+of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at
+Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.
+
+Paget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of "Vernon
+Lee," has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and
+Baldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has
+lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews,
+an article in the Contemporary (May '83) on "Responsibilities of
+Unbelief" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show
+a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.
+
+Pageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the
+Budget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.
+
+Paine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father
+was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He
+left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he
+married the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He
+was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a
+paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then
+in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine
+went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the
+Pennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal
+a strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776,
+advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything
+else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of
+the Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's
+order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely
+to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was
+declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state
+of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to
+mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored
+to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution,
+he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In
+1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this
+he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he
+was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of
+the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison,
+where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time
+he wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed
+on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor
+points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas,
+and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As
+a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander
+by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own
+direction was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to
+have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.
+
+Pajot (Francois). See Liniere.
+
+Paleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and
+martyr, b. about 1500 at Veroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he
+went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of
+court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired
+to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on
+the Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor
+of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He
+had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of
+letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the
+flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to
+him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.
+
+Pallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin,
+22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,
+he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural
+History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled
+in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8
+Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him
+the founder of modern geology.
+
+Pallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He
+became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some
+satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his
+head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the
+Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.
+
+Palmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March,
+1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought
+up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while
+still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80
+he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club,
+for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the
+Freethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper
+with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was
+cremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering
+an eulogium.
+
+Palmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,
+1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but
+became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an
+attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society
+in New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802,
+a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also
+wrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer
+was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New
+York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.
+
+Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic,
+and perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a
+moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the
+world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On
+Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis.
+Died in Athens 111 B.C.
+
+Pancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26
+Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert,
+Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire,
+whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out
+the Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclopedie
+Methodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur,
+1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.
+
+Pantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian
+Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.
+
+Papillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort,
+5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,
+'65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue
+des Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life,
+'73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.
+
+Paquet (Henri Remi Rene), French writer, b. Charleville, 29
+Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris,
+where he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to
+literature. Under the anagram of "Neree Quepat" he has published La
+Lorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little
+philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist
+Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.
+
+Pare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11
+Aug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth,
+also works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at
+Rahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert
+Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.
+
+Parfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30
+Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical
+brochures. After the coup d'etat he took refuge in Belgium. In '71
+was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.
+
+Parfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of
+L'Arsenal de la Devotion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of
+superstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des Pelerinages, '77,
+and other pieces. Died 1881.
+
+Parisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoilee par
+la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems
+to have occasioned its suppression.
+
+Parker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24
+Aug. 1810. From his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence
+of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he
+studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the
+farm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June,
+'37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known
+as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete
+rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society
+was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame
+was established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion,
+'47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged
+De Wette's Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless
+opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own
+house. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his
+duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of
+13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.
+
+Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said
+to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy
+about 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are
+preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and
+considered nature eternal.
+
+Parny (Evariste Desire de Forges de), Viscount. French poet,
+b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he
+chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole
+inspired his "Amatory Poems," and he afterwards wrote the audacious
+War of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His
+poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been
+named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy
+in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.
+
+Parton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken
+to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married
+Miss Willis, "Fannie Fern," and has written many biographies, including
+Lives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also
+written on Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided
+in New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.
+
+Parvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and
+Christian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was
+issued in 1746.
+
+Pasquier (Etienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at
+Paris. Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He
+defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked
+in a bitter satire, Catechisme des Jesuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.
+
+Passerano (Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last
+century, attached to the court of Victor Amedee II. For some pamphlets
+written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and
+his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of
+Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving
+his goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil
+de Pieces curieuses sur les matieres les plus interessantes, etc.,
+which contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses),
+an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and
+comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem;
+also a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in
+1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a
+pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising
+the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.
+
+Pasteur (Louis). French scientist b. Dole, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor
+in '47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received
+the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries
+in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion
+of honor in '53, he was made commander '68 and grand officer '78. His
+researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers
+have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He
+was elected to the Academy as successor of Littre. He gave his name
+as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.
+
+Pastoret (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Marquis, French statesman
+and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by
+the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an Elege de Voltaire. By
+his works on Zoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses
+Considered as Legislator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the
+infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned
+History of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817-37), in which he passes in
+review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became
+President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the
+erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the
+conversion of the church of Ste Genevieve into the Pantheon. On the
+19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of
+the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as
+deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of
+the French Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,
+and in '29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.
+
+Pater (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. 1839. B.A. at
+Oxford in '62, M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the
+Westminster Review, Macmillan, and the Fortnightly Review. In '73
+he published The Renaissance, and in '85 Marius the Epicurean, His
+Sensations and Ideas.
+
+Paterson (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After
+the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle of
+Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced
+27 Jan. 1843 to three months' imprisonment. His trial was reported
+under the title God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering
+God as the plaintiff and in quoting from "the Jew book" to show
+the plaintiff's bad character. When released he went to Scotland to
+uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to
+fifteen months' imprisonment for selling "blasphemous" publications
+at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6
+April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.
+
+Patin (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais
+31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His
+reputation is chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked
+superstition. Larousse says "C'etait un libre penseur de la famille
+de Rabelais." Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.
+
+Patot. See Tyssot de Patot (S.)
+
+Pauw (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote
+philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians,
+Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his
+ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the
+uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.
+
+Peacock (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote
+many poems in the National Reformer, and in '67 published Hours of
+Reverie. Died 4 May, 1877.
+
+Peacock or Pecock (Reginald), the father of English rationalism,
+b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he
+was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph,
+1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good
+Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be
+accommodated to "the doom of reason." He questioned the genuineness
+of the Apostles' Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted
+from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned
+in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who
+visited him,
+
+
+            "Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan,
+            How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man."
+
+
+His books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in 1460. His influence
+doubtless contributed to the Reformation.
+
+Pearson (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled The Ethic of
+Freethought, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. '79, M.A. '82.
+
+Pechmeja (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he wrote a
+socialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, called
+Telephe, 1784. Died 1785.
+
+Peck (John), American writer in the Truthseeker. Has published Miracles
+and Miracle Workers, etc.
+
+Pecqueur (A.), contributor to the Rationaliste of Geneva, 1864.
+
+Pelin (Gabriel), French author of works on Spiritism Explained and
+Destroyed, 1864, and God or Science, '67.
+
+Pelletan (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son of
+the following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lycee Louis
+le Grand. He wrote in La Tribune Francaise, and Le Rappel, and since
+'80 has conducted La Justice with his friend Clemenceau, of whom he
+has written a sketch.
+
+Pelletan (Pierre Clement Eugene), French writer,
+b. Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in
+La Presse, under the name of "Un Inconnu," articles distinguished
+by their love of liberty and progress. He also contributed to the
+Revue des Deux Mondes. In '52 he published his Profession of Faith
+of the Nineteenth Century, and in '57 The Law of Progress and The
+Philosophical Kings. From '53-'55 he opposed Napoleon in the Siecle,
+and afterwards established La Tribune Francaise. In '63 he was
+elected deputy, but his election being annulled, he was re-elected in
+'64. He took distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After
+the battle of Sedan he was made member of the Committee of National
+Defence, and in '76 of the Senate, of which he became vice-president
+in '79. In '78 he wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled Un
+Roi Philosophe, and in '83 Is God Dead? Died at Paris, 14 Dec. 1884.
+
+Pemberton (Charles Reece). English actor and author, b. Pontypool,
+S. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world and
+wrote The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice, which with other remains
+was published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.
+
+Pennetier (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the Museum of
+Natural History at Rouen. Author of a work on the Origin of Life,
+'68, in which he contends for spontaneous generation. To this work
+F. A. Pouchet contributed a preface.
+
+Perfitt (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the Pathfinder,
+'59-61. Preached at South Place Chapel. Wrote Life and Teachings of
+Jesus of Nazareth, '61.
+
+Periers (Bonaventure des). See Desperiers.
+
+Perot (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on Man
+and God, which has been translated into English, 1881, and Moral and
+Philosophical Allegories (Paris, 1883).
+
+Perrier (Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of Natural
+History, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on Natural
+History, and one on Transformisme, '88.
+
+Perrin (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on The Religion
+of Philosophy, or the Unification of Knowledge: a comparison of the
+chief philosophical and religious systems of the world, 1885.
+
+Perry (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced 1824 to
+three years' imprisonment in Newgate for selling Palmer's Principles
+of Nature. He became a chemist at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned
+Parliament for the prisoners for blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe,
+stating that his own imprisonment had not fulfilled the judge's hope
+of his recantation.
+
+Petit (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de Greve in 1665 as
+the author of some impious pieces.
+
+Petronius, called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at the Court
+of Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his veins and
+bled to death in A.D. 66, conversing meanwhile with his friends on the
+gossip of the day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning
+"Primus in orbe Deos fecit timor." Petronius is famous for his "pure
+Latinity." He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with the same excuse,
+his romance being a satire on Nero and his court.
+
+Petruccelli della Gattina (Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples,
+1816, has travelled much and written many works. He was deputy to
+the Naples Parliament in '48, and exiled after the reaction.
+
+Petrus de Abano. A learned Italian physician, b. Abano 1250. He
+studied at Paris and became professor of medicine at Padua. He wrote
+many works and had a great reputation. He is said to have denied the
+existence of spirits, and to have ascribed all miracles to natural
+causes. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as a heretic, a magician
+and an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was acquitted. He was
+accused a second time but dying (1320) while the trial was preparing,
+he was condemned after death, his body disinterred and burnt, and he
+was also burnt in effigy in the public square of Padua.
+
+Peypers (H. F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De Rijp, 2 Jan. 1856, studied
+medicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and
+good natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much
+to De Dageraad, and is at present one of the five editors of that
+Freethought monthly.
+
+Peyrard (Francois), French mathematician, b. Vial (Haute Loire)
+1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of those who (7
+Nov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An intimate
+friend of Sylvian Marechal, Peyrard furnished him with notes for
+his Dictionnaire des Athees. He wrote a work on Nature and its Laws,
+1793-4, and proposed the piercing of the Isthmus of Suez. He translated
+the works of Euclid and Archimedes. Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.
+
+Peyrat (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. He
+wrote in the National and la Presse, and combated against the Second
+Empire. In '65 he founded l'Avenir National, which was several
+times condemned. In Feb. '71, he was elected deputy of the Seine,
+and proposed the proclamation of the Republic. In '76 he was chosen
+senator. He wrote a History of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception,
+'55; History and Religion, '58; Historical and Religious Studies, '58;
+and an able and scholarly Elementary and Critical History of Jesus,
+'64.
+
+Peyrere (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and brought up
+as a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of Conde, and
+became intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. His work entitled
+Praeadamitae, 1653, in which he maintained that men lived before Adam,
+made a great sensation, and was burnt by the hangman at Paris. The
+bishop of Namur censured it, and la Peyrere was arrested at Brussels,
+1656, by order of the Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of
+the Prince of Conde on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The
+following epitaph was nevertheless made on him:
+
+
+            La Peyrere ici git, ce bon Israelite,
+            Hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite:
+            Quatre religions lui plurent a la fois:
+              Et son indifference etait si peu commune
+            Qu'apres 80 ans qu'il eut a faire un choix
+              Le bon homme partit, et n'en choisit pas une.
+
+
+Died near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.
+
+Pfeiff (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. Editor
+of the free religious periodical, The Truthseeker, since 1882. He has
+also translated into Swedish some of the writings of Herbert Spencer.
+
+Pharmacopulo (A.P.) Greek translator of Buechner's Force and Matter, and
+corresponding member of the International Federation of Freethinkers.
+
+Phillips (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b. London, 1767. He
+was hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher, republican, Sheriff of
+London (1807-8), and Knight. He compiled many schoolbooks, chiefly
+under pseudonyms, of which the most popular were the Rev. J. Goldsmith
+and Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen most in his Million of
+Facts. Died at Brighton 2 April, 1840.
+
+Phillippo (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near Thetford,
+Norfolk. A deist who wrote an Essay on Political and Religious
+Meditations, 1868.
+
+Pi-y Margall (Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican statesman,
+b. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the Ruins
+of Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has written many
+political works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has much
+admiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and
+philosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with
+Castelar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic,
+being Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.
+
+Pichard (Prosper). French Positivist, author of Doctrine of Reality,
+"a catechism for the use of people who do not pay themselves with
+words," to which Littre wrote a preface, 1873.
+
+Pierson (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 April,
+1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical
+congregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor
+at Heidelberg. He resigned his connection with the Church in '64. He
+has written many works of theological and literary value of which we
+mention his Poems '82, New Studies on Calvin, '83, and Verisimilia,
+written in conjunction with S. A. Naber, '86.
+
+Pigault-Lebrun (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French author,
+b. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of
+Boulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and Le Citateur,
+1803, a collection of objections to Christianity, borrowed in part
+from Voltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 Napoleon
+threatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It
+was suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently
+reprinted. Pigault-Lebrun became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon,
+and died at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.
+
+Pike (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, 1826,
+wrote My Religious Experience and What I found in the Bible, 1867.
+
+Pillsbury (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22
+Sep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till '35, when he entered
+Gilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in '38, studied a year
+at Andover, was congregational minister for one year, and then,
+perceiving the churches were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the
+ministry. He became an abolitionist lecturer, edited the Herald
+of Freedom, National Anti-Slavery Standard, and the Revolution. He
+also preached for free religious societies, wrote Pious Frauds, and
+contributed to the Boston Investigator and Freethinkers' Magazine. His
+principal work is Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles, 1883.
+
+Piron (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. His
+pieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of
+his profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being
+drunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even
+deity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried
+by his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written
+parodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book
+in the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered
+"Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin." Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1773.
+
+Pisarev (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and materialist,
+b. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the Scholastics of
+the nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July 1868. His works
+are published in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.
+
+Pitt (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman
+and orator, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. 1708. The services to his
+country of "the Great Commoner," as he was called, are well known,
+but it is not so generally recognised that his Letter on Superstition,
+first printed in the London Journal in 1733, entitles him to be ranked
+with the Deists. He says that "the more superstitious people are,
+always the more vicious; and the more they believe, the less they
+practice." Atheism furnishes no man with arguments to be vicious;
+but superstition, or what the world made by religion, is the greatest
+possible encouragement to vice, by setting up something as religion,
+which shall atone and commute for the want of virtue. This remarkable
+letter ends with the words "Remember that the only true divinity
+is humanity."
+
+Place (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 at
+Charing Cross. He early became a member of the London, Corresponding
+Society. He wrote to Carlile's Republican and Lion. A friend of
+T. Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and
+Hibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was
+connected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left
+many manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are
+now in the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist--see
+Reasoner, 26 March, '54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan. 1854.
+
+Platt (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author of
+popular works on Business, '75; Morality, '78; Progress, '80; Life,
+'81; God and Mammon, etc.
+
+Pliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, b. Verona,
+A.D. 22. He distinguished himself in the army, was admitted into the
+college of Augurs, appointed procurator in Spain, and honored with
+the esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote the history of his own
+time in 31 books, now lost, and a Natural History in 37 books, one
+of the most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean
+Atheism appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. A.D. 79,
+he observed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and landing to assist
+the inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious vapors.
+
+Plumacher (Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and authoress
+of a work on Pessimism in the Past and Future, Heidelberg, 1884. She
+has also defended her views in Mind.
+
+Plumer (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 June,
+1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on account
+of scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the Legislature
+eight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was governor
+of New Hampshire, 1812-18, wrote to the press over the signature
+"Cincinnatus," and published an Address to the Clergy, '14. He lived
+till 22 June, 1850.
+
+Plutarch. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheronaea in Boetia, about
+A.D. 50. He visited Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of
+Trajan. His Parallel Lives of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made
+him immortal. He wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works,
+including a treatise on Superstition. He condemned the vulgar notions
+of Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds popularly ascribed
+to the gods, that he would rather men said there was no Plutarch than
+traduce his character. In other words, superstition is more impious
+than Atheism. Died about A.D. 120.
+
+Poe (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe, who figured
+in the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His mother was
+an actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing Tamerlane and other
+Poems, '27, he enlisted in the United States Army, but was cashiered in
+'31. He then took to literary employment in Baltimore and wrote many
+stories, collected as the Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor. In
+'45 appeared The Raven and other Poems, which proved him the most
+musical and dextrous of American poets. In '48 he published Eureka,
+a Prose Poem, which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed
+his greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His
+personal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not
+unlike that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.
+
+Poey (Andres), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of French and Spanish
+descent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the Modern Thinker, and is author
+of many scientific memoirs and a popular exposition of Positivism
+(Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on Darwinism and Comtism.
+
+Pompery (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A follower
+of Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism, '79, and a
+Life of Voltaire, '80.
+
+Pomponazzi (Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher,
+b. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua,
+where he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was
+appointed professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence
+with Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at
+Ferrara and Bologna. His treatise De Immortalitate Animae, 1516, gave
+great offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the doctrine
+of the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the hangman at
+Venice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo's intercession with Pope Leo
+X. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure. Among his works
+is a treatise on Fate, Free Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive
+man, and was nicknamed "Peretto." He held that doubt was necessary
+for the development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation
+for upright conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525,
+and was buried at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.
+
+Ponnat (de), Baron, French writer, b. about 1810. Educated by
+Jesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and democrat and a friend
+of A. S. Morin, with whom he collaborated on the Rationaliste of
+Geneva. He wrote many notable articles in La Libre Pensee, Le Critique,
+and Le Candide, for writing in which last he was sentenced to one
+year's imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan,
+The Cross or Death, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the
+Ecumenical Council at Rome (Brussels, '62). His principal work is
+a history of the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church
+(Paris, '82). Died in 1884.
+
+Porphyry, Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia,
+233 A.D. His original name was Malchus or Melech--a "King." He was
+a pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that
+he was of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards
+rejected Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and
+intelligence; the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote
+(in Greek) a famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some
+fragments of which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It
+is certain he showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian
+writings, exposed their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between
+Peter and Paul, and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes.
+He wrote many other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and
+Pythagorus. Died at Rome about 305.
+
+Porzio (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when lecturing
+at Pisa, the students cried "What of the soul?" He frankly professed
+his belief that the human soul differed in no essential point from
+the soul of a lion or plant, and that those who thought otherwise
+were prompted by pity for our mean estate. These assertions are in
+his treatise De Mente Humana.
+
+"Posos (Juan de)," an undiscovered author using this pen-name,
+expressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary travels, published
+in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into German at Leipsic,
+1721.
+
+Post (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From '28 she was a leading
+advocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman's suffrage and
+religious reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan. 1889.
+
+Potter (Agathon Louis de). See De Potter (A. L.)
+
+Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See De Potter (L. A. J.)
+
+Potvin (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the
+Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the history of literature
+at Brussels. He wrote anonymously Poesie et Amour '58, and Rome and
+the Family. Under the name of "Dom Jacobus" he has written an able
+work in two volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of
+a Freethinker. He was president of "La Libre Pensee" of Brussels from
+'78 to '83, is director of the Revue de Belgique and has collaborated
+on the National and other papers.
+
+Pouchet (Felix Archimede), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26
+Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author
+of Mme. Bovary, and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of
+natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched
+science with many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and
+wrote many monographs and books of which the principal is entitled
+The Universe, '65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872.
+
+Pouchet (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the
+proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor
+of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In
+'80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has written on The
+Plurality of the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Siecle,
+and the Revue des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive.
+
+Pouchkine (A.), see Pushkin.
+
+Pougens (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the
+Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was
+blinded by small pox. He became an intimate friend of the philosophers,
+and, sharing their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though
+it ruined his fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited
+the posthumous works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of
+the French language. His Jocko, a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen
+sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his Philosophical Letters,
+1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja,
+Franklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.
+
+Poulin (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What
+is God? What is Man? a scientific solution of the religious problem
+(Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75,
+in which he maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that
+the only divinity is moral harmony.
+
+Poultier D'Elmolte (Francois Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31
+Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock
+at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of
+volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of
+the King. He conducted the journal, L'Ami des lois, and became
+one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay
+in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceaux Philosophiques in the
+Journal Encyclopedique; Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine;
+Discours Decadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures
+on the Nature and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821.
+
+Powell (B. F.), compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of
+Ancient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.
+
+Prades (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. Castel-Sarrasin, about
+1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless became intimate with
+Diderot and contributed the article Certitude to the Encyclopedie. On
+the 18th Nov. 1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the
+doctorate, remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by
+a French theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul,
+the origin of society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary
+to the dogmas of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the
+Gospels to those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great
+scandal. His opinions were condemned by Pope Benedict XIV., and he
+fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by
+d'Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to
+that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de Prades'
+work on ecclesiastical history, published as Abrege de l'Histoire
+ecclesiastique de Fleury, Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice
+at Glogau (Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.
+
+Prater (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to
+the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he
+wrote on the Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to
+the American People, and Literary Essays, '56. Died 20 July, 1885. He
+left the bulk of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep
+wound to be made in his arm to insure that he was dead.
+
+Preda (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation
+and Reason, published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of
+"Padre Pietro."
+
+Premontval (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Charenton, 16
+Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis
+Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He
+studied mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences
+at Berlin. He wrote Le Diogene de D'Alembert, or Freethoughts on
+Man, 1754, Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vues
+Philosophiques, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Theologie
+de L'Etre, in which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the
+existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.
+
+Priestley (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near
+Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way
+to broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the
+doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to
+his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the
+sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in
+his Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy
+these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord
+Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of
+an independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his
+History of the Corruptions of Christianity and History of the Early
+Opinions Concerning Jesus Christ, which involved him in controversy
+with Bishop Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with
+the French Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot,
+14 July, 1791. After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally
+goaded to seek an asylum in the United States, which he reached in
+1794. Even in America he endured some uneasiness on account of his
+opinions until Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.
+
+Pringle (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersoll in Canada,
+1880.
+
+Proctor (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March,
+1837. Educated at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge,
+where he became B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal
+Astronomical Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He
+maintained in '69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He
+wrote, lectured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty
+volumes, chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for
+a while a Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and
+science, and in a letter to the New York Tribune, Nov. '75, formally
+renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His
+remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns,
+and other Science Gleanings, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his
+heresy. In '81 he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable
+papers, notably one (Jan. '87), "The Beginning of Christianity." He
+entirely rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he
+considered largely a rechauffe of solar myths. In other articles
+in the Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the
+coincidence between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also
+with stories found in Josephus. The very last article he published
+before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll
+in his controversy with Gladstone in the North American Review. In
+'84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow
+fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.
+
+Proudhon (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker,
+b. Besancon, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a printer,
+and won a prize of 1,500 francs for the person "best fitted for a
+literary or scientific career." In '40 appears his memoir, What is
+Property? in which he made the celebrated answer "C'est le vol." In
+'43 the Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion,
+philosophy and logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical
+Contradictions, in which appeared his famous aphorism, "Dieu,
+c'est le mal." In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation
+of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon
+saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when
+President, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine
+of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while
+in prison. For his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church
+he was condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in
+'58. He took refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy,
+19 Jan. 1865. Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated,
+'66. Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations,
+but he lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works
+have been published in 26 vols.
+
+Protagoras, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to
+have been a disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before
+he studied philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He
+wrote in a book on the gods, "Respecting the gods, I am unable to
+know whether they exist or do not exist." For this he was impeached
+and banished, and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek
+Islands, and died about 411. He believed all things were in flux,
+and summed up his conclusions in the proposition that "man is the
+measure of all things, both of that which exists and that which does
+not exist." Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy "had
+the merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative
+nature of cognition."
+
+Prudhomme (Sully). See Sully Prudhomme.
+
+Pueckler Muskau (Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer,
+b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations
+in a work entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by
+Tutti Frutti, '32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died
+4 Feb. 1871.
+
+Pushkin (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often
+called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he
+was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which
+circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des
+Dieux, and entitled the Gabrielade, the archangel being the hero. He
+was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire
+and Byron, put forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most
+popular is Eugene Oneguine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote
+some histories and founded the Sovremennik (Contemporary), 1836. In
+Jan. 1837 he was mortally wounded in a duel.
+
+Putnam (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a
+minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary
+to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected president in
+Oct. 1887. In '88 he started Freethought at San Francisco in company
+with G. Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus,
+Adami and Heva; romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings,
+and Gottlieb, and pamphlets on the Problem of the Universe, The New
+God, and The Glory of Infidelity.
+
+Putsage (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the
+Colins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on Determinism and
+Rational Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie
+de L'Avenir of Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels.
+
+Pyat (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4
+Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college
+at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and
+Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in
+many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris,
+'47. After '52 he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for
+the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded
+the journal le Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he protested
+against the treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and
+condemned to death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice,
+and has sat as deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice,
+3 Aug. 1889.
+
+Pyrrho. Greek philosopher, a native of Elis, in Peloponesus, founder of
+a sceptical school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been
+attracted to philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself
+to Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,
+and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian
+Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all
+things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his
+equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept
+house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He
+reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians
+honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his
+school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus
+and Empiricus.
+
+Quental. See Anthero de Quental.
+
+"Quepat (Neree.") See Paquet (Rene).
+
+Quesnay (Francois), French economist, b. Merey, 4 June 1694. Self
+educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his Tableau
+Economique, 1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral
+and social rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.
+
+Quinet (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He
+attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's The
+Philosophy of History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks
+on Catholicism, the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in
+the Revolution of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on
+The Genius of Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his
+historical work on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at
+Versailles, 27 March, 1875.
+
+Quintin (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the
+Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in
+1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and
+burnt at Tournay in 1530.
+
+Quris (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published some
+works on law and La Defense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864.
+
+Rabelais (Francois), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher,
+b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early age he joined the order
+of Franciscans, but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial
+temper, quitted the convent without the leave of his superior. He
+studied medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised
+at Lyons. His great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was
+denounced as heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their
+order but their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was
+appointed cure of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings
+show surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, "Beyond a
+doubt he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age."
+
+Radenhausen (Christian), German philosopher, b. Friedrichstadt, 3
+Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a lithographer, he resided
+at Hamburg, where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.),
+'70-72; Osiris, '74; The New Faith, '77; Christianity is Heathenism,
+'81; The True Bible and the False, '87; Esther, '87.
+
+Radicati (Alberto di), Count. See Passerano.
+
+Ragon (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, 1781. By
+profession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of Bureau to
+the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry,
+and The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the Ancient Mysteries,
+1844. Died at Paris, 1862.
+
+Ram (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seventeenth century,
+who was accused of Atheism.
+
+Ramaer (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland,
+2 Aug. 1812. From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He
+afterwards became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote
+on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also contributed largely
+to De Dageraad, often under the pseudonym of "Lachme." He had a noble
+mind and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16
+Feb. 1867.
+
+Ramee (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French extraction,
+Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of "Ouida," a little sister's
+mispronunciation of Louisa, she has published many popular novels,
+exhibiting her free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricotin,
+Folle Farine, Signa, Moths and A Village Commune. She has lived much
+in Italy, where the scenes of several novels are placed.
+
+Ramee (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth
+(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused
+of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the
+massacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.
+
+Ramsey (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a Freethinker
+early in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall of Science
+and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in
+business for himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82
+he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83,
+after a good defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment,
+and on Mr. Foote's release acted as printer of the paper.
+
+Ranc (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831,
+and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He
+took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied
+law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second
+Empire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He collaborated on
+La Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in
+'71, and Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other
+political works.
+
+Randello (Cosimo), Italian author of The Simple Story of a Great
+Fraud, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed
+against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.
+
+Rapisardi (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has
+translated Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The
+Last Prayer of Pius IX., '71, etc.
+
+Raspail (Francois Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras
+24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the
+Church. He became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the
+theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological
+dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815-24 gave
+lessons, and afterwards became a scientific lecturer. He took part
+in the Revolution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of
+Honor but he refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks
+he was frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat
+on the extreme left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.
+
+Rau (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied
+theology and became preacher to free congregations in Stuttgart and
+Mannheim. He wrote Gospel of Nature, A Catechism of the Religion of
+the Future, and other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.
+
+Rawson (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,
+b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and
+art, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage
+from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He
+has published many maps and typographical and philological works,
+and illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on
+the Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of
+Palestine, London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine,
+maintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel
+is non-historical.
+
+Raynal (Guillaume Thomas Francois) l'abbe, French historian and
+philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a
+priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,
+1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With
+the assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a
+philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies
+(4 vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious
+and political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was
+censured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May,
+1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near
+Paris, 6 March, 1796.
+
+Reade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of
+Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,
+26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart
+of Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book,
+and in '73, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied
+as Times correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects
+the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions
+and is still worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel,
+'60; The Veil of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his
+last work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death
+upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.
+
+Reber (George), American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas
+of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the
+frauds and follies of the early fathers.
+
+Reclus (Jean Jacques Elisee), French geographer and socialist, the
+son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15
+March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at
+Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and
+left France after the coup d'etat of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57
+in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself
+to studying the social and political as well as physical condition of
+the countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du
+monde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the
+North during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was
+taken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent
+men in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted
+to banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris,
+and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal
+Geography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage
+without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface
+to Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works.
+
+Reddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,
+Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but
+wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself,
+and issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by
+Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.
+
+Reghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics,
+b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an
+able exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an
+Examination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the
+troubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at
+Brussels Aug. 1853.
+
+Regnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante
+(Nievre), 20 March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de
+Critique Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could
+find no publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed
+scientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet
+and Clemenceau, the Revue Encyclopedique, which being suppressed
+on its first number, he started La Libre Pensee with Asseline,
+Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes
+a condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches
+on Cerebral Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to
+the anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of
+political science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815;
+and has translated Buechner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate
+to the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.
+
+Regnard (Jean Francois), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He
+went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an
+Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue
+with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French
+consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote
+a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer
+of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.
+
+Regnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21
+Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for
+its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained
+a canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22
+Oct. 1613.
+
+Reich (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav
+descent on his father's side, b. Olmuetz, 6 March 1839. He studied at
+Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides
+editing the Athenaeum of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain,
+'83. Of his works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of
+Humanity, '74; Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul,
+'84; The Emancipation of Women, '84.
+
+Reil (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland,
+20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine;
+after practising some years in his native town he went in 1787
+to Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin
+University. He wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical
+science, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the
+accusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle
+he was attacked by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.
+
+Reimarus (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22
+Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and
+Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector
+of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of
+the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on
+The Principle Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the
+Wolfenbuettel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg,
+1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.
+
+Reitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named
+after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New
+York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant
+church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker
+of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now
+editor of Der Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he "shall be a poor
+man and a Revolutionaire all my life."
+
+Remsburg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has
+written a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False
+Claims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine,
+and a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes
+and vices sanctioned by scripture, '85.
+
+Renan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Treguier (Brittany)
+27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to
+study. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his
+studies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended
+profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics
+nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all
+thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48
+he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages,
+afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published
+his work on Averroes and Averroism. In '56 was elected member of
+the Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria;
+having in the meantime published a translation of Job and Song of
+Songs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In
+'61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of
+France, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his
+chair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain
+to attack him personally as a "French blasphemer." The Vie de Jesus
+is part of a comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in
+8 vols., '63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ,
+The Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end
+of the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on
+Religious History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76),
+Spinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture
+on the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies
+of Religious History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made
+a great sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel,
+'87-89.
+
+Renand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique,
+on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels
+in 1861.
+
+Rengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought
+friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.
+
+Renard (Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne;
+author of Man, is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.
+
+Renouvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier,
+1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among
+his works are Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican
+Manual, '48; Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69;
+a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A
+Sketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.
+
+Renton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in
+Germany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The
+Logic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological
+estimate of that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last
+generation called Bishopspool, '83.
+
+Rethore (Francois), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of
+Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac,
+or Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's
+Classification of Sciences.
+
+Reuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12
+Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and
+Natural Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died
+at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.
+
+Revillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy,
+b. Saint-Laurent-les Macon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in
+'57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and
+published many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.
+
+Rey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed
+all the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's,
+and conducted the Journal des Savans.
+
+Reynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris,
+12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He
+was teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic
+School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.
+
+Reynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For
+a time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the
+Encyclopedie Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly
+of '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great
+success. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at
+Perigueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863.
+
+Reynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was
+brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher,
+but was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy
+at Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by
+Col. Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was
+a paltry fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator,
+Truthseeker, and Ironclad Age.
+
+Reynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many
+novels. Wrote Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.
+
+Rialle (J. Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He
+wrote in La Pensee Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et
+de Philologie comparee, and has written on Comparative Mythology,
+dealing with fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.
+
+Ribelt (Leonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several
+political works and collaborator on La Morale Independante.
+
+Ribeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot)
+1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the
+Emancipation of Toulouse, and La Reforme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo,
+he shared in his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.
+
+Ribot (Theodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (Cotes du-Nord)
+1839; has written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of
+the views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology
+he has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy
+of Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will,
+3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue
+Philosophique.
+
+Ricciardi (Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte
+(Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of
+Camaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He
+says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In
+'32 he founded at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature,
+and art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned
+eight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he
+wrote in the Revue Independante, pointing out that the Papacy from
+its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the
+Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History
+of the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in
+'53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from
+1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the
+Ecumenical Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples,
+'69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the
+International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published
+an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend
+Mauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884.
+
+Richepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. Medeah
+(Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the
+Franco-German war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song
+of the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasphemes,
+which has gone through several editions.
+
+Richer (Leon), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was
+with A. Gueroult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and
+edits L'Avenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker
+to a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the
+emancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the
+Women's Rights congresses held in Paris.
+
+Rickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes
+of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he
+also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved
+by Sharpe.
+
+Riem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became
+a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a
+hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the
+Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.
+
+Ritter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into
+French Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments
+and Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian Baur and the Tuebingen School.
+
+Roalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy
+prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold
+the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a
+manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed
+useful "whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy
+Scriptures and the Christian Religion." When prosecuted for selling The
+Age of Reason, The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention
+of continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to
+two months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued
+the sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter
+Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.
+
+Robert (Pierre Francois Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of
+Brissot and Danton, b. Gimnee (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up
+to the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical
+society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism
+adapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the
+death of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's Revolutions de Paris. Died
+at Brussels 1826.
+
+Robertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New
+York, 1835.
+
+Robertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He
+became journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on
+the National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt
+Whitman in the "Round Table Series." Essays towards a Critical Method,
+'89, and has contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on
+Mithraism, March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued
+pamphlets on Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism,
+'85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.
+
+Roberty (Eugene de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth,
+b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81,
+and The Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of
+philosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled
+The Unknowable, '89.
+
+Robin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of the
+Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June,
+1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littre he
+refounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many
+important medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was
+struck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God,
+and it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same
+year he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He
+has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.
+
+Robinet (Jean Baptiste Rene), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June,
+1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish
+his curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint
+and to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the
+Secret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took
+part in the Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died
+at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.
+
+Robinet (Jean Eugene Francois), French physician and publicist,
+b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person
+and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of
+his executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth
+Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and
+Life of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65,
+The Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the
+Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the "Bibliotheque
+Utile," vol. 66, '81.
+
+Roell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a
+Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in
+1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.
+
+Rogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April,
+1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend
+mass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary
+movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in
+'65 was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos
+de Labienus (London, i.e. Zuerich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote
+some excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71
+he assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but
+declined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself "Atheist." Is
+still living in Paris.
+
+Rokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the
+Viennese school in medicine, b. Koeniggraetz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804,
+studied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of
+Doctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy,
+'42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878.
+
+Roland (Marie Jeanne), nee Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March,
+1754. Fond of reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At
+a convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their
+writings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist,
+and deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with
+Agnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la
+Platiere (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies
+of her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On
+the appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre
+of a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her "the creature of Simplicity
+and Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant," and
+"the noblest of all living Frenchwomen." On the fall of her party
+she was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband,
+then in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself,
+15 Nov. 1793.
+
+Rolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father,
+Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the
+University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems,
+'84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places
+ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.
+
+Romagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist,
+b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work
+on penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are
+borrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of
+Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy,
+he was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In
+'21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound
+Mind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure
+writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.
+
+Romiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the
+University of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse
+which excited some commotion among the theologians.
+
+Romme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy
+to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In
+Sept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which
+was drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He
+advocated the Fetes of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed
+suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an
+eminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.
+
+Ronge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde
+(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau,
+and became a Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold
+preaching soon led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing the
+worship of "the holy coat," exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves,
+made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free
+congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took
+refuge in England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In
+'61 he returned to Frankfort, and in '73 settled at Darmstadt. Died
+at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.
+
+Ronsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He
+became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of
+Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French
+Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.
+
+Roorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia
+(Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled
+about '64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed
+to the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland),
+23 Oct. 1887.
+
+Roquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French
+reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the
+Franciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon
+1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused
+of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this
+has been disputed.
+
+Rose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light
+to Lighten the Gentiles, 1881.
+
+Rose (Ernestine Louise) nee Suesmond Potowsky, Radical reformer
+and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was
+a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold and inquiring
+disposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris
+during the Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she
+embraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here
+she married Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In
+May '36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the
+Republic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system,
+the formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against
+slavery in the slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition
+to give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one
+of the inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant
+champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses
+have been published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech
+at the Hartford Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to
+England where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public
+was at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in
+'76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face
+and head, and though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest
+in the Freethought cause.
+
+Roskoff (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30
+Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written
+works on Hebrew Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth,
+'60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69.
+
+Ross (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of
+poems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The
+Agnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures
+published under the pen name of "Saladin."
+
+Rosseau (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the
+name of L. Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of
+Jesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pensee, and was
+editor of l'Athee. Died 1870.
+
+Rossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents,
+London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student
+at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet
+artist he exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness,
+and splendour of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.
+
+Rossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of
+the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College,
+he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has
+acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being
+an edition of Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is
+Chairman of the Committee of the Shelley Society.
+
+Rossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March,
+1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many
+scientific works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among
+his writings are Man in the Mirror of Nature. '49-55. The History of
+the Earth, '68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.
+
+Roth (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig,
+1869; Jesuitism, '71.
+
+Rothenbuecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook
+of Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.
+
+Rotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman
+b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in
+1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his
+University in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by
+his liberal views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper
+and was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death,
+which occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World
+(9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views
+of history which had then appeared.
+
+Rousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June,
+1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported
+himself. In 1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for
+negative answer to the question "whether the re-establishment of the
+arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals." This success
+prompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music,
+the New Heloise (1759), a love story in the form of letters, which
+had great success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which
+he condemns other education than that of following nature. In this
+work occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding
+the supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament
+condemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled
+to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and
+Rousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that
+he returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England
+in Jan. 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with
+Hume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on
+condition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his
+Confessions, of which he had previously composed the first six books
+in England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent
+and eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his
+own life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died
+near Paris, 2 July, 1778.
+
+Rouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written
+several brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renverse, 1872,
+and Ci et ca, ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social
+progress. Writes in Malon's Revue Socialiste, and is one of the
+editors of Les Droits des Femmes.
+
+Roy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity,
+1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, '66. Has also translated
+Marx's Capital.
+
+Royer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830,
+of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our
+language and literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at
+Lausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared
+with Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In
+'62 she translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface
+and notes. In '64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas
+appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work
+is on The Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states
+the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian
+creed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites,
+'76; Two Hypotheses of Heredity, '77; The Good and the Moral Law,
+'81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de
+Philosophie, Positive, Revue d'Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted
+and spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings.
+
+Ruedt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and "apostle of unbelief,"
+b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he
+studied philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg
+University, '65-69. Dr. Ruedt became acquainted with Lassalle,
+and started a paper, Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for
+participation in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he
+lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to
+Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.
+
+Ruelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of
+The History of Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69.
+
+Ruge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Ruegen), 13
+Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of
+the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in
+'30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the
+Hallische Jahrbuecher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he
+started Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the
+Extreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote
+New Germany in "Cabinet of Reason" series, and translated Buckle's
+History of Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,
+where he died 30 Dec. 1880.
+
+Ruggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised
+by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which
+he issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an
+Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.
+
+Rumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress,
+and The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das
+Freire Wort (Basle, '56).
+
+Russell (John). See Amberley.
+
+Ryall (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union,
+1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason
+and The Movement. Died 1846.
+
+Rydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. Joenkoeping, 18
+Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention The Last
+Athenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have
+been translated into English.
+
+Rystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and
+taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all
+matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty
+upon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time,
+he was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.
+
+Sabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about
+1218 of noble family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II.,
+replying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.
+
+Sadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied
+the resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine
+of predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and
+punishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees.
+
+Saga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for
+Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.
+
+Saigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern
+Physics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics
+of Voltaire, '74. Died 1875.
+
+Saillard (F.), French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris,
+'69), and The Organisation of the Republic, '83.
+
+Sainte Beuve (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters
+b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine,
+which he practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo's
+Odes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As
+a critic he made his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical
+Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal
+works are his History of Port Royal, '40-62; Literary Portraits,
+'32-39; and Causeries du Lundi, '51-57. In '45 he was elected to the
+Academy, and in '65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,
+comprehensive, and impartial.
+
+Saint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de,
+French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April,
+1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became
+major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal
+Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles
+II. He died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster
+Abbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God,
+he replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,
+consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in
+3 vols. 1705.
+
+Saint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about
+1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant
+religion more freely; was captain in the service of the States,
+and assisted on the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused
+his system, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into
+French, under the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making
+much noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to
+Ceremonies Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses
+d'un Esprit Desinteresse, 1678.
+
+Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer,
+b. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches,
+published at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire
+published his Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of
+St. Hyacinthe.
+
+Saint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.
+
+Saint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean Francois de), French writer,
+b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he
+entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became
+a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He
+wrote some articles in the Encyclopedie, and many fugitive pieces and
+poems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured
+him admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and
+Bolingbroke, and Le Catechisme Universel. His Philosophical Works
+were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.
+
+Sale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated
+at Canterbury. He was one of a society which undertook to publish a
+Universal History, and was also one of the compilers of the General
+Dictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran,
+with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one
+of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died
+14 Nov. 1736.
+
+Salieres (A.), contributor to l'Athee, 1870. Has written a work on
+Patriotism, 1881.
+
+Sallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent,
+b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was
+imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he
+attended Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He
+wrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he
+takes New Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically--the God
+who is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau
+(Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843.
+
+Salmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco,
+1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the
+Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic of
+'73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts,
+'78, and his own works were issued in 1881.
+
+Salt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851;
+educated at Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor
+to Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on
+Shelley, and a Life of James Thomson, "B.V.", 1889.
+
+Saltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June
+1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he
+published a sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of
+Disenchantment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer
+and Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy
+account of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle,
+'86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His
+brother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems
+(Philadelphia, '73.)
+
+Salverte (Anne Joseph Eusebe Baconniere de), French philosopher,
+b. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle
+to a Reasonable Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793,
+contributed to Marechal's Dictionnaire des Athees, published an eloge
+on Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the
+Death of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm
+partisans of liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not
+be recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his
+work on The Occult Sciences, '29, which was translated into English,
+'46. To the French edition of '56 Littre wrote a Preface. He died 27
+Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.
+
+Sand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards
+baroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and
+brought up by her grandmother at the Chateau de Nohant. Reading
+Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She
+remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an
+elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom
+after some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her
+whole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of
+'48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated
+Mazzini's Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant,
+8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was
+thought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better
+appreciation of her work and genius is making way.
+
+Sarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor
+of Le XIXe. Siecle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical
+articles.
+
+"Sarrasi," pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department
+of Tarn, 1837, author of L'Orient Devoile, '80, in which he shows
+the mythical elements in Christianity.
+
+Saull (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established
+a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John
+Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the
+old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between
+astronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in
+Kensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.
+
+Saunderson (Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire),
+2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when
+but a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes,
+and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge
+University, explaining Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural
+Philosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said,
+"They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put
+in Saunderson, who believes in no God at all." Saunderson said that
+to believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.
+
+Sauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of
+the editors of L'Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and
+Education ('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions
+of the Jesuits ('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious
+Congregations Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died
+at Paris in 1883.
+
+Saville (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,
+b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign
+of James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test
+Acts. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious
+account of his opinions, which he probably tones down.
+
+Sawtelle (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of
+Ignorance, or the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself,
+Salem, Oregon, 1868.
+
+Sbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838;
+studied jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of
+Research, '66. In '70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task
+of the Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers
+held at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human
+Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino
+to Mazzini, '86.
+
+Schade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the
+immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions
+on the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775,
+where he died in 1795.
+
+Scherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April,
+1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva,
+but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to
+Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants,
+and in the Revue de Theologie et de Philosophie Chretienne, '50-60,
+put forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also
+wrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some
+of his articles have been collected as Melanges de Critique Religieuse,
+'60; and Melanges d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in
+'71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.
+
+Scherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3
+Oct. 1817. Educated at Zuerich and Tuebingen, he wrote in '43 with his
+brother Thomas a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas,
+and in '57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became
+Professor of History and Literature at Zuerich, and has written many
+able literary studies, including histories of German and English
+literature. Died at Zuerich, 21 Nov. 1887.
+
+Schiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated
+at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at
+Berne, '54-63; of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has
+written many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as
+materialistic.
+
+Schiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and
+historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a
+minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of
+Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems,
+a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He
+died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.
+
+Schmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He
+travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at
+Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has
+illustrated its application in many directions, and published an able
+work on The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the "International
+Scientific Series." Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.
+
+Schmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth,
+25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and Koenigsberg, first
+theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of "Max Stirner"
+he wrote a system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession
+(Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of
+Reaction in two parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth
+of Nations and Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin,
+25 June, 1856.
+
+Schneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has
+written some popular novels under the name of "Arthur Storch," and
+was one of the founders of the German Freethinkers' Union.
+
+Schoelcher ( Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July
+1804. While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about
+'26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works
+on the subject. On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the
+Navy, and caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government
+enfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for
+Martinique '48 and '49. After 2 Dec. '51, he came to London, where he
+wrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned
+to France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In
+'71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected
+a life senator.
+
+Scholl (Aurelien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He
+began life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune,
+etc., and writes on l'Evenement. Has written several novels, and le
+Proces de Jesus Christ, '77.
+
+Scholl (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies
+of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became
+a minister '44, but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His
+first important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg,
+'52), and in '61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection
+of extracts from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In '70
+he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde
+Licht! which continued for many years. Has published many discourses,
+and written Truth from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Religion
+of Humanity, '79.
+
+Schopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig,
+22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a
+vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied
+at Goettingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of
+the East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to
+obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815
+he wrote his chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into
+English in '83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is
+the one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground
+Problems of Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection
+of essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena ('51). Died at Frankfort,
+21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of
+every form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms;
+they require darkness to shine in.
+
+Schroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June,
+1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion
+in '45. In '50, he went to America, living since '53 in Sauk City,
+and frequently lecturing there. In '81, he attended the International
+Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor
+to the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.
+
+Schroot (A.), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865),
+Natural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life
+(Hamburg, 1873).
+
+Schuenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April,
+1826. He joined the "Freie Gemeinde," and was expelled from Prussia
+in '48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part
+in democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason,
+but acquitted. In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing
+tours over the States settling at San Francisco.
+
+Schultze (Karl August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May,
+1846, studied at Jena, Goettingen and Muenich, has written an able study
+on Fetishism, Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools,
+'72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant
+and Darwin, '75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in
+Jena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80,
+Philosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of
+Spiritualism, 1883.
+
+Schumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8
+July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He
+started a musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His
+lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a "profane"
+oratorio, Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions
+are illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.
+
+Schweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. Koenigsberg, 12
+July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking
+part in the events of '48, after the reaction he went to
+Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life,
+also a Life of Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk's Irrgang des
+Leben's Jesu, 1884.
+
+Schweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort,
+12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after
+Lassalle's death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was
+sent to Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity,
+'62, The Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.
+
+Scot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of
+Witchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of
+witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished
+in 1886. Scot died in 1599.
+
+Scott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he
+travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X,
+of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted
+himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among
+the clergy and cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount
+Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds,
+F. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which
+were given away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence
+Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus
+'71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little
+known outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should
+secure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.
+
+Seaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25
+Aug. 1810. In '37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator,
+and during Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which
+he continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled
+strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always
+very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been published
+with the title Occasional Thoughts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he
+helped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of
+all Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration
+was delivered by Colonel Ingersoll.
+
+Sebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym
+of "Dr. Fabricus," published God, Man, and his latter end, a
+medico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to
+Mgr. Dupanloup, 1868-9.
+
+Sechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863,
+published Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The
+work made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into
+French by Victor Derely, and published in '84 with an introduction
+by M. G. Wyrouboff.
+
+Secondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu.
+
+Seeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London,
+1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he
+graduated in '57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in
+London University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the
+Life and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord
+Shaftesbury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of
+hell. In '69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and
+has since written some important historical works as well as Natural
+Religion ('82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.
+
+Segond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, author of
+a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of
+several medical works.
+
+Seidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the
+sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah,
+and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He
+wrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian
+Religion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament
+in the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter.
+
+Sellon (Edward), English archaeologist, author of The Monolithic
+Temples of India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,
+1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.
+
+Semerie (Eugene), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming
+physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67
+published a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which
+he maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism
+to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This work was
+denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply
+to M. Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon
+and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited
+the Politique Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73,
+and The Law of the Three States, '75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.
+
+Semler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He
+was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical
+criticism there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New
+Testament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down
+the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.
+
+Serafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for
+Female Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce
+(Salerno, '73).
+
+Serveto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish
+martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he
+left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied
+medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject
+of the Trinity, against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus
+and Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both
+Catholics and Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his
+last work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic
+authorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to
+Naples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of
+Calvin, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,
+26 Oct. 1553.
+
+Seume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29
+Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,
+but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an
+adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to
+Syracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.
+
+Sextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who
+probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He
+left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in
+three books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.
+
+Shadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk,
+1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell's plays
+are not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died
+6 Dec. 1692.
+
+Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26
+Feb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole,
+and proposed granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His
+health suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the
+acquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets
+occasioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed,
+by his Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples,
+where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under
+the title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions,
+and did much to raise the character of English Deism.
+
+Shakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists,
+b. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his
+life are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he
+became an actor and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor
+of English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and
+retired to his native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas
+warrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green
+says, "Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life
+and death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the
+common theological solutions around him." His comprehensive mind
+disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in
+what the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the
+Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that
+he was an Atheist.
+
+Shaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought
+up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army,
+took part in some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the
+Methodist Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer
+sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March,
+'83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he
+publishes bold Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism,
+and has written The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The
+Bible Against Itself, etc.
+
+Shelley (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4
+Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here
+he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he
+was expelled from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley,
+also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and
+met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children
+had been born, they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife
+had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,
+but, in March, '17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on
+account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter
+to Lord Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge
+passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30
+Dec. '16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary
+Wollstonecraft. In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him,
+he left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron,
+composed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,
+Epipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty,
+the glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia,
+8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny,
+who knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last.
+
+Siciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina,
+19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism,
+Darwinism, and Modern Sociology, '79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a
+preface by J. Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85.
+
+Sidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl
+of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament,
+and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained
+abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was
+condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.
+
+Sierebois (P.). See Boissiere.
+
+Siffle (Alexander Francois), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May,
+1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He
+wrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed
+to de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg,
+7 Oct. 1872.
+
+Sigward (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An
+active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican
+calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris '89,
+and is one of the editors of Le Danton.
+
+Simcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign
+Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the
+Fortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature "H. Lawrenny."
+
+Simon de Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth
+century. He said that "Three seducers," Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad,
+"have mystified mankind with their doctrines." He was said to have
+been punished by God for his impiety.
+
+Simon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May,
+1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished
+himself by bold erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament,
+1678, was suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical
+History of the New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe,
+11 April, 1712.
+
+Simonis.--A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for
+his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio,
+published at Cracow, 1588.
+
+Simpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put
+forward a Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and
+attributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the
+signature "Antitheos." Died about 1844.
+
+Sjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near
+Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet
+there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures
+at Stockholm.
+
+Skinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on
+Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was
+credited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published
+by Carlile in 1819.
+
+Slater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many
+years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the
+Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.
+
+Slenker (Elmina), nee Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents,
+23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying
+the Bible, afterwards published at Boston, '70; she conducts the
+Children's Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed
+to most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way
+('78), Mary Jones, The Infidel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79),
+Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.
+
+Smith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799,
+graduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850,
+but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family,
+he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion,
+originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote
+The Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology,
+'67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.
+
+Snoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm,
+8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in
+his poems published under the name of "Sventroest."
+
+Socinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5
+Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562),
+and taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland,
+and afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3
+March, 1604.
+
+Sohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He
+edited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished
+Liberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.
+
+Somerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued
+many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the
+Truthseeker.
+
+Somerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20
+Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of
+Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the
+Treasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he
+startled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy
+entitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on
+mathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.
+
+Soury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he
+became librarian at the Bibliotheque Nationale. He has contributed
+to the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals,
+and has published important works on The Bible and Archaeology, '72;
+Historical Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism,
+'78; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that
+Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated
+into English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from
+his Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new
+direction in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary
+of the History of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World
+and of Life in Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary
+Psychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary
+History of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution,
+'79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.
+
+Southwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served
+with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social
+missionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol,
+for an article in which on "The Jew Book" he was tried for blasphemy
+14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months'
+imprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he
+edited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in
+England and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology
+for Atheism, '46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition
+Unveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground
+that Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer
+to G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45,
+Confessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he
+went to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.
+
+Souverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous
+work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of
+his opinions.
+
+Sozzini. See Socinus.
+
+Spaink (Pierre Francois), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862,
+and studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen
+names "A. Th. Eist." and "F.R.S." Has translated Romanes' Scientific
+Evidences of Organic Evolution.
+
+Spaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he
+has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the
+Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.
+
+Specht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,
+1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and
+has written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular
+History of the World's Development, which has gone through several
+editions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers'
+Union.
+
+Spencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was
+articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He
+wrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman
+met Mill, Lewes and "George Eliot." His first important work was
+Social Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of
+Psychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology,
+'64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form
+part of his "Synthetic Philosophy" in which he applies the doctrines
+of evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to
+animal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on
+Education '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals,
+'71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86,
+an immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed
+against Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State,
+'85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.
+
+Spinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents,
+Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and
+philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated
+by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly
+escaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired
+to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by
+polishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained
+until his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus,
+which made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great
+thinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as
+an atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with
+Lessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly
+stigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as
+among the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague,
+21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The
+bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address
+from M. Renan.
+
+Spooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19
+Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged
+Supernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from
+Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published
+many works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at
+Boston, 14 May, 1887.
+
+Stabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.
+
+Stamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action,
+translated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to
+England, went to America, Aug. '54.
+
+Standring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855,
+was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded
+theology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the
+National Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid
+sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican
+Chronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and
+in Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation,
+and has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress,
+Our Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam.,
+b. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.
+
+Stanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future
+Religion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in
+which he criticises preceding religions.
+
+Stanton (Elizabeth, nee Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New
+York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she
+was associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights
+crusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in
+Seneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony
+and Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History
+of Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American
+Review notably on "Has Christianity Benefited Woman," May, 1885.
+
+Stap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of
+Christianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.
+
+Starcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the
+University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple
+of Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able
+Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85,
+published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in
+the "International Scientific Series," a work on The Primitive Family,
+in which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan,
+etc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of
+Ludwig Feuerbach.
+
+Stecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)
+
+Stefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In
+'59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by
+the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed
+to Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of
+Freethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A
+critical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately
+2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75;
+and wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome,
+etc. He translated Buechner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus reduit,
+La Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions,
+and Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.
+
+Steinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Zuellichau, 21
+Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker
+through reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy
+at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy,
+'78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.
+
+Steinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Groebzig, 16 May, 1823,
+has written many works on language and mythology.
+
+Steller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work,
+Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.
+
+"Stendhal (M. de)," Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)
+
+Stephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3
+March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called
+to the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when
+tried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech
+was reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted
+Essays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal
+Member of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is
+author of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable
+legal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably
+on the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.
+
+Stephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding,
+b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A.,
+'57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the
+Cornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary
+of National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the
+Fortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found
+in Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written
+an important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,
+'76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics,
+'82, besides many literary works.
+
+Stern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents,
+Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In
+'58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the
+Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he
+studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at
+Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected
+in his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the
+Jews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the
+Talmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus
+as a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the
+Pentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has
+translated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.
+
+"Sterne (Carus)"; pseud. See Krause (E).
+
+Stevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union,
+b. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the
+American Freethought journals.
+
+Stewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before
+1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through
+India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London,
+20 Feb. 1822.
+
+"Stirner (Max)." See Schmidt (Kaspar).
+
+Stosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich),
+b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he
+published a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather
+Berlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work
+was threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes
+him with German Spinozists, and says "Stosch curtly denies not only
+the immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul." Died 1704.
+
+Stout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles),
+1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In
+'67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly
+in '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been
+Minister of Education of the Colony.
+
+Strange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many
+years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and
+long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and
+ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest
+advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent
+student and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death,
+and sought to bring the prisoner "to Jesus." He professed himself
+influenced, but at the gallows "he proclaimed his trust to be in
+Rama and not in Christ." This set the judge thinking. He investigated
+Christianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The
+Bible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed,
+'71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the
+Old Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity,
+'75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood,
+4 Sept. 1884.
+
+Strauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg),
+27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tuebengen, was ordained in '30, and
+in '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated,
+'35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused
+much controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the
+Zuerich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they
+were obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian
+indignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines
+(2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an
+account of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New
+Life of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of
+the Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures
+on Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the
+New, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with
+the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of
+truth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place,
+8 Feb. 1874.
+
+Strindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian
+Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent
+rationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter
+was confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists
+in Sweden.
+
+Stromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on
+astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote
+Confessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.
+
+Strozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of
+noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned
+it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry
+II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June
+1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus,
+he calmly declared himself an Atheist.
+
+Suard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besancon, 15 Jan,
+1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat,
+and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of
+Literature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris
+20 July, 1817.
+
+Sue (Marie Joseph, called Eugene), French novelist, b. Paris, 10
+Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris
+and The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was
+elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the
+coup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.
+
+Sullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin
+of the conception of God (London, 1859).
+
+Sully Prudhomme (Rene Francois Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16
+March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many
+volumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of
+the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy
+of philosophical suggestion.
+
+Sunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode
+Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent
+in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church
+as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the
+forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery
+and Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols.,
+'86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.
+
+Suttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul,
+1886, and of several novels.
+
+Sutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals
+for a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on
+Revealed Religion.
+
+Swinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London,
+5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he
+spent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid
+reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and
+Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power,
+and provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he
+glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth
+of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other
+volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies,
+and prose miscellanies.
+
+Symes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841,
+of pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for
+the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in
+'67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy,
+he resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture
+at Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic
+Atheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin,
+Christianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He
+contributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during
+Mr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there
+established the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My
+Religion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.
+
+Symonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol,
+5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in
+'62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his
+marriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols.,
+completed in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies,
+and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.
+
+Taine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters,
+b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the
+Condorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In
+'56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which
+he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came
+to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which
+was sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of
+Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote
+on English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made
+him D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy;
+his latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.
+
+Talandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After
+entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution
+of '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades
+unions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in
+the National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at
+the Lycee Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on
+the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy,
+and was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais
+and has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.
+
+Taubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote
+The Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.
+
+Taule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the
+Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.
+
+Taurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbehard,
+26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tuebingen and Basle. For daring to
+think for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the
+eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation,
+he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the
+principal of which is Philosophiae Triumphans, 1573. He died of the
+plague 28 Sept. 1606.
+
+Taylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,
+18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital,
+and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered
+St. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and
+soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when
+he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He
+preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He
+then went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started
+"The Society of Universal Benevolence." In '24 he came to London and
+started "The Christian Evidence Society," and delivered discourses with
+discussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for
+blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty,
+and on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham
+Gaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity,
+and his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins,
+evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a
+weekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On
+his liberation they both went on "an infidel mission" about the
+country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where
+Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in
+The Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was
+sentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol,
+and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died
+at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.
+
+Taylor (Thomas), known as "The Platonist," b. London, 1758. He
+devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic
+philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five
+books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries,
+Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against
+the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so
+thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth,
+1 Nov. 1835.
+
+Taylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance
+with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from
+the German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some
+repute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms,
+1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his
+political and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter
+Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the
+Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was
+the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review,
+replying therein to the Abbe Barruel; and the Critical Review when
+edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism
+of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.
+
+Tchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.
+
+"Tela (Josephus)," the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818
+edited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of
+Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe
+is also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo,
+'13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to "Joseph
+Webb," 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in
+America; died in Boston." I am not satisfied that this is the same
+person.
+
+Telesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at
+Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning,
+optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in
+Latin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He
+opposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical
+principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the
+clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but
+this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.
+
+Telle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee,
+1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published
+1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.
+
+Testa (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di
+Gesu di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son
+of Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.
+
+Thaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May,
+1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's
+work on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.
+
+Theodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled
+those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He
+resided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he
+said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.
+
+Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the
+alleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of
+Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was
+received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,
+25 Sept. 1626.
+
+Thompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem
+of Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the
+Nineteenth Century Club.
+
+Thomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to
+sea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently
+manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a
+Utilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done
+much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has
+translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured
+on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Fritaenkaren.
+
+Thomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23
+Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became
+a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he
+afterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he
+contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including
+his famous "City of Dreadful Night," the most powerful pessimistic
+poem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with
+other poems in '80). "Vane's Story" with other poems was issued in
+'81, and "A Voice from the Nile," and "Shelley" (privately printed in
+'84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited
+by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a
+volume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes "The Story of
+a Famous Old Jewish Firm," also published separately. Thomson employed
+much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.
+
+Thomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The
+Distribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward,
+'27, and in the Co-operative Magazine.
+
+Thorild (Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April,
+1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm,
+and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin,
+German, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In
+1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the
+liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution,
+and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a
+Sermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the
+rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far
+in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.
+
+Thulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist,
+b. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, "Realism." In '66 he
+published a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pensee
+Nouvelle, defending the views of Buechner. He has written an able study,
+La Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of
+the Paris Municipal Council.
+
+Tiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16
+Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in
+the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views
+in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has
+written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works
+have been translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of
+Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and
+Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.
+
+Tillier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,
+11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling
+pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,
+of which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His
+works were edited by F. Pyat.
+
+Tindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon,
+1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was
+induced to turn Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to
+Protestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work
+was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A
+defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of
+Commons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to
+which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733,
+and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of
+Gibson, Bishop of London.
+
+Toland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30
+Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early
+youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690,
+and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a
+sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian
+Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In
+1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious,
+which was "presented" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by
+the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,
+Sept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning
+Eikon Basilike, he referred to the "suppositious pieces under the
+name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons." For this he was
+denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor,
+in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and
+was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters
+to Serena (1704), which, says Lange, "handles the kernel of the
+whole question of Materialism." In 1709 he published Adeisidaenon and
+Origines Judaicae. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan
+Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He
+also wrote four pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which
+described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that
+of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher,
+at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.
+
+Tollemache (Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache,
+a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles
+in Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling,
+'84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison,
+'85; and Mr. Romanes's Catechism, '87.
+
+Tone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,
+1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship
+in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept
+relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the
+French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken
+prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.
+
+Topinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor
+of the Revue d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that
+subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.
+
+Toulmin (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The
+Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the
+Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.
+
+Tournai (Simon de). See Simon.
+
+Traina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of
+Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.
+
+Travis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself
+in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and
+literary executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's
+Journal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral
+Freedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed
+to the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.
+
+Trelawny (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in
+Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August,
+1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a
+daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son,
+'31; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13
+Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed
+beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the
+creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him "World-wide
+liberty's lifelong lover."
+
+Trenchard (John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire,
+1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner
+of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he
+wrote Cato's Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted
+The Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for
+Taunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but
+La Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died
+17 Dec. 1723.
+
+Trevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the
+Reasoner and National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind
+(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the
+National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.
+
+Trezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought
+up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him
+to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a
+Sceptic, '78; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is
+Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To
+the first number of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les
+Dieux s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work
+on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.
+
+Tridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur
+Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich,
+he became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in
+Le Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history
+Les Hebertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide,
+the precursor of La Libre Pensee, '66, in both of which the doctrines
+of materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International
+Students Congress at Liege his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop
+Dupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in
+Le Candide and La Libre Pensee, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the
+malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part
+of his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies
+of the Jewish religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70,
+he founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to
+the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration
+of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after
+the collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the
+most splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.
+
+Truebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After
+serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished
+himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy
+and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.
+
+Truelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in
+life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was
+secretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw
+in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he
+took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He
+published Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's
+complete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma
+and Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on
+Tyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In
+'78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment
+for publishing R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he
+was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.
+
+Trumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,
+b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the
+army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made
+him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years,
+and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted
+himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.
+
+Tschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a
+friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza,
+though he does not mention him. Died 1708.
+
+Tucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April,
+1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston.
+
+Turbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842,
+author of a work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts,
+1875.
+
+Turgenev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28
+Oct. 1818. In his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has
+depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival,
+near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.
+
+Turner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of
+William Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a
+Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.
+
+Tuuk (Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was
+converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the
+editors of De Dageraad.
+
+Twesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April,
+1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became
+magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal
+Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics
+and Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.
+
+Tylor (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist,
+b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study
+of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon
+the subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61;
+Researches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture;
+being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy,
+religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he
+traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written
+an excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study
+of Man and Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclopaedia
+Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of
+the Anthropological Society.
+
+Tyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow,
+1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and
+afterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland
+with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He
+contributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles
+and Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in
+the United States, and two years later was president of the British
+Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been
+published. In addition to other scientific works he has published
+popular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.
+
+Tyrell (Henry). See Church.
+
+Tyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He
+became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of
+"Jacques Masse" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710,
+a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated
+into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.
+
+Ueberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826;
+studied at Goettingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at
+Koenigsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History
+of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying "He was in every way
+distinctly an Atheist and Materialist."
+
+Uhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer,
+b. Koethen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For
+his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the
+Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending
+his opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and
+published in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.
+
+Ule (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied
+at Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and
+wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.
+
+Underwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York
+6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He
+fought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held
+prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in
+conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at
+Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples
+and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and
+Lectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity
+on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of
+Freethought, New York, 1876.
+
+Vacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he
+replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For
+his free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School
+of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute,
+'46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost
+his position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy,
+'64, and La Religion, '69.
+
+Vacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of
+Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was
+director of Le Rappel.
+
+Vaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26
+Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he
+took part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor
+of Paris.
+
+Vairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He
+became both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes,
+1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and
+satirised Christianity.
+
+Vale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church,
+but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited
+the Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism;
+its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died
+Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.
+
+Valk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a
+Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De
+Dageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of "Thomas."
+
+Valla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded
+some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to
+be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then
+confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and
+gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.
+
+Vallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La
+Beatitude des Chrestiens ou le Fleo de la Foy, for which he was accused
+of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Greve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.
+
+Valliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History
+of Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of
+Human Duty, '76, etc.
+
+Van Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and
+president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.
+
+Van Effen. See Effen.
+
+Vanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius Caesar), Italian philosopher and
+martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied
+Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland,
+Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by
+his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the
+Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he
+visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released
+he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the
+Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was
+condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617;
+but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling
+Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut
+out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This
+was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France
+under Louis XIII., writes "I saw him in the tumbril as they led him
+to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him
+to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He
+sweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'"
+
+Vapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April,
+1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated
+on the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Liberte
+de Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel
+des Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but
+on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in
+'73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary
+of Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature,
+1883-85.
+
+Varnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author,
+b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy,
+entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian
+diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt,
+and shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He
+vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.
+
+Vauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix,
+6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service
+with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to
+the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims,
+which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28
+May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously
+suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.
+
+Velthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote
+many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio
+Pastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in
+1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.
+
+Venetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874,
+and a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.
+
+Vereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied
+at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has
+travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his
+Holy Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn
+from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In
+his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows
+his free opinions.
+
+Vergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges,
+31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to
+the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the
+Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to
+the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonne
+and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and,
+being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31
+Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: "Reason thinks,
+Religion dreams." He had prepared poison for himself, but as there
+was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.
+
+Verlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre
+Pensee, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme
+Being.
+
+Verliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris,
+1869); collaborated La Libre Pensee, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop
+Dupanloup's Atheisme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril
+Social, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.
+
+Vermersch (Eugene), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part
+in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.
+
+Vernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published
+Melanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.
+
+Veron (Eugene), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He
+wrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and
+l'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique
+in the "Library of Contemporary Science," '78; The Natural History
+of Religions, 2 vols., in the Bibliotheque Materialiste, '84; and La
+Morale, '84.
+
+Viardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came
+to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left
+the bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Siecle. In
+'41 he founded the Revue Independante with "George Sand," and Pierre
+Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many
+works on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever,
+translated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen,
+'71. Died 1883.
+
+Vico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He
+became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and
+published a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in
+which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable
+laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.
+
+Virchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania,
+13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member
+of the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological
+Anatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his
+reputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the
+Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he
+opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.
+
+Vischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg,
+30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but
+renounced theology and became professor of  and is Jahrbuecher der
+Gegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking
+opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he
+was elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor
+at Zuerich. His work on AEsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful,
+'46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New,
+'81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.
+
+Vitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian
+Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.
+
+Vloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied
+theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted
+himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of
+Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into
+English by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.
+
+Voelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian
+Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy,
+and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70,
+and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since
+'80 has been "sprecher" of Freethought associations and since '85
+editor of the Neues Freireligioeses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In
+'88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time
+acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris
+Congress of Freethinkers, '89.
+
+Voglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded
+through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to
+earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition,
+are anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple,
+which he edited.
+
+Vogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the
+son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became
+acquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National
+Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor
+of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in
+Creation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by
+their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English
+and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written
+a Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters,
+Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading
+Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.
+
+Volkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at
+Marburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor
+'63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion,
+'52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and
+the first Christian Ages, '82, etc.
+
+Volney (Constantin Francois Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher,
+b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers,
+he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783
+he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of
+his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on
+being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote
+and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins
+appeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95
+he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become
+colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated
+with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat,
+April 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the
+Law of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.
+
+Voltaire (Francois Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and
+philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he
+early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on
+the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and
+was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de
+Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord
+Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His
+Lettres Philosophiques translated as "Letters on the English," 1732,
+gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About
+1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Chatelet at Cirey,
+where he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated
+to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at
+the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation
+of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help
+laughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his
+life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through
+his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other
+man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism,
+and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage
+war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a
+thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned
+by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty
+different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction
+made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.
+
+Voo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than
+half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language
+at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to
+De Dageraad.
+
+Vosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law
+at Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73),
+and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at
+Montreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.
+
+Voysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated
+B.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and
+deprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling
+and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow
+Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has
+also issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine
+and published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.
+
+Vulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote
+several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School
+of Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He
+was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.
+
+Wagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic,
+22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,
+but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where
+he produced his "Lohengrin." In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of
+Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry,
+scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In
+philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at
+Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.
+
+Waite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29
+Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the
+Bar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed
+by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he
+issued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200,
+a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.
+
+Wakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834,
+was one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal
+Club. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.
+
+Walferdin (Francois-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend
+of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and
+was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine
+edition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that
+philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.
+
+Walker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and
+What is Blasphemy? 1843.
+
+Walker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls,
+Kansas.
+
+Walker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went
+to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In
+'77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,
+Melbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of
+which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85
+he was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction
+was quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for
+Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.
+
+Walser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana,
+26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature
+of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri,
+to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel
+or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a
+Freethought University.
+
+Ward (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18
+June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and
+was wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian
+of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and
+fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works
+on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled
+Dynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.
+
+Ward (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a
+popular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.
+
+Warren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an
+active part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,
+Indiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a
+"time store" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled
+True Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.
+
+Washburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth,
+Mass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian
+school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read
+from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead
+of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first
+Freethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere,
+and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been
+published. He now edits the Boston Investigator.
+
+Waters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir
+of Christian and extra Christian experience.
+
+Watson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks),
+21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in
+1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was
+arrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April,
+and sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read
+Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the
+Republican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he
+issued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to
+six months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert
+left him L450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature,
+Volney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's
+works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.
+
+Watson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.
+
+Watts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted
+to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer
+and assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had
+numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton,
+Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular
+Review with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He
+wrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published
+Christianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of
+Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.
+
+Watts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's
+Literary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.
+
+Watts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2
+Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted
+to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the
+Reasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He
+edited Half Hours With Freethinkers with "Iconoclast," and published
+several pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man,
+Is Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament,
+etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.
+
+Watts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse
+(first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.
+
+Webber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century
+wrote heretical works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction
+of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in
+boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin,
+Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.
+
+Weber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,
+1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Goettingen. He lived for a while
+in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his
+satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20;
+Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos,
+or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died
+Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.
+
+Weitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He
+was a leader of "Der Bund der Gerechten," the League of the Just,
+and published at Zuerich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote
+Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America,
+where he died 25 Jan. 1871.
+
+Wellhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied
+theology at Goettingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle,
+and Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78,
+etc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the
+Encyclopaedia Britannica.
+
+Westbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co.,
+Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40,
+and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60,
+and has since written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and
+Whither? In '88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American
+Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on
+teaching morality apart from religion.
+
+Westerman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active
+co-operator on De Dageraad.
+
+Westra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years
+been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, "De Dageraad."
+
+Wettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April,
+1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as
+a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine,
+The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National
+Secular Union.
+
+White (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7
+Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled
+in Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English
+literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State
+Senate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university
+which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The
+Warfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in
+the History of Civilisation, '85.
+
+Whitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y.,
+31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer,
+and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served
+as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with
+its noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as
+"the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet
+contributed." It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands
+at Seventy. This "good gray poet" has also written prose essays called
+Democratic Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.
+
+Wicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30
+Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in
+'85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution,
+etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante
+Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.
+
+Wieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near
+Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the
+Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the
+Gods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against
+immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,
+20 Jan. 1813. His last words were "To be or not to be."
+
+Wiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on
+the Elements of Natural Laws, 1863.
+
+Wiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of
+spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).
+
+Wigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Goettingen, 10
+Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he
+issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other
+Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.
+
+Wightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of
+Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the
+last person burnt for heresy in England.
+
+Wihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16
+Jan. 1882.
+
+Wilbrandt (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has
+written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hoelderlin, the poet of Pantheism,
+and published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno,
+1874, and also some novels.
+
+Wilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage,
+published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.
+
+Wilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah
+an able Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God,
+published at Bradford, 1853.
+
+Williams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a
+dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on
+Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction
+with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on
+the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a
+Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April,
+1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established
+the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.
+
+Willis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied
+at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to
+London, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College
+of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza,
+'70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and
+Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age,
+and A Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died
+at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.
+
+Wilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on
+Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.
+
+Wirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.
+
+Wislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20
+Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister,
+but in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended
+and founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the
+Light of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison
+for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New
+York. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Zuerich, where he
+died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers,
+was published at Leipsic in '63.
+
+Wittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote
+on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.
+
+Wixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the "Children's Corner"
+in the Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought,
+temperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member
+of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where
+she resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator.
+
+Wollny (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic,
+1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.
+
+Wollstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April,
+1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began
+her literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She
+also wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke,
+and Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William
+Godwin, and died in childbirth.
+
+Wooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877;
+Career of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died
+Aug. 1885.
+
+Woolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied
+at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He
+published in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in
+favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began
+his Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible,
+homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold,
+and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for
+blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and
+a fine of L100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.
+
+Wright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield
+Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College,
+'26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists,
+he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,
+and edited the Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and
+uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator,
+the Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His
+funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.
+
+Wright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess,
+b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in
+Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She
+visited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners
+in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled
+it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards
+joined Owen's experiment; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette,
+and afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was
+published at New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on
+religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted
+in founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.
+
+Wright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield
+co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator,
+he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The
+Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island,
+16 Aug. 1870.
+
+Wright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822,
+for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the
+course of which she was continually interrupted.
+
+Wundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),
+16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at
+Tuebingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at
+Heidelberg in '64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His
+principal works are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74;
+Manual of Human Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.
+
+Wuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was
+Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.
+
+Wyrouboff (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the
+Revue de Philosophie Positive with Littre, and edited it with him
+from 1867-83.
+
+Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded
+the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in
+which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.
+
+Ximines (Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26
+Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several
+plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.
+
+York (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a
+blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally
+Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California
+Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through
+the States.
+
+Yorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity,
+London, 1882.
+
+Youmans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y.,
+3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became
+M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding
+the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He
+popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the "International Scientific
+Series," and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which
+he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.
+
+Zaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La
+Creche, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic
+Man, '78; Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific
+Curiosities, '83.
+
+Zambrini (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated
+at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced
+a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.
+
+Zarco (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited
+El Siglo XIX and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of
+"Fortun." He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the
+reactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President
+of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.
+
+Zeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (Wuertemberg), 22
+Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tuebingen and Berlin, became professor
+at Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for
+philosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has
+written a memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek
+Philosophy, '83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other
+important works.
+
+Zijde (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has
+been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen
+he wrote The Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many
+literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.
+
+Zimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England
+since '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer
+and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.
+
+Zola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April,
+1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon
+Macquart, he made himself the leader of the "naturalist" school,
+which claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as
+it is without the ideal.
+
+Zorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834,
+became a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the
+Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was
+prosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since
+been exiled for his Republicanism.
+
+Zouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh.
+
+Zuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June,
+1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of
+'48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal
+Law in the University of Pavia.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+SUPPLEMENT.
+
+
+Those which have already appeared are marked *
+
+
+Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin.
+
+Abu Abd'allah Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist
+b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of
+Empedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused of impiety, he
+left Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to Spain and
+collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent
+predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were
+publicly burned at Seville.
+
+* Acosta (Uriel), the name of his work was Examen Traditorum
+Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam.
+
+Acuna (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about
+1854. Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The Doll's
+House, and other educational works.
+
+* Adams (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and lecturer,
+the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a
+sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written
+in Secular Thought, the Truthseeker and the Freethinker's Magazine,
+and published rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In
+'89 he was elected President of the Canadian Secular Union.
+
+Admiraal (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede, 13 Oct. 1833. At first
+a schoolmaster, he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at
+Schoonhoven. He wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over
+the anagram "Aramaldi." In '67 he published The Religion of the
+People under the pseudonym "Bato van der Maas," a name he used in
+writing to many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble
+constitution. He died 12 Nov. 1878.
+
+Airoldi (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a poet
+and writer of talent.
+
+Albaida (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one of the
+founders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his principles;
+returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869.
+
+* Alchindus. Died about 864.
+
+* Aleardi had better be deleted. I am now told he was a Christian.
+
+Alfarabi. See Alpharabius.
+
+Algeri (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused
+of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil,
+pitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.
+
+Alkemade (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to
+De Dageraad, and also published a work containing many Bible
+contradictions, 1862; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name
+"Alexander de M."
+
+Allais (Denis de). See Vairasse.
+
+Allais (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847.
+
+Almquist (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor of
+philology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new
+ideas and Freethought.
+
+Altmeyer (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20
+Jan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an
+Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of Humanity,
+'36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877.
+
+Amari (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7
+July, 1806. In '32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote
+a standard History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of
+Garibaldi, he was made head of public instruction in the island. He
+took part in the anti-clerical council of '69. Died at Florence,
+July 1889.
+
+* Amaury de Chartres. According to L'Abbe Ladvocat his disciples
+maintained that the sacraments were useless, and that there was no
+other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell
+than ignorance and sin.
+
+Anderson (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2
+Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and
+was for some time editress of a periodical De Twintigste Eeuw (the
+twentieth century). She has also written some novels. She resides now
+at Wuerzburg, Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. As pen-name
+she formerly used that of "Mevrouw Quarles" and now "Dr. Al. Dondorf."
+
+* Anthero de Quental. This name would be better under Quental.
+
+Apono. See Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano.
+
+* Aquila. Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of
+the Scriptures.
+
+Aranda (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman,
+b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and
+ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclopaedists,
+and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He
+also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister
+to France. He was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799.
+
+Argilleres (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards a
+Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and
+his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561-2, for having eight years
+previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle
+in Bresse.
+
+* Arnould (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist
+Revue and La Societe Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Liberte,
+in which many a battle for Freethought has been fought.
+
+Ascarate (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of
+Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest
+Radical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of
+Krause. He has written Social Studies, Self-Government and Monarchy,
+and other political works.
+
+Aszo y Del Rio (Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist,
+b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important
+works on various branches of science. In his political works he
+advocated the abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.
+
+* Aubert de Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although
+accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza,
+which I have not been able to see.
+
+Auerbach (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction,
+b. Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published
+a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having
+previously published an historical romance on the same subject. Died
+Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882.
+
+* Aymon (Jean). La vie et L'Esprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye,
+1719) was afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three
+Impostors.
+
+* Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this enfant terrible of
+the German Aufklarung fill 120 volumes.
+
+* Bailey (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered much
+on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk
+erected a monument to his memory.
+
+* Bancel (Francis Desire). In his work Les Harangues de l'Exil, 3
+vols., 1863, his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in
+La Revue Critique.
+
+Barnaud (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphine. Lived during the latter half
+of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany,
+and to him is attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le
+Cabinet du Roy de France, which is largely directed against the clergy.
+
+Barreaux. See des Barreaux.
+
+Barth (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he
+attained reputation as orator to working men and took part in the
+revolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich,
+where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought.
+
+Bartrina, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died
+in 1880.
+
+Bedingfield (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823,
+wrote in National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight,
+'70. Died 14 Feb. 1876.
+
+* Berigardus (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.
+
+* Bertillon (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, April, '68,
+he said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died
+1883.
+
+* Berwick (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author
+of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the signature of
+"Presbyter Anglicanus."
+
+Blein (F. A. A.), Baron, French author of Essais Philosophiques,
+Paris, 1843.
+
+Blum (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He
+took an active part in progressive political and religious movements,
+and published the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he
+became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican
+party. He was one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna,
+and showed great bravery in the fights of the students with the
+troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.
+
+* Blumenfleld (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym.
+
+Bolin (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied
+at Helsingford, '52, and became Doctor of Philosophy in '66, and
+Professor in '73. He has written on the Freedom of the Will, The
+Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland;
+he has been repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical
+views on religious questions.
+
+Bolivar (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the
+University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas.
+
+Boppe (Herman C.), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A.
+
+Borsari (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work
+of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator
+of Freethought.
+
+Bostrom (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4
+Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant
+criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.
+
+Boucher (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste
+at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was
+published at Avignon, 1884.
+
+Bourneville (Magloire Desir), French deputy and physician,
+b. Garancieres, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in '79
+was appointed physician to the asylum of Bicetre. He was Municipal
+Councillor of Paris from '76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he
+was elected deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75;
+Hysteria in History, '76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the
+erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.
+
+Boutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee
+Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867;
+wrote in La Pensee Nouvelle, '68; is author of a large and able work
+on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has
+edited the posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870.
+
+* Bovio (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author
+of a dramatic piece, Cristo alla festa di Purim, and of a History
+of Law in Italy. Signor Bovio delivered the address at unveiling the
+monument to Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889.
+
+Boyer. See Argens.
+
+* Bradlaugh (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to
+repeal the Blasphemy Laws.
+
+Braga (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated
+at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a History of Portuguese
+Literature. Is one of the Republican leaders.
+
+Branting (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in '88
+to three months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social
+Democraten.
+
+Braun (Eugen), Dr. See F. W. Ghillany.
+
+Braun (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised
+many of the Bible stories. Died 1860.
+
+Brewer (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school
+books, and compiled a Dictionary of Miracles, 1884.
+
+Brismee (Desire), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor
+of Le Drapeau he underwent eighteen months' imprisonment. The principle
+founder of Les Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that
+society, and his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards
+the history of Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of
+his Freethought orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died
+at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.
+
+* Brothier (Leon). Died about 1874.
+
+* Brown (G. W.) Dr. Brown's new work is published at Rockford,
+Illinois, and entitled Researches in Jewish History, including the rise
+and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity.
+
+* Bruno (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma
+of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that he
+died impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister
+of Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was
+stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore
+his martyrdom with great fortitude.
+
+Buen (Odon de), Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, of Madrid,
+b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of
+Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition From
+Christiania to Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He
+married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the
+Paris Freethought Conference, 1889.
+
+Calderon (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits
+La Justicia. Has written several books on law.
+
+Calderon (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of
+Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.
+
+Calderon (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846;
+professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels
+in Central America, and written largely on geological subjects.
+
+Calvo (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A
+pronounced Republican and Freethinker.
+
+* Canestrini (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.
+
+Cassels (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of
+Supernatural Religion, a critical examination of the worth of the
+Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three '79). Has written under his own name
+Eidolon and other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published
+A Reply to Dr. Lightfoot's Essays.
+
+Castro (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a
+priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and
+had a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.
+
+Cavia (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of
+the Liberal of Madrid.
+
+* Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the
+first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He served in the
+navy during the first China War, 1840-42. Published accounts of the
+siege of Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also "Ride over Rocky
+Mountains," which he accomplished with great hardships in '50. Was
+private secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in
+'54-'58. Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861.
+
+Cornette (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature
+at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in L'Avenir of
+Brussels and the Revue Socialite, he has published separate works
+on Freemasonry, 1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80; Freethought
+Darwinism, etc.
+
+Curros (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the
+Bishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems entitled
+Airs of my Country, but he was acquitted by the jury.
+
+Czerski (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12
+May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church,
+associated himself with Ronge, married, and was excommunicated. Has
+written several works against Roman Catholicism, and is still living
+at Schneidemuekl-Posen.
+
+D'Ercole (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University
+of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds
+that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at
+variance both with reality and with themselves.
+
+Deschanel (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1819. He
+wrote in the Revue Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Liberte de
+Penser; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived
+of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went to Belgium. He has been Professor
+of Modern Literature at the College of France, and written many
+important works.
+
+Desnoiresterres (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters,
+b. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVII. and
+XVIII. Siecles, 1881, and Voltaire et la Societe Francaise au
+XVIII. Siecle, an important work in eight vols.
+
+* Desraimes (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.
+
+Diogenes (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived
+in the fifth century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at
+Athens through his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to
+the State. He held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced
+to nothing; that the earth was round and had received its shape from
+whirling. He made no distinction between mind and matter.
+
+Donius (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work,
+De Natura Dominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit,
+to motion. The title of his second book is "Omnes operationes spiritus
+esse motum et semum."
+
+Dosamantes (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of works on
+Absolute Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees
+(mystics and materialists), '89.
+
+Druskowitz (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is
+Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley,
+Berlin, '84; a little book on Freewill, and The New Doctrines, '83.
+
+Dufay (Henri), author of La Legende du Christ, 1880.
+
+Duller (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He
+wrote a History of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People
+(Frankfort, '47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.
+
+* Du Marsais (Cesar Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anonymous work
+on The World and its Antiquity and The Soul and its Immortality,
+Londres, 1751.
+
+* Fellowes (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6
+Feb. 1847.
+
+Figueras-y-Moracas (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator,
+b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican
+opinions. In '51 he was elected to the Cortes, was exiled in '66, but
+returned in '68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de Montpensier in
+'69, and became President of the Spanish Republic 12 Feb. '73. Died
+poor in 1879, and was buried without religious ceremony, according
+to his wish.
+
+Fitzgerald (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge,
+Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in
+'30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation
+of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the
+Quatrains of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883.
+
+Galletti (Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated
+Feuerbach on Death and Immortality, and also translated from
+Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.
+
+Ganeval (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author
+of a work on Egypt and Jesus devant l'histoire n'a jamais vecu. The
+first part, published in '74, was prohibited in France, and the second
+part was published at Geneva in '79.
+
+Garrido (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic,
+Cadiz 1843, a work on Contemporary Spain, published at Brussels in
+'62, The Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious
+Persecutions, a work rendered into English in conjunction with
+C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.
+
+Gerling (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist
+to an Idealist, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi
+contributes a preface.
+
+Geroult de Pival, French librarian at Rouen; probably the author of
+Doutes sur la Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772.
+
+Goffin (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Liege and
+President of La Libre Pensee of Brussels, and one of the General
+Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23
+May, 1884.
+
+Goldhawke (J. H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the
+greater number of personages mentioned in the Old and New Testaments
+are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.
+
+Gorani (Giuseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with
+Beccaria, D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism,
+published anonymously, 1770; defended the French Revolution and was
+made a French citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.
+
+Govett (Frank), author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessimistic
+reply to Sir J. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Mr. Govett rejects the
+consolations of religion.
+
+Guimet (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist
+and philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of the inventor
+of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has visited most
+parts of the world and formed a collection of objects illustrating
+religions. These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he
+also founded a library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine
+museum which cost several million francs, he presented to his country,
+and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he
+began publishing Annales du Musee Guimet, in which original articles
+appear on Oriental Religions. He has also written many works upon his
+travels. He attended the banquet in connection with the International
+Congress of Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.
+
+Guynemer (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy,
+1852, and an anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many
+points of theology are discussed in alphabetical order.
+
+Hamerling (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March,
+1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Rome
+'66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translated
+Leopardis' poems '86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, 1889.
+
+Heyse (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin,
+15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to
+Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many
+popular plays and romances, of which we specially mention The Children
+of the World, '73, a novel describing social and religious life of
+Germany at the present day, and In Paradise, 1875.
+
+Hicks (L. E.) American geologist, author of A Critique of Design
+Arguments. Boston, 1883.
+
+Hitchman (William), English physician, b. Northleach, Gloucestershire,
+1819, became M.R.C.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established
+Freelight, and wrote a pamphlet, Fifty Years of Freethought. Died 1888.
+
+Hoeffding (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of
+Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since '83. Is
+absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on the newer
+philosophy in Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work
+special attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German
+editions have been published of his works Grundlage der humanen
+Ethik (Basis of Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umriss (Outlines
+of Psychology '87), and Ethik 1888.
+
+Holst (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish
+Society for Religious Liberty.
+
+Ignell (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought
+up as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated
+Renan's Life of Jesus, and did much to arouse opposition to orthodox
+Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.
+
+Jacobsen (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede,
+7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia,
+translating the Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his
+novels we may name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII. century,
+and Niels Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This
+able young writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.
+
+Kleist (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18
+Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795,
+quitted it in four years and took to study. Kant's Philosophy made
+him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian
+philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide
+together with a lady, near Potsdam, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly
+known by his dramas and a collection of tales.
+
+Letourneau (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray
+(Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pensee
+Nouvelle, and has published Physiology of the Passions, '68; Biology,
+'75, translated into English by W. Maccall; Science and Materialism,
+'79; Sociology based on Ethnography, '80; and the Evolution of
+Marriage and the Family, '85. He has also translated Buechner's Man
+According to Science, Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals,
+Haeckel's History of Creation, Letters of a Traveller in India,
+and Herzen's Physiology of the Will.
+
+Lippert (Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship,
+Berlin, 1881; The Universal History of Priesthoods, '83; and an
+important Culture History of Mankind, '86-7.
+
+Lloyd (William Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons,
+London 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New Testament side
+by side. He has also written The Age of Pericles, and several works
+on Shakespeare.
+
+Lucian, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on
+the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and
+Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He
+travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal
+works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed
+against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer,
+and torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance
+can be placed. On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has
+been supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that
+piece is genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving,
+and an enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his
+account of Alexander, the false prophet.
+
+Maglia (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June,
+1859, began writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards
+published L'Union Republicana. He founded the Freethinking group
+"El Independiente" and edits El Clamor Setabense and El Pueblo
+Soberano. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at Rome
+in '85, and in '89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned
+to six years' imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking
+Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.
+
+disciples, whom he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most
+eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averroes. Died Oct.-Nov. 931. His
+works were publicly burned at Seville.
+
+Mata (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University of
+Madrid. Author of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851; a Treatise on
+Human Reason, '58-64; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68.
+
+Mendizabal (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz,
+1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed
+to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious
+orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid,
+3 Nov. 1853.
+
+* Meredith (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool College, he
+became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh
+tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the
+claims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet
+of Nazareth he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels,
+but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889.
+
+Miralta (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer,
+b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one
+of the writers on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Memoirs
+of a Poor Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament
+Exposed. His work on The Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has
+greatly encouraged civil marriages.
+
+Moraita (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor
+of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of
+clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous History
+of Spain. In '84 he made a discourse at the University against
+the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his
+excommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students,
+against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the
+Spanish Freemasons.
+
+Moya (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was
+deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the
+infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.
+
+Nakens (Jose), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of El
+Motin, a Republican and Freethought paper of Madrid, in connection
+with which there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta--the
+Pick-axe.
+
+Nees Von Esenbeck (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist,
+b. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was
+Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, '31. He was leader of
+the free religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the
+political agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several
+works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858.
+
+Nyblaus (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has published
+some anti-Christian pamphlets.
+
+Offen (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to
+America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at
+Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the Free Discussion
+Society. He wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a
+critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848.
+
+Palmaer (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. Author of
+The Last Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died at Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.
+
+Panizza (Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a
+materialist work on The Philosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887.
+
+Perez Galdos (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. Canary
+Islands, lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention
+Gloria, which has been translated into English, and La Familia
+de Leon Roch, 1878, in which he stoutly attacks clericalism and
+religious intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales,
+and many historical novels.
+
+Regenbrecht (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. Brannsberg,
+1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of the free
+religious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.
+
+Robert (Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817. Became
+famous by his mordant style, his most celebrated works being The
+Rogues of Antonio, The Times of Mari Casania, The Skimmer of the
+Centuries. Died in 1870.
+
+Rupp (Julius), German reformer, b. Koenigsberg, 13 Aug. 1809. Studied
+philosophy and theology, and became in '42 a minister. He protested
+against the creeds, and became leader of the Free-religious movement
+in East Prussia.
+
+Ryberg (Y. E.), Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He has
+translated several of Mr. Bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular
+literature.
+
+Sachse (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At Magdeburg he
+did much to demolish the remains of theism in the Free-religious
+communities. Died 1883.
+
+Sales y Ferre (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839. Professor
+at the University of Seville. Has published several works on geology
+and prehistoric times.
+
+Schneider (Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim,
+1854. Author of The Human Will from the standpoint of the New
+Development Theory (Berlin, 1882), and other works.
+
+Schreiner (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in South
+Africa. Authoress of "The Story of an African Farm," 1883.
+
+Serre (... de la), author of an Examination of Religion, attributed to
+Saint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament
+of Paris.
+
+Suner y Capderila. Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. Became
+deputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses
+against Catholicism.
+
+Tocco (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. Catanzaro,
+12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and Bologna,
+and became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the
+Rivista Bolognese on Leopardi, and on "Positivism" in the Rivista
+Contemporanea. He has published works on A. Bain's Theory of Sensation,
+'72; Thoughts on the History of Philosophy, '77; The Heresy of the
+Middle Ages, '84; and Giordano Bruno, '86.
+
+Tommasi (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work on
+Evolution, Science, and Naturalism, Naples 1877, and a little pamphlet
+in commemoration of Darwin, '82.
+
+Tubino (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, 1838, took
+part in Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, and has contributed to the
+Rivista Europea.
+
+Tuthill (Charles A. H.), author of The Origin and Development of
+Christian Dogma, London, 1889.
+
+Vernial (Paul), French doctor and member of the Anthropological
+Society of Paris, author of a work on the Origin of Man, 1881.
+
+Wheeler (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 Jan., 1850. Converted
+from Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Has
+contributed to the National Reformer Secularist, Secular Chronicle,
+Liberal, Progress, and Freethinker which he has sub-edited since
+1882, using occasionally the signatures "Laon," "Lucianus" and other
+pseudonyms. Has published Frauds and Follies of the Fathers '88,
+Footsteps of the Past, a collection of essays in anthropology and
+comparative religion '86; and Crimes of Christianity, written in
+conjunction with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited Sepher
+Toldoth Jeshu. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge
+in the cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the
+service of Freethought.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of A Biographical Dictionary of
+Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler
+
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