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+} +h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, .pseudoh1, .pseudoh2, .pseudoh3, .pseudoh4 +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-family: Verdana, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; +} +p.byline +{ +font-style: italic; +margin-bottom: 2em; +} +.figureHead, .noteref, .pseudonoteref, .marginnote, p.legend, .versenum, .stage +{ +color: #001FA4; +} +.rightnote, .pagenum, .linenum, .pagenum a +{ +color: #AAAAAA; +} +a.hidden:hover, a.noteref:hover +{ +color: red; +} +p.dropcap:first-letter +{ +color: #001FA4; +font-weight: bold; +} +sub, sup +{ +line-height: 0; +} +.pagenum, .linenum +{ +speak: none; +} +</style> + +<style type="text/css"> +.xd20e132 +{ +text-align:center; +} +.xd20e14390 +{ +text-indent:2em; +} +</style> +</head> +<body> + +<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers +of All Ages and Nations, by Joseph Mazzini Wheeler</p> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Joseph Mazzini Wheeler</div> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November 30, 2010 [eBook #34513]<br> +[Most recently updated: December 23, 2022]</p> +<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> + <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: + Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + (This book was produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.)</p> +<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***</div> + + +<div class="front"> +<div class="titlePage"> +<div class="docTitle"> +<div class="mainTitle">A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All +Ages and Nations.</div> +</div> +<div class="byline">By <span class="docAuthor">J. M. +Wheeler.</span></div> +<div class="docImprint">London:<br> +Progressive Publishing Company,<br> +28 Stonecutter Street, E.C.<br> +<span class="docDate">1889.</span></div> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<p class="firstpar xd20e132">London:</p> +<p class="xd20e132">Printed and published by G. W. Foote, at 28 +Stonecutter Street, E.C. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e136" href= +"#xd20e136" name="xd20e136">iii</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="main">Preface.</h2> +<p class="firstpar">John Stuart Mill in his “Autobiography” +declares with truth that “the world would be astonished if it +knew how great a proportion of its brightest ornaments, of those most +distinguished even in popular estimation for wisdom and virtue are +complete sceptics in religion.” Many of these, as Mill points +out, refrain from various motives from speaking out. The work I have +undertaken will, I trust, do something to show how many of the +world’s worthiest men and women have been Freethinkers.</p> +<p>My Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who +have rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation would +rather be the task of an international society than of an individual. +Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now inaccessible. +Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom the world was not +worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom in prison or at the +stake. Some of the names of these are only known by the vituperation of +their adversaries. I have done my best to preserve some trustworthy +record of as many as possible.</p> +<p>The only complete work with a similar design of which I have any +knowledge, is the <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Athées anciens +et modernes</i>, by Sylvain Maréchal with its supplements by +Jerome de Lalande the Astronomer, An. VIII. (1800)–1805. That +work, which is now extremely <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e150" +href="#xd20e150" name="xd20e150">iv</a>]</span>rare, gave scarcely any +biographical details, and unfortunately followed previous orthodox +atheographers, such as Buddeus, Reimmann, Hardouin, Garasse, Mersenne, +in classing as Atheists those to whom the title was inapplicable. I +have taken no names from these sources without examining the +evidence.</p> +<p>A work was issued by Richard Carlile in 1826, entitled <i>A +Dictionary of Modern Anti-Superstionists</i>; or, “an account, +arranged alphabetically, of those who, whether called Atheists, +Sceptics, Latitudinarians, Religious Reformers, or etc., have during +the last ten centuries contributed towards the diminution of +superstition. Compiled by a searcher after Truth.” The compiler, +as I have reason to know, was Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task +adequate scholarship and leisure. It was, however, conceived on too +extensive a scale, and in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only +reached to the name of Annet. Julian Hibbert also compiled +chronological tables of English Freethinkers, which were published in +the <i>Reasoner</i> for 1855.</p> +<p>Of the <i>Anti-Trinitarian Biography</i> of the Rev. Robert Wallace, +or of the previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but +little use. To include the names of all who reject some of the +Christian dogmas was quite beside my purpose, though I have included +those of early Unitarians and Universalists who, I conceive, exhibited +the true spirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the +<i lang="de">Freydenker Lexikon</i> of J. A. Trinius (1759) my +obligations are slight, but should be acknowledged. To Bayle’s +<i>Dictionary</i>, Hoefer’s <i>Nouvelle Biographie Generale</i>, +Meyer’s <i lang="de">Konversations Lexikon</i>, Franck’s +<i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques</i>, and to +Larousse’s <i lang="fr">Grand Dictionnaire Universel</i> I must +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e184" href="#xd20e184" name= +"xd20e184">v</a>]</span>also express my indebtedness. In the case of +disputed dates I have usually found Haydn’s <i>Dictionary of +Biography</i> (1886) most trustworthy, but I have also consulted +Oettinger’s valuable <i lang="fr">Moniteur des Dates</i>.</p> +<p>The particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available +sources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives +dealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and +relation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works +of authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full a +list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive +Freethought works; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone +wishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only +work of a bibliographical kind is the <i lang="fr">Guide du Libre +Penseur</i>, by M. Alfred Verlière, but his list is very far +from complete even of the French authors, with whom it is almost +entirely occupied. I should also mention <i lang="fr">La Lorgnette +Philosophique</i>, by M. Paquet, as giving lively sketches, though not +biographies, of some modern French Freethinkers.</p> +<p>In the compilation of my list of names I have received assistance +from my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for the +opportunity of publication), Mr. W. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and Mr. +F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers I +am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and Mr. +E. T. Craig, while Professor <span class="corr" id="xd20e202" title= +"Source: Dal Volta">Dalla Volta</span>, of Florence, has kindly +assisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my +indebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose <i lang="it">Dizionario +Biografico degli Scrittori Contemporanei</i><a id="xd20e207" name= +"xd20e207"></a> I have found of considerable service. My thanks are +also due to G. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the titles +of all Freethought works in the British Museum. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e209" href="#xd20e209" name= +"xd20e209">vi</a>]</span></p> +<p>Some readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while +omitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted +many foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who, +ostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be +found in my purpose, which is to record the names of those who have +contributed in their generation to the <i>advance</i> of Freethought. +No one can be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than +myself, but I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that +“though it be the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide +wood, it is no discredit if he do not find it all”; and the hope +that what I have attempted some other will complete.</p> +<p>The most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the +claims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in +this dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I +designed it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and +leave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of +“the good old cause”; a history which has yet to be +written, and for which, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe.</p> +<p>Should this volume be received with an encouraging share of favor, I +hope to follow it with a <i>History of Freethought in England</i>, for +which I have long been collecting materials. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e222" href="#xd20e222" name= +"xd20e222">7</a>]</span></p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="body"> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="main">A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers.</h2> +<p class="firstpar"><b>Abælardus</b> (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher +of philosophy at Paris, renowned for being loved by the celebrated +Eloise. He was accused of teaching erroneous opinions, chiefly about +the Creation and the Trinity, and was condemned by a council at +Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140, at the instigation of St. +Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent his last days as a monk at +Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. “Abelard,” observes Hallam, +“was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the age of +darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence.”</p> +<p><b>Abano</b> (Petrus de). See <a href="#petrusdeabano">Petrus, <i>de +Abano</i></a>.</p> +<p><b>Abauzit</b> (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian +family which settled in the South of France early in the ninth century, +b. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted +with Bayle, attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by +Voltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels, +and an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority of +that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His <i>Miscellanies</i> were +translated in English by E. Harwood, 1774.</p> +<p><b>Abbot</b> (Francis Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, +6 Nov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a +Unitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned in +1869. He started the <i>Index</i>, a journal of free religious inquiry +and anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he +edited 1870–80. In 1872 appeared his <i>Impeachment of +<span class="corr" id="xd20e257" title= +"Source: Christianty">Christianity</span></i>. In addition to his work +on the <i>Index</i>, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great deal, and has +contributed to the <i>North American Review</i> and other periodicals. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e266" href="#xd20e266" name= +"xd20e266">8</a>]</span>He was the first president of the American +National Liberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and +defends his views in <i>Scientific Theism</i>, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Ablaing van Giessenburg</b> (R.C.) See <a href= +"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p> +<p id="abubakribnal-tufail"><b>Abu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail</b> (Abu +J’afar) <i>Al Isbili</i>. Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. at +Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic tendency <i>Hai +Ibn Yakdan</i>, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671, and into +English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of <i>The Improvement of +Human Reason</i>. Died at Morocco 1185.</p> +<p><b>Abu-Fazil</b> (<span class="sc">Abu al Fadhl ibn Mubarak</span>, +called <i>Al Hindi</i>), vizier to the great Emperor Akbar from 1572. +Although by birth a Muhammadan, his investigations into the religions +of India made him see equal worth in all, and, like his master, Akbar, +he was tolerant of all sects. His chief work is the <i>Ayin Akbary</i>, +a statistical account of the Indian Empire. It was <span class="corr" +id="xd20e305" title="Source: trauslated">translated</span> by F. +Gladwin, 1777. He was assassinated 1604.</p> +<p><b>Abul-Abbas-Abdallah III.</b> (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, +caliph, son of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was +a patron of science and literature, collected Greek and Hebrew +manuscripts, and invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He +wrote several treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug. +833.</p> +<p><b>Abul-Ola</b> (<span class="sc">Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn +Sulaiman</span>), celebrated Arabian poet, b. at Maari, in Syria, Dec., +973. His free opinions gave much scandal to devout Moslems. He was +blind through small-pox from the age of four years, but his poems +exhibit much knowledge. He called himself “the doubly imprisoned +captive,” in allusion to his seclusion and loss of sight. He took +no pains to conceal that he believed in no revealed religion. Died May, +1057, and ordered the following verse to be written on his +tomb:—“I owe this to the fault of my father: none owe the +like to mine.”</p> +<p><b>Abu Tahir</b> (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at +Bahrein, on the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of +followers captured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He +suddenly attacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the +head of thirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in +943. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e323" href="#xd20e323" name= +"xd20e323">9</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Achillini</b> (Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b. +Bologna 29 Oct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote +largely upon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were +published at Venice, 1545.</p> +<p><b>Ackermann</b> (Louise-Victorine, née <span class= +"sc">Choquet</span>), French poetess, b. Paris 30 Nov. 1813. She +travelled to Germany and there married (<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e336" title="Source: 1858">1853</span>) a young theologian, Paul +Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his Christian faith, +and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick William (afterwards +Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four (1846). Both were +friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann’s poems (Paris +1863–74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and +Atheist. “God is dethroned,” says M. Caro of her poems +(<i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, 15 May, 1874). She professes +hatred of Christianity and its interested professors. She has also +published <i>Thoughts of a Solitary</i>. Sainte Beuve calls her +“the learned solitary of Nice.”</p> +<p><b>Acollas</b> (Pierre Antoine René Paul Emile), French +jurisconsult and political writer, b. La Châtre 25 June, 1826, +studied law at Paris. For participating in the Geneva congress of the +International Society in 1867 he was condemned to one year’s +imprisonment. In 1871 he was appointed head of the law faculty by the +Commune. He has published several manuals popularising the legal rights +of the people, and has written on <i>Marriage its Past, Present, and +Future</i>, 1880. Mrs. Besant has translated his monograph on <i>The +Idea of God in the Revolution</i>, published in the <span lang= +"fr">Droits de l’Homme</span>.</p> +<p><b>Acontius</b> (Jacobus—<i>Italian</i>, Giacomo Aconzio). +Born at Trent early in sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in +the Church of Rome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland +in 1557. He subsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as +a military engineer. To her he dedicated his <i>Strategems of +Satan</i>, published at Basle 1565. This was one of the earliest +latitudinarian works, and was placed upon the <i>Index</i>. It was also +bitterly assailed by Protestant divines, both in England and on the +Continent. An English translation appeared in 1648. Some proceedings +were taken against Acontius before Bishop Grindall, of the result of +which no account is given. Some passages of Milton’s <i lang= +"la">Areopagitica</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e374" href= +"#xd20e374" name="xd20e374">10</a>]</span>may be traced to Acontius, +who, Cheynell informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen’s +<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i> says he is believed to have +died shortly after 1566.</p> +<p><b>Acosta</b> (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a +Christianised Jew; he was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching +maturity, rejected that faith. He went to Holland, where he published a +work equally criticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was +excommunicated by the Synagogue, fined and put in prison by the +Amsterdam authorities, and his work suppressed. After suffering many +indignities from both Jews and Christians, he committed suicide +1647.</p> +<p><b>Adams</b> (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one +month’s imprisonment for selling the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>.</p> +<p><b>Adams</b> (Robert C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. +Author of <i>Travels in Faith from Tradition to Reason</i> (New York, +1884), also <i>Evolution, a Summary of Evidence</i>.</p> +<p><b>Adler</b> (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a +Jewish rabbi, was b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at +Columbia College, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature +at Cornell University from ’74 to May ’76, when he +established in New York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he +discourses on Sundays. In 1877 he published a volume entitled <i>Creed +and Deed</i>, in which he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has +also contributed many papers to the Radical literature of America.</p> +<p><b>Ænesidemus.</b> A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first +century. He adopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were +in course of change, and argued against our knowledge of ultimate +causes.</p> +<p><b>Airy</b> (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. +Alnwick 27 July, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior +wrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance +astronomical science. His <i>Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures</i> +1876, proves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Aitkenhead</b> (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who +was indicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having +called the Old Testament “Ezra’s Fables,” +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e423" href="#xd20e423" name= +"xd20e423">11</a>]</span>and having maintained that God and nature were +the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696, and hanged for blasphemy, 8 +Jan. 1697.</p> +<p><b>Aitzema</b> (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum +19 Nov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, +between 1621–68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at +the Hague 23 Feb. 1669.</p> +<p id="akbar"><b>Akbar</b> (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the +emperors of Hindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide +administration and improvement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration +alike to Christians, Muhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith. +He had the Christian gospels and several Brahmanical treatises +translated into Persian. The result of his many conferences on religion +between learned men of all sects, are collected in the <i>Dabistan</i>. +Akbar was brought up as a Muhammadan, but became a Theist, +acknowledging one God, but rejecting all other dogmas. Died Sept. +1605.</p> +<p><b>Alberger</b> (John). American author of <i>Monks, Popes, and +their Political Intrigues</i> (Baltimore, 1871) and <i>Antiquity of +Christianity</i> (New York, 1874).</p> +<p><b>Albini</b> (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he +studied medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many other +physiological subjects.</p> +<p><b>Alchindus.</b> <span class="sc">Yakub ibn Is’hak ibn +Subbah</span> (Abú Yúsuf) called <i>Al Kindi</i>, Arab +physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the companions +of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about 840. He was a +rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies he was set down +as a magician.</p> +<p><b>Alciati</b> (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At +first a Romanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually +advanced to Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters to +Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that Alciati +deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but Bayle takes +pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.</p> +<p><b>Aleardi</b> (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e469" href="#xd20e469" name= +"xd20e469">12</a>]</span>b. Verona, 4 Nov. 1812. He was engaged in a +life-long struggle against the Austrian dominion, and his patriotic +poems were much admired. In 1859 he was elected deputy to Parliament +for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.</p> +<p><b>Alembert</b> (Jean le Rond d’), mathematician and +philosopher, b. at Paris 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of +Canon Destouches and Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from +a church near which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards +resided for forty years with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the +most tempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy +of Sciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of +Berlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the +problem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation +of the earth’s axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose +opinions he was in complete accord, in compiling the famous +<i>Encyclopédie</i>, for which he wrote the preliminary +discourse. In addition to this great work he published many historical, +philosophical and scientific essays, and largely corresponded with +Voltaire. His work on the Destruction of the Jesuits is a caustic and +far-reaching production. In a letter to Frederick the Great, he says: +“As for the existence of a supreme intelligence, I think that +those who deny it advance more than they can prove, and scepticism is +the only reasonable course.” He goes on to say, however, that +experience invincibly proves the materiality of the “soul.” +Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous essays were +printed in Paris. His works prove d’Alembert to have been of +broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge.</p> +<p><b>Alfieri</b> (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist, +b. Asti, Piedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are +justly celebrated, and in his <i>Essay on Tyranny</i> he shows himself +as favorable to religious as to political liberty. Written in his +youth, this work was revised at a more advanced age, the author +remarking that if he had no longer the courage, or rather the fire, +necessary to compose it, he nevertheless retained intelligence, +independence and judgment enough to approve it, and to let it stand as +the last of his literary productions. His attack is chiefly directed +against Catholicism, but he does not spare Christianity. “Born +among a people,” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e485" href= +"#xd20e485" name="xd20e485">13</a>]</span>he says, “slavish, +ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the Christian +religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience, and is +unacquainted even with the name of liberty.” Alfieri’s +tragedy of <i>Saul</i> has been prohibited on the English stage. Died +Florence, 8 Oct. 1803.</p> +<p><b>Alfonso X.</b>, surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon; +b. in 1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. +He compiled a complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and had +drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By his +liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish literature. +For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his independence towards +the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical revenues, he has been +stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed the well-known remark +that had he been present at the creation of the world he would have +proposed some <span class="corr" id="xd20e494" title= +"Source: improvents">improvements</span>. Father Lenfant adds the pious +lie that “The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy when a +thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to ashes.” +Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.</p> +<p><b>Algarotti</b> (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, +b. at Venice, 11 Dec. 1712. A visit to England led him to write +<i>Newtonianism for the Ladies</i>. He afterwards visited Berlin and +became the friend both of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who +appointed him his Chamberlain. Died with philosophical composure at +Pisa, 3 May, 1764.</p> +<p><b>Alger</b> (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts, +30 Dec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the +advanced type. His <i>Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future +Life</i>, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot, is +a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view.</p> +<p><b>Allen</b> (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. +in Kingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, +Oxford, and graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of +Logic in Queen’s College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to +’77 he was its principal. Since then he has resided in England, +and become known by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published +works include <i>Physiological Æsthetics</i> (1877), <i>The +Evolutionist at Large</i> (1881), <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e522" href="#xd20e522" name="xd20e522">14</a>]</span><i>Nature +Studies</i> (1883), <i>Charles Darwin</i> (1885), and several novels. +Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle, and has +written on <i>Force and Energy</i> (1888).</p> +<p><b>Allen</b> (Ethan) <b>Col.</b>, American soldier, b. at +<span class="corr" id="xd20e540" title= +"Source: Lichfield">Litchfield</span>, Connecticut, 10 Jan. 1737. One +of the most active of the revolutionary heroes, he raised a company of +volunteers known as the “Green Mountain Boys,” and took by +surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing 100 guns, 10 +May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and £100 offered for his +arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken prisoner and +sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was eventually +exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member of the +state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition of +Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 <i>Reason the +only Oracle of Man</i>, the first publication in the United States +openly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently +reprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont, 13 +Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.</p> +<p><b>Allsop</b> (Thomas). “The favorite disciple of +Coleridge,” b. 10 April, 1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he +lived till 1880. A friend of Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was +implicated in the attempt of Orsini against Napoleon III. In his +<i>Letters, Conversations and Recollections of Samuel Taylor +Coleridge</i>, he has imported many of his Freethought views.</p> +<p><b>Alm</b> (Richard von der). See <a href="#ghillany">Ghillany (F. +W.)</a></p> +<p id="alpharabius"><b>Alpharabius</b> (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn +Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called <i>Al Farabi</i>, Turkish philosopher, +termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest philosopher the Moslems ever had, +travelled to Bagdad, mastered the works of Aristotle, and became master +of Avicenna. Al Farabi is said to have taught the eternity of the world +and to have denied the permanent individuality of the soul. His +principal work is a sort of encyclopædia. Rénan says he +expressly rejected all supernatural revelation. Died at Damascus Dec. +950, aged upwards of eighty.</p> +<p><b>Amaury</b> or <b>Amalric de Chartres</b>, a heretic of the +thirteenth century, was a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at +Paris, where he gave lessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of +<i>Physion</i>, condemned by a bull of Pope <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e577" href="#xd20e577" name= +"xd20e577">15</a>]</span>Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have +taught a kind of Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son +must give place to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were +burnt at Paris 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and +placed in the flames.</p> +<p id="amberley"><b>Amberley</b> (John <span class="sc">Russell</span>) +Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell, b. 1843. Educated at Harrow, +Edinburgh and Trinity College, Cambridge, where ill-health prevented +him reading for honors. He entered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member +for Nottingham. Lord Amberley contributed thoughtful articles to the +<i>North British</i>, the <i>Fortnightly</i> and <i>Theological +Reviews</i>, and will be remembered by his bold <i>Analysis of +Religious Belief</i> (1876), in which he examines, compares and +criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley left his son +to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of great ability +and force of character; but the will was set aside, on appeal to the +Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding’s heretical +views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Amman</b> (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b. Lake +Zurich 1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt, +and afterwards published a curious book called <i>Voyage in the +Promised Land</i>. Died at Zurich, 1658.</p> +<p><b>Ammianus</b> (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth +century, b. at Antioch. He wrote the Roman history from the reign of +Nerva to the death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first +thirteen are lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. +He served under Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of +the period to that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him “an accurate +and faithful guide.” Died about 395 <span class= +"sc">A.D.</span></p> +<p><b>Ammonius</b>, surnamed <span class="sc">Saccas</span> or the +Porter, from his having been obliged in the early part of his life to +adopt that calling, was born of Christian parents in Alexandria during +the second century. He, however, turned Pagan and opened a school of +philosophy. Among his pupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He +undoubtedly originated the Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most +serious opposition to Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died +<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 243, aged over eighty years. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e622" href="#xd20e622" name= +"xd20e622">16</a>]</span></p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e626" title= +"Source: Anaxagorus">Anaxagoras</span></b>, a Greek philosopher of the +Ionic school, b. about 499 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, lived at +Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> he was accused of Atheism for maintaining the eternity +of matter and was banished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> It is related that, being asked how he +desired to be honored after death, he replied, “Only let the day +of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys in the schools.” +He taught that generation and destruction are only the union and +separation of elements which can neither be created nor +annihilated.</p> +<p id="andre-nuytz"><b>Andre-Nuytz</b> (Louis), author of <i>Positivism +for All</i>, an elementary exposition of Positive philosophy, to which +Littré wrote a preface, 1868.</p> +<p><b>Andrews</b> (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton, +Mass., 22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent +speaker, and the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His +principle work is entitled <i>The Basic Outline of Universology</i> (N. +Y., 1872). He also wrote <i>The Church and Religion of the Future</i> +(1886). He was a prominent member and vice-president of the Liberal +Club of New York, a contributor to the London <i>Times</i>, the New +York <i>Truthseeker</i>, and many other journals. Died at New York, 21 +May, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Andrieux</b> (Louis). French deputy, b. Trévoux 20 July, +1840. Was called to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his +political pleading. He took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples +in 1869, and in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three +months for his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the +Republic he was nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal +council of that city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of +Deputies. In 1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in +1881 and was elected deputy by his constituents at Lyons. He has +written <i>Souvenirs of a Prefect of Police</i> (1885).</p> +<p><b>Angelucci</b> (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near +Tolentino 1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was +banished from Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in +Italy, he also made an excellent translation of the Æneid of +Virgil. Died Montagnana, 1600.</p> +<p><b>Angiulli</b> (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e676" href="#xd20e676" name= +"xd20e676">17</a>]</span>1837, author of a work on philosophy and +Positive research, Naples 1868. He became professor of Anthropology at +Naples in 1876, and edits a philosophical review published in that city +since 1881.</p> +<p id="annet"><b>Annet</b> (Peter). One of the most forcible writers +among the English Deists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a +schoolmaster and invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at +school and corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on +<i>Freethinking the Great Duty of Religion</i>, by P. A., minister of +religion. This was followed by <i>the Conception of Jesus as the +Foundation of the Christian Religion</i>, in which he boldly attacks +the doctrine of the Incarnation as “a legend of the +Romanists,” and <i>The Resurrection of Jesus Considered</i> +(1744) in answer to Bishop Sherlock’s <i>Trial of the +Witnesses</i>. This controversy was continued in <i>The Resurrection +Reconsidered</i> and <i>The Resurrection Defenders Stript of all +Defence</i>. In <i>An Examination of the History and Character of St. +Paul</i> he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and +even questions the authenticity of his epistles. In <i>Supernaturals +Examined</i> (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761 +he issued nine numbers of the <i>Free Inquirer</i>, in which he +attacked the authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this +he was brought before the King’s Bench and sentenced to suffer +one month’s imprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the +pillory, once at Charing Cross and once at the Exchange, with a label +“For Blasphemy,” then to have a year’s hard labor in +Bridewell and to find sureties for good behavior during the rest of his +life. It is related that a woman seeing Annet in the pillory said, +“Gracious! pilloried for blasphemy. Why, don’t we blaspheme +every day!” After his release Annet set up a school at Lambeth. +Being asked his views on a future life he replied by this apologue: +“One of my friends in Italy, seeing the sign of an inn, asked if +that was the Angel.” “No,” was the reply, “do +you not see it is the sign of a dragon.” “Ah,” said +my friend, “as I have never seen either angel or dragon, how can +I tell whether it is one or the other?” Died 18 Jan. 1769. <i>The +History of the Man after God’s Own Heart</i> (1761) ascribed to +Annet, was more probably written by Archibald Campbell. <i>The View of +the Life of King David</i> (1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also +falsely attributed to Annet. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e717" +href="#xd20e717" name="xd20e717">18</a>]</span></p> +<p id="antherodequental"><b>Anthero de Quental</b>, Portuguese writer, +b. San Miguel 1843. Educated for the law at the University of Coimbra, +he has published both poetry and prose, showing him to be a student of +Hartmann, Proudhon and Rénan, and one of the most advanced minds +in Portugal.</p> +<p><b>Anthony</b> (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker +family at South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a +teacher, a temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent +advocate of women’s rights. Of the last movement she became +secretary. In conjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury +she conducted <i>The Revolutionist</i> founded in New York in 1868, and +with Mrs. Stanton and Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the <i>History +of Woman’s Suffrage</i>, 1881. Miss Anthony is a declared +Agnostic.</p> +<p><b>Antoine</b> (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and +divinity of Jesus, and was strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, +1632.</p> +<p><b>Antonelle</b> (Pierre Antoine) <i>Marquis d’</i>, French +political economist, b. Arles 1747. He embraced the revolution with +ardor, and his article in the <i lang="fr">Journal des Hommes +Libres</i> occasioned his arrest with Babœuf. He was, however, +acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.</p> +<p><b>Antoninus</b> (Marcus Aurelius). See <a href= +"#aurelius">Aurelius</a>.</p> +<p><b>Apelt</b> (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 +March, 1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the +standpoint of reason, and wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near +Gorlitz, 27 Oct. 1859.</p> +<p><b>Aquila</b>, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselyte to +Christianity, but afterwards left that religion. He published a Greek +version of the Hebrew scriptures to show that the prophecies did not +apply to Jesus (<span class="sc">A.D.</span> 128). The work is lost. He +has been identified by E. Deutsch with the author of the Targum of +Onkelos.</p> +<p><b>Arago</b> (Dominique François Jean), French academician, +politician, physicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was +elected to the French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three. +He made several optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated +the undulatory theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and +Freethinker, and took part in <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e769" +href="#xd20e769" name="xd20e769">19</a>]</span>the provisional +Government of 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and +refused to take the oath of allegiance after the <i lang="fr">coup +d’état</i> of December, 1851. Died 2 Oct. 1853. Humboldt +calls him a “zealous defender of the interests of +Reason.”</p> +<p><b>Ardigo</b> (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone +(Cremona) 28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to +philosophy. In 1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, +followed next year by <i>Psychology as a Positive Science</i>. Signor +Ardigo has also written on the formation of the solar system and on the +historical formation of the ideas of God and the soul. An edition of +his philosophical works was commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one +of the leaders of the Italian Positivists. His <i>Positivist Morals</i> +appeared in Padua 1885.</p> +<p id="argens"><b>Argens</b> (Jean Baptiste de <span class= +"sc">Boyer</span>) <i>Marquis d’</i>, French writer, b. at Aix, +in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and served with +distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great he invited +d’Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his +chamberlains. Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to +Aix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were +published in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are <i lang= +"fr">Lettres Juives, Lettres Chinoises</i> and <i lang="fr">Lettres +Cabalistiques</i>, which were joined to <i lang="fr">La Philosophie du +bon sens</i>. He also translated Julian’s discourse against +Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity of the World. Argens +took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to that philosopher.</p> +<p><b>Argental</b> (Charles Augustin de <span class= +"sc">Ferriol</span>) <i>Count d’</i>, French diplomat, b. Paris +20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother of +D’Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship +for Voltaire. He was said to be the author of <i lang= +"fr">Mémoires du Comte de Comminge and Anecdotes de la cour +d’Edouard</i>. Died 5 Jan. 1788.</p> +<p><b>Aristophanes</b>, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with +Socrates, Plato, and Euripides, b. about 444 <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> Little is known of his life. He wrote fifty-four +plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned in a public +assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost boldness he +satirised <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e823" href="#xd20e823" +name="xd20e823">20</a>]</span>not only the the political and social +evils of the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology +of the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes’ +works under his pillow. Died about 380 <span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> +<p><b>Aristotle</b>, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was +born at Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> He was +employed by Philip of Macedon to instruct his son Alexander. His +inculcation of ethics as apart from all theology, justifies his place +in this list. After the death of Alexander, he was accused of impiety +and withdrew to Chalcis, where he died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> +322. Grote says: “In the published writings of Aristotle the +accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for sustaining +their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that prayer and +sacrifices to the gods were of no avail.” His influence was +predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante speaks +of him as “the master of those that know.”</p> +<p><b>Arnold</b> of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against +the papal authority and the temporal power, and the vices of the +clergy. He was condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and +retired from Italy. He afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his +exertions against sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and +burnt at Rome in 1155. Baronius calls him “the patriarch of +political heretics.”</p> +<p><b>Arnold</b> (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of +Rugby, b. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and +Oxford, where he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the +<i>Strayed Reveller, and other Poems</i>, signed A. In 1851 he married +and became an inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared <i>Empedocles on +Etna</i>, a poem in which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives +much secular philosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at +Oxford. In 1871 he published an essay entitled <i>St. Paul and +Protestantism</i>; in 1873 <i>Literature and Dogma</i>, which, from its +rejection of supernaturalism, occasioned much stir and was followed by +<i>God and the Bible</i>. In 1877 Mr. Arnold published <i>Last Essays +on Church and State</i>. Mr. Arnold has a lucid style and is abreast of +the thought of his age, but he curiously unites rejection of +supernaturalism, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e865" href= +"#xd20e865" name="xd20e865">21</a>]</span>including a personal God, +with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said in his own +words to wander “between two worlds, one dead, the other +powerless to be born.” Died 15 April, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Arnould</b> (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As +journalist he wrote on <i lang="fr">l’Opinion Nationale</i>, the +<i>Rappel</i>, <i>Reforme</i> and other papers. In 1864 he published a +work on Beranger, and in ’69 a <i>History of the Inquisition</i>. +In Jan. 1870 he founded <i lang="fr">La Marseillaise</i> with H. +Rochefort, and afterwards the <i lang="fr">Journal du Peuple</i> with +Jules Valles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of +the Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He has +also written many novels and dramas.</p> +<p><b>Arnould</b> (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. +1838, advocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a <i>History +of the Church</i> 1874, and a little work on the <i>Philosophy of +Liberalism</i> 1877.</p> +<p><b>Arouet</b> (François Marie). See <a href= +"#voltaire">Voltaire</a>.</p> +<p><b>Arpe</b> (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 +May, 1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (<i>i.e.</i>, +Rotterdam, 1712). A reply to La Monnoye’s treatise on the book +<i lang="la">De Tribus Impostoribus</i> is attributed to him. Died, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e918" title= +"Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, 4 Nov. 1740.</p> +<p><b>Arthur</b> (John) is inserted in Maréchal’s +<i>Dictionnaire des Athées</i> as a mechanic from near +Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and republished the <i>Invocation +to Nature</i> in the last pages of the <i>System of Nature</i>. Julian +Hibbert inserted his name in his <i>Chronological Tables of +Anti-Superstitionists</i>, with the date of death 1792.</p> +<p><b>Asseline</b> (Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829, +became an advocate in 1851. In 1866 he established <i lang="fr">La +Libre Pensée</i>, a weekly journal of scientific materialism, +and when that was suppressed <i lang="fr">La Pensée +Nouvelle</i>. He was one of the founders of the <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie Générale</i>. He wrote +<i>Diderot and the Nineteenth Century</i>, and contributed to many +journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected mayor of +the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards one of the +Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e953" href="#xd20e953" name= +"xd20e953">22</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Assezat</b> (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was +a son of a compositor on the <i lang="fr">Journal des Debats</i>, on +which Jules obtained a position and worked his way to the editorial +chair. He was secretary of the Paris Society of Anthropology, +contributed to <i lang="fr">La Pensée Nouvelle</i>, edited the +<i>Man Machine</i> of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works of +Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.</p> +<p><b>Assollant</b> (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 +March, 1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.</p> +<p><b>Ast</b> (Georg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29 +Dec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Landshut and +Munich. Wrote <i>Elements of Philosophy</i>, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31 +Dec. 1841.</p> +<p><b>Atkinson</b> (Henry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was +educated at the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in +the <i>Zoist</i>. In 1851 he issued <i>Letters on the Laws of +Man’s Nature and Development</i>, in conjunction with Harriet +Martineau, to whom he served as philosophic guide. This work occasioned +a considerable outcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the +<i>National Reformer</i> and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec. +1884, at Boulogne, where he had resided since 1870.</p> +<p><b>Aubert de Verse</b> (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth +century, who wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of +blasphemy.</p> +<p><b>Audebert</b> (Louise). French authoress of the <i>Romance of a +Freethinker</i> and of an able <i>Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of +Orleans</i>, 1868.</p> +<p><b>Audifferent</b> (Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste +Comte, was born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at +Marseilles, and is the author of several medical and scientific +works.</p> +<p id="aurelius"><b>Aurelius</b> (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and +Stoic philosopher, b. at Rome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated, +and lived a laborious, abstemious life. On the death of his uncle +Antoninus Pius, 161, the Senate obliged him to take the government, but +he associated with himself L. Verus. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e1014" href="#xd20e1014" name="xd20e1014">23</a>]</span>On the +death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed sole authority, which he +exercised with wise discretion and great glory. Much of his time was +employed in defending the northern frontiers of the empire against +Teutonic barbarians. He had no high opinion of Christians, speaking of +their obstinacy, and it is pretended many were put to death in the +reign of one of the best emperors that ever ruled. If so we may be +assured it was for their crimes. Ecclesiastical historians have +invented another pious miracle in a victory gained through the prayers +of the Christians. Antoninus held that duty was indispensable even were +there no gods. His <i>Meditations</i>, written in the midst of a most +active life, breathe a lofty morality, and are a standing refutation of +the view that pure ethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, +180.</p> +<p><b>Austin</b> (Charles), lawyer and disciple of <span class="corr" +id="xd20e1023" title="Source: Bentbam">Bentham</span>, b. Suffolk 1799. +At Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won, +much to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions, +the Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he was +sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley “I could have +written a much better essay on the other side.” He afterwards +wrote on the other side in the <i>Westminster Review</i>. Successful as +a lawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his +influence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his +heretical opinions. He says “He inclined to Darwinism, because as +he said, it is so antecedently probable; but, long before this theory +broke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up.” +Died 21 Dec. 1874.</p> +<p><b>Austin</b> (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, +1790. A friend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he +shared, he is chiefly known by his profound works on jurisprudence. +Died 17 Dec. 1859.</p> +<p id="avempace"><b>Avempace</b>, <i>i.e.</i>, Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn +Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called <i>Ibn al-Saigh</i> (the son of the +goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and poet, b. at Saragossa, practised +medicine at Seville 1118, which he quitted about 1120, and became +vizier at the court of Fez, where he died about 1138. An admirer of +Aristotle, he was one of the teachers of Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn +Khâkân represents him as an infidel and Atheist, and says: +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1043" href="#xd20e1043" name= +"xd20e1043">24</a>]</span>“Faith disappeared from his heart and +left not a trace behind; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did +[the holy] name cross his lips.” He is said to have suffered +imprisonment for his heterodoxy.</p> +<p><b>Avenel</b> (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828. +One of the promoters of the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie +Générale</i>. His vindication of Cloots (1865) is a solid +work of erudition. He became editor of <i lang="fr">la +République Française</i> and edited the edition of +Voltaire published by <i lang="fr">Le Siècle</i> +(1867–70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was, +by his express wish, buried without religious ceremony.</p> +<p id="averroes"><b>Averroes</b> (Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), <i>Abu +al Walid</i>, Arabian philosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at +Morocco 10 Dec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of +Aristotle, and resolutely placed the claims of science above those of +theology. He was prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the +Muhammadan doctors, was spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the +hour of prayer, and afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions, +which incline towards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being +condemned by the University of Paris in 1240. They were opposed by St. +Thomas Aquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the +<span class="corr" id="xd20e1065" title= +"Source: Rennaisance">Renaissance</span> through the Paduan school were +again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.</p> +<p id="avicenna"><b>Avicenna</b> (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called <i>Ibn +Sina</i>), Arabian physician and philosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the +district of Bokhara. From his early youth he was a wonderful student, +and at his death 15 June, 1037, he left behind him above a hundred +treatises. He was the sovereign authority in medical science until the +days of Harvey. His philosophy was pantheistic in tone, with an attempt +at compromise with theology.</p> +<p><b>Aymon</b> (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphiné 1661. Brought +up in the Church, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the +Hague. He published <i>Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion</i>, and is +said to have put forward a version of the <i>Esprit de Spinoza</i> +under the famous title <i>Treatise of Three Impostors</i>. Died about +1734.</p> +<p><b>Bagehot</b> (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian +parents, Langport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1092" href="#xd20e1092" name= +"xd20e1092">25</a>]</span>at the same place 24 March, 1877. He was +educated at London University, of which he became a fellow. For the +last seventeen years of his life he edited the <i>Economist</i> +newspaper. His best-known works are <i>The English Constitution</i>, +<i>Lombard Street</i> and <i>Literary Studies</i>. In <i>Physics and +Politics</i> (1872), a series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he +applies Darwinism to politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very +original thinker, who rejected historic Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Baggesen</b> (Jens Immanuel), Danish poet, b. Kösor, +Zealand. 15 Feb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and +Switzerland; at Berne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote +popular poems both in Danish and German, among others <i>Adam and +Eve</i>, a humorous mock epic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire. +Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.</p> +<p><b>Bahnsen</b> (Julius Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern, +Schleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil, 1847. He +fought against the Danes in ’49, and afterwards studied at +Tübingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and +Hartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written +several works, among which we mention <i>The Philosophy of History</i>, +Berlin, 1872, and <i>The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the +Nature of the World</i> (2 vols), Berlin 1880–82.</p> +<p><b>Bahrdt</b> (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25 Aug. +1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor of +biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered from +place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called <i>New +Revelations of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and +Thinkers</i>, Berlin, 1787, and a <i>Catechism of Natural Religion</i>, +Halle, 1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792.</p> +<p><b>Bailey</b> (James Napier), Socialist, edited the <i>Model +Republic</i>, 1843, the <i>Torch</i>, and the <i>Monthly Messenger</i>. +He published <i>Gehenna: its Monarch and Inhabitants; Sophistry +Unmasked</i>, and several other tracts in the “Social +Reformer’s Cabinet Library,” and some interesting <i>Essays +on Miscellaneous Subjects</i>, at Leeds, 1842.</p> +<p><b>Bailey</b> (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in +1791. His essay on the <i>Formation and Publication of Opinions</i> +appeared <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1164" href="#xd20e1164" +name="xd20e1164">26</a>]</span>in 1821. He vigorously contends that man +is not responsible for his opinions because they are independent of his +will, and that opinions should not be the subject of punishment. +Another anonymous Freethought work was <i>Letters from an Egyptian +Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search of Religion</i>. This was at +first issued privately 1839, but afterwards printed as a +<i>Reasoner</i> tract. He also wrote <i>The Pursuit of Truth</i>, 1829, +and a <i>Theory of Reasoning</i>, 1851. He was acquainted with both +James and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the +philosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving +£90,000 to his native town.</p> +<p><b>Bailey</b> (William S.), editor of the <i>Liberal</i>, published +in Nashville, Tennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death, +March, 1886. In a slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of +abolition.</p> +<p><b>Baillie</b> (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff +in one of the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the +Glasgow Eclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best +essay on Christianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara +Hennell. In 1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether +Jesus prophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of +his followers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated +in his <i>Prophet of Nazareth</i>. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself +of his fortune (£18,000) which was to be applied to the erection +and endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative +classes by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining +only the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few +years.</p> +<p><b>Baillière</b> (Gustave-Germer), French scientific +publisher, b. at Paris 26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted +himself to bringing out scientific publications such as the <i>Library +of Contemporary Philosophy</i>, and the <i>International Scientific +Series</i>. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as Republican and anti-clerical +member of the Municipal Council of Paris.</p> +<p><b>Bain</b> (Alexander) <span class="corr" id="xd20e1207" title= +"Source: LLD">LL.D</span>. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818. +He began life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College +1836–40, and graduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1210" href="#xd20e1210" name= +"xd20e1210">27</a>]</span>contribute to the <i>Westminster Review</i>, +and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose <i>Logic</i> he +discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published <i>The Senses and The +Intellect</i>, and in 1859 <i>The Emotions and the Will</i>, +constituting together a systematic exposition of the human mind. From +1860 to 1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of +Aberdeen, his accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and +provoking disorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree +of <span class="corr" id="xd20e1225" title="Source: LLD">LL.D</span>. +In <span class="corr" id="xd20e1228" title= +"Source: additon">addition</span> to numerous educational works Dr. +Bain published a <i>Compendium of Mental and Moral Science</i> (1868), +<i>Mind and Body</i> (1875), and <i>Education as a Science</i> (1879), +for the International Scientific Series. In 1882 he published <i>James +Mill, a Biography</i>, and <i>John Stuart Mill: a Criticism, with +Personal Recollections</i>. In 1881 he was elected Lord Rector of the +University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed in 1884, in which +year he published <i>Practical Essays</i>.</p> +<p><b>Bainham</b> (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, +author of the <i>Supplycacion of Beggars</i>, an attack upon the clergy +of the period. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other +things denied transubstantiation, the confessional, and “the +power of the keys.” It was asserted that he had said that he +would as lief pray to his wife as to “our lady,” and that +Christ was but a man. This he denied, but admitted holding the +salvation of unbelievers. He was burnt 30 April, 1532.</p> +<p><b>Baissac</b> (Jules), French <i lang="fr">littérateur</i>, +b. Vans, 1827, author of several studies in philology and mythology. In +1878 he published <i lang="fr">Les Origines de la Religion</i> in three +volumes, which have the honor of being put upon the Roman <i>Index</i>. +This was followed by <i lang="fr">l’Age de Dieu</i>, a study of +cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to publish +<i lang="fr">Histoire de la Diablerie Chrétienne</i>, the first +part of which is devoted to the person and “personnel” of +the devil.</p> +<p><b>Bakunin</b> (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. +Torshok (Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated +at St. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he +became embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841, +studied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical +writings under the name of Jules Elisard. In ’43 he visited Paris +and became a disciple of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1281" href= +"#xd20e1281" name="xd20e1281">28</a>]</span>Proudhon. In ’48 he +was expelled from France at the demand of Russia, whose government set +the price of 10,000 silver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and +became a member of the insurrectionary government. He was arrested and +condemned to death, May ’50, but his sentence was commuted to +imprisonment for life. He escaped into Austria, was again captured and +sentenced to death, but was handed over to Russia and deported to +Siberia. After several years’ penal servitude he escaped, +travelled over a thousand miles under extreme hardship, reached the sea +and sailed to Japan. Thence he sailed to California, thence to New York +and London, where with Herzen he published the <i>Kolokol</i>. He took +part in the establishment of the International Society, but being at +issue with Karl Marx abandoned that body in 1873. He died at Berne 1 +July 1876, leaving behind a work on <i>God and the State</i>, both +being vigorously attacked. Laveleye writes of him as “the apostle +of universal destruction.”</p> +<p><b>Ball</b> (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated +at Birkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather than +teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University 1866. +Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan’s service 1870–71. Received +the order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the +bursting of a mortar. Upon his return published <i>Poems from +Turkey</i> (1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the <i>National +Reformer</i> since 1878 and since 1884 has been on the staff of the +<i>Freethinker</i>. He has published pamphlets on <i>Religion in +Schools</i>, the <i>Ten Commandments</i> and <i>Mrs Besant’s +Socialism</i>, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the <i>Bible +Handbook</i>. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of +Evolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages of +<i>Progress</i>. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the +Effects of Use and Disuse Inherited?</p> +<p><b>Ballance</b> (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary, +Antrim<span class="corr" id="xd20e1322" title="Not in source">,</span> +Ireland, March 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist +and started the <i>Wanganui Herald</i>. He entered Parliament in 1875 +and became Colonial Treasurer in ’78. With Sir Robert Stout he +has been a great support to the Freethought cause in New Zealand.</p> +<p><b>Baltzer</b> (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1332" href="#xd20e1332" name= +"xd20e1332">29</a>]</span>1814, at Hohenleine in Saxony. He was +educated as a Protestant minister, but resigned and founded at +Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took part in the Parliament of +Frankfort in ’48; has translated the life of Apollonius of Tyana, +and is the author of a history of religion and numerous other works. +Died 24 June, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Bancel</b> (François Désiré). French +politician, b. Le Mastre, 2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he +was elected to the Legislative Assembly. After the <i lang="fr">coup +d’état</i> he retired to Brussels, where he became +Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected deputy at Paris in +opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work on Rationalism by +Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on <i>Mysteries</i>, 1871, besides many +political works. Died 23 June, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Barbier</b> (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin, +Lubbock, and Tylor. Died 1883.</p> +<p><b>Barbier d’Aucour</b> (Jean). French critic and academician, +b. Langres, 1642. Most of his writings are directed against the +Jesuits. Died Paris, 13 Sept. 1694.</p> +<p><b>Barlow</b> (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his +volumes, <i>Under the Dawn</i> and <i>Poems, Real and Ideal</i>, he +gives utterance to many Freethought sentiments.</p> +<p><b>Barlow</b> (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b. +Reading, Connecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the +revolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession, +taking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published <i>Advice to +the Privileged Orders</i>. In France he translated Volney’s +<i>Ruins of Empires</i>, and contributed to the political literature of +the Revolution. Paine entrusted him with the MS. of the first part of +the <i>Age of Reason</i>. His chief work is entitled the +<i>Columbiad</i>, 1808. He was sent as minister to France, 1811, and +being involved in the misfortunes following the retreat from Moscow, +died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.</p> +<p><b>Barni</b> (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 +June, 1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the +works of Kant into French. He contributed to <i lang="fr">La +Liberté de Penser</i> (1847–51) and to <i lang= +"fr">l’Avenir</i> (1855). During the Empire he lived in +Switzerland and published <i lang="fr">Martyrs de <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1390" href="#xd20e1390" name= +"xd20e1390">30</a>]</span>la Libre Pensée</i> (1862), <i lang= +"fr">La Morale dans la Démocratie</i> (1864), and a work on the +French Moralists of the Eighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to +the National Assembly, 1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died +at Mers, 4 July, 1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.</p> +<p><b>Barnout</b> (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris +1816, published a <i>Rational Calendar</i> 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 +he established a journal entitled <i lang= +"fr">L’Athée</i>, the Atheist, which the clerical journals +declared drew God’s vengeance upon France. He is also author of a +work on aerial navigation.</p> +<p><b>Barot</b> (François Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau +1830. He has been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary +to Gustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and +<i>Contemporary Literature in England</i> (1874).</p> +<p><b>Barrett</b> (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker +parents, both grandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at +Queenwood College, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford +with honors in <span class="corr" id="xd20e1418" title= +"Source: National">Natural</span> Science and Mathematics, contributed +to the <i>National Reformer</i> between 1865 and 1870, published an +acute examination of Gillespie’s argument, <i>à +priori</i>, for the existence of God (1869), which in 1871 reached a +second edition. He also wrote <i>A New View of Causation</i> (1871), +and an <i>Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics</i> (1877). Mr. Barrett +has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical Society, and edited a +short-lived publication, <i>The Present Day</i>, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Barrier</b> (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, +became professor of medicine at Lyons, wrote <i>A Sketch of the Analogy +of Man and Humanity</i> (Lyons 1846), and <i>Principles of +Sociology</i> (Paris 1867), and an abridgment of this entitled +<i>Catechism of Liberal and Rational Socialism</i>. Died +Montfort-L’Amaury 1870.</p> +<p><b>Barrillot</b> (François). French author, b. of poor +parents at Lyons in 1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to +read from shop signs, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his +songs and satires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to +Pope Pius IX. on the Œcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean +Populus, and a philosophical work entitled <i>Love is God</i>. Died at +Paris, 11 Dec. 1874. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1457" href= +"#xd20e1457" name="xd20e1457">31</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Barthez</b> (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11 +Dec. 1734. A friend of D’Alembert, he became associate editor of +the <i lang="fr">Journal des Savants</i> and <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie Méthodique</i>. He was made consulting +physician to the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the +Archbishop of Sens a number of works relating to the rites of his see +he said, “These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me +the sense [Sens] of ceremonies.” His principal work is <i>New +Elements of the Science of Man</i>. Died 15 Oct. 1806.</p> +<p><b>Basedow</b> (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational +reformer, b. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic, +became professor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753–1761, +and at Altona, 1761–1768. While here he published +<i>Philalethea</i>, the <i>Grounds of Religion</i>, and other heterodox +works, which excited so much prejudice that he was in danger of being +stoned. He devoted much attention to improving methods of teaching. +Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.</p> +<p><b>Baskerville</b> (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley, +Worcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at first a +stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and devoted it to +perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As a +printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions of +Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius, +Terence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes +once visited him and was “shocked at his infidelity” (!) He +died 8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had +designed a monumental urn with this inscription: “Stranger, +beneath this cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of +mankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute to +emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the wicked +arts of priesthood.” His will expresses the utmost contempt for +Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a +complete edition of Voltaire.</p> +<p><b>Bassus</b> (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of +Seneca in the time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in +the presence of death.</p> +<p><b>Bate</b> (Frederick), Socialist, author of <i>The Student</i> +1842<span class="corr" id="xd20e1496" title="Not in source">,</span> a +drama in which the author’s sceptical views are put forward. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1499" href="#xd20e1499" name= +"xd20e1499">32</a>]</span>Mr. Bate was one of the founders of the +social experiment at New Harmony, now Queenswood College, Hants, and +engraved a view representing the Owenite scheme of community.</p> +<p><b>Baudelaire</b> (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April +1821, the son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He +first became famous by the publication of <i lang="fr">Fleurs du +Mal</i>, 1857, in which appeared <i lang="fr">Les Litanies de +Satan</i>. The work was prosecuted and suppressed. Baudelaire +translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe, a poet whom he resembled +much in life and character. The divine beauty of his face has been +celebrated by the French poet, Théodore de Banville, and his +genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English poet, Algernon +Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.</p> +<p><b>Baudon</b> (P. L.), French author of a work on the <i>Christian +Superstition</i>, published at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop +Dupanloup under the pseudonym of “Aristide.”</p> +<p><b>Bauer</b> (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of +Germany, b. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of +Berlin, in 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first +attained celebrity by a review of the <i>Life of Jesus</i> by Strauss +(1835). This was followed by his <i>Journal of Speculative Theology</i> +and <i>Critical Exposition of the Religion of the Old Testament</i>. He +then proceeded to a <i>Review of the Gospel History</i>, upon the +publication of which (1840) he was deprived of his professorship at +Bonn. To this followed <i>Christianity Unveiled</i> (1843), which was +destroyed at Zurich before its publication. This work continued his +opposition to religion, which was carried still further in ironical +style in his <i>Proclamation of the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel +the Atheist</i>. Bauer’s heresy deepened with age, and in his +<i>Review of the Gospels and History of their Origin</i> (1850), to +which <i>Apostolical History</i> is a supplement, he attacked the +historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In his <i>Review of +the Epistles attributed to St. Paul</i> (1852) he tries to show that +the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been questioned, +were not written by Paul, but are the production of the second century. +In his <i>Christ and the Cæsars</i> he shows the influence of +Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died near +Berlin, 13 April, 1882. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1554" href= +"#xd20e1554" name="xd20e1554">33</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bauer</b> (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the +preceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled +<i>Bruno Bauer and his Opponents</i> (1842) was seized by the police. +For his next publication, <i>The Strife of Criticism with Church and +State</i> (1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written +on English freedom, Capital, etc.</p> +<p><b>Baume-Desdossat</b> (Jacques François, de la), b. 1705, a +Canon of Avignon who wrote <i lang="fr">La Christiade</i> (1753), a +satire on the gospels, in which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It +was suppressed by the French Parliament and the author fined. He died +30 April, 1756.</p> +<p><b>Baur</b> (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological +critic, b. 21 June, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. +He was educated at Tübingen, where in 1826 he became professor of +Church history. Baur is the author of numerous works on dogmatic and +historic theology, in which he subverts all the fundamental positions +of Christianity. He was an Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important +works are <i>Christianity and the Church in the First Three +Centuries</i> and <i>Paul: His Life and Works</i>. These are translated +into English. He acknowledges only four of the epistles of Paul and the +Revelation as genuine products of the apostolic age, and shows how very +far from simplicity were the times and doctrines of primitive +Christianity. After a life of great literary activity he died at +Tübingen, 2 Dec. 1860.</p> +<p><b>Bayle</b> (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at +Carlat, France, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was +converted to Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, +1669. His Romanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled +to Switzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from <i>Thoughts on +the Comet</i>, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism +with those of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous <i lang= +"fr">Dictionnaire Critique</i>, a work still of value for its curious +learning and shrewd observation. In his journal <i lang="fr">Nouvelles +de la République des Lettres</i> he advocates religious +toleration on the ground of the difficulty of distinguishing truth from +error. His criticism of Maimbourg’s <i>History of Calvinism</i> +was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted him, and he +was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second edition of his +dictionary. He died <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1598" href= +"#xd20e1598" name="xd20e1598">34</a>]</span>at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. +Bayle has been called the father of free discussion in modern +times.</p> +<p><b>Bayrhoffer</b> (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 +Oct., 1812, wrote <i>The Idea and History of Philosophy</i> (1838), +took part in the revolution of ’48, emigrated to America, and +wrote many polemical works. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. +1888.</p> +<p><b>Beauchamp</b> (Philip). See <a href="#bentham">Bentham</a> and +<a href="#groteg">Grote</a>.</p> +<p><b>Beausobre</b> (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted +by Frederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre, +the author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at +Frankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the +wise (<i lang="fr">Pyrrhonisme du Sage</i>, Berlin, 1754), a work +condemned to be burnt by the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote +anonymously <i>The Dreams of Epicurus</i>, and an essay on Happiness +(Berlin, 1758), reprinted with the <i>Social System</i> of Holbach in +1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.</p> +<p><b>Bebel</b> (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22 +Feb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since ’63, he +became distinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was +elected to the German Reichstag in ’71. In the following year he +was condemned (6 March) to two years’ imprisonment for high +treason. He was re-elected in ’74. His principal work is <i>Woman +in the Past, Present and Future</i> which is translated by H. B. A. +Walther, 1885. He has also written on the <i>Mohammedan Culture +Period</i> (1884) and on <i>Christianity and Socialism</i>.</p> +<p><b>Beccaria</b> (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. +at Milan, 15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his +treatise on <i>Crimes and Punishments</i> (1769), a work which did much +to improve the criminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.</p> +<p><b>Beesly</b> (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, +Worcestershire, 1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took +B.A. in 1854, and M.A. in ’57. Appointed Professor of History, +University College, London, in 1860. He is one of the translators of +Comte’s <i>System of Positive Polity</i>, and has published +several pamphlets on political and social questions. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1657" href="#xd20e1657" name= +"xd20e1657">35</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Beethoven</b> (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical +composers, b. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and +at the age of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. +His many compositions are the glory of music. They include an opera +“Fidelio,” two masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, +overtures and sonatas, and are characterised by penetrating power, rich +imagination, intense passion, and tenderness. When about the age of +forty he became totally deaf, but continued to compose till his death +at Vienna, 26 March, 1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem +as Wagner showed for Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His +Republican sentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his +life in the <i>Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography</i>, speaks +of him as a “Freethinker,” and says the remarkable mass in +C. “might scarcely have proceeded from an entirely orthodox +thinker.” Sir George Grove, in his <i>Dictionary of Music and +Musicians</i>, says: “Formal religion he apparently had +none,” and “the Bible does not appear to have been one of +his favorite books.” At the end of his arrangement of +“Fidelio” Moscheles had written, “Fine. With +God’s help.” To this Beethoven added, “O man, help +thyself.”</p> +<p><b>Bekker</b> (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier +(Friesland) 20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of +divinity, and lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and +had to fly to Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his <i>World +Bewitched</i> (1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of +demons are denied. His book, which contains much curious information, +raised a host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the +Church. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June, 1698. +Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have “looked like +the devil, though he did not believe in him.”</p> +<p id="belinsky"><b>Belinsky</b> (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian +critic, b. Pensa 1811, educated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the +Pantheistic philosophy of Hegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 +May, 1848. His works were issued in 12 volumes, 1857–61.</p> +<p><b>Bell</b> (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered +in 1842. He was employed in the suppression of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1684" href="#xd20e1684" name= +"xd20e1684">36</a>]</span>Thugee. He wrote the <i>Task of To-Day</i>, +1852, and assisted the <i>Reasoner</i>, both with pen and purse, +writing over the signature “Undecimus.” He contemplated +selling his commission to devote himself to Freethought propaganda, but +by the advice of his friends was deterred. He returned to India at the +Mutiny. In January, 1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at +Madras. He retired in July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian +affairs. Died 12 Sept. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Bell</b> (William S.), b. in <span class="corr" id="xd20e1696" +title="Source: Alleghany">Allegheny</span> city, Pennsylvania, 10 Feb. +1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for mixing +politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In 1873 he +preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in Dec. +’74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought +lecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution, and +some pamphlets.</p> +<p><b>Bender</b> (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology +at Bonn, b. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther +centenary, 1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was +incompleted and must be carried on by the Rationalists.</p> +<p><b>Bennett</b> (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New +York <i>Truthseeker</i>, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 +Dec. 1818. At the age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New +Lebanon. Here he stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost +faith in the Shaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he +started a drug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works +made him a Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in +answer to some ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a +paper of his own. The result was the <i>Truthseeker</i>, which in +January, 1876 became a weekly, and has since become one of the +principal Freethought organs in America. In 1879 he was sentenced to +thirteen months’ imprisonment for sending through the post a +pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the marriage question. A tract, entitled +<i>An Open Letter to Jesus Christ</i>, was read in court to bias the +jury. A petition bearing 200,000 names was presented to President Hayes +asking his release, but was not <span class="corr" id="xd20e1716" +title="Source: acceeded">acceded</span> to. Upon his release his +admirers sent him for a voyage round the world. He wrote <i>A +Truthseeker’s Voyage Round the World</i>, <i>Letters from Albany +Penitentiary</i>, <i>Answers to <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e1728" href="#xd20e1728" name="xd20e1728">37</a>]</span>Christian +Questions and Arguments</i>, two large volumes on <i>The Gods</i>, +another on the <i>World’s Sages, Infidels and Thinkers</i>, and +published his discussions with Humphrey, Mair, and Teed, and numerous +tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.</p> +<p id="bentham"><b>Bentham</b> (Jeremy), writer on ethics, +jurisprudence, and political economy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle +named Woodward was the publisher of Tindal’s <i>Christianity as +Old as the Creation</i>. Was educated at Westminster and Oxford, where +he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham is justly regarded as the father of the +school of philosophical Radicalism. In philosophy he is the great +teacher of Utilitarianism; as a jurist he did much to disclose the +defects of and improve our system of law. Macaulay says he “found +jurisprudence a gibberish and left it a science.” His most +pronounced Freethought work was that written in conjunction with Grote, +published as <i>An Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion</i>, +by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his numerous other works we can only +mention <i>Deontology, or the Science of Mortality</i>, an exposition +of utilitarianism; <i>Church of Englandism and its Catechism Examined; +Not Paul, but Jesus</i>, published under the pseudonym of Gamaliel +Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for the purposes of +science.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e1755" title= +"Source: Beranger">Béranger</span></b> (Jean Pierre de), +celebrated French lyrical poet, b. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on +the Bourbons twice ensured for him imprisonment. He was elected to the +Constituant Assembly 1848. Béranger has been compared not +inaptly to Burns. All his songs breathe the spirit of liberty, and +several have been characterised as impious. He died 16 July, 1857.</p> +<p><b>Bergel</b> (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of <i>Heaven and +Its Wonders</i>, Leipsic, 1881, and <i>Mythology of the Ancient +Hebrews</i>, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Berger</b> (Moriz), author of a work on <i>Materialism in +Conflict with Spiritualism and Idealism</i>, Trieste, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Bergerac de</b> (Savinien Cyrano). See <a href= +"#cyranodebergerac">Cyrano</a>.</p> +<p><b>Bergk</b> (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, +27 June, 1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many +works, both under his own name and <span class="corr" id="xd20e1787" +title="Source: psuedonyms">pseudonyms</span>. He published the <i>Art +of Thinking</i>, Leipsic, 1802, conducted the <i>Asiatic Magazine</i>, +1806, and wrote under the name of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e1796" href="#xd20e1796" name="xd20e1796">38</a>]</span>Frey the +<i>True Religion</i>, “recommended to rationalists and destined +for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics, etc.” Died +Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.</p> +<p><b>Bergk</b> (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. +Leipsic, 22 May, 1812, author of a good <i>History of Greek +Literature</i>, 1872.</p> +<p><b>Berigardus</b> (Claudius), or <b>Beauregard</b> (Claude +Guillermet), French physician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about +1591. He became a professor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went +to Padua. His <i lang="la">Circulus Pisanus</i>, published in 1643, was +considered an Atheistic work. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the +various hypotheses of the formation of the world. The work was +forbidden and is very rare. His book entitled <i lang="la">Dubitationes +in Dialogum Galilæi</i>, also brought on him a charge of +scepticism. Died in 1664.</p> +<p><b>Berkenhout</b> (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. +1731, the son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life +he had been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and in +1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on medical +science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain and +Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal work +is entitled <i lang="la">Biographia Literaria</i>, a biographical +history of English literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no +opportunity of displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud +in his praises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.</p> +<p><b>Berlioz</b> (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical +composers, b. Isère, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his +dramatic symphony of <i>Romeo and Juliet</i> (1839), and was made +chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Among his works is one on the +<i>Infancy of Christ</i>. In his <i>Memoirs</i> he relates how he +scandalised Mendelssohn “by laughing at the Bible.” Died +Paris, 9 March, 1869.</p> +<p><b>Bernard</b> (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 +July, 1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the +Institute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote <i>La +Science Experimentale</i>, and other works on physiology. Died 10 Feb. +1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert calls +him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1848" href="#xd20e1848" name= +"xd20e1848">39</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bernier</b> (Abbé). See <a href= +"#holbach">Holbach</a>.</p> +<p><b>Bernier</b> (François), French physician and traveller, b. +Angers about 1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, +and he defended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as +<i lang="fr">le joli philsophe</i>. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, +and from thence to India, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On +his return he published an account of his travels and of the Empire of +the Great Mogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.</p> +<p><b>Bernstein</b> (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents +Dantzic 1812. His first work was a translation of the <i>Song of +Songs</i>, published under the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He +devoted himself to natural science and published works on <i>The +Rotation of Planets, Humboldt and the Spirit of the Time</i>, etc. His +essay on <i>The Origin of the Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob</i> +was translated by a German lady and published by Thomas Scott of +Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin, 12 Feb. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Berquin</b> (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. +Erasmus, his friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred +of the monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was +commanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment was +pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to the +Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of the +17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to be +burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon at +the Place de la Grève. He died with great constancy and +resolution.</p> +<p><b>Bert</b> (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, +17 Oct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after +being Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869 +obtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris, +and distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In ’70 +he offered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in +’72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised +himself by his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made +him Minister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised +French education on a Secular basis. His <i>First Year of Scientific +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1887" href="#xd20e1887" name= +"xd20e1887">40</a>]</span>Instruction</i> is almost universally used in +the French primary schools. It has been translated into English by +Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His strong anti-clerical views +induced much opposition. He published several scientific and +educational works and attacked <i>The Morality of the Jesuits</i>, +’80. In ’86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at +Tonquin, where he died 11 Nov. ’86. His body was brought over to +France and given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his +widow.</p> +<p><b>Bertani</b> (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became +a physician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising +the ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy +to the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Berti</b> (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. +Author of many scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council +and of the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Bertillon</b> (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and +physician, b. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical +study of the French population, Paris ’74. He edits in +conjunction with A. Hovelacque and others, the <i>Dictionary of the +Anthropological Sciences</i> (’83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. +’51) and Alphonse (b. ’53), prosecute similar studies.</p> +<p><b>Bertrand de Saint-Germain</b> (Guillaume Scipion), French +physician, b. <span class="corr" id="xd20e1912" title= +"Source: Puy-en Velay">Puy-en-Velay</span> 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. +1840, wrote on <i>The Original Diversity of Human Races</i> (1847), and +a materialistic work on <i>Manifestation of Life and Intelligence +through Organisation</i>, 1848. Has also written on <i>Descartes as a +Physiologist</i>, 1869.</p> +<p><b>Berwick</b> (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India +Company in 1828, retired in ’52. Author of <i>Awas-i-hind</i>, or +a Voice from the Ganges; being a solution of the true source of +Christianity. By an Indian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on +<i>The Forces of the Universe</i>, ’70. Died about 1872.</p> +<p><b>Besant</b> (Annie) née Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. +Educated in Evangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but +turned to the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In “Holy +Week” of 1866 she resolved to write the story of the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1938" href="#xd20e1938" name= +"xd20e1938">41</a>]</span>week from the gospel. Their contradictions +startled her but she regarded her doubts as sin. In Dec. ’67 she +married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and wrote extensively. The torment +a child underwent in whooping-cough caused doubts as to the goodness of +God. A study of Greg’s <i>Creed of Christendom</i> and +Arnold’s <i>Literature and Dogma</i> increased her scepticism. +She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas Scott, for +whom she wrote an <i>Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth</i>, +“by the wife of a beneficed clergyman.” This led to her +husband insisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the +latter course, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her +own resources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in +<i>My Path to Atheism</i> (’77). Joined the National Secular +Society, and in ’74 wrote in the <i>National Reformer</i> over +the signature of “Ajax.” Next year she took to the platform +and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to the front rank as a +Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor of the <i>National +Reformer</i>. Some lectures on the French Revolution were republished +in book form. In April, ’77, she was arrested with Mr. Bradlaugh +for publishing the <i>Fruits of Philosophy</i>. After a brilliant +defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt motives, +and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed in Feb. +’78, and the case was not renewed. In May, ’78, a petition +in Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the +ground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted +the petition. In ’80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London +University and took 1st B.Sc. with honors in ’82. She has debated +much and issued many pamphlets to be found in <i>Theological Essays and +Debates</i>. She wrote the second part of the <i>Freethinkers’ +Text Book</i> dealing with Christian evidence; has written on the +<i>Sins of the Church</i>, 1886, and the <i>Evolution of Society</i>. +She has translated Jules Soury’s <i>Religion of Israel</i>, and +<i>Jesus of the Gospels</i>; Dr. L. Büchner on the <i>Influence of +Heredity</i> and <i>Mind in Animals</i>, and from the fifteenth edition +of <i>Force and Matter</i>. From ’83 to ’88 she edited +<i>Our Corner</i>, and since ’85 has given much time to Socialist +propaganda, and has written many Socialist pamphlets. In Dec. +’88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member of the London School +Board.</p> +<p><b>Beverland</b> (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e1998" href="#xd20e1998" name= +"xd20e1998">42</a>]</span>of Isaac Vossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took +the degree of doctor of law and became an advocate, but devoted himself +to literature. He was at the university of Oxford in 1672. His treatise +on Original Sin, <i>Peccatum Originale</i> (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in +which he contends that the sin of Adam and Eve was sexual inclination, +caused a great outcry. It was burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his +name struck from the rolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other +curious works and died about 1712.</p> +<p><b>Bevington</b> (Louisa S.), afterwards <span class= +"sc">Guggenberger</span>; English poetess and authoress of <i>Key +Notes</i>, 1879; <i>Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets</i>, ’82; wrote +“Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock” in the <i>Nineteenth +Century</i> (Oct. and Dec. ’79), and on “The Moral Demerits +of Orthodoxy” in <i>Progress</i>, Sept. ’84.</p> +<p id="beyle"><b>Beyle</b> (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous +under the name of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, +soldier, merchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life +being congenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, <i lang= +"fr">De l’Amour</i> is his most notable work. He was an original +and gifted critic and romancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at +Paris, 23 March, 1842. Prosper Merimée has published his +correspondence. One of his sayings was “Ce qui excuse Dieu, +c’est qu’il n’existe pas”—God’s +excuse is that he does not exist.</p> +<p><b>Bianchi</b> (Angelo), known as <span class= +"sc">Bianchi-Giovini</span> (Aurelio) Italian man of letters, b. of +poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted several papers in +various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His <i>Life of Father Paoli +Sarpi</i>, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward he was in +constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on the clergy in +<i lang="it">Il Republicano</i>, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had +to seek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote +a <i>History of the Hebrews</i>, a monograph on <i>Pope Joan</i>, and +an account of the Revolution. His principal works are the <i>History of +the Popes</i> until the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850–64) +and a <i>Criticism of the Gospels</i>, 1853, which has gone through +several editions. Died 16 May, 1862.</p> +<p><b>Biandrata</b> or <span class="sc">Blandrata</span> (Giorgio), +Italian anti-trinitarian reformer, b. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in +arts and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2063" href="#xd20e2063" +name="xd20e2063">43</a>]</span>medicine at Montpellier, 1533. He was +thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia, but contrived to +escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to Calvin. He left Geneva +in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a leader of the Socinian +party. He was assassinated 1591.</p> +<p><b>Bichat</b> (Marie François Xavier), a famous French +anatomist and physiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work +on the <i>Physiology of Life and Death</i> was translated into English. +He died a martyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.</p> +<p><b>Biddle</b> or <span class="sc">Bidle</span> (John), called the +father of English Unitarianism, b. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, +14 Jan. 1615. He took his M.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became +master of the Gloucester Grammar School, but lost the situation for +denying the Trinity. He was also imprisoned there for some time, and +afterwards cited at Westminster. He appealed to the public in defence, +and his pamphlet was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. +He was detained in prison till 1652, after which he published several +pamphlets, and was again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell +banished him to the Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned +to London 1658, but after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was +again seized, and died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.</p> +<p><b>Bierce</b> (M. H.) see <a href="#grile"><span class= +"sc">Grile</span> (Dod)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Billaud-Varenne</b> (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La +Rochelle, 23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; +denounced the government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the +monarchy 1 July, 1791, and wrote <i>Elements of Republicanism</i>, +1793. Withdrew from Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, +saying “Thou beginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme +Being.” Was exiled 1 April, 1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 +June, 1819.</p> +<p><b>Bion</b>, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A +Scythian philosopher who flourished about 250 <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> He was sold as a slave to a rhetorician, who +afterwards gave him freedom and made him his heir. Upon this he went to +Athens and applied himself to the study of philosophy. He had several +teachers, but attached himself to Theodorus the Atheist. He was famous +for his knowledge of music, poetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings +of his are preserved, as that “only the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2102" href="#xd20e2102" name= +"xd20e2102">44</a>]</span>votive tablets of the preserved are seen in +the temples, not those of the drowned” and “it is useless +to tear our hair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by +baldness.”</p> +<p><b>Birch</b> (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4 Jan. +1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at New Inn +Hall. Author of <i>An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion of +Shakespeare</i>, 1848; <i>An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion +of the Bible</i>, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by +“Rudolf Charles;” <i>Paul an Idea, not a Fact</i>; and the +<i>Real and Ideal</i>. In the stormy time of ’42 Mr. Birch did +much to support the prosecuted publications. He brought out the +<i>Library of Reason</i> and supported <i>The Reasoner</i> and +<i>Investigator</i> with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has resided much +in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity and Freedom. He +is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch has been a +contributor to <i>Notes and Queries</i> and other journals, and has +devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity, having many +manuscripts upon the subject.</p> +<p><b>Bithell</b> (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, +of pious parents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. +of Gottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In ’65 he entered +the service of the Rothschilds. Has written <i>Creed of a Modern +Agnostic</i>, 1883; and <i>Agnostic Problems</i>, 1887.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e2145" title= +"Source: Bjornson">Björnson</span></b> (Björnstjerne), +Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His father was a Lutheran +clergyman. Has done much to create a national literature for Norway. +For his freethinking opinions he was obliged to leave his country and +reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been translated into English. +In 1882 Björnson published at Christiania, with a short +introduction, a resumé of C. B. Waite’s <i>History of the +Christian Religion</i>, under the title of <i>Whence come the Miracles +of the New Testament?</i> This was the first attack upon dogmatic +Christianity published in Norway, and created much discussion. The +following year he published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll’s +article in the <i>North American Review</i> upon the “Christian +Religion,” with a long preface, in which he attacks the State +Church and Monarchy. The translation was entitled <i>Think for +Yourself</i>. The first edition rapidly sold out and a <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2160" href="#xd20e2160" name= +"xd20e2160">45</a>]</span>second one appeared. He has since, both in +speech and writing, repeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had +several controversies with the clergy.</p> +<p><b>Blagosvyetlov</b> (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the +Caucasus, 1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose +<i>Subjection of Women</i> he translated into Russian. He edited a +magazine Djelo (Cause). Died about 1885.</p> +<p><b>Blanqui</b> (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 +Feb. 1805, a younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. +Becoming a Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment +under successive governments. In ’39 he was condemned to death, +but his sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to +brutal treatment till the revolution of ’48 set him at liberty. +He was soon again imprisoned. In ’65 he wrote some remarkable +articles on Monotheism in <i>Le Candide</i>. After the revolution of 4 +Sept. ’70, Blanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was +again imprisoned, but was liberated and elected member of the Commune, +and arrested by Thiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious +book, <i>Eternity and the Stars</i>, in which he argues from the +eternity and infinity of matter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took +as his motto “<span lang="fr">Ni Dieu ni +maître</span>”—Neither God nor master.</p> +<p><b>Blasche</b> (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 +April, 1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He +wrote <i lang="de">Kritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens</i> (Criticism +of Modern Ghost Belief), <i lang="de">Philosophische +Unsterblichkeitslehre</i> (Teaching of Philosophical Immortality), and +other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.</p> +<p><b>Blignieres</b> (Célestin de), French Positivist, of the +Polytechnic school. Has written a popular exposition of Positive +philosophy and religion, Paris 1857; <i>The Positive Doctrine</i>, +1867; <i>Studies of Positive Morality</i>, 1868; and other works.</p> +<p><b>Blind</b> (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. +Studied at Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary +leader among the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and +proscribed. In Sept. ’48 he led the second republican revolution +in the Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight +year’s imprisonment. In the spring of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2207" href="#xd20e2207" name= +"xd20e2207">46</a>]</span>’49 he was liberated by the people +breaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon, +then president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and +banished from France. He went to Brussels, but since ’52 has +lived in in England, where he has written largely on politics, history, +and mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her +literary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the name +of <i>Claude Lake</i>. She has since translated Straus’s <i>Old +Faith and the New</i>, and written the volumes on George Eliot and +Madame Roland in the <i>Eminent Women</i> series.</p> +<p><b>Blount</b> (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at +Holloway 27 April, 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared +in his opinions, and helped him in his anti-religious work, <i>Anima +Mundi</i>, 1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In +1680 he published <i>Great is Diana of the Ephesians</i>, or the Origin +of Idolatry, and the two first books of <i>Apollonius Tyanius</i>, with +notes, in which he attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was +condemned and suppressed. Blount also published <i>The Oracles of +Reason</i>, a number of Freethought Essays. By his <i>Vindication of +Learning and Liberty of the Press</i>, and still more by his hoax on +Bohun entitled <i>William and Mary Conquerors</i>, he was largely +instrumental in doing away with the censorship of the press. He shot +himself, it is said, because he could not marry his deceased +wife’s sister (August, 1693). His miscellaneous works were +printed in one volume, 1695.</p> +<p><b>Blumenfeld</b> (J. C.), wrote <i>The New Ecce Homo or the Self +Redemption of Man</i>, 1839. He is also credited with the authorship of +<i>The Existence of Christ Disproved</i> in a series of Letters by +“A German Jew,” London, 1841.</p> +<p><b>Boerne</b> (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b. +Frankfort 22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in +which he had been bred, nominally for Protestantism, but really he had, +like his friend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in +favor of political liberty and translated Lammenais’ <i>Paroles +d’un Croyant</i>. Died 12 Feb. 1837.</p> +<p><b>Bodin</b> (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He +studied at Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the +law, and became secretary to the Duc d’Alençon. His +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2262" href="#xd20e2262" name= +"xd20e2262">47</a>]</span>book <i>De la Republique</i> is highly +praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of +Montesquieu’s “Spirit of the Laws.” He wrote a work +on <span class="corr" id="xd20e2267" title= +"Source: demonomaina">demonomania</span>, in which he seems to have +believed, but in his <i lang="la">Colloquium Heptaplomeron</i> +coloquies of seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a +Pagan, a Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript, +he put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at Laon +in 1596.</p> +<p><b>Boggis</b> (John) is mentioned by Edwards in his <i>Gangrena</i>, +1645, as an Atheist and disbeliever in the Bible.</p> +<p><b>Boichot</b> (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820, +entered the army. In ’49 he was chosen representative of the +people. After the <i lang="fr">coup d’état</i> he came to +England, returned to France in ’54, was arrested and imprisoned +at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived at Brussels, where he has +written several works and is one of the council of International +Freethinkers.</p> +<p><b>Boindin</b> (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and +academician, b. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and +resorted with other Freethinkers to the famous café Procope. +There, in order to speak freely, they called the soul Margot, religion +Javotte, liberty Jeanneton, and God M. de l’Etre. One day a spy +asked Boindin, “Who is this M. de l’Etre with whom you seem +so displeased?” “Monsieur,” replied Boindin, +“he is a police spy.” Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse was +refused “Christian burial.”</p> +<p id="boissiere"><b>Boissiere</b> (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French +writer, b. Valognes Dec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He +compiled an analogical dictionary of the French language. Under the +name of Sièrebois he has published the <i>Autopsy of the +Soul</i> and a work on the foundations of morality, which he traces to +interest. He has also written a book entitled <i>The Mechanism of +Thought</i>, ’84.</p> +<p><b>Boissonade</b> (J. A.), author of <i>The Bible Unveiled</i>, +Paris, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Boito</b> (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose +opera “Mefistofele,” has created considerable sensation by +its boldness.</p> +<p id="bolingbroke"><b>Bolingbroke</b> (Henry <span class="sc">Saint +John</span>) Lord, English statesman and philosopher, b. at Battersea, +1 Oct. 1672. His political life <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e2320" href="#xd20e2320" name="xd20e2320">48</a>]</span>was a +stormy one. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his <i>Essay +on Man</i> avowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at +Battersea 12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who +in 1754 published his works, which included <i>Essays Written to A. +Pope, Esq., on Religion and Philosophy</i>, in which he attacks +Christianity with both wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, +believing in God but scornfully rejecting revelation. He much +influenced Voltaire, who regarded him with esteem.</p> +<p><b>Bonavino</b> (Francesco Cristoforo) see <a href= +"#franchi"><span class="sc">Franchi</span> (Ausonio)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Boni</b> (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. +Editor of a standard <i>Biography of Artists</i>, published at Venice, +1840. He also wrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on <i>Reason and +Dogma</i>, Siena, ’66, and contributed to Stefanoni’s +<i lang="it">Libero Pensiero</i>. De Boni was elected deputy to the +Italian Parliament. He has written on “Italian Unbelief in the +Middle Ages” in the <i lang="it">Annuario Filosofico del Libero +Pensiero</i>, ’68.</p> +<p><b>Boniface VIII.</b>, Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of +Christendom, 24 Dec. 1294. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of +France charges were sworn on oath against Pope Boniface that he neither +believed in the Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the +Virgin Mary “was no more a virgin than my mother”; that he +did not observe the fasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the +cardinals, monks, and friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the +Pope had said “God may do the worst with me that he pleases in +the future life; I believe as every educated man does, the vulgar +believe otherwise. We have to speak as they do, but we must believe and +think with the few.” Died 11 Oct. 1303.</p> +<p><b>Bonnycastle</b> (John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, +about 1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathematics and became +Professor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, where +he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private +information assures me he was a Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Booms</b> (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by +trade, who wrote early in the <span class="corr" id="xd20e2365" title= +"Source: eigthteenth">eighteenth</span> century, and on 1 Jan. 1714, +was banished. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2368" href= +"#xd20e2368" name="xd20e2368">49</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bonnot de Condillac</b> (Etienne) see <a href= +"#condillac"><span class="sc">Condillac</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Bonstetten</b> (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept +1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and +England to finish his education. Among his works are <i>Researches on +the Nature and Laws of the Imagination</i>, 1807; and <i>Studies on +Man</i>, 1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.</p> +<p><b>Borde</b> (Frédéric), editor of <i>La Philosophie +de l’Avenir</i>, Paris, 1875, etc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has +written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.</p> +<p><b>Born</b> (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by +the Jesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the +Empress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works on +Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and published +with the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated satire +entitled <i>Monchalogia</i>, or the natural history of monks.</p> +<p><b>Bosc</b> (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, +29 Jan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose +<i>Memoirs</i> he published. He wrote many works on natural history. +Died 10 July, 1828.</p> +<p><b>Boucher</b> (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809; +contributed to the <i>Rationalist</i> of Geneva, where he died 1882. +Author of a work on Revelation and Rationalism, entitled <i>Search for +the Truth</i>, Avignon, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Bougainville</b> (Louis Antoine de) <i>Count</i>, the first +French voyager who made the tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov. +1729. Died 31 Aug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his +travels.</p> +<p><b>Bouillier</b> (Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July +1813, has written several works on psychology, and contributed to +<i lang="fr">la Liberté de Penser</i>. His principal work is a +History of the Cartesian Philosophy.<a id="xd20e2433" name= +"xd20e2433"></a> He is a member of the Institute and writes in the +leading reviews.</p> +<p><b>Bouis</b> (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited +<i lang="fr">La Libre Pensée</i> and wrote a satire on the +Jesuits entitled <i lang="fr">Calottes et Soutanes</i>, 1870. Sent to +New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he has since his +return published a volume of political verses entitled <i lang= +"fr">Après le Naufrage</i>, After the Shipwreck, 1880. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2448" href="#xd20e2448" name= +"xd20e2448">50</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Boulainvilliers</b> (Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French +historian and philosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical +work is an account of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a +defence of Spinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an +analysis of Spinoza’s Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at +the end of <i>Doubts upon Religion</i>, Londres, 1767. A <i>Life of +Muhammad</i>, the first European work doing justice to Islam, and a +<i>History of the Arabs</i> also proceeded from his pen, and he is one +of those to whom is attributed the treatise with the title of the +<i>Three Impostors</i>, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.</p> +<p id="boulanger"><b>Boulanger</b> (Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b. +11 Nov. 1722. Died 16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as +engineer, and afterwards became surveyor of public works. After his +death his works were published by D’Holbach who rewrote them. His +principal works are <i>Antiquity Unveiled</i> and <i>Researches on the +Origin of Oriental Despotism</i>. <i>Christianity Unveiled</i>, +attributed to him and said by Voltaire to have been by Damilavile, was +probably written by D’Holbach, perhaps with some assistance from +Naigeon. It was burnt by order of the French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. +<i>A Critical Examination of the Life and Works of St. Paul</i>, +attributed to Boulanger, was really made up by d’Holbach from the +work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations on Elisha, Enoch and St. +Peter, and some articles for the <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie</i>.</p> +<p><b>Bourdet</b> (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. +Author of several works on medicine and Positivist philosophy and +education.</p> +<p><b>Boureau-Deslands</b> (A. F.) See <a href= +"#deslandes">Deslandes</a>.</p> +<p><b>Bourget</b> (Paul), French littérateur, b. at Amiens in +1852. Has made himself famous by his novels, essays on <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e2499" title= +"Source: contemtemporary">contemporary</span> psychology, studies of M. +Rénan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but his methods +are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His insight is +most subtle, and his style is exquisite.</p> +<p><b>Boutteville</b> (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the +Lycée Bonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and +published an able work on the Morality of the Church and Natural +Morality, 1866, for which the clergy turned him out of a professorship +he held at Sainte-Barbe. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2507" href= +"#xd20e2507" name="xd20e2507">51</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bovio</b> (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the +University of Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent +Freethinker. Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio opposes +the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between Church and +State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience and has +promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University of Rome. He +has written a work on <i>The History of Law</i>, a copy of which he +presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Bowring</b> (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and +writer, b. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant +Carpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles he +maintained in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he was editor, +1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight’s +imprisonment he was released without trial. He published +Bentham’s <i>Deontology</i> (1834), and nine years after edited a +complete collection of the works of Bentham. Returned to Parliament in +’35, and afterwards was employed in important government +missions. In ’55 he visited Siam, and two years later published +an account of <i>The Kingdom and People of Siam</i>. He translated +Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of many countries; was an active +member of the British Association and of the Social Science +Association, and did much to promote rational views on the Sunday +question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.</p> +<p><b>Boyle</b> (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the +purpose of serving in R. Carlile’s shop when the right of free +publication was attacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted +and tried as “a man with name unknown” for publishing a +blasphemous and seditious libel. In his defence he ably asserted his +right to hold and publish his opinions. He read portions of the Bible +in court to prove he was justified in calling it obscene. Upon being +sentenced, 27 May, 1822, to eighteen months’ imprisonment and to +find sureties for five years, he remarked “I have a mind, my +lord, that can bear such a sentence with fortitude.”</p> +<p><b>Bradlaugh</b> (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. +Educated in Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his +Sunday-school teachership and from his first situation <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2536" href="#xd20e2536" name= +"xd20e2536">52</a>]</span>through the influence of the Rev. J. G. +Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In Dec. 1850 he +entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here he met James +Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which lasted for many +years. He got his discharge, and in ’53 returned to London and +became a solicitor’s clerk. He began to write and lecture under +the <i>nom de guerre</i> of “Iconoclast,” edited the +<i>Investigator</i>, ’59; and had numerous debates with ministers +and others. In 1860 he began editing the <i>National Reformer</i>, +which in ’68–9 he successfully defended against a +prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities against +blasphemy. In ’68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament, and +in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle with the +House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took his seat in +1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation into which he +was plunged will become as historic as that of John Wilkes. Prosecuted +in ’76 for publishing <i>The Fruits of Philosophy</i>, he +succeeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous +debates, several of which are published. He has also written many +pamphlets, of which we mention <i>New Lives of Abraham, David, and +other saints</i>, <i>Who was Jesus Christ?</i> <i>What did Jesus +Teach?</i> <i>Has Man a Soul, Is there a God?</i> etc. His <i>Plea for +Atheism</i> reached its 20th thousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also +published <i>When were our Gospels Written<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e2568" title="Not in source">?</span></i>, 1867<span class="corr" +id="xd20e2572" title="Source: ?">;</span> <i>Heresy, its Utility and +Morality</i>, 1870; <i>The Inspiration of the Bible</i>, 1873; <i>The +Freethinker’s Text Book</i>, part i., dealing with natural +religion, 1876; <i>The Laws Relating to Blasphemy and Heresy</i>, 1878; +<i>Supernatural and Rational Morality</i>, 1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh +commenced a commentary on the Bible, entitled <i>The Bible, What is +it?</i> In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form, dealing only with the +Pentateuch. In 1882 he published <i>Genesis, Its Authorship and +Authenticity</i>. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become a conspicuous +figure, and has introduced many important measures. In 1888 he +succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations permissible +instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30 April, 1856, has +written on <i>Mind Considered as a Bodily Function</i>, 1884. Died 2 +Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner, b. 31 March, +1858, has written “Princess Vera” and other stories, +“Chemistry of Home,” etc. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e2600" href="#xd20e2600" name="xd20e2600">53</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Brækstad</b> (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept. +1845. Has made English translations from Björnson, +Asbjörnsen, Andersen, etc., and has contributed to +<i>Harper’s Magazine</i> and other periodical literature.</p> +<p><b>Brandes</b> (Georg Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew, +b. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills’ +<i>Subjection of Women</i>, and in the following year took a +doctor’s degree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is +entitled the <i>Main Current of Literature in the Nineteenth +Century</i>. His brother, Dr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish +Parliament in 1881, despite his declaration that he did not believe +either in the God of the Christians or of the Jews.</p> +<p><b>Bray</b> (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. +1811. He was brought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to +Freethought. Early in life he took an active part in promoting +unsectarian education. His first work (1835) was on <i>The Education of +the Body</i>. This was followed by <i>The Education of the +Feelings</i>, of which there were several editions. In 1836 he married +Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell, and took the <i>System of +Nature</i> and Volney’s <i>Ruins of Empires</i> “to enliven +the honeymoon.” Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans +(“George Eliot”), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to +Italy. His works on <i>The Philosophy of Necessity</i> (1841) and +<i>Cerebral Psychology</i> (1875) give the key to all his thought. He +wrote a number of Thomas Scott’s series of tracts: <i>Illusion +and Delusion</i>, <i>The Reign of Law in Mind as in Matter</i>, +<i>Toleration</i> with remarks on Professor Tyndall’s +“Address,” and a little book, <i>Christianity in the Light +of our Present Knowledge and Moral Sense</i> (1876). He also wrote <i>A +Manual of Anthropology</i> and similar works. In a postscript to his +last volume, <i>Phases of Opinion and Experience During a Long +Life</i>, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated that he has no hope or +expectation or belief even in the possibility of continued +individuality after death, and that as his opinions have done to live +by “they will do to die by.” He died 5 Oct. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Bresson</b> (Léopold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, +1817. Educated at the Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and +served on public works. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian +Railway Company. Wrote <i lang="fr">Idées Modernes</i>, 1880. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2667" href="#xd20e2667" name= +"xd20e2667">54</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bridges</b> (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, +graduated B.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on +<i>Religion and Progress</i>, contributed to the <i>Fortnightly +Review</i>, and translated Comte’s <i>General View of +Positivism</i> (1865) and <i>System of Positive Polity</i> (1873).</p> +<p><b>Bril</b> (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. +1639. <span class="corr" id="xd20e2688" title= +"Source: died">Died</span> 1700. His works were published at Amsterdam, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e2691" title="Source: 4705">1705</span>.</p> +<p><b>Brissot</b> (Jean Pierre) <span class="sc">de Warville</span>, +active French revolutionist, b. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to +the law, but took to literature. He wrote for the <i>Courier de +l’Europe</i>, a revolutionary paper suppressed for its boldness, +published a treatise on Truth, and edited a Philosophical Law Library, +1782–85. He wrote against the legal authority of Rome, and is +credited with <i>Philosophical Letters upon St. Paul and the Christian +Religion</i>, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784 he was imprisoned in the +Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second imprisonment he went to +England and America, returning to France at the outbreak of the +Revolution. He wrote many political works, became member of the +Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party, protested against the +execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph of the Mountain was +executed with twenty-one of his colleagues, 31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was +a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish, and an earnest lover of freedom +in every form.</p> +<p><b>Bristol</b> (Augusta), née <span class="sc">Cooper</span>, +American educator, b. Croydon, New Haven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850 +became teacher and gained repute by her <i>Poems</i>. In Sept. 1880, +she represented American Freethinkers at the International Conference +at Brussels. She has written on <i>Science and its Relations to Human +Character</i> and other works.</p> +<p><b>Broca</b> (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. +A hard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In +1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils +Gratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated +his treatise on <i>Hybridity</i>. He established <i>The Review of +Anthropology</i>, published numerous scientific works and was made a +member of the Legion of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2731" href= +"#xd20e2731" name="xd20e2731">55</a>]</span>Honor. In philosophy he +inclined to Positivism. Died Paris, 9 July, 1880.</p> +<p><b>Brooksbank</b> (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he +wrote in Carlile’s <i>Lion</i>, and has since contributed to the +<i>Reasoner</i>, the <i>Pathfinder</i>, and the <i>National +Reformer</i>. He was an intimate friend of James Watson. He wrote <i>A +Sketch of the Religions of the Earth</i>, <i>Revelation Tested by +Astronomy, Geography, Geology</i>, etc., 1856, and some other +pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age at +Nottingham.</p> +<p><b>Brothier</b> (Léon), author of a <i>Popular History of +Philosophy</i>, 1861, and other works in the <i lang= +"fr">Bibliothèque Utile</i>. He contributed to the +<i>Rationalist</i> of Geneva.</p> +<p><b>Broussais</b> (François Joseph Victor), French physician +and philosopher, b. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in +1792 he served as volunteer in the army of the Republic. He studied +medicine at St. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple +of Bichat, he did much to reform medical science by his <i>Examination +of Received Medical Doctrines</i> and to find a basis for mental and +moral science in physiology by his many scientific works. Despite his +bold opinions, he was made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died +poor at St. Malo 17 Nov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in +which he declares his disbelief in a creator and his being +“without hope or fear of another life.”</p> +<p><b>Brown</b> (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in +Essex Co., N.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he +was expelled the church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. +Dr. Brown edited the <i>Herald of Freedom</i>, Kansas. In 1856 his +office was destroyed by a pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the +river, and himself and others arrested but was released without trial. +Dr. Brown has contributed largely to the <i>Ironclad Age</i> and other +American Freethought papers, and is bringing out a work on the Origin +of Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Brown</b> (Titus L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.). +Studied at the Medical College of New York and graduated at the +Homœopathic College, Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where +he had a large practice. He contributed to the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2790" href="#xd20e2790" name= +"xd20e2790">56</a>]</span><i>Boston Investigator</i> and in 1877 was +elected President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug. +1887.</p> +<p><b>Browne</b> (Sir Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct. +1605. He studied medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his +doctor’s degree at Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich, +where he had a good practice. His treatise <i lang="la">Religio +Medici</i>, famous for its fine style and curious mixture of faith and +scepticism, was surreptitiously published in 1642. It ran through +several editions and was placed on the Roman <i>Index</i>. His +<i>Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Errors</i>, +appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular superstitions he showed +he partook of others. This curious work was followed by +<i>Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial</i>, in which he treats of cremation +among the ancients. To this was added <i>The Garden of Cyrus</i>. He +died 19 Oct. 1682.</p> +<p><b>Bruno</b> (Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near +Naples, about 1548. He was christened Filippo which he changed to +Filoteo, taking the name of Giordano when he entered the Dominican +order. Religious doubts and bold strictures on the monks obliged him to +quit Italy, probably in 1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no +safe abiding place, and quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but +refused to attend mass. In 1583 he visited England, living with the +French ambassador Castelnau. Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip +Sidney, he dedicated to him his <i lang="it">Spaccio della Bestia +Triomfante</i>, a satire on all mythologies. In 1585 he took part in a +logical tournament, sustaining the Copernican theory against the +doctors of Oxford. The following year he returned to Paris, where he +again attacked the Aristotelians. He then travelled to various cities +in Germany, everywhere preaching the broadest heresy. He published +several Pantheistic, scientific and philosophical works. He was however +induced to return to Italy, and arrested as an heresiarch and apostate +at Venice, Sept. 1592. After being confined for seven years by the +Inquisitors, he was tried, and burnt at Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last +moments a crucifix was offered him, which he nobly rejected. Bruno was +vastly before his age in his conception of the universe and his +rejection of theological dogmas. A statue of this heroic apostle of +liberty and light, executed by one of the first sculptors of Italy, is +to be erected on the spot where <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e2820" href="#xd20e2820" name="xd20e2820">57</a>]</span>he +perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the site in face +of the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The list of +subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced thinkers +in Europe and America.</p> +<p><b>Brzesky</b> (Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See <a href= +"#liszinski">Liszinski</a>.</p> +<p><b>Bucali</b> or <span class="sc">Busali</span> (Leonardo), a +Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent, who became a follower of Servetus +in the sixteenth century, and had to seek among the Turks the safety +denied him in Christendom. He died at Damascus.</p> +<p><b>Buchanan</b> (George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn, +Feb. 1506. Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to Paris at the +age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became distinguished for +his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his natural son. He +composed his <i>Franciscanus et Fratres</i>, a satire on the monks, +which hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to the +vengeance of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist, +Archbishop Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew’s +Castle, from whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found, as +he said, Henry VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same stake +for religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to the +persecution of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of a +patron at Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and +immured for a year and a half in a monastery, where he translated the +Psalms into Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he +espoused the party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28 Sept. +1582, leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems, satires, +and political writings, the most important of which is a work of +republican tendency, <i>De Jure Regni</i>, the <i>Rights of +Kings</i>.</p> +<p><b>Buchanan</b> (Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was +successively a schoolmaster, a Socialist missionary and a journalist. +He settled in Manchester, where he published works on the <i>Religion +of The Past and Present</i>, 1839; the <i>Origin and Nature of +Ghosts</i>, 1840. An Exposure of Joseph Barker, and a <i>Concise +History of Modern Priestcraft</i> also bear the latter date. At this +time the Socialists were prosecuted for lecturing on Sunday, and +Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the oath of supremacy, etc. +After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2863" href="#xd20e2863" name= +"xd20e2863">58</a>]</span><i>Northern Star</i>, and edited the Glasgow +<i>Sentinel</i>. He died at the home of his son, the poet, at Bexhill, +Sussex, 4 March, 1866.</p> +<p><b>Buchanan</b> (Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort, +Kentucky, 11 Dec. 1814. He graduated M.D. at Louisville University, +1842, and has been the teacher of physiology at several colleges. From +1849–56 he published <i>Buchanan’s Journal of Man</i>, and +has written several works on Anthropology.</p> +<p><b>Buchner</b> (Ludwig). See <a href="#buechner">Buechner</a>.</p> +<p><b>Buckle</b> (Henry Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent, +24 Nov. 1821. In consequence of his delicate health he was educated at +home. His mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory, but +a visit to the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He ever +afterwards held travelling to be the best education. It was his +ambition to write a <i>History of Civilisation in England</i>, but so +vast was his design that his three notable volumes with that title form +only part of the introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created +a great sensation by its boldness. In the following year he championed +the cause of Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the +prosecution of infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East, in +the hope of improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May, 1862. +Much of the material collected for his History has been published in +his <i>Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works</i>, edited by Helen Taylor, +1872. An abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.</p> +<p id="buechner"><b>Buechner</b> (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), +German materialist, b. Darmstadt, 29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in +Geissen, Strassburg and Vienna. In ’55 he startled the world with +his bold work on <i>Force and Matter</i>, which has gone through +numerous editions and been translated into nearly all the European +languages. This work lost him the place of professor which he held at +Tübingen, and he has since practised in his native town. +Büchner has developed his ideas in many other works such as +<i>Nature and Spirit</i> (1857), <i>Physiological Sketches</i>, +’61; <i>Nature and Science</i>, ’62; <i>Conferences on +Darwinism</i>, ’69; <i>Man in the Past, Present and Future</i>, +’69; <i>Materialism its History and Influence on Society</i>, +’73; <i>The Idea of God</i>, ’74; <i>Mind in Animals</i>, +’80; and <i>Light and Life</i>, ’82. He also contributes to +the <i lang="de">Freidenker</i>, the <i lang="nl">Dageraad</i>, and +other journals. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e2937" href= +"#xd20e2937" name="xd20e2937">59</a>]</span></p> +<p id="buffon"><b>Buffon</b> (Georges Louis <span class= +"sc">Leclerc</span>), <i>Count de</i>, French naturalist, b. Montford, +Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His <i>Natural History</i> +in 36 volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind and his +capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in seclusion, +and attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his sentences were +attacked by the Sorbonne. Hérault de Sêchelles says that +Buffon said: “I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary +to take out the word and substitute the power of nature.” Died at +Paris 16 April, 1788.</p> +<p><b>Buitendijk</b> or <b>Buytendyck</b> (Gosuinus van), Dutch +Spinozist, who wrote an Apology at the beginning of the eighteenth +century and was banished 1716.</p> +<p><b>Bufalini</b> (Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787. +In 1813 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e2962" title= +"Source: pubtished">published</span> an essay on the <i>Doctrine of +Life</i> in opposition to vitalism, and henceforward his life was a +conflict with the upholders of that doctrine. He was accused of +materialism, but became a professor at Florence and a member of the +Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence 31 March, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Burdach</b> (Karl Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12 +June, 1776. He occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works +on physiology and anthropology did much to popularise those sciences, +and the former is placed on the <i lang="la">Index Librorum +Prohibitorum</i> for its materialistic tendency. He died at Konigsberg, +16 July, 1847.</p> +<p><b>Burdon</b> (William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764. +Graduated at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a +clergyman, but want of faith made him decline that profession. His +principal work is entitled <i>Materials for Thinking</i>. Colton +largely availed himself of this work in his <i>Lacon</i>. It went +through five editions in his lifetime, and portions were reprinted in +the <i>Library of Reason</i>. He also addressed <i>Three Letters to the +Bishop of Llandaff</i>, wrote a <i>Life and Character of Bonaparte</i>, +translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the Memoirs of +Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual subscription +to the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.</p> +<p><b>Burigny</b> (Jean <span class="sc">Levesque de</span>), French +writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became a member of the French Academy, +wrote a <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3002" href="#xd20e3002" +name="xd20e3002">60</a>]</span>treatise on the Authority of the Pope, a +History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and is credited with the +<i>Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian +Religion</i>, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon, 1766. +Levesque de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier’s +<i>Proofs of Christianity</i>, which is published in Naigeon’s +<i lang="fr">Recueil Philosophique</i>. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.</p> +<p><b>Burmeister</b> (Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15 +Jan. 1807. In 1827 he became a doctor at Halle. In ’48 he was +elected to the National Assembly. In 1850 he went to Brazil. His +principal work is <i>The History of Creation</i>, 1843.</p> +<p><b>Burmeister</b> or <span class="sc">Baurmeister</span> (Johann +Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist and colleague of Ronge. Born at +Flensburg, 1805. He resided in Hamburg, and wrote in the middle of the +present century under the name of J. P. Lyser.</p> +<p><b>Burnet</b> (Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through +the interest of a pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the +mastership of the Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his +<i lang="la">Telluris Theoria Sacra</i>, or Sacred Theory of the Earth, +appeared in Latin, and was translated and modified in 1684. In 1692 +Burnet published, both in English and in Latin, his <i lang= +"la">Archæologiæ Philosophicæ</i>, or the Ancient +Doctrine of the Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile his +theory with Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation; and a +ludicrous dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great offence. In a +popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying—</p> +<div class="lgouter"> +<p class="line">That all the books of Moses</p> +<p class="line">Were nothing but supposes.</p> +</div> +<p class="firstpar">He had to resign a position at court. In later life +he wrote <i lang="la">De Fide et Officiis Christianorum</i> (on +Christian Faith and Duties), in which he regards historical religions +as based on the religion of nature, and rejects original sin and the +“magical” theory of sacraments; and <i lang="la">De Statu +Mortuorum et Resurgentium</i>, on the State of the Dead and +Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment and +shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself to +avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for +private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract +entitled <i>Hell Torments not Eternal</i> was published in 1739. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3053" href="#xd20e3053" name= +"xd20e3053">61</a>]</span></p> +<p id="burnett"><b>Burnett</b> (James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch +writer and judge, was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his +profession, became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. +His work on the <i>Origin and Progress of Language</i> (published +anonymously 1773–92), excited much derision by his studying man +as one of the animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw +light on civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was +allied to the human species. He also wrote on <i>Ancient +Metaphysics</i>. He was a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam +Smith, Robertson, and Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.</p> +<p><b>Burnouf</b> (Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. +1821. He became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of +Nancy. Author of many works, including a translation of selections from +the <i lang="la">Novum Organum</i> of Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an +Introduction to the Vedas, a history of Greek Literature, Studies in +Japanese, and articles in the <i lang="fr">Revue des deux Mondes</i>. +His heresy is pronounced in his work on the <i>Science of +Religions</i>, 1878, in his <i>Contemporary Catholicism</i>, and +<i>Life and Thought</i>, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Burnouf</b> (Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the +preceding; b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world +the Pali language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose +essentially Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are +largely indebted for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the +Zoroastrians. He translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a +valuable <i>Introduction to the History of Indian Buddhism</i>. Died at +Paris, 28 May, 1852.</p> +<p><b>Burns</b> (Robert), Scotland’s greatest poet, b. near Ayr, +25 Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The +life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His Freethought +is evident from such productions as the “Holy Fair,” +“The Kirk’s Alarm,” and “Holy Willie’s +Prayer,” and many passages in private letters to his most +familiar <i>male</i> friends. Died at Dumfries, 21 July, 1796.</p> +<p><b>Burr</b> (William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, +N.Y., graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand +reporter to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to +literary research. He is the anonymous <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e3102" href="#xd20e3102" name="xd20e3102">62</a>]</span>author of +<i>Revelations of Antichrist</i>, a learned book which exposes the +obscurity of the origin of Christianity, and seeks to show that the +historical Jesus lived almost a century before the Christian era. He +has also written several pamphlets: <i>Thomas Paine was Junius</i>, +1880: <i>Self Contradictions of the Bible</i>; <i>Is the Bible a Lying +Humbug?</i> <i>A Roman Catholic Canard</i>, etc. He has also frequently +contributed to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, the New York +<i>Truthseeker</i>, and the <i>Ironclad Age</i> of <span class="corr" +id="xd20e3129" title="Source: Indianopolis">Indianapolis</span>.</p> +<p><b>Burton</b> (Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and +author, b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the +Church, he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India +Company’s service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon +acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In ’51 he returned +to England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines +unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the +Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and +dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened the +lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of Brazil. He +has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and since 1872 at +Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest work is a new +translation of <i>The Thousand Nights and a Night</i> in 10 vols. Being +threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying “literal +naturalism” from the Bible. Burton’s knowledge of Arabic is +so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would +roll on the ground in fits of laughter.</p> +<p><b>Butler</b> (Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. +1612. In early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied +painting, and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He +became clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell’s Generals, whom +he has satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared +in 1663 and became famous, but, although the king and court were +charmed with its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and +obscurity till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler +expressed the opinion that</p> +<div class="lgouter"> +<p class="line">“Religion is the interest of churches</p> +<p class="line">That sell in other worlds in this to +purchase.”</p> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3148" href="#xd20e3148" name= +"xd20e3148">63</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Buttmann</b> (Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5 +Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited +many of the Greek Classics, wrote on the <i>Myth of the Deluge</i>, +1819, and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, +1829.</p> +<p><b>Buzot</b> (François Léonard Nicolas), French +Girondin, distinguished as an ardent Republican and a friend and lover +of Madame Roland. Born at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from +starvation when hiding after the suppression of his party June, +1793.</p> +<p><b>Byelinsky</b> (Vissarion G.) See <a href= +"#belinsky">Belinsky</a>.</p> +<p><b>Byron</b> (George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He +succeeded his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and +Cambridge. In 1807 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e3171" title= +"Source: pnblished">published</span> his <i>Hours of Idleness</i>, and +awoke one morning to find himself famous. His power was, however, first +shown in his <i>English Bards and Scotch Reviewers</i>, in which he +satirised his critics, 1809. He then travelled on the Continent, the +result of which was seen in his <i>Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage</i> +and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815, but a separation took place in +the following year. Lord Byron then resided in Italy, where he made the +acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823 he devoted his name and fortune to the +cause of the Greek revolution, but was seized with fever and died at +Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His drama of <i>Cain: a Mystery</i>, 1822, +is his most serious utterance, and it shows a profound contempt for +religious dogma. This feeling is also exhibited in his magnificent +burlesque poem, <i>The Vision of Judgment</i>, which places him at the +head of English satirists. In his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, +1811, he distinctly says: “I do not believe in any revealed +religion.... I will have nothing to do with your immortality; we are +miserable enough in this life, without the absurdity of speculating +upon another.... The basis of your religion is injustice; the Son of +God, the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the +guilty,” etc.</p> +<p><b>Cabanis</b> (Pierre Jean George), called by Lange “the +father of the materialistic physiology,” b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. +Became pupil of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in +his last illness, of which he published an account <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3194" href="#xd20e3194" name= +"xd20e3194">64</a>]</span>1791. He was also intimate with Turgot, +Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished Freethinkers, and +was elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred +in the Revolution. His works are mostly medical, the chief being <i>Des +Rapports du Physique et du Morale de l’Homme</i>, in which he +contends that thoughts are a secretion of the brain. Died Rueil, near +Paris, 5 May, 1808.</p> +<p><b>Cæsalpinus</b> (Andreas), Italian philosopher of the +Renaissance, b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at +Pisa, and Linnæus admits his obligations to his work, <i>De +Plantis</i>, 1583. He also wrote works on metals and medicine, and +showed acquaintance with the circulation of the blood. In a work +entitled <i>Demonum Investigatio</i>, he contends that +“possession” by devils is amenable to medical treatment. +His <i>Quæstionum Peripateticarum</i>, in five books, Geneva, +1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to that +of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.</p> +<p><b>Cæsar</b> (Caius Julius), the “foremost man of all +this world,” equally renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and +writer, b. 12 July, 100 <span class="sc">B.C.</span>, of noble family. +His life, the particulars of which are well known, was an extraordinary +display of versatility, energy, courage, and magnanimity. He justified +the well-known line of Pope, “Cæsar the world’s great +master and his own.” His military talents elevated him to the +post of dictator, but this served to raise against him a band of +aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated, 15 March, 44 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> His <i>Commentaries</i> are a model of +insight and clear expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the +existence of a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude +says: “His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he +himself had any religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the +gods practically interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts +of this life and to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for +supposing that there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to +expect it.”</p> +<p><b>Cahuac</b> (John), bookseller, revised an edition of +Palmer’s <i>Principles of Nature</i>, 1819. For this he was +prosecuted at the instance of the “Vice Society,” but the +matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted for selling the +<i>Republican</i>, 1820. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3236" href= +"#xd20e3236" name="xd20e3236">65</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Calderino</b> (Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. +in 1445, in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was +professor of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of +the Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.</p> +<p><b>Calenzio</b> (Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of +Naples about 1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of +Ferdinand, the King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number +of satires, fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the +Church.</p> +<p><b>Call</b> (Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. +Educated at Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his +curacy about 1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he +recounts in his preface to <i>Reverberations</i>, 1876. Mr. Call is of +the Positivist school, and has contributed largely to the +<i>Fortnightly</i> and <i>Westminster Reviews</i>.</p> +<p><b>Callet</b> (Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, +27 Oct. 1812; became editor of the <i>Gazette</i> of France till 1840. +In 1848 he was nominated Republican representative. At the <i>coup +d’état</i> of 2 Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He +returned to France, but was imprisoned for writing against the Empire. +In 1871, Callet was again elected representative for the department of +the Loire. His chief Freethought work is <i lang= +"fr">L’Enfer</i>, an attack upon the Christian doctrine of hell, +1861.</p> +<p><b>Camisani</b> (Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A +Professor of Languages in Milan. He has translated the <i>Upas</i> of +Captain R. H. Dyas and other works.</p> +<p><b>Campanella</b> (Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, +Calabria, 5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too +much attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590 +his <i lang="la">Philosophia Sensibus Demonstratio</i> was printed at +Naples. Being prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, +Venice, and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of +the Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was +acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges of +heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples, and +having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the +prison of the Holy Office. He <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3285" +href="#xd20e3285" name="xd20e3285">66</a>]</span>was put to the torture +seven times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, +but he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another +for twenty-seven <span class="corr" id="xd20e3287" title= +"Source: year">years</span>, during which he wrote some sonnets, a +history of the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 +May, 1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He +was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He also +visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that his <i lang= +"la">Atheismus Triumphatus</i>—Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be +better entitled <i lang="la">Atheismus Triumphans</i>—Atheism +Triumphant—as the author puts his strongest arguments on the +heterodox side. In his <i>City of the Sun</i>, Campanella follows Plato +and More in depicting an ideal republic and a time when a new era of +earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says “The strength of +Campanella’s genius lay in his imagination.” His +“Sonnets” have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died +Paris, 21 May, 1639.</p> +<p><b>Campbell</b> (Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the +beginning of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager +at the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote a +memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist missionary +in England. He took an active part in the co-operative movement, and in +the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he was tried and +imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833–4. About 1849 he returned to +Glasgow and wrote on the <i>Sentinel</i>. In 1867 he was presented with +a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions +in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.</p> +<p><b>Campion</b> (William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. +Carlile’s shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine’s +<i>Age of Reason</i>. After a spirited defence he was found guilty and +sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In prison he edited, in +conjunction with J. Clarke, E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, the <i>Newgate +Monthly Magazine</i>, to which he contributed some thoughtful papers, +from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826, when he was removed to the Compter.</p> +<p><b>Canestrini</b> (Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, +1835. He studied at Vienna, and in ’60 was nominated Professor of +Natural History at Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed to +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3321" href="#xd20e3321" name= +"xd20e3321">67</a>]</span>the <i lang="it">Annuario Filosofico del +Libero Pensiero</i>, and is known for his popularisation of the works +of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written upon +the <i>Origin of Man</i>, which has gone through two editions, Milan, +’66–’70, and on the <i>Theory of Evolution</i>, +Turin, ’77. He was appointed Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and +Comparative Physiology at Padua, where he has published a Memoir of +Charles Darwin, ’82.</p> +<p><b>Cardano</b> (Girolamo), better known as <span class="sc">Jerome +Cardan</span>, Italian mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. +1501. He studied medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of +Physicians on account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were +at one time compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not +strange that his first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the +faculty. A fortunate cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to +Scotland as the medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. +In 1563 he was arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, +although deprived of his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, +having, it is said, starved himself to verify his own prediction of his +death. Despite some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, +especially by his work on Algebra, and in his works <i lang="la">De +Subtilitate Rerum</i> and <i lang="la">De Varietate Rerum</i>, amid +much that is fanciful, perceived the universality of natural law and +the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused him of Atheism. +Pünjer says “Cardanus deserves to be named along with +Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural +Philosophy.”</p> +<p><b>Carducci</b> (Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of +Italian Literature at the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in +the province of Lucca, 27 July, 1836. As early as ’49 he cried, +<i lang="it">Abasso tutti i re! viva la republica</i>—Down with +all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into fame by his <i>Hymn to +Satan</i>, ’69, by which he intended the spirit of resistance. He +has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits himself an +ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of ’57 he wrote his +famous verse “Il secoletto vil che +cristianeggia”—“This vile christianising +century.” In ’60 he became professor of Greek in Bologna +University, being suspended for a short while in ’67 for an +address to Mazzini. In ’76 he was elected as republican +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3356" href="#xd20e3356" name= +"xd20e3356">68</a>]</span>deputy to the Italian Parliament for Lugo di +Romagna.</p> +<p><b>Carlile</b> (Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, +came from Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, +1831, delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the +<i>Isis</i>, which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The <i>Isis</i> +was dedicated to the young women of England “until superstition +is extinct,” and contained Frances Wright’s discourses, in +addition to those by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till ’61. Mr. +Bradlaugh lodged with Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in +1849. She had three children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom +the second is still living.</p> +<p><b>Carlile</b> (Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his +business during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced +to two years’ imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, +Richard, Alfred, and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the +<i>Regenerator</i>, a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.</p> +<p><b>Carlile</b> (Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an +English free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was +apprenticed to a tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he +was twenty-six, when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling +works like Wooler’s <i>Black Dwarf</i>, which Government +endeavored to suppress. Sherwin offered him the dangerous post of +publisher of the <i>Republican</i>, which he accepted. He then +published Southey’s <i>Wat Tyler</i>, reprinted the political +works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but which +cost Carlile eighteen weeks’ imprisonment. In 1818 he published +Paine’s Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him +to go on printing similar works, such as Palmer’s <i>Principles +of Nature</i>, <i>Watson Refuted</i>, <i>Jehovah Unveiled</i>, etc. By +Oct. 1819, he had six indictments to answer, on two of which he was +tried from 12 to 16 October. He read the whole of the <i>Age of +Reason</i> in his defence, in order to have it in the report of the +trial. He was found guilty and sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred +pounds fine and three years’ imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. +During his imprisonment his business was kept on by a succession of +shopmen. Refusing to find securities not to publish, he was kept in +prison till 18 <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3401" href= +"#xd20e3401" name="xd20e3401">69</a>]</span>Nov. 1835, when he was +liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited the +<i>Republican</i>, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited +the <i>Deist</i>, the <i>Moralist</i>, the <i>Lion</i> (four volumes), +the <i>Prompter</i> (for No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two +months’ imprisonment), and the <i>Gauntlet</i>. Amongst his +writings are <i>An Address to Men of Science</i>, <i>The Gospel +according to R. Carlile</i>, <i>What is God?</i> <i>Every Woman’s +Book</i>, etc. He published <i>Doubts of Infidels</i>, <i>Janus on +Sion</i>, <i>Sepher Toldoth Jeshu</i>, D’Holbach’s <i>Good +Sense</i>, Volney’s <i>Ruins</i>, and many other Freethought +works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his body to Dr. Lawrence for +scientific purposes.</p> +<p><b>Carlyle</b> (Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers +of the century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where +his father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing +early ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the +University of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his +leisure in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. +1826, and wrote in the <i>London Magazine</i> and <i>Edinburgh +Review</i> many masterly critical articles, notably on Voltaire, +Diderot, Burns, and German literature. In 1833–4 his <i lang= +"la">Sartor Resartus</i> appeared in <i>Fraser’s Magazine</i>. In +’34 he removed to London and began writing the <i>French +Revolution</i>, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill, +with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without +complaint, and it was published in ’37. He then delivered a +course of lectures on “German Literature” and on +“Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History,” in which +he treats Mahomet as the prophet “we are freest to speak +of.” His <i>Past and Present</i> was published in ’43. In +’45 appeared <i>Oliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches</i>. +In ’50 he published <i>Latter-Day Pamphlets</i>, which contains +his most distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the +following year his <i>Life of John Sterling</i>, in which his heresy +clearly appears. His largest work is his <i>History of the Life and +Times of Frederick the Great</i>, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of +Edinburgh University in ’65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his +<i>Biography of Carlyle</i>, says, “We have seen him confessing +to Irving that he did not believe as his friend did in the Christian +religion.” ... “the special miraculous occurrences of +sacred history were not credible to him.” <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3489" href="#xd20e3489" name= +"xd20e3489">70</a>]</span></p> +<p id="carneades"><b>Carneades</b>, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene +about B.C. 213. He went early to Athens, and attended the lectures of +the Stoics, learning logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was +chosen with other deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had +been placed on the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted +great attention by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the +very idea of a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied +providence and design. Many of his arguments are preserved in +Cicero’s <i>Academics</i> and <i>De Natura Deorum</i>. Carneades +left no written works; his views seem to have been systematised by his +follower Clitomachus. He died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 129. +Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His ethics were +of elevated character.</p> +<p><b>Carneri</b> (Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3 +Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian +Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work on <i>Morality and +Darwinism</i>, Vienna, 1871. Has also written <i lang="de">Der Mensch +als Selbstweck</i>, “Humanity as its own proper object,” +1877; <i lang="de">Grundlegung der Ethik</i>, Foundation of Morals, +1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and Happiness, Stuttgart, +1886.</p> +<p><b>Carra</b> (Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. +1743 at Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, +and Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning +to France he became employed in the King’s library and wrote a +<i>History of Moldavia</i> and an <i>Essay on Aerial Navigation</i>. He +warmly espoused the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators +of the Jacobin club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of +Louis XVI., but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His +Freethought sentiments are evident from his <i>System of Reason</i>, +1773; his <i>Spirit of Morality and Philosophy</i>, 1777; <i>New +Principles of Physic</i>, 1782–3, and other works.</p> +<p><b>Carrel</b> (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve +“the Junius of the French press,” b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He +became a soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the +Spanish revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, +but escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry, +edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established the <i>Nation</i> in +conjunction with Thiers <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3542" href= +"#xd20e3542" name="xd20e3542">71</a>]</span>and Mignet. J. S. Mill +writes of him in terms of high praise. The leading journalist of his +time, his slashing articles led to several duels, and in an encounter +with Emile de Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his +death-bed, says M. Littré, he said “<i lang="fr">Point de +prêtres, point d’église</i>”—no priests +nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a <i>History of the +Counter-Revolution in England</i>, with an eye to events in his own +country.</p> +<p><b>Carus</b> (Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. +1825. Has been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has +translated Darwin’s works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.</p> +<p><b>Carus</b> (Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. +Leipsic, 3 Jan. 1789. He taught <span class="corr" id="xd20e3559" +title="Source: compatative">comparative</span> anatomy at the +university of that town, and published a standard introduction to that +subject. He also wrote <i>Psyche</i>, a history of the development of +the human soul, 1846, and <i>Nature and Idea</i>, 1861. Died at +Dresden, 28 July, 1869.</p> +<p><b>Castelar y Ripoll</b> (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz, 8 +Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his novel +<i>Ernesto</i>, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he +delivered lectures on “Civilisation during the first three +centuries of Christendom.” <i lang="es">La Formula del +Progresso</i> contains a sketch of democratic principles. On the +outbreak of the revolution of ’68 he advocated a Federal Republic +in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however offered to Amadeus of +Savoy. “Glass, with care,” was Castelar’s verdict on +the new <span class="corr" id="xd20e3578" title= +"Source: dynesty">dynasty</span>, and in Feb. ’73 Castelar drew +up a Republican Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. +Upon his retirement to France he wrote a sketchy <i>History of the +Republican Movement in Europe</i>. In ’76 he returned to Spain +and took part in the Cortes, where he has continued to advocate +Republican views. His <i>Old Rome and New Italy</i>, and <i>Life of +Lord Byron</i> have been translated into English.</p> +<p><b>Castelli</b> (David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. +Since 1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior +Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with +notes, and written rationalistic works on <i>Talmudic Legends</i>, +1869; <i>The Messiah According to the Hebrews</i>, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3601" href="#xd20e3601" name= +"xd20e3601">72</a>]</span>’74; the <i>Bible Prophets</i>, +’82; and <i>The History of the Israelites</i>, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Castilhon</b> (Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse +in 1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited the <i>Journal +of Jurisprudence</i>. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions +had some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in his <i>Essay +on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions</i>, Amsterdam, 1765; +his <i>Philosophical Almanack</i>, 1767; and his <i>History of +Philosophical Opinions</i>, 1769. Died 1793.</p> +<p><b>Cattell</b> (Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular +journals, author of <i>Search for the First Man</i>; <i>Against +Christianity</i>; <i>The Religion of this Life</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Caumont</b> (Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. +Suffering from consumption, he wrote <i>Judgment of a Dying Man upon +Life</i>, and humorous and familiar <i>Conversations of a Sick Person +with the Divinity</i>. Died at Madeira, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Cavalcante</b> (Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. +Florence, 1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. +He married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, “it +is said his speculation has as their aim to prove <span class="corr" +id="xd20e3652" title="Source: their">there</span> is no God. Dante +places his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality +of the soul.” Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was +published in 1813.</p> +<p><b>Cavallotti</b> (Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and +journalist, b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; +is a pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian +parliament in 1873.</p> +<p><b>Cayla</b> (Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. +Vigan (Lot) 1812. Became in ’37 editor of the <i>Emancipator</i> +of Toulouse, a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to +the <i lang="fr">Siècle</i>, the <i lang="fr">République +Française</i> and other journals, and published <i>European +Celebrities</i> and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as <i>The +Clerical Conspiracy</i>, ’61; <i>The Devil, his Grandeur and +Decay</i>, ’64; <i>Hell Demolished</i>, ’65; <i>Suppression +of Religious Orders</i>, ’70; and <i>The History of the +Mass</i>,’74. He died 2 May, 1877.</p> +<p><b>Cazelles</b> (Emile), French translator of Bentham’s +<i>Influence of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3697" href= +"#xd20e3697" name="xd20e3697">73</a>]</span>Natural Religion</i>, +Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill’s <i>Subjection of +Women</i> and his <i>Autobiography</i> and <i>Essays on +Religion</i>.</p> +<p id="ceccodascoli"><b>Cecco d’Ascoli</b>, <i>i.e.</i>, +<span class="sc">Stabili</span> (Francesco degli), Italian poet, b. +Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In 1324 he +was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the faith, +and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused at +Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His best +known work is entitled <i>Acerba</i>, a sort of encyclopædia in +rhyme.</p> +<p><b>Cellarius</b> (Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the +first avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages +with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists +acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity +of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland, +where he died 11 Oct. 1564.</p> +<p><b>Celsus</b>, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. +He was a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the +False Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, called <i>The True +Word</i>. The work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages +given by his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of +high attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and +that his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian +faith.</p> +<p><b>Cerutti</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e3738" title= +"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted +Jesuit, b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a +defence of the Society. He afterwards became a friend of +Mirabeau<span class="corr" id="xd20e3741" title= +"Not in source">,</span> adopted the principles of 1789, wrote in +defence of the Revolution, and wrote and published a <i>Philosophical +Breviary</i>, or history of Judaism, Christianity, and Deism, which he +attributed to Frederick of Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered +from his poem, <i lang="fr">Les Jardins de Betz</i>, 1792. Died Paris, +3 Feb. 1792.</p> +<p><b>Chaho</b> (J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets, +Basses-Pyrénées<span class="corr" id="xd20e3754" title= +"Source: )">,</span> 10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a +<i>Philosophy of Comparative Religion</i>, and a Basque dictionary. At +Bayonne he edited the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was +exiled. Died 23 Oct. 1858.</p> +<p><b>Chaloner</b> (Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks, +1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3764" href="#xd20e3764" name= +"xd20e3764">74</a>]</span>(Yorks), 1645. Was a witness against +Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles’s Judges. In 1651 he was +made Councillor of State. Wood says he “was as far from being a +Puritan as the east is from the west,” and that he “was of +the natural religion.” He wrote a pretended <i>True and Exact +Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb</i>, 1657, being a satire +directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to the +Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.</p> +<p><b>Chambers</b> (Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of +Arts and Sciences, b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work +appeared in 1728, and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A +French translation gave rise to Diderot and D’Alembert’s +<i lang="fr">Encyclopédie</i>. Chambers also edited the +<i>Literary Magazine</i>, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were well +known, and the Cyclopædia was placed upon the <i>Index</i>, but +he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, +1740.</p> +<p><b>Chamfort</b> (Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of +letters, b. in Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his +mother, a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself +necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his eulogy +on Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary and +wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy, being +patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau, who +called him <i lang="fr">une tête électrique</i>. In 1790 +he commenced a work called <i>Pictures of the Revolution</i>. In the +following year he became secretary of the Jacobin Club and National +Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre, he desperately, but vainly, +endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13 April, 1794, leaving behind +numerous works and a collection of <i>Maxims, Thoughts, Characters, and +Anecdotes</i>, which show profound genius and knowledge of human +nature.</p> +<p><b>Chapman</b> (John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the +<i>Westminster Review</i>, of which he is proprietor.</p> +<p><b>Chappellsmith</b> (Margaret), née <span class= +"sc">Reynolds</span>, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early in life she read +the writings of Cobbett. In ’36 she began writing political +articles in the <i>Dispatch</i>, and afterwards became a Socialist and +Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in ’39, and +in ’42 she began <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3812" href= +"#xd20e3812" name="xd20e3812">75</a>]</span><span class="corr" id= +"xd20e3813" title="Source: buisness">business</span> as a bookseller. +In ’37 she expressed a preference for the development theory +before that of creation. In ’50 they emigrated to the United +States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith contributed many articles to the +<i>Boston Investigator</i>.</p> +<p><b>Charles</b> (Rudolf). See <a href= +"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p> +<p><b>Charma</b> (Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In +’30 he was nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was +denounced for his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber +of peers, and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many +philosophical works, and an account of Didron’s <i lang= +"fr">Histoire de Dieu</i>. Died 5 Aug. 1869.</p> +<p><b>Charron</b> (Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. +He was an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a +<i>Treatise on Wisdom</i>, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by +the Jesuits. Franck says “the scepticism of Charron inclines +visibly to ‘sensualisme’ and even to materialism.” +Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.</p> +<p><b>Chassebœuf de Volney</b> (Constantin François). See +<a href="#volney">Volney</a>.</p> +<p id="chastelet"><b>Chastelet du</b> or <b>Chatelet Lomont</b> +(Gabrielle Emilie <span class="sc">le Tonnelier de Breteuil</span>), +Marquise, French <i lang="fr">savante</i>, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She +was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English +and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy +entitled <i lang="fr">Institutions de Physique</i>. She afterwards made +a good French translation of Newton’s <i>Principia</i>. She lived +some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed +to him <i>Doubts on Revealed Religions</i>, published in 1792. She also +wrote a <i>Treatise on Happiness</i>, which was praised by +Condorcet.</p> +<p><b>Chastellux</b> (François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, +traveller and writer, b. Paris 1734. Wrote <i>On Public Happiness</i> +(2 vols., Amst. 1776), a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed +to the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie</i>; one article on +“Happiness,” being suppressed by the censor because it did +not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.</p> +<p><b>Chatterton</b> (Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 +Nov, 1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas +Rowley in the fourteenth century and discovered <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3888" href="#xd20e3888" name= +"xd20e3888">76</a>]</span>by him in an old chest in Redcliffe Church, +attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London in hopes of rising +by his talents, but after a bitter experience of writing for the +magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25 Aug. 1770. Several +of his poems betray deistic opinions.</p> +<p><b>Chaucer</b> (Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and +first English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached +to the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the +expedition to France 1359–60, was captured by the French, and +ransomed by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some +foreign missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, +where he met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the +Renaissance, and in his <i>Canterbury Pilgrims</i> he boldly attacks +the vices of the ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey.</p> +<p><b>Chaumette</b> (Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French +revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was +in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney’s clerk. In early +youth he received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the +revolution with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, +became popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated +with Proudhomme in the journal <i lang="fr">Les Revolutions de +Paris</i>. Nominated member of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the +name of Anaxagoras to show his little regard for his baptismal saints. +He was elected Procureur Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great +activity. He abolished the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, +instituted workshops for fallen women, established the first +lying-in-hospital, had books sent to the hospitals, separated the +insane from the sick, founded the Conservatory of Music, opened the +public libraries every day (under the <i lang="fr">ancien +régime</i> they were only open two hours per week), replaced +books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put a graduated +tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor, and was the +principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of the churches. He +was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots “to efface +all idea of the Deity,” and was guillotined 13 April, 1794. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3907" href="#xd20e3907" name= +"xd20e3907">77</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Chaussard</b> (Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. +Paris, 8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, +and published patriotic odes, <i lang="fr">Esprit de Mirabeau</i>, and +other works. He was preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became +professor of <i lang="fr">belles lettres</i> at Orleans. Died 9 Jan. +1823.</p> +<p><b>Chemin-Dupontes</b> (Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders +of French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of +which is entitled <i>What is Theophilanthropy?</i></p> +<p><b>Chenier</b> (Marie André de), French poet, b. +Constantinople, 29 Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a +love for ancient Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon +manifested his genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique +simplicity and sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of +Legation. He took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised +Charlotte Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in the +<i lang="fr">Journal de Paris</i>. He was committed to prison, and here +met his ideal in the Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, +to her he addressed the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune +Captive). He was executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other +poems, an imitation of Lucretius, entitled <i>Hermes</i>, which +warrants the affirmation of de Chênedolle, that +“<span lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e3936" title= +"Source: Andre">André</span> Chénier <span class="corr" +id="xd20e3939" title="Source: etait">était</span> athée +avec délices</span>.”</p> +<p><b>Chenier</b> (Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous +writer, brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He +served two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. +His first successful drama, “Charles IX.,” was produced in +1789, and was followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and +was made member of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his +<i lang="fr">Nouveaux Saints</i> (1801) satirised those who returned to +the old faith. He wrote many poems and an account of French literature. +Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.</p> +<p id="chernuishevsky"><b>Chernuishevsky</b> or <b>Tchernycheiosky</b> +(Nikolai Gerasimovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at +the University of St. Petersburg, translated Mill’s <i>Political +Economy</i>, and wrote on <i>Superstition and the Principles of +Logic</i>, ’59. His <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e3964" +href="#xd20e3964" name="xd20e3964">78</a>]</span>bold romance, <i>What +is to be Done?</i> was published ’63. In the following year he +was sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending +cruelties, he has become insane.</p> +<p><b>Chesneau Du Marsais</b> (César). See <a href= +"#dumarsais">Dumarsais</a>.</p> +<p><b>Chevalier</b> (Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint +Pol<span class="corr" id="xd20e3980" title="Not in source">,</span> 21 +March, 1806, is the author of an able book on “The Soul from the +standpoint of Reason and Science,” Paris, ’61. He died at +Amiens in 1865.</p> +<p><b>Chies y Gomez</b> (Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de +Pomar, Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican, +educated him without religion. In ’65 Chies went to Madrid, and +followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon +after wrote for a Madrid paper <i lang="es">La Discusion</i>. He took +an active part in the Revolution of ’65, and at the proclamation +of the Republic, ’73, became civil governor of Valencia. In +’81 he founded a newspaper <i lang="es">El Voto Nacional</i>, and +since ’83 has edited <i lang="es">Las Dominicales del Libre +Pensamiento</i>, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the +foremost Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as +writes.</p> +<p><b>Child</b> (Lydia Maria) née <span class= +"sc">Francis</span>, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass., 11 Feb. +1802. She early commenced writing, publishing <i>Hobomok, a Tale of +Early Times</i>, in ’21. From ’25 she kept a private school +in Watertown until ’28, when she married David Lee Child, a +Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited the <i>Anti-Slavery Standard</i>, +’41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the +opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to +public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her principal work is +<i>The Progress of Religious Ideas</i>, 3 vols.; ’55. Died +Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell +Phillips.</p> +<p><b>Chilton</b> (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early +life he was a bricklayer, but in ’41 he was concerned with +Charles Southwell in starting the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>, which he set +up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed +some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to the <i>Library +of Reason</i>, and wrote in the <i>Movement</i> and the +<i>Reasoner</i>. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.</p> +<p><b>Chubb</b> (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4032" href="#xd20e4032" name= +"xd20e4032">79</a>]</span>Salisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the +first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by +contending for the <i>Supremacy of the Father</i>, he gradually +relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ +was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind +two vols. which he calls <i>A Farewell to his Readers</i>, from which +it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.</p> +<p id="church"><b>Church</b> (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, +edited Tallis’s <i>Shakespeare</i>, wrote <i>Woman and her +Failings</i>, 1858, and contributed to the <i>Investigator</i> when +edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.</p> +<p><b>Clapiers</b> (Luc de). See <a href= +"#vauvenargues">Vauvenargues</a>.</p> +<p><b>Claretie</b> (Jules Armand Arsène), French writer, b. +Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite +<i>Free Speech</i>, ’68; his biographies of contemporary +celebrities; and his work <i lang="fr">Camille Desmoulins</i>, +’75.</p> +<p><b>Clarke</b> (John), brought up in the Methodist connection, +changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of +Carlile’s shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a +blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., of <i>The Republican</i>, and +after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst passages +in the Bible, was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, and to +find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in +prison, <i>A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of +Jesus</i>, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and +Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the <i>Newgate Magazine</i> +and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and ’39.</p> +<p><b>Clarke</b> (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went +to Victoria, ’63; joined the staff of <i>Melbourne Argus</i>. In +’76 was made assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has +compiled a history of Australia, and written <i>The Peripatetic +Philosopher</i> (a series of clever sketches), <i>His Natural Life</i> +(a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper, +“Civilisation without Delusion,” in the <i>Victoria +Review</i>, Nov. ’79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The +reply, with Clarke’s answer, which was suppressed, was published +in ’80. Died 1884. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4100" href= +"#xd20e4100" name="xd20e4100">80</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Claude-Constant</b>, author of a Freethinkers’ Catechism +published at Paris in 1875.</p> +<p><b>Clavel</b> (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. +Grenoble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of +the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational +works.</p> +<p><b>Clavel</b> (F. T. B.), French author of a <i>Picturesque History +of Freemasonry</i>, and also a <i>Picturesque History of Religions</i>, +1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.</p> +<p><b>Clayton</b> (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and +Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship +of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several +publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the +omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and +stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty +years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it is +said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was +decided.</p> +<p><b>Cleave</b> (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap +political press. Started the <i>London Satirist</i>, and +<i>Cleave’s Penny Gazette of Variety</i>, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. +20, ’44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an +abridgment of Howitt’s <i>History of Priestcraft</i>. In May, +’40, he was sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for +selling Haslam’s <i>Letters to the Clergy</i>.</p> +<p><b>Clemenceau</b> (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b. +Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he +took his doctor’s degree in ’65. His activity as Republican +ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as +correspondent on the <i>Temps</i>. He returned at the time of the war +and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded +<i lang="fr">La Justice</i>, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, +Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the +Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected +President.</p> +<p><b>Clemetshaw</b> (C.), French writer, using the name <span class= +"sc">Cilwa</span>. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed +to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London, +of ’87, and is editor of <i>Le Danton</i>. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4159" href="#xd20e4159" name= +"xd20e4159">81</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Clemens</b> (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known +as “Mark Twain,” b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In +’55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from +the phrase used in sounding. In <i>Innocents Abroad, or the New +Pilgrim’s Progress</i>, ’69, by which he made his name, +there is much jesting with “sacred” subjects. Mr. Clemens +is an Agnostic.</p> +<p><b>Clifford</b> (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the +Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise of <i>Human +Reason</i>, London, ’74, which was reprinted in the following +year with the author’s name. A short while after its publication +Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not +knowing the author, “’twas no matter if all the copies were +burnt and the author with them, because it made every man’s +private fancy judge of religion.” Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In +the <i lang="fr">Nouvelle Biographie Générale</i> +Clifford is amusingly described as an “English theologian of the +order des Chartreux,” who, it is added, was “prior of his +order.”</p> +<p><b>Clifford</b> (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and +moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At +the age of fifteen he was sent to King’s College, London, where +he showed an early genius for mathematics, publishing the <i>Analogues +of Pascal’s Theorem</i> at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity +College, Cambridge, in ’63. In ’67 he was second wrangler. +Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when +he accompanied the eclipse expedition to the <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e4184" title="Source: Medeterranean">Mediterranean</span>. The +next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London +University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S. +’74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, ’75. In the following +year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and +Spain. He resumed work, but in ’79 took a voyage to Madeira, +where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first +volume of his great mathematical work<span class="corr" id="xd20e4187" +title="Source: .">,</span> <i>Elements of Dynamic</i>. Since his death +have been published <i>The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences</i>, and +<i>Lectures and Essays</i>, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen +and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought +lectures and contributions to the <i>Fortnightly</i> and other reviews. +He <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4203" href="#xd20e4203" name= +"xd20e4203">82</a>]</span>intended to form them into a volume on <i>The +Creed of Science</i>. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote +of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very +nearly wrecked another.</p> +<p><b>Cloots</b> or <b>Clootz</b> (Johann Baptist, afterwards +Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Grâce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near +Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he +published the <i>The Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism</i>, +under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whose +<i>Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity</i> he parodies. He +travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of +the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply +to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal +Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries, +asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled +“orator of the human race.” He was, with Paine, Priestley, +Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was +elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself, +taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic +party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no +other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine +were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months’ +imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the +Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering +materialist sentiments to the last.</p> +<p><b>Clough</b> (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was +educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed +himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, “He never +became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to +regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable.” In ’48 he +visited Paris, and the same year produced his <i>Bothie of +Toper-na-Fuosich</i>: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between ’49 and +’52 he was professor of English literature in London University. +In ’52 he visited the United States, where he gained the +friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden +translation of <i>Plutarch’s Lives</i>. Died at Florence, 13 Nov. +1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on +Religious Tradition and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4232" href= +"#xd20e4232" name="xd20e4232">83</a>]</span>some notable poems. He is +the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold’s exquisite Monody.</p> +<p><b>Cnuzius</b> (Matthias). See <a href="#knutzen">Knutzen</a>.</p> +<p><b>Coke</b> (Henry), author of <i>Creeds of the Day</i>, or collated +opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Cole</b> (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in +the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before +the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, “but he would not +recant.” See <a href="#hamond">Hamont</a>.</p> +<p><b>Colenso</b> (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. +John’s, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring +fame by his valuable <i>Treatise on Algebra</i>, ’49, he became +first Bishop of Natal, ’54. Besides other works, he published +<i>The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined</i>, +1862–79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both +Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy +Council, March ’65, declared this deposition “null and void +in law.” Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of +the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Colins</b> (Jean Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) +Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of “Collectivism,” +b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social +Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the +natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number +of disciples propagate his opinions in the <i>Philosophie de +l’Avenir</i>.</p> +<p><b>Collins</b> (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 +June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and +became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He +was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him +his executor. He wrote an <i>Essay on Reason</i>, 1707; <i>Priestcraft +in Perfection</i>, 1710; a <i>Vindication of the Divine Attributes</i>, +and a <i>Discourse on Freethinking</i>, 1713. This last occasioned a +great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free +inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of +supernatural revelation. In 1719 he published <i>An Inquiry Concerning +Human Liberty</i>, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in +1729 <i>A Discourse on Liberty <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4294" +href="#xd20e4294" name="xd20e4294">84</a>]</span>and Necessity</i>. In +1724 appeared his <i>Discourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the +Christian Religion</i>, and this was followed by <i>The Scheme of +Literal Prophecy Considered</i>, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and +wrote with great ability. He is also credited with <i>A Discourse +Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing</i>. Died at London, 13 Dec. +1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, “appears to have been an +amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the +use of a free library.” Professor Fraser calls him “a +remarkable man,” praises his “love of truth and moral +courage,” and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the +question of liberty and necessity he “states the arguments +against human freedom with a logical force unsurpassed by any +necessitarian.” A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and +dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.</p> +<p><b>Colman</b> (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has +spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, +women’s rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written +Reminisences in the <i>Life of a Reformer of Fifty Years</i>, and +contributed to the <i>Truthseeker</i> and <i>Boston +Investigator</i>.</p> +<p><b>Colotes</b>, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, +with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his +master’s teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to +use fables.</p> +<p><b>Combe</b> (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. +Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming +acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the +principle of Owen’s New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his +large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 +Aug. 1827. He wrote <i>Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New +Systems</i> and other works advocating Owenism.</p> +<p><b>Combe</b> (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. +Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother +George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on +the <i>Principles of Physiology</i> and the <i>Management of +Infancy</i>. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.</p> +<p><b>Combe</b> (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. +Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted +with Spurzheim, and published <i>Essays on Phrenology</i>, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4348" href="#xd20e4348" name= +"xd20e4348">85</a>]</span>1819, and founded the <i>Phrenological +Journal</i>. In ’28 he published the <i>Constitution of Man</i>, +which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of +special providence and efficacy of prayer. In ’33 he married a +daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on +Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work was <i>The +Relations between Science and Religion</i>, ’57, in which he +continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and +essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a +fortnight with him in ’52. He did more than any man of his time, +save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor +Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.</p> +<p><b>Combes</b> (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has +written on <i>Darwinism</i>, ’83, and other works popularising +science.</p> +<p><b>Commazzi</b> (Gian-Battista), Count author of <i lang= +"it">Politica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Giesù +Cristo</i>, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706–7, in which he makes +Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome +and Vienna.</p> +<p><b>Comparetti</b> (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. +Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, +Rome, and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he +evinces his Pagan partialities.</p> +<p><b>Comte</b> (Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier), French +philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. +1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he +distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the +acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a +Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. +Simon (’25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an +original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some +able judges, entitles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth +century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. +In ’25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following +year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which +occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in +’28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like +Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In ’30 he put forward +the first volumes of his <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4381" href= +"#xd20e4381" name="xd20e4381">86</a>]</span><i>Course of Positive +Philosophy</i>, which in ’42 was completed by the publication of +the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by +Harriet Martineau, ’53. In ’45 Comte formed a passionate +Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the +following year, having profoundely influenced Comte’s life. In +consequence of his opinions, he lost his professorship, and was +supported by his disciples—Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in +England, assisting. Among other works, Comte published <i>A General +View of Positivism</i>, ’48, translated by Dr. Bridges, +’65; <i>A System of Positive Polity</i>, ’51, translated by +Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., ’75–79; and <i>A +Positive Catechism</i>, ’54, translated by Dr. Congreve, +’58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow +with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound +and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and +metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and substitutes the service of +man for the worship of God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says “He +belonged to that small class of rare minds, whose errors are often more +valuable and stimulating than other men’s truths.” He died +of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.</p> +<p id="condillac"><b>Condillac</b> (Etienne <span class="sc">Bonnot +de</span>), French philosopher, b. Grenoble, about 1715. His life was +very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols., +the principal being <i>A Treatise on the Sensations</i>, 1764; <i>A +Treatise on Animals</i>, and <i>An Essay on the Origin of Human +Knowledge</i>. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is +gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.</p> +<p><b>Condorcet</b> (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas <span class= +"sc">Caritat</span>, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b. +Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious +mother, he was kept in girl’s clothes until the age of 11. Sent +to a Jesuit’s school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he +maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the +next year he dedicated to Turgot a <i>Profession of Faith</i>. After +some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he +was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his +atheistic <i>Letters of a Theologian</i>. He also wrote biographies of +Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e4423" href="#xd20e4423" name="xd20e4423">87</a>]</span>American +independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in +the National Assembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his +motion that, in the following year, all orders of nobility were +abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the +Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter +with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife, +at whose instigation he wrote his fine <i>Sketch of the Progress of the +Human Mind</i> while in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of +exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, +1794.</p> +<p><b>Condorcet</b> (Sophie de Grouchy <span class="sc">Caritat</span>, +Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. +Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of +the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband’s +sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself +by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison +after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith’s +<i>Theory of the Moral Sentiments</i>, which she accompanied with eight +letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her +only daughter married Gen. Arthur O’Connor.</p> +<p><b>Confucius</b> (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, +a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 551. He was distinguished by filial piety +and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after +began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled +through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief +minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name +without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to +editing the sacred classics of China. He died about <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the <i>Lun-Yu</i>, +or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character, and did not +include any religious dogmas.</p> +<p><b>Congreve</b> (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. +Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was +fellow of Wadham College 1844–54. In ’55 he published his +edition of <i>Aristotle Politics</i>. He became a follower of Comte and +influenced many to embrace Positivism. Translated <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4458" href="#xd20e4458" name= +"xd20e4458">88</a>]</span>Comte’s <i>Catechism of Positive +Philosophy</i>, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is +considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long +conducted a small “Church of Humanity.”</p> +<p><b>Connor</b> (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic +family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John +Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitled <i>Evangelium +Medici</i> (1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian +miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He +died in London 27 Oct. 1698.</p> +<p><b>Constant de Rebecque</b> (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. +Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. +In 1795 he entered Paris as a <i>protégé</i> of Mme. de +Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed +Buonaparte and wrote on <i>Roman Polytheism</i> and an important work +on <i>Religion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its +Developments</i> (6 vols.; 1824–32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant +professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been +called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.</p> +<p><b>Conta</b> (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. +1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the +University of Jassy, Moldavia. In ’77 he published <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e4488" title="Source: a">in</span> Brussels, in French, +a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of +thought.</p> +<p><b>Conway</b> (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, +Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist +ministry ’50, but changing his convictions through the influence +of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at +Cambridge, where he graduated in ’54 and became pastor of a +Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In +’57 he preached in <span class="corr" id="xd20e4495" title= +"Source: Cincinatti">Cincinnati</span> and there published <i>The +Natural History of the Devil</i>, and other pamphlets. In ’63 Mr. +Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close +of ’63 until his return to the States in ’84. Mr. Conway is +a frequent contributor to the press. He has also published <i>The +Earthward Pilgrimage</i>, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan’s +<i>Pilgrim’s Progress</i>; collected <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4507" href="#xd20e4507" name= +"xd20e4507">89</a>]</span>a <i>Sacred Anthology</i> from the various +sacred books of the world 1873<span class="corr" id="xd20e4513" title= +"Source: .">,</span> which he used in his pulpit; has written on +<i>Human Sacrifices</i>, 1876, and <i>Idols and Ideals</i>, 1877. His +principal work is <i>Demonology and Devil Lore</i>, 1878, containing +much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the +title of <i>Lessons for the Day</i>, two vols., 1883, and has published +a monograph on the <i>Wandering Jew</i>, a biography of Emerson, and is +at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.</p> +<p><b>Cook</b> (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. +1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his +mother by such questions as, “If God was omnipotent could he make +what had happened not have happened.” He was intended for the +Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in +’66, and took LL.D. in ’75. In ’77 he became editor +of the Dublin <i>University Magazine</i>, in which appeared some +studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards +published under the title of <i>The Fathers of Jesus</i>. Dr. Cook +wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (Anthony Ashley), see <a href= +"#shaftesbury">Shaftesbury</a>.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a +schoolfellow of Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the +battle of the Nile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and +acquired some fame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 +July, 1821, for which the report of the trial was dedicated to him by +R. Carlile. He was a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he +commenced. Died 19 Sept. 1824.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, +1723. Educated at Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An +enthusiastic disciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of +“Philaretes” he contributed to Dodsley’s Museum. In +1749 he published a <i>Life of Socrates</i>, for which he was coarsely +attacked by Warburton. He wrote some poems under the signature of +Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London, 14 April, 1769.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 +Feb. 1791. He devoted over half a million dollars to the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4564" href="#xd20e4564" name= +"xd20e4564">90</a>]</span>Cooper Institute, for the secular instruction +and elevation of the working classes. Died 4 April, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec. +1819, at Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of +being brought up in a Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher +in the Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and by +seventeen became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a public +discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were +published—one on <i>Original Sin</i> sold twelve thousand +copies—when he was scarcely eighteen. The <i>Holy Scriptures +Analysed</i> (1832) was denounced by the Bishop of Exeter in the House +of Lords. Cooper was dismissed from a situation he had held ten years, +and in 1841 became a Socialist missionary in the North of England and +Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845) he wrote <i>Free Agency</i> and +<i>Orthodoxy</i>, and compiled the <i>Infidel’s Text Book</i>. +About ’50 he came to London, lecturing with success at John +Street Institution. In ’54 he started the <i>London +Investigator</i>, which he edited for three years. In it appears his +lectures on “Science <i>v.</i> Theology,” “Admissions +of Distinguished Men,” etc. Failing health obliged him to retire +leaving the <i>Investigator</i> to “Anthony Collins” (W. H. +Johnson), and afterwards to “Iconoclast” (C. Bradlaugh). At +his last lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled his +<i>Infidel Text-Book</i> into a work on <i>The Bible and Its +Evidences</i>. He devoted himself to political reform until his death, +3 May, 1868.</p> +<p><b>Cooper</b> (Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher, +politician, jurist and author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at +Oxford, he afterwards studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar +and lived at Manchester, where he wrote a number of tracts on +“Materialism,” “Whether Deity be a Free Agent,” +etc., 1789. Deputed with James Watt, the inventor, by the +Constitutional clubs to congratulate the Democrats of France (April, +1792), he was attacked by Burke and replied in a vigorous pamphlet. In +’94 he published <i>Information Concerning America</i>, and in +the next year followed his friend Priestly to Philadelphia, established +himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He also conducted the +<i>Emporium of Arts and Sciences</i> in that city. He was Professor of +Medicine at Carlisle College, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4611" +href="#xd20e4611" name="xd20e4611">91</a>]</span>’12, and +afterwards held the chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in +South Carolina College, of which he became President, 1820–34. +This position he was forced to resign on account of his religious +views. He translated from Justinian and Broussais, and digested the +Statutes of South Carolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a +Freethinker, in politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many +pamphlets. One on <i>The Right of Free Discussion</i>, and a little +book on <i>Geology and the Pentateuch</i>, in reply to Prof. Silliman, +were republished in London by James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, +1840.<a class="noteref" id="xd20e4620src" href="#xd20e4620" name= +"xd20e4620src">1</a></p> +<p id="coornhert"><b>Coornhert</b> (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, +poet and writer, b. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through +Spain and Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became +thereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a +profound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and +Calvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by +Satan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he +communed neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of +Delft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero’s <i>De +Officiis</i>, and other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.</p> +<p><b>Cordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe.</b> See <a href= +"#saint-hyacinthe">Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Corvin-Wiersbitski</b> (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole +of noble family, who traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b. +Gumbinnen, 12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met +his friend Friedrich von Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went +to Leipsic and entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the +Dutch Revolution, 1841; the <i>History of Christian Fanaticism</i>, +1845, which was suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats +in ’48; was condemned to be shot 15 Sept. ’49, but the +sentence was commuted; spent six years’ solitary confinement in +prison; came to London, became correspondent to the <i>Times</i>; went +through American Civil War, and afterwards Franco-Prussian <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4648" href="#xd20e4648" name= +"xd20e4648">92</a>]</span>War, as a special correspondent. He has +written a History of the New Time, 1848–71. Died since 1886.</p> +<p><b>Cotta</b> (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, +Thuringia, 24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in +Freiberg, where he was appointed professor in ’42. His first +production, <i>The Dendroliths</i>, ’32, proved him a diligent +investigator. It was followed by many geological treatises. Cotta did +much to support the nebular hypothesis and the law of natural +development without miraculous agency. He also wrote on phrenology. +Died at <span class="corr" id="xd20e4657" title= +"Source: Feirburg">Freiburg</span>, 13 Sept 1879.</p> +<p><b>Cotta</b> (C. Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman, +b. <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 124. In ’75 he became Consul. On +the expiration of his office he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had +a high opinion of him and gives his sceptical arguments in the third +book of his <i lang="la">De Natura Deorum</i>.</p> +<p><b>Courier</b> (Paul Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. +He entered the army and became an officer of artillery, serving with +distinction in the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, +directed against the clerical restoration, which place him foremost +among the literary men of the generation. His writings are now +classics, but they brought him nothing but imprisonment, and he was +apparently assassinated, 10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the +bigots would kill him.</p> +<p><b>Coventry</b> (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, +Fellow of Magdalene College, author of <i>Letters of Philemon to +Hydaspus on False Religion</i> (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.</p> +<p><b>Coward</b> (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at +Wadham College, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards +at London. Published, besides some medical works, <i>Second Thoughts +Concerning Human Soul</i>, which excited much indignation by denying +natural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered his +work to be burnt. He died in 1725.</p> +<p><b>Cox</b> (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was +educated at Rugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the +Church, but has devoted himself to history and mythology. His most +pretentious work is <i>Mythology of the Aryan Nations</i> <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4695" href="#xd20e4695" name= +"xd20e4695">93</a>]</span>(1870). He has also written an +<i>Introduction to Comparative Mythology</i> and several historical +works. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with +the authorship of the <i>English Life of Jesus</i>, published under the +name of Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an +heretical paper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a +<i>Life of Bishop Colenso</i>, 2 vols, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Coyteux</b> (Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of +a materialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on +physiology, Paris, 1875, etc.</p> +<p><b>Craig</b> (Edward Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4 +Aug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre ’19; helped to +form the Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. +In ’31 he became editor of the <i>Lancashire Co-operator</i>. In +Nov. of the same year he undertook the management of a co-operative +farm at Rahaline, co. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an +history, ’72. Mr. Craig has edited several journals and +contributed largely to Radical and co-operative literature. He has +published a memoir of Dr. Travis and at the age of 84 he wrote on +<i>The Science of Prolonging Life</i>.</p> +<p><b>Cramer</b> (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, +18 Feb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy +’36; ordained priest in ’42; he resigned in ’58. In +religion he denies revelation and insists on the separation of Church +and State. Among his works we mention <i>Separation from the +Church</i>, a Freethinker’s annotations on the reading of the +Bible, Stockholm, 1859. <i>A Confession of Faith; Forward or Back?</i> +(1862). He has also written on the Punishment of Death (1868), and +other topics.</p> +<p><b>Cranbrook</b> (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents +about 1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, +became a teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent +Church at Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies’ +College, Liverpool, some of his lectures there being published +’57. In Jan. ’65, he went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but +his views being too broad for that congregation, he left in Feb. +’67 but continued to give Sunday lectures until his death, 6 +June, 1869. In ’66 he published <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e4735" href="#xd20e4735" name= +"xd20e4735">94</a>]</span><i>Credibilia</i>: an Inquiry into the +grounds of Christian faith and two years later <i>The Founders of +Christianity</i>, discourses on the origin of Christianity. Other +lectures on <i>Human Depravity</i>, <i>Positive Religion</i>, etc., +were published by Thomas Scott.</p> +<p><b>Cranch</b> (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. +Alexandria, Virginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, +Cambridge, Mass. ’35, but left the ministry in ’42. He +shows his Freethought sentiments in <i>Satan</i>, a Libretto, Boston, +’74, and other works.</p> +<p><b>Craven</b> (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the +Bible entitled <i>Triumph of Criticism</i>, published at Philadelphia, +1869.</p> +<p><b>Cremonini</b> (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, +1550, was professor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he +died. A follower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of +religion and his teaching the mortality of the soul. He was frequently +ordered by the Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave +currency to, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused. +Like most of the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between +religious and philosophic truth. Bayle says. “<span lang="fr">Il +a passé pour un esprit fort, qui ne croyait point +l’immortalité de l’âme.” Larousse says, +“On peut dire qu’il <span class="corr" id="xd20e4768" +title="Source: n’etait">n’était</span> pas +chrétien.</span>” Ladvocat says his works “contain +many things contrary to religion.”</p> +<p><b>Cross</b> (Mary Ann). See <a href="#eliot">Eliot +(George)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Crousse</b> (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of +<i>Principles, or First Philosophy</i>, 1839, and <i>Thoughts</i>, +1845.</p> +<p><b>Curtis</b> (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of <i>Theology +Displayed</i>, 1842. He has been credited with <i>The +Protestant’s Progress to Infidelity</i>. See Griffith (Rees). +Died 1847.</p> +<p><b>Croly</b> (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New +York<span class="corr" id="xd20e4806" title="Not in source">,</span> 3 +Nov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in ’54, and was +subsequently a reporter on the <i>New York Herald</i>. He became editor +of the <i>New York World</i> until ’72. From ’71 to +’73 he edited <i>The Modern Thinker</i>, an organ of the most +advanced thought, and afterwards the <i>New York Graphic</i>. Mr. Croly +has written a <i>Primer of Positivism</i>, ’76, and has +contributed many <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4825" href= +"#xd20e4825" name="xd20e4825">95</a>]</span>articles to periodicals. +His wife, Jane Cunningham, who calls herself “Jennie June,” +b. 1831, also wrote in <i>The Modern Thinker</i>.</p> +<p><b>Cross</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e4834" title= +"Source: Many">Mary</span> Ann), see <a href="#eliot">Eliot +(George)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Crozier</b> (John Beattie), English writer of Scottish border +parentage, b. Galt, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a +scholarship to the grammar school of the town, and thence won another +scholarship to the Toronto University, where he graduated ’72, +taking the University and Starr medals. He then came to London +determined to study the great problems of religion and civilisation. He +took his diploma from the London College of Physicians in ’73. In +’77 he wrote his first essay, “God or Force,” which, +being rejected by all the magazines, he published as a pamphlet. Other +essays on the Constitution of the World, Carlyle, Emerson, and Spencer +being also rejected, he published them in a book entitled <i>The +Religion of the Future</i>, ’80, which fell flat. He then started +his work <i>Civilisation and Progress</i>, which appeared in ’85, +and was also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices in +’87, when it received a chorus of applause, for its clear and +original thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography, +after which he proposes to deal with the Social question.</p> +<p><b>Cuffeler</b> (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of +law, who was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht +towards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on logic +in three parts entitled <i>Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.</i>, +published ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht, +1684. It was without name but with the author’s portrait.</p> +<p><b>Cuper</b> (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected +to have been one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of +refuting him, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble +opposition. His work entitled <i lang="la">Arcana Atheismi +Revelata</i>, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced as written in bad faith. +Cuper maintained that the existence of God could not be proved by the +light of reason.</p> +<p id="cyranodebergerac"><b>Cyrano de Bergerac</b> (Savinien), French +comic writer, b. Paris 6 March, 1619. After finishing his studies and +serving in the army in his youth he devoted himself to literature. His +tragedy “Agrippine” is full of what a bookseller called +“belles <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4869" href= +"#xd20e4869" name= +"xd20e4869">96</a>]</span>impiétés,” and La Monnoye +relates that at its performance the pit shouted “Oh, the wretch! +The Atheist! How he mocks at holy things!” Cyrano knew personally +Campanella, Gassendi, Lamothe Le Vayer, Linière, Rohault, etc. +His other works consist of a short fragment on <i>Physic</i>, a +collection of <i>Letters</i>, and a <i>Comic History of the States and +Empires of the Moon and the Sun</i>. Cyrano took the idea of this book +from F. Godwin’s <i>Man in the Moon</i>, 1583, and it in turn +gave rise to Swift’s <i>Gulliver’s Travels</i> and +Voltaire’s <i>Micromegas</i>. Died Paris, 1655.</p> +<p><b>Czolbe</b> (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 +Dec. 1819, studied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural +dissertation on the <i>Principles of Physiology</i>, ’44. In +’55 he published his <i>New Exposition of Sensationalism</i>, in +which everything is resolved into matter and motion, and in ’65 a +work on <i>The Limits and Origin of Human Knowledge</i>. He was an +intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at Königsberg, 19 Feb. 1873. +Lange says “his life was marked by a deep and genuine +morality.”</p> +<p><b>D’Ablaing.</b> See <a href= +"#giessenburg">Giessenburg</a>.</p> +<p><b>Dale</b> (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. +His work on oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle +gave the charm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra +Behn, under the title of <i>The History of Oracles and the Cheats of +Pagan Priests</i>, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on <i>The Origin and +Progress of Idolatry and Superstition</i>, applied the historical +method to his subject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old +and as extensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. +1708.</p> +<p><b>Damilaville</b> (Etienne Noël), French writer, b. at +Bordeaux, 1721. At first a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service +for Voltaire, who became his friend. He also made the friendship +Diderot, d’Alembert, Grimm, and d’Holbach. He contributed +to the <i>Encyclopédie</i>, and in 1767 published an attack on +the theologians, entitled <i>Theological Honesty</i>. The book entitled +<i>Christianity Unveiled</i> [see <a href="#boulanger">Boulanger</a> +and <a href="#holbach">Holbach</a>] was attributed by Voltaire, who +called it <i>Impiety Unveiled</i>, and by La Harpe and Lalande to +Damilaville. Voltaire called him “one of our most learned +writers.” Larousse says “he was an ardent enemy of +Christianity.” He has also been credited with a share in the +<i>System of Nature</i>. Died 15 Dec. 1768. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4946" href="#xd20e4946" name= +"xd20e4946">97</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Dandolo</b> (Vincenzo) <i>Count</i>, Italian chemist, b. Venice, +26 Oct. 1758, wrote <i>Principles of Physical Chemistry</i>, a work in +French on <i>The New Men</i>, in which he shows his antagonism to +religion, and many useful works on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died +Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.</p> +<p><b>Danton</b> (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur +Aube, 28 Oct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he +preferred to study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him +conspicuous at the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one +of the administrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the +flight of Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his +suspension, and became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In +the alarm caused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. +He was a member of the Convention and of the Committee of Public +Safety. At the crisis of the struggle with Robespierre<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e4964" title="Not in source">,</span> Danton declined to +strike the first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he +said when interrogated by the judge, “My name is Danton, my +dwelling will soon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the +Pantheon of history.” He maintained his lofty bearing on the +scaffold, where he perished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism +Danton was called <i lang="fr">fils de Diderot</i>. Carlyle calls him +“a very Man<span class="corr" id="xd20e4970" title= +"Not in source">.</span>”</p> +<p><b>Dapper</b> (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with +history and geography, on which he produced important works. He had no +religion and was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, +Babylonia, etc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the +orations of the late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a +<i>History of the City of Amsterdam</i>, 1663. Died at Amsterdam +1690.</p> +<p><b>Darget</b> (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and +became reader and private secretary to Frederick the Great +(1745–52), who corresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.</p> +<p><b>Darwin</b> (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury, +12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and +Cambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing +natural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by +Humboldt’s <i>Personal Narrative</i>, resolved to <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e4992" href="#xd20e4992" name= +"xd20e4992">98</a>]</span>travel. He accompanied Captain Fitzroy in the +“Beagle” on a voyage of exploration, ’31–36, +which he narrated in his <i>Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World</i>, +which obtained great popularity. In ’39 he married, and in +’42 left London and settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined +with the reading of Lamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on +<i>The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection</i>, ’59, +which made a great outcry and marked an epoch. Darwin took no part in +the controversy raised by the theologians, but followed his work with +<i>The Fertilisation of Orchids</i>, ’62; <i>Cross and Self +Fertilisation of Plants</i>, ’67; <i>Variations of Plants and +Animals under Domestication</i>, ’65; and in ’71 <i>The +Descent of Man and Selection in relation to Sex</i>, which caused yet +greater consternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued +<i>The Expression of the Emotions of Men and Animals</i>. He also +published works on the <i>Movements of Plants</i>, <i>Insectivorous +Plants</i>, the <i>Forms of Flowers</i>, and <i>Earthworms</i>. He died +19 April, 1882, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, despite his +expressed unbelief in revelation. To a German student he wrote, in +’79, “Science has nothing to do with Christ, except in so +far as the habit of scientific research makes a man cautious in +admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe that there ever has +been any revelation.” In his <i>Life and Letters</i> he relates +that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see “that the Old +Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the +Hindoos.” He rejected design and said “I for one must be +content to remain an Agnostic.”</p> +<p><b>Darwin</b> (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, +grandfather of the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. +1731. Educated at Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician, +first at Lichfield and afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with +Rousseau, Watt and Wedgwood. His principal poem, <i>The Botanic +Garden</i> was published in 1791, and <i>The Temple of Nature</i> in +1803. His principal work is <i>Zoomania</i>, or the laws of organic +life (1794), for which he was accused of Atheism. He was actually a +Deist. He also wrote on female education and some papers in the +<i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. Died at Derby, 18 April, 1802.</p> +<p><b>Daubermesnil</b> (François Antoine), French +conventionalist. Elected deputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a +member <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5052" href="#xd20e5052" name= +"xd20e5052">99</a>]</span>of the Council of Five Hundred. He was one of +the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died at Perpignan 1802.</p> +<p><b>Daudet</b> (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at Nîmes, 13 May +1840, author of many popular romances, of which we mention <i lang= +"fr">L’Evangeliste</i>, ’82, which has been translated into +English under the title <i>Port Salvation</i>.</p> +<p><b>Daunou</b> (Pierre Claude François), French politician and +historian, b. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the +congregation of the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the +Revolution. The department of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas +Paine to the Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at +the Pantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt +Tracy, Ginguené and Benj. Constant. Wrote <i>Historical Essay on +the Temporal Power of the Popes</i>, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, +1840, noted for his benevolence.</p> +<p><b>Davenport</b> (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed +to Carlile’s <i>Republican</i>; wrote an account of the Life, +Writings and Principles of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and +published a volume of verse, entitled <i>The Muses’ Wreath</i> +(1827). Died at Highbury, London, 1846.</p> +<p><b>Davenport</b> (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a +teacher. He wrote <i>An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran</i>, 1869; +<i>Curiositates Eroticœ Physiologæ</i>, or Tabooed Subjects +Freely Treated, and several educational works. Died in poverty 11 May, +1877.</p> +<p><b>David of Dinant</b>, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the +twelfth century. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent +III. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Chârtres, and his +work <i lang="la">Quaterini</i> was condemned and burnt (1209). He only +escaped the stake by rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was +the author of a philosophical work <i>De Tomis</i>, “Of +Subdivisions,” in which he taught that all things were one. His +system was similar to that of Spinoza.</p> +<p><b>David</b> (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. +1748, was made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became +a member of the Convention, voted for the king’s death and for +the civic festivals, for which he made designs. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5105" href="#xd20e5105" name= +"xd20e5105">100</a>]</span>On the restoration he was banished. Died at +Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest enthusiast and a thorough +Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Davidis</b> or <b>David</b> (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. +about 1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an +Antitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there was +“as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other dead +saints as to Jesus Christ.” He was in consequence accused of +Judaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, +1579.</p> +<p><b>Davies</b> (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in +1797 published a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of +<i>The Scripturian’s Creed</i>, for which he was prosecuted and +imprisoned. The work was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at +Manchester, 1839.</p> +<p><b>Davidson</b> (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted +by the Vice Society in Oct. 1820, for selling the <i>Republican</i> and +a publication of his own, called the <i>Deist’s Magazine</i>. For +observations made in his defence he was summoned and fined £100, +and he was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. +He died 16 Dec. 1826.</p> +<p><b>Debierre</b> (Charles), French writer, author of <i>Man Before +History</i>, 1888.</p> +<p><b>De Dominicis.</b> See <a href="#dominicis">Dominicis</a>.</p> +<p><b>De Felice</b> (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, +1821, took part in the revolution of ’43, and when Garibaldi +landed in Sicily was appointed president of the provisional council of +war. Has written on the reformation of elementary schools.</p> +<p><b>De Greef</b> (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of +Appeal, b. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important +<i>Introduction to Sociology</i>, 1886. Wrote in <i>La +Liberté</i>, 1867–73, and now writes in <i>La +Societé Nouvelle</i>.</p> +<p id="degubernatis"><b>De Gubernatis</b> (Angelo), Italian Orientalist +and writer, b. Turin, 7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and +became doctor of philosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber +at Berlin. Sig. de Gubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many +important works, of which we mention his volumes on <i>Zoological +Mythology</i>, which has been <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5170" +href="#xd20e5170" name="xd20e5170">101</a>]</span>translated into +English, ’72: and on the <i>Mythology of Plants</i>. He has +compiled and in large part written a <i>Universal History of +Literature</i>, 18 vols. ’82–85; edited <i>La Revista +Europea</i> and the <i>Revue Internationale</i>, and contributed to +many publications. He is a brilliant writer and a versatile +scholar.</p> +<p><b>De Harven</b> (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, +the anonymous author of a work on <i>The Soul: its Origin and +Destiny</i> (Antwerp, 1879).</p> +<p><b>Dekker</b> (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and +Freethinker of this century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In ’39 +he accompanied his father, a ship’s captain, to the Malayan +Archipelago. He became officer under the Dutch government in Sumatra, +Amboina, and Assistant-Resident at Lebac, Java. He desired to free the +Javanese from the oppression of their princes, but the government would +not help him and he resigned and returned to Holland, ’56. The +next four years he spent, in poverty, vainly seeking justice for the +Javanese. In ’60 he published under the pen name of +“Multatuli” <i>Max Havelaar</i>, a masterly indictment of +the Dutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French +and English. Then follow his choice <i lang="nl">Minnebrieven</i> (Love +Letters), ’61; <i lang="nl">Vorstenschool</i> (A School for +Princes), and <i lang="nl"><span class="corr" id="xd20e5206" title= +"Source: Millivenen">Millioenen</span> Studiën</i> (Studies on +Millions). His <i lang="nl">Ideën</i>, 7 vols. ’62–79, +are full of the boldest heresy. In most of his works religion is +attacked, but in the <i>Ideas</i> faith is criticised with much more +pungency and satire. He wrote “Faith is the voluntary prison-cell +of reason.” He was an honorary member of the Freethought Society, +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and contributed to its organ. During the +latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where he died 19 Feb. +1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.</p> +<p><b>De Lalande</b> (see <a href="#lalande">Lalande</a>).</p> +<p><b>Delambre</b> (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. +Amiens, 19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his +master, an Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by +the Academy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of +Astronomy at the Collége de France. He is the author of a +<i>History of Astronomy</i> in five volumes, and of a number of +astronomical tables and other scientific works He was appointed +perpetual secretary of the Academy of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e5234" href="#xd20e5234" name="xd20e5234">102</a>]</span>Sciences. +Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at Père la Chaise. Cuvier +pronouncing a discourse over his grave.</p> +<p><b>De la Ramee.</b> See <a href="#ouida"><span class="corr" id= +"xd20e5241" title="Source: Ramee">Ramée</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Delbœuf</b> (Joseph Remi Léopold), Belgian writer, +b. Liège, 30 Sept. 1831; is Professor at the University of +Liège, and has written <i>Psychology as a Natural Science, its +Present and its Future; Application of the Experimental Method to the +Phenomena of the Soul</i>, ’73, and other works. In his +<i>Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry</i> he suggests that even +mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.</p> +<p><b>Delbos</b> (Léon), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish +father and Scotch mother. Educated in Paris, Lycée Charlemagne. +Is an M.A. of Paris and <i lang="fr">officier +d’Académie</i>. Speaks many languages, and is a good +Arabic and Sanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the +Franco-German War. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has +written <i lang="fr">L’Athée</i>, the Atheist, a +Freethought romance ’79, and in English <i>The Faith in Jesus not +a New Faith</i>, ’85. He has contributed to the <i>Agnostic +Annual</i>, and is a decided Agnostic.</p> +<p><b>Delepierre</b> (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, +12 March, 1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to +England. His daughter married N. Truebner, who published his work +<i>L’Enfer</i>, 1876, and many other bibliographical studies. +Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.</p> +<p><b>Delescluze</b> (Louis Charles), French journalist and +revolutionary, b. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in ’34 for +sedition. Implicated in a plot in ’35, he took refuge in Belgium. +In ’48 he issued at Paris <i lang="fr">La Revolution +Démocratique et Sociale</i>, but was soon again in prison. He +was banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to +France in ’53 was arrested. In ’68 he published the +<i lang="fr">Réveil</i>, for which he was again fined and +sentenced to prison for ten years. In ’59 he was amnestied and +imprisoned. He became head of the Commune Committee of Public Safety, +and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Deleyre</b> (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near +Bordeaux, 6 Jan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, +but changed his faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He +contributed to the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie</i>, notably the +article <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5295" href="#xd20e5295" +name="xd20e5295">103</a>]</span>“Fanatisme,” and published +an analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint +Evremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with +ardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member +of the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.</p> +<p><b>Delisle de Sales.</b> See <a href="#isoarddelisle">Isoard Delisle +(J. B. C.)</a></p> +<p><b>Dell</b> (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. +Contributed to <i>Progress</i>, wrote <i>Nature Pictures</i>, +’71, and <i>The Dawning Grey</i>, ’85, a volume of vigorous +verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and freethought. Died 31 +Jan. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Deluc</b> (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. +Paris, 1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on <i lang="fr">La Libre +Recherche</i>.</p> +<p><b>De Maillet.</b> See <a href="#maillet">Maillet (Benoît +de)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Democritus</b>, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, +Thrace, <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 460. He travelled to Egypt and +over a great part of Asia, and is also said to have visited India. He +is supposed to have been acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works +were ascribed to him. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 357. He taught +that all existence consisted of atoms, and made the discovery of causes +the object of scientific inquiry. He is said to have laughed at life in +general, which Montaigne says is better than to imitate Heraclitus and +weep, since mankind are not so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the +forerunner of Epicurus, who improved his system.</p> +<p><b>Demonax</b>, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second +century of the Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of +him was written by Lucian.</p> +<p><b>Demora</b> (Gianbattista), director of the <i lang="it">Libero +Pensatore</i> of Milan, and author of some dramatic works.</p> +<p><b>Denis</b> (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political +economy and philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 +April, 1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to +<i lang="fr">La Liberté</i>, <i lang="fr">la Philosophie +Positive</i>, etc. Is one of the Council of the International +Federation of Freethinkers.</p> +<p><b>Denslow</b> (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on +<i>Modern Thinkers</i>, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an +introduction. He contributed a paper on the value of irreligion +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5370" href="#xd20e5370" name= +"xd20e5370">104</a>]</span>to the <i>Religio Philosophic</i> journal of +America, Jan. ’78, and has written in the <i>Truthseeker</i> and +other journals.</p> +<p><b>Denton</b> (William<a id="xd20e5382" name="xd20e5382"></a> F.), +poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington, Durham, 8 Jan. 1823. +After attaining manhood he emigrated to the United States, ’48, +and in ’56 published <i>Poems for Reformers</i>. He was a +prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology, +geology, and Freethought. In ’72 he published <i>Radical +Discourses on Religious Subjects</i> (Boston, ’72), and +<i>Radical Rhymes</i>, ’79. He travelled to Australasia, and died +of a fever while conducting scientific explorations in New Guinea 26 +Aug. 1883.</p> +<p id="depaepe"><b>De Paepe</b> (César) Dr., Belgian Socialist, +b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He was sent to the college of St. Michel, +Brussels. He obtained the Diploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on +the death of his father became a printer with Désiré +Brismée (founder of Les Solidaires, a Rationalist society). +Proudhon confided to him the correction of his works. He became a +physician and is popular with the workmen’s societies. He was one +of the foremost members of the International and attended all its +congresses, as well as those of the International Federation of +Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene, political economy, +and psychology, collaborating in a great number of the most advanced +journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic man, capable both as +a speaker and writer.</p> +<p><b>Depasse</b> (Hector), French writer, b. at Armentières in +1843, is editor of <i lang="fr">La République <span class="corr" +id="xd20e5403" title="Source: Francaise">Française</span></i>, +and member of the Paris Municipal Council. He has written a striking +work on <i>Clericalism</i>, in which he urges the separation of Church +and State, 1877; and is author of many little books on <i>Contemporary +Celebrities</i>, among them are Gambetta, Bert, Ranc, etc.</p> +<p><b>De Ponnat.</b> See <a href="#ponnat">Ponnat (—de), +<i>Baron</i></a>.</p> +<p><b>De Pontan.</b> See <a href="#ponnat">Ponnat</a>.</p> +<p id="depotteral"><b>De Potter</b> (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, +b. Brussels, 11 Nov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science, +and has collaborated to <i>La Ragione</i> (Reason), ’56, and +<i>La Philosophie de l’Avenir</i>.</p> +<p id="depotterlaj"><b>De Potter</b> (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian +politician and writer, father of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges, +26 April, 1786. In 1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5442" href="#xd20e5442" name= +"xd20e5442">105</a>]</span>In ’21 he wrote the <i>Spirit of the +Church</i>, in 6 vols<span class="corr" id="xd20e5447" title= +"Not in source">.</span>, which are put on the <i>Roman Index</i>. A +strong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested more +than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen months in +’28. In Sept. ’30 he became a member of the provisional +government. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote +a philosophical and anti-clerical <i>History of Christianity</i>, in 8 +vols., 1836–37. He also wrote a <i>Rational Catechism</i>, 1854, +and a <i>Rational Dictionary</i>, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died +Bruges, 22 July, 1859.</p> +<p><b>Deraismes</b> (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e5467" title="Source: 1836">15 Aug. +1835</span>. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote +an appeal on behalf of her sex, <i lang="fr">Aux Femmes Riches</i>, +’65. The Masonic Lodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to +become a member, and she was duly installed under the Grand Orient of +France. The first female Freemason, was president of the Paris +Anti-clerical Congress of 1881, and has written much in her journal, +<i lang="fr">Le Républicain de Seine et Oise</i>.</p> +<p><b>De Roberty</b> (Eugene). See <a href="#roberty">Roberty</a>.</p> +<p id="desbarreaux"><b>Desbarreaux</b> (Jacques Vallée), +<i lang="fr">Seigneur</i>, French poet and sceptic, b. Paris, 1602, +great-nephew of Geoffrey Vallée, who was burnt in 1574. Many +stories are related of his impiety, <i>e.g.</i> the well-known one of +his having a <span class="corr" id="xd20e5494" title= +"Source: feasts">feast</span> of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des +Barreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, “What an +amount of noise over an omelette.” It was said he recanted and +wrote a poem beginning, “Great God, how just are thy +chastisements.” Voltaire, however, assigns this poem to the +Abbé Levau. Died at Chalons, 9 May, 1673.</p> +<p><b>Descartes</b> (René), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, +31 March, 1596. After leaving college he entered the army in ’16, +and fought in the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, +and in ’29 settled in Holland. In ’37 he produced his +famous <i>Discourses upon the Method of Reasoning Well</i>, etc., and +in ’41 his <i>Meditations upon First Philosophy</i>. This work +gave such offence to the clergy that he was forced to fly his country +“<span lang="fr">parce qu’il y fait trop chaud pour +lui</span>.” He burnt his <i lang="fr">Traite du Monde</i> +(Treatise on the World) lest he should incur the fate of Gallilei. +Though a Theist, like Bacon, he puts aside <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5513" href="#xd20e5513" name= +"xd20e5513">106</a>]</span>final causes. He was offered an asylum by +Christina, Queen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.</p> +<p><b>Deschamps</b> (Léger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, +a French philosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the +Order of Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of +the Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau, +d’Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. “Ce +prêtre athée,” as Ad. Franck calls him, was the +author of a treatise entitled <i lang="fr">La Vérité, ou +le Vrai Système</i>, in which he appears to have anticipated all +the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from existing +things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable work, which +remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century, has been +published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at +Montreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.</p> +<p id="deslandes"><b>Deslandes</b> (André François +<span class="sc">Boureau</span>), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member of +the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil of +anonymity, the principal being <i>A Critical History of Philosophy</i>, +3 vols(1737). His <i>Pygmalion</i>, a philosophical romance, was +condemned by the parliament of Dijon, 1742. His <i lang="fr">Reflexions +sur les grands hommes qui sont mort en Plaisantant</i> (Amsterdam, +1732) was translated into English and published in 1745 under the +title, <i>Dying Merrily</i>. Another work directed against religion was +<i>On the certainty of Human Knowledge</i>, a philosophical examination +of the different prerogatives of reason and faith (London, 1741). Died +Paris, 11 April, 1757.</p> +<p><b>Des Maizeaux</b> (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, +1673. He studied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who +introduced him to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. +He edited the works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he +wrote, as well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was +his friend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he +transferred to Collins’s widow and they were burnt. He repented +and returned the money, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He +became Secretary of the Royal Society of London, where he died, 11 +July, 1745.</p> +<p><b>Desmoulins</b> (Lucié Simplice Camille Benôit), +French revolutionary writer, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a +fellow-student <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5553" href= +"#xd20e5553" name="xd20e5553">107</a>]</span>of Robespierre at Paris, +and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In July ’89 +he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille, and thus began the +Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile Laridon-Duplessis. He +edited <i>Le Vieux Cordelier</i> and the <i lang= +"fr">Révolutions de France et de Brabant</i>, in which he stated +that Mohammedanism was as credible as Christianity. He was a Deist, +preferring Paganism to Christianity. Both creeds were more or less +unreasonable; but, folly for folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying +the Erymanthean boar to Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. +He was executed with Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, +who was an Atheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). +Carlyle calls Desmoulins a man of genius, “a fellow of infinite +shrewdness, wit—nay, humor.”</p> +<p id="desperiers"><b>Des Periers</b> (Jean Bonaventure), French poet +and sceptic, b. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a +convent, only to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in +<span class="corr" id="xd20e5565" title="Source: Dyons">Lyons</span> +and assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as +“Francoys Insigne.” Attached to the court of Marguerite of +Valois, he defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French +version of the Psalms. He wrote the <i lang="la">Cymbalum Mundi</i>, a +satire upon religion, published under the name of Thomas de Clenier +à Pierre Tryocan, <i>i.e.</i>, Thomas Incrédule à +Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed and the printer, Jehan Morin, +imprisoned. Des Periers fled and died (probably by suicide, to escape +persecution) <a id="xd20e5574" name="xd20e5574"></a>1544. An English +version of <i lang="la">Cymbalum Mundi</i> was published in 1712. P. G. +Brunet, the bibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author +of the famous Atheistic treatise, <i>The Three Impostors</i>.</p> +<p><b>Destriveaux</b> (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, +b. Liége, 13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public +right. Died Schaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.</p> +<p><b>Destutt de Tracy</b> (Antoine Louis de Claude) <i>Count</i>, +French materialist philosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of +Scotch origin. At first a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at +the Revolution to despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, +Condorcet, and Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an +analysis of Dupuis’ <i lang="fr">Origine de tous les Cultes</i> +(1804), edited Montesquieu and Cabanis, was <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5597" href="#xd20e5597" name= +"xd20e5597">108</a>]</span>made a member of the French Academy (1808), +and wrote several philosophical works, of which the principal is +<i>Elements of Ideology</i>. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died +Paris, 9 March, 1836.</p> +<p><b>Des Vignes</b> (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. +(1245–49). Mazzuchelli attributes to him the treatise <i>De +Tribus Impostoribus</i>.</p> +<p><b>Detrosier</b> (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, +the illegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a +Frenchwoman. In his early years he was “for whole days without +food.” Self-educated, he established the first Mechanics’ +Institute in England at Hulme, gave Sunday scientific lectures, and +published several discourses in favor of secular education. He became +secretary of the National Political Union. He was a Deist. Like +Bentham, who became his friend, he bequeathed his body for scientific +purposes. Died in London, 23 Nov. 1834.</p> +<p><b>Deubler</b> (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near +Ischl, Upper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties, he +became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as “the +Peasant Philosopher.” In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy, and +was sentenced to two years’ hard labor and imprisonment during +pleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e5618" title="Source: ’34">’54</span>, till Nov. +’56 at Brünn, and afterwards at Olmutz, where he was +released 24 March, 1857. He returned to his native place, and was +visited by Feuerbach. In ’70 he was made Burgomaster by his +fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Deurhoff</b> (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. +Educated for the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the +works of Descartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. +Forced to leave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to +Holland, where he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.</p> +<p><b>De Wette.</b> (See Wette M. L. de).</p> +<p><b>D’Holbach.</b> See <a href="#holbach">Holbach (P. H. D. +von), <i>Baron</i></a>.</p> +<p><b>Diagoras</b>, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as +“the Atheist,” b. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said +to have freed him from slavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he +became an Atheist after being the victim of an unpunished <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5645" href="#xd20e5645" name= +"xd20e5645">109</a>]</span>perjury. He was accused (<span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> 411) of impiety, and had to fly from Athens to +Corinth, where he died. A price was put upon the Atheist’s head. +His works are not extant, but several anecdotes are related of him, as +that he threw a wooden statue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish +of lentils, saying the god had a thirteenth task to perform; and that, +being on his flight by sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his +fellow-passengers say it was because an Atheist was on board, he +pointed to other vessels struggling in the same storm without being +laden with a Diagoras.</p> +<p><b>Di Cagno Politi</b> (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. +Bari, 1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern +culture and on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed +articles on Positivism to the <i lang="it">Rivista Europea</i>.</p> +<p><b>Diderot</b> (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. +His father, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits, +at the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for +books, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he +supported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published +<i>Philosophic Thoughts</i>, which was condemned to be burnt. It did +much to advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his <i>Letters on +the Blind</i> occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its +materialistic Atheism. Rousseau, who called him “a transcendent +genius,” visited Diderot in prison, where he remained three +years. Diderot projected the famous <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie</i>, which he edited with Alembert, and he +contributed some of the most important articles. With very inadequate +recompense, and amidst difficulties that would have appalled an +ordinary editor, Diderot superintended the undertaking for many years +(1751–65). He also contributed to other important works, such as +Raynal’s <i>Philosophic History</i>, <i lang= +"fr">L’Esprit</i>, by Helvetius, and <i>The System of Nature</i> +and other works of his friend D’Holbach. Diderot’s fertile +mind also produced dramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, +1784. Comte calls Diderot “the greatest thinker of the eighteenth +century.”</p> +<p><b>Diercks</b> (Gustav), German author of able works on the History +of the Development of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881–2) <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5684" href="#xd20e5684" name= +"xd20e5684">110</a>]</span>and on Arabian Culture in Spain, 1887. Is a +member of the German Freethinkers’ Union.</p> +<p><b>Dilke</b> (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, +travelled in Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of +Turgenev’s <i>Virgin Soil</i>. He purchased and edited the +<i>Weekly Dispatch</i>; was returned as M.P. for Newcastle in 1880, +but, owing to ill health, resigned in favor of John Morley, and died at +Algiers 12 March, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Dinter</b> (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, +near Leipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His <i>Bible for <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e5702" title="Source: Schoolmsters">Schoolmasters</span></i> is +his best-known work. It sought to give rational notes and explanations +of the Jew books, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 +May, 1831.</p> +<p><b>Dippel</b> (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10 +Aug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His <i>Papismus vapulans +Protestantium</i> (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of +<span class="corr" id="xd20e5713" title= +"Source: Geissen">Giessen</span>, and he had to <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e5716" title="Source: fly">flee</span> for his life. Attempting to +find out the philosopher’s stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In +1705 he published his satires against the Protestant Church, <i lang= +"de">Hirt und eine Heerde</i>, under the name of Christianus +Democritos. He denied the inspiration of the Bible, and after an +adventurous life in many countries died 25 April, 1734.</p> +<p><b>Dobrolyubov</b> (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. +1836, at Nijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St. +Petersburg, he became a radical journalist. His works were edited in +four vols. by Chernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.</p> +<p><b>Dodel-Port</b> (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, +Thurgau, 16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in ’63 +teacher in the Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from +’64–’69 at Geneva, Zürich, and Munich, becoming +<i>privat docent</i> in the University of Zürich, ’70. In +’75 he published <i>The New History of Creation</i>. In ’78 +he issued his world-famous <i>Botanical Atlas</i>, and was in ’80 +made Professor of Botany in the Zürich University and Director of +the Botanical Laboratory. He has also written <i>Biological +Fragments</i> (1885), the <i>Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler</i>, +“the peasant philosopher” (1886), and has just published +<i>Moses or Darwin? a School <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5748" +href="#xd20e5748" name="xd20e5748">111</a>]</span>Question</i>, 1889. +Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society and +Vice-President of the German Freethinkers’ Union.</p> +<p><b>Dodwell</b> (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, +was b. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth +century. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A., 9 +Feb. 1726. In ’42 he published a pamphlet entitled +<i>Christianity not Founded on Argument</i>, which in a tone of grave +irony contends that Christianity can only be accepted by faith. He was +brought up to the law and was a zealous friend of the Society for the +Promotion of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.</p> +<p><b>Doebereiner</b> (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15 +Dec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where he +added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and +instructor to Goethe.</p> +<p><b>Dolet</b> (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. +1509. He studied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to +fly from Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he +established a printing-press and published some of his works, for which +he was imprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and +other advanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his +books to be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of +Atheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and +burnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd, +he said: “Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba +dolet.”—Dolet grieves not, but the generous crowd grieves. +His goods being confiscated, his widow and children were left to +beggary. “The French language,” says A. F. Didot, +“owes him much for his treatises, translations, and +poesies.” Dolet’s biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him +“<span lang="fr">le Christ de la pensée +libre</span>.” Philosophy has alone the right, says Henri Martin, +to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer, R. C. Christie, +says he was “neither a Catholic nor a Protestant.”</p> +<p id="dominicis"><b>Dominicis</b> (Saverio Fausto de), Italian +Positivist philosopher, b. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of +Philosophy at Bari, and has written on <i>Education and Darwinism</i>. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5776" href="#xd20e5776" name= +"xd20e5776">112</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Dondorf</b> (Dr. A.), See <a href="#anderson"><span class= +"sc">Anderson</span> (Marie)</a> in Supplement.</p> +<p><b>Doray de Longrais</b> (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. +Manvieux, 1736. Author of a Freethought romance, <i>Faustin, or the +Philosophical Age</i>. Died at Paris, 1800.</p> +<p><b>Dorsch</b> (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10 +Jan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In ’49 he went to +America and settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of +poems, some being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Dorsey</b> (J. M.), author of the <i>The True History of +Moses</i>, and others, an attack on the Bible, published at Boston in +1855.</p> +<p><b>Draparnaud</b> (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 +June, 1772, at Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural +History. His discourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the +Philosophy of the Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his +scepticism. Died 1 Feb. 1805.</p> +<p><b>Draper</b> (John <span class="corr" id="xd20e5813" title= +"Source: Williams">William</span>), scientist and historian, b. St. +Helens, near Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he +was educated at London University. In ’32 he emigrated to +America, where he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New +York University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the +first who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works, +notably on <i>Human Physiology</i>. His history of the American Civil +War is an important work, but he is chiefly known by his <i>History of +the Intellectual Development of Europe</i> and <i>History of the +Conflict of Religion and Science</i>, which last has gone through many +editions and been translated into all the principal languages. Died 4 +Jan. 1882.</p> +<p><b>Dreyfus</b> (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the +Evolution of Worlds and Societies, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Droysen</b> (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 +July, 1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the <i>Hallische +Jahrbücher</i>; was Professor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena +’51 and Berlin ’59. Has edited Frederick the Great’s +Correspondence, and written other important works, some in conjunction +with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15 June, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Drummond</b> (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and +author, b. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5840" href="#xd20e5840" name= +"xd20e5840">113</a>]</span>Mawes, Cornwall, 1795. In the following year +he became envoy to the court of Naples, and in 1801 ambassador to +Constantinople. His principal work is <i>Origines</i>, or Remarks on +the Origin of several Empires, States, and Cities (4 vols. +1824–29). He also printed privately <i>The Œdipus +Judaicus</i>, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and +learning, many legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an +astronomical signification. It was reprinted in ’66. Sir William +Drummond also wrote anonymously <i>Philosophical Sketches of the +Principles of Society</i>, 1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.</p> +<p><b>Duboc</b> (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b. +<span class="corr" id="xd20e5855" title= +"Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, 10 Oct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt +and Giessen, is a clever journalist, and has translated the <i>History +of the English Press</i>. Has written an Atheistic work, <i lang= +"de">Das <span class="corr" id="xd20e5863" title= +"Source: Lieben">Leben</span> Ohne Gott</i> (Life without God), with +the motto from Feuerbach “No religion is my religion, no +philosophy my philosophy,” 1875. He has also written on the +<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e5868" title= +"Source: Physchology">Psychology</span> of Love</i>, and other +important works.</p> +<p><b>Dubois</b> (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published +<i>The True Catechism of Believers</i>—a work ordered by the +Court of Assizes to be suppressed, and for which the author (Sept. +’35) was condemned to six months’ imprisonment and a fine +of one thousand francs. He also wrote <i>The Believer Undeceived</i>, +or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and Absurdity of Christianity; a work +put on the <i>Index</i> in ’36.</p> +<p><b>Du Bois-Reymond</b> (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French +mother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for the +Church, but left it to follow science, ’37. Has become famous as +a physiologist, especially by his <i>Researches in Animal +Electricity</i>, ’48–60. With Helmholtz he has done much to +establish the new era of positive science, wrongly called by opponents +Materialism. Du Bois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the +brain and nervous system, and that “soul” has arisen as the +gradual results of natural combinations, but in his <i>Limits of the +Knowledge of Nature</i>, ’72, he contends that we must always +come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du Bois-Reymond has written on +<i>Voltaire and Natural Science</i>, ’68; <i>La Mettrie</i>, +’75; <i>Darwin versus Galiani</i>, ’78; and <i>Frederick +II. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5907" href="#xd20e5907" name= +"xd20e5907">114</a>]</span>and Rousseau</i>, ’79. Since ’67 +he has been perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, Berlin.</p> +<p><b>Dubuisson</b> (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, +b. Lauat, 1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the +scaffold, 24 March, 1794.</p> +<p><b>Dubuisson</b> (Paul), living French Positivist, author of +<i>Grand Types of Humanity</i>.</p> +<p><b>Du Chatelet Lomont.</b> See <a href= +"#chastelet">Chastelet</a>.</p> +<p><b>Duclos</b> (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 +Feb. 1704. He was admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its +secretary, 1755. A friend of Diderot and d’Alembert. His <i lang= +"fr">Considerations sur les Mœurs</i> is still a readable work. +Died 27 March, 1772.</p> +<p><b>Ducos</b> (Jean François), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux +in 1765. Elected to the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. +1791, demanded the complete separation of the State from religion. He +shared the fate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last +breath, “<i lang="fr">Vive la Republique!</i>”</p> +<p><b>Du Deffand</b> (Marie), <i>Marchioness</i>, witty literary +Frenchwoman, b. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent +she preached irreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in +Massillon, to whom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away +saying “She is charming.” Her house in Paris was for fifty +years the resort of eminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for +many years with Horace Walpole, D’Alembert and Voltaire. Many +anecdotes are told of her; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke +of the miracle of St. Denis walking when beheaded, she said +“<span lang="fr">Il n’y a que le premier pas qui +coûte.</span>” Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the curé of +Saint Sulpice, who came to her death-bed, she said “<span lang= +"fr">Ni questions, ni raisons, ni sermons.</span>” Larousse calls +her “<span lang="fr">Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais sceptique +et materialiste.</span>”</p> +<p><b>Dudgeon</b> (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were +published (privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.</p> +<p><b>Dudnevant</b> (A. L. A. <span class="sc">Dupin</span>), +<i>Baroness</i>. See <a href="#sand">Sand (Georges)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Duehring</b> (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. +1833; studied law. He has, though blind, written many works on science +and political economy, also a <i>Critical History of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e5982" href="#xd20e5982" name= +"xd20e5982">115</a>]</span>Philosophy</i>, ’69–78, and +<i>Science Revolutionized</i>, ’78. In Oct. 1879, his death was +maliciously reported.</p> +<p><b>Dulaure</b> (Jacques Antoine), French archæologist and +historian, b. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788–90 he +published six volumes of a description of France. He wrote many +pamphlets, including one on the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected +to the Convention in 1792, he voted for the death of the King. +Proscribed as a Girondist, Sept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was +one of the Council of Five Hundred, 1796–98. Dulaure wrote a +learned <i>Treatise on Superstitions</i>, but he is best known by his +<i>History of Paris</i>, and his <i>Short History of Different +Worships</i>, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism and +phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.</p> +<p><b>Dulaurens</b> (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 +March, 1719. He was brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. +1727. Published a satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to +fly to Holland, where he lived in poverty. He edited <i lang= +"fr">L’Evangile de la Raison</i>, a collection of anti-Christian +tracts by Voltaire and others, and wrote <i lang= +"fr">L’Antipapisme révelé</i> in 1767. He was in +that year condemned to perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in +the convent of Mariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, +cynical and vivacious. He is also credited with the <i>Portfolios of a +Philosopher</i>, mostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, +1770.</p> +<p><b>Dulk</b> (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. +Konigsberg, 17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for +aiding in the Revolution of ’48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. +In ’65 he published <i lang="de">Jesus der Christ</i>, embodying +rationalism in prose and verse. He has also written <i lang="de">Stimme +der <span class="corr" id="xd20e6023" title= +"Source: Menscheit">Menschheit</span></i>, 2 vols., ’76, +’80, and <i>Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu</i>, ’84, besides +numerous plays and pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Dumont</b> (Léon), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. +Studied for the bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early +embraced Darwinism, and wrote on <i>Hæckel and the Theory of +Evolution</i>, ’73. He wrote in <i>La Revue Philosophique</i>, +and other journals. Died Valenciennes, 17 Jan. 1877. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6039" href="#xd20e6039" name= +"xd20e6039">116</a>]</span></p> +<p id="dumarsais"><b>Dumarsais</b> (César <span class= +"sc">Chesneau</span>), French grammarian and philosopher, b. +Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation of +the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris, where he +married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against the +pretensions of Rome and contributed to the <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie</i>. He is credited with <i>An Analysis of the +Christian Religion</i> and with the celebrated <i lang="fr">Essai sur +les Préjugés</i>, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was +probably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. <i lang="fr">Le +Philosophe</i>, published in <i lang="fr">L’Evangile de la +Raison</i> by Dulaurens, was written by Voltaire. Died 11 June, 1756. +Dumarsais was very simple in character, and was styled by +D’Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.</p> +<p><b>Dumont</b> (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 +July, 1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became +secretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where +he became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died +Milan, 29 Sept. 1829.</p> +<p><b>Duncker</b> (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, +15 Oct. 1811. His chief work, the <i>History of Antiquity</i>, +1852–57, thoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and +profane history, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A +translation in six volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an +active part in the events of ’48 and ’50, and was appointed +Director-General of the State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Dupont</b> (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of +the National Convention, known as the Abbé Dupont, who, 14 Dec. +1792, declared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. +Died at Paris in 1813.</p> +<p><b>Dupont de Nemours</b> (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. +Paris, 14 Dec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly, +and was a Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.</p> +<p><b>Dupuis</b> (Charles François), French astronomer and +philosopher, b. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the +Church, which he left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, +and wrote on the origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became +a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was +chosen a member of the Convention. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e6087" href="#xd20e6087" name="xd20e6087">117</a>]</span>During +the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at his own risk. He was +afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and president of the +legislative body. His chief work is on the <i>Origin of Religions</i>, +7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various faiths, +including Christianity. This has been described as “a monument of +the erudition of unbelief.” Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. +1809<span class="corr" id="xd20e6092" title="Source: ,">.</span></p> +<p><b>Dutrieux</b> (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 +July, 1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.</p> +<p><b>Dutton</b> (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. +Educated by the Moravians. In 1795 he published a <i>Vindication of the +Age of Reason by Thomas Paine</i>. He translated Kotzebue’s +<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e6107" title= +"Source: Pizraro">Pizarro</span> in Peru</i>, 1799, and edited the +<i>Dramatic Censor</i>, 1800, and the <i>Monthly Theatrical +Reporter</i>, 1815.</p> +<p><b>Duvernet</b> (Théophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at +Ambert 1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abbé, but +mocked at religion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a +political pamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he +wrote a curious and rare romance, <i lang="fr">Les Devotions de Mme. de +Bethzamooth</i>. He wrote on <i>Religious Intolerance</i>, 1780, and a +<i>History of the Sorbonne</i>, 1790, but is best known by his <i>Life +of Voltaire</i> (1787). In 1793 he wrote a letter to the Convention, in +which he declares that he renounces the religion “born in a +stable between an ox and an ass.” Died in 1796.</p> +<p><b>Dyas</b> (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of <i>The +Upas</i>. He resided long in Italy and translated several of the works +of C. Voysey.</p> +<p><b>Eaton</b> (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated +at the Jesuits’ College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the +Bible, he did so, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In +1792 he was prosecuted for publishing Paine’s <i>Rights of +Man</i>, but the prosecution fell through. He afterwards published +<i>Politics for the People</i>, which was also prosecuted, 1793, as was +his <i>Political Dictionary</i>, 1796. To escape punishment, he fled to +America, and lived there for three years and a half. Upon returning to +England, his person and property were seized. Books to the value of +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6153" href="#xd20e6153" name= +"xd20e6153">118</a>]</span>£2,800 were burnt, and he was +imprisoned for fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at +his “<span class="corr" id="xd20e6155" title= +"Source: Ratiocinato ry">Rationcinatory</span> or Magazine for Truths +and Good Sense,” 8 Cornhill, in 1810, <i>The True Sense and +Meaning of the System of Nature</i>. The <i>Law of Nature</i> had been +previously translated by him. In ’11 he issued the first and +second parts of Paine’s <i>Age of Reason</i>, and on 6 March, +’12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy +for issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen +months’ imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence +evoked Shelley’s spirited <i>Letter to Lord Ellenborough</i>. +Eaton translated and published Freret’s <i>Preservative against +Religious Prejudices</i>, 1812, and shortly before his death, at +Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again prosecuted for publishing George +Houston’s <i>Ecce Homo</i>.</p> +<p><b>Eberhard</b> (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 +Aug. 1739, was brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in +his <i>New Apology for Socrates</i>, 1772, was patronised by Frederick +the Great, and appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he +opposed the idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a <i>History of +Philosophy</i>, 1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.</p> +<p><b>Eberty</b> (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author +of some controversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Echtermeyer</b> (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, +1805. He studied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the +<i>Hallische Jahrbücher</i>, which contained many Freethought +articles, 1837–42. He taught at Halle and Dresden, where he died, +6 May, 1844.</p> +<p><b>Edelmann</b> (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, +Saxony, 9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians, +but left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent of +Spinozism. His principal works are his <i lang="de">Unschuldige +Wahrheiten</i>, 1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no +religion is of importance, and <i lang="de">Moses mit Aufgedecktem +Angesicht</i> (Moses Unmasked), 1740, an attack on the Old Testament, +which, he believed, proceeded from Ezra; <i lang="de">Die <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e6211" title= +"Source: Gottlichkeit">Göttlichkeit</span> der Vernunft</i> (The +Divinity of Reason), 1741, and <i>Christ and Belial</i>. His works +excited much controversy, and were publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, +1750. Edelmann was chased from Brunswick and <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e6218" title="Source: Hamburgh">Hamburg</span>, but was protected +by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6222" href="#xd20e6222" name= +"xd20e6222">119</a>]</span>Frederick the Great, and died at Berlin, 15 +Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot calls him a +“<span lang="fr">fameux esprit fort</span>.”</p> +<p><b>Edison</b> (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10 +Feb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read, +however, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He +afterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator, +studied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen, the +telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an +Agnostic and to pay no attention to religion.</p> +<p><b>Eenens</b> (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. +Eenens was an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and +anti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote <i lang="fr">La +Vérité</i>, a work on the Christian faith, 1859; <i lang= +"fr">Le Paradis Terrestre</i>, ’60, an examination of the legend +of Eden, and <i lang="fr">Du Dieu Thaumaturge</i>, ’76. He used +the pen names “Le Père Nicaise,” +“Nicodème Polycarpe” and “Timon III.” +Died at Brussels in 1883.</p> +<p id="effen"><b>Effen</b> (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 +Feb. 1684. Edited the <i>Misanthrope</i>, Amsterdam, 1712–16; +translated <i>Robinson Crusoe</i>, Swift’s <i>Tale of a Tub</i>, +and Mandeville’s <i>Thoughts on Religion</i>, 1722; published the +<i>Dutch Spectator</i>, 1731–35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. +1735.</p> +<p><b>Eichhorn</b> (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and +rationalist, b. 16 Oct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature +and afterwards Professor of Theology at Gottingen. He published +<i>Introductions to the Old and New Testaments</i> and <i>A Commentary +on the Apocalypse</i>, in which his criticism tends to uproot belief in +the Bible as a divine revelation. He lectured every day <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e6273" title="Source: for for">for</span> fifty-two +years. Died 25 June, 1827.</p> +<p>“<b>Elborch</b> (Conrad von),” the pseudonym of a living +learned Dutch writer, whose position does not permit him to reveal his +true name. Born 14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to <i lang="nl">De +Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak), under various pen-names, as “Fra +Diavolo,” “Denis Bontemps,” “J. Van den +Ende,” etc. He has given, in ’88, a translation of the rare +and famous Latin treatise, <i lang="la">De Tribus Impostoribus</i> (On +Three Impostors) [Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important +bibliographic and historical introduction. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6287" href="#xd20e6287" name= +"xd20e6287">120</a>]</span></p> +<p id="eliot">“<b>Eliot</b> (George),” the pen-name of Mary +Ann Lewes (<i>née</i> Evans) one of the greatest novelists of +the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff, Warwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819. +In ’41 the family removed to Foleshill, near Coventry. Here she +made the friendship of the household of Charles Bray, and changed her +views from Evangelical Christianity to philosophical scepticism. +Influenced by <i>The Inquiry into the Origin of Christianity</i>, by C. +C. Hennell (Bray’s brother-in-law), she made an analysis of that +work. Her first literary venture was translating Strauss’ +<i lang="de">Leben Jesu</i>, published in 1846. After the death of her +father (’49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent, and +upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the +<i>Westminster Review</i>, to which she contributed several articles. +She translated Feuerbach’s <i>Essence of Christianity</i>, +’54, the only work published with her real name, and also +translated from Spinoza’s Ethics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer +to George Henry Lewes, she linked her life with his in defiance of the +conventions of society, July, ’54. Both were poor, but by his +advice she turned to fiction, in which she soon achieved success. Her +<i>Scenes of Clerical Life</i>, <i>Adam Bede</i>, <i>Mill on the +Floss</i>, <i>Silas Marner</i>, <i>Romola</i>, <i>Felix Holt</i>, +<i>Middlemarch</i>, <i>Daniel Deronda</i>, and <i>Theophrastus Such</i> +have become classics. As a poet, “George Eliot” does not +rank so high, but her little piece, “Oh, may I join the choir +invisible,” well expresses the emotion of the Religion of +Humanity, and her <i>Spanish Gipsy</i> she allowed was “a mass of +Positivism.” Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married +his friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died 22 +Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.</p> +<p><b>Ellero</b> (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. +1833, Counsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of +Criminal Law in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on +legal and social questions. His <i lang="it">Scritti Minori</i>, +<i lang="it">Scritti Politici</i> and <i lang="it">La Question +Sociale</i> have the honor of a place on the Roman <i>Index</i>.</p> +<p><b>Elliotson</b> (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. +London, 1791. He became physician at St. Thomas’s Hospital in +1822, and made many contributions to medical science. By new +prescriptions of quinine, creasote, etc., he excited much <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6360" href="#xd20e6360" name= +"xd20e6360">121</a>]</span>hostility in the profession. He was the +first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He was +also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk stockings, +and to wear a beard. In ’31 he was chosen <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e6362" title="Source: Prosessor">Professor</span> at University +College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism, he resigned +his appointments, ’38. He was founder and President of the London +Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works, edited +the <i>Zoist</i> (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach’s +<i>Physiology</i>, and wrote an introduction to Engledue’s +<i>Cerebral Physiology</i>, defending materialism. Thackeray dedicated +<i>Pendennis</i> to him, ’50, and he received a tribute of praise +from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.</p> +<p><b>Eichthal</b> (Gustave d’), French writer, b. of Jewish +family, Nancy, 22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was +one of the founders of the Société d’Ethnologie, +and published <i>Les Evangiles</i>, a critical analysis of the gospels, +2 vols, Paris, ’63. This he followed by <i>The Three Great +Mediterranean Nations and Christianity</i> and <i>Socrates and our +Time</i>, ’84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son +published his <i lang="fr">Mélanges de Critique Biblique</i> +(Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism), in which there is an able study +on the name and character of “Jahveh.”</p> +<p><b>Emerson</b> (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and +philosopher, b. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, +and was brought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and +ordained as a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the +Church, he resigned in ’32. In the next year he came to Europe, +visiting Carlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving +occasional lectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the +<i>Dial</i>, a transcendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic +pantheism, but without systematic philosophy, all his writings are most +suggestive, and he is always the champion of mental freedom, +self-reliance, and the free pursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27 +April, 1882. Matthew Arnold has pronounced his essays “the most +important work done in prose” in this century.</p> +<p><b>Emerson</b> (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near +Darlington, 14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous +works on Mathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality +attracted Carlyle, who said to Mrs. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e6406" href="#xd20e6406" name= +"xd20e6406">122</a>]</span>Gilchrist, “Emerson was a Freethinker +who looked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have +defended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy +clamor and unreal stuff going on around him.” Died 21 May, 1782. +He compiled a list of Bible contradictions.</p> +<p><b>Emmet</b> (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was +educated as a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his +sympathy with the National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but +returned in 1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was +executed 20 Sept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving +sentence, and on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is +well known that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the +daughter of Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.</p> +<p><b>Engledue</b> (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After +taking his degree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and +was elected President of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He +returned to Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth +Hospital and established public baths and washhouses. He contributed to +the <i>Zoist</i> and published an exposition of materialism under the +title of <i>Cerebral Physiology</i>, 1842, republished by J. Watson, +1857. Died Jan. 1859.</p> +<p><b>English</b> (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. +Cambridge, Mass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and +graduated at Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published <i>Grounds +of Christianity Examined</i>, 1813. The work excited some controversy, +and has been reprinted at Toronto<span class="corr" id="xd20e6429" +title="Not in source">, 1839</span>. He joined the Egyptian service and +became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius and a gift of +languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with a Turkish +ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation of Cherokees by +disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a reply to his +critics, entitled <i>Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook</i>, and two +letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died at +Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.</p> +<p><b>Ense</b> (Varnhagen von). See <a href= +"#varnhagenvonense">Varnhagen</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ensor</b> (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated +at Trinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was +a friend of liberty in every country. Besides <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6446" href="#xd20e6446" name= +"xd20e6446">123</a>]</span>other political works he published, <i>The +Independent Man</i>, 1806; <i>On National Government</i>, 1810; <i>A +Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the Old and New +Testaments</i>, first printed as <i>Janus on Sion</i>, 1816, and +republished 1835; and <i>Natural Theology Examined</i>, 1836, the last +being republished in <i>The Library of Reason</i>. Bentham described +him as clever but impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. +1843.</p> +<p><b>Epicurus</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> 342. He repaired to Athens, <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he +occupied himself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in +which he established his school. Although much <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e6477" title="Source: culminated">calumniated</span>, he is now +admitted to have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he +had no belief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order +not to offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted +the atomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is +the sovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, +but permanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are +lost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius, +<i lang="la">De Rerum Natura</i>. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> +270, leaving many followers.</p> +<p id="erdan">“<b>Erdan</b> (Alexandre),” the pen-name of +Alexandre Andre <span class="sc">Jacob</span>, a French writer, b. +Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished prelate. +Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon, and refused +to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate of +phonography. His work, <i lang="fr">La France Mystique</i> (1855), in +which he gives an account of French religious eccentricities, was +condemned for its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to +a year’s imprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he +took refuge in Italy. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Ernesti</b> (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4 Aug. +1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed +professor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he +insisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died +Leipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.</p> +<p><b>Escherny</b> (François Louis d’) <i>Count</i>, Swiss +litterateur, b. Neufchatel, 24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in +travel. At Paris he became the associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6509" href="#xd20e6509" name= +"xd20e6509">124</a>]</span>particularly Rousseau, whom he much admired. +He wrote <i lang="fr">Lacunes de la Philosophie</i> (Amsterdam, 1783) +and a work on <i>Equality</i> (1795), in which he displays his +Freethought. Died at Paris, 15 July, 1815.</p> +<p><b>Espinas</b> (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, +1844. Has translated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer’s <i>Principles +of Psychology</i>, and has written studies on <i>Experimental +Philosophy in Italy</i>, and on <i>Animal Societies</i> (1877).</p> +<p><b>Espronceda</b> (José), popular Spanish poet, b. +Almendralejo (Estremadura) in 1810. After the War of Independence he +went to Madrid and studied under Alberto Lista, the poet and +mathematician. He became so obnoxious to the government by his radical +principles that he was imprisoned about the age of fifteen, and +banished a few years later. He passed several years in London and +Paris, and was brought under the influence of Byron and Hugo. He fought +with the people in the Paris Revolution of July, 1830. On the death of +the Spanish King in ’33 he returned to Madrid, but was again +banished for too free expression of his opinions. He returned and took +part in the revolutionary contest of ’35–36. He was elected +to the Cortes in ’41, and appointed secretary of embassy to The +Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are lyrical poems, which +often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic, <i lang="es">El +Pelayo</i>; and <i lang="es">El Diablo-Mundo</i> (the Devil-World), a +fine poem, due to the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e6540" title="Source: Esproceda">Espronceda</span> was a +thorough sceptic. In his <i>Song of the Pirate</i> he asks, “Who +is my God?—Liberty”; and in his concluding lines to a star +he says:</p> +<div class="lgouter"> +<p class="line">I unheedingly follow my path,</p> +<p class="line">At the mercy of winds and of waves.</p> +<p class="line">Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,</p> +<p class="line">What care I if lost or saved.</p> +</div> +<p class="firstpar"><b>Estienne</b> (Henri), the ablest of a family of +learned French printers, known in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. +At the age of eighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of +Dionysius <span class="corr" id="xd20e6559" title= +"Source: and">of</span> Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a +printing office of his own, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572 +the <i lang="la">Thesaurus Linguæ Græcæ</i>. His +<i lang="fr">Apologie pour Herodote</i> (Englished as a World of +Wonders) is designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed +against priests and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6568" href= +"#xd20e6568" name="xd20e6568">125</a>]</span>priestcraft. He was driven +from place to place. Sir Philip Sidney highly esteemed him, and +“kindly entertained him in his travaile.” Died 1598. +Garasse classes him with Atheists.</p> +<p><b>Esteve</b> (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the +beginning of the eighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy +and an anonymous work on the <i>Origin of the Universe explained from a +Principle of Matter</i>; Berlin, 1748.</p> +<p><b>Ettel</b> (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at +Neuhof, Sternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish +of his parents at the Theological Seminary Olmütz, which he left +to study philosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. +His <i lang="de">Grundzuge der <span class="corr" id="xd20e6583" title= +"Source: Naturlichen">Natürlichen</span> Weltanschauung</i> +(Sketch of a Natural View of the World), a Freethinker’s +catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth edition.</p> +<p><b>Evans</b> (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 +March, 1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set +up as a printer, and published the <i>Correspondent</i>, the first +American Freethought paper. He also published the <i>Working +Man’s Advocate</i>, <i>Man</i>, <i>Young America</i>, and the +<i>Radical</i>. He labored for the transportation of mails on Sundays, +the limitation of the right to hold lands, the abolition of slavery, +and other reforms. His brother became one of the chief elders of the +Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey, 2 Feb. 1855.</p> +<p><b>Evans</b> (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of +Robert Owen. He established <i>The Potter’s Examiner and +Workman’s Advocate</i>, ’43, and wrote in the Co-operative +journals under the anagram of “Millway Vanes.” Died 14 +March, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Evanson</b> (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, +Lancashire, 21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of +South Mimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts +on the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury +without obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the +Litany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771, he +was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity in the +proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the Trinity. In +1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield on the Prophecies +of the New Testament, in which he tried to show that either +Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6617" href="#xd20e6617" name= +"xd20e6617">126</a>]</span>the following year he resigned both his +livings and took pupils. In 1792 he published his principal work, +<i>The Dissonance of the Four Generally-Received Evangelists</i>, in +which he rejected all the gospels, except Luke, as unauthentic. This +work involved him in a controversy with Dr. Priestley, and brought a +considerable share of <span class="corr" id="xd20e6622" title= +"Source: obliquy">obloquy</span> and persecution from the orthodox. +Died 25 Sept. 1805.</p> +<p><b>Eve’merus</b> or <b>Euhemerus</b> ( <span class="trans" +title=" Euēmeros"><span class="Greek" lang= +"el">Εὐήμερος</span></span>), +a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander the Great, who sought to +rationalise religion, and treated the gods as dead heroes. He is +usually represented as an Atheist.</p> +<p><b>Eudes</b> (Emile François Désiré), French +Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He became a chemist, and was condemned, +with Régnard, to three months’ imprisonment for writing in +<i lang="fr">La Libre Pensée</i>, ’67, of which he was +director. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When +the Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On his +return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public +meeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Ewerbeck</b> (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events +of 1848, he lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet’s +<i lang="fr">Voyage en Icarie</i>, and in an important work entitled +<i lang="fr">Qu’est ce que La Religion?</i> (What is Religion), +’50, translated into French Feuerbach’s “Essence of +Religion,” “Essence of Christianity,” and +“Death and Immortality.” In a succeeding volume <i>What is +the Bible?</i> he translated from Daumer, Ghillany, Luetzelberger and +B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French an historical work on Germany +and the Germans; Paris, 1851.</p> +<p><b>Fabre D’Eglantine</b> (Philippe François Nazaire), +French revolutionist and playwriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. +After some success as a poet and playwright he was chosen as deputy to +the National Convention. He voted for the death of Louis XVI., and +proposed the substitution of the republican for the Christian calendar, +Sept. 1793. He was executed with his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.</p> +<p><b>Fabricatore</b> (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. +His father Antonio had the honor of having a political work placed on +the <i>Index</i>, 1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought +<span class="corr" id="xd20e6672" title="Source: Coucil">Council</span> +of 1869, and has <span class="corr" id="xd20e6675" title= +"Source: writen">written</span> works on Dante, etc. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6678" href="#xd20e6678" name= +"xd20e6678">127</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Farinata</b>. See <span class="sc">Uberti</span> (Farinata +degli).</p> +<p><b>Fauche</b> (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May, +1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays of +Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to <i lang= +"fr">La Liberté de Penser</i>. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.</p> +<p id="fausto"><b>Fausto</b> (Sebastiano), <span class="sc">Da +Longiano</span>, Italian of the beginning of the 16th century, who is +said to have projected a work <i>The Temple of Truth</i>, with the +intention of overturning all religions. He translated the +<i>Meditations of Antoninus</i>, also wrote observations on Cicero, +1566.</p> +<p><b>Feer</b> (Henri Léon), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 +Nov. 1830, is chiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies, +1871–75.</p> +<p><b>Fellens</b> (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b. +Bar-sur-Aube, 1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.</p> +<p><b>Fellowes</b> (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at +Oxford. He took orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually +quitted the doctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions +maintained in his work entitled <i>The Religion of the Universe</i> +(1836). Dr. Fellowes was proprietor of the <i>Examiner</i> and a great +supporter of the London University. Died 5 Feb. 1847.</p> +<p><b>Fenzi</b> (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. +1822. Educated by the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in +’49 the <i>Revista Britannica</i>, writer on the journal +<i>L’Italiano</i>, and has written a credo which is a +non-credo.</p> +<p><b>Feringa</b> (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, +1840. Studied mathematics. A contributor to <i lang="nl">De +Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak) over the signature, +“Muricatus”; he has written important studies, entitled +<i lang="nl">Democratie en Wetenschap</i> (Democracy and Science), +1871, also wrote in <i lang="nl">De <span class="corr" id="xd20e6749" +title="Source: Vrye">Vrije</span> Gedachte</i> (Freethought).</p> +<p><b>Fernau</b> (Rudolf), Dr., German author of <i>Christianity and +Practical Life</i>, Leipsic, 1868; <i>The Alpha and Omega of +Reason</i>, Leipsic, 1870; <i lang="la">Zoologica Humoristica</i>, +1882; and a recent work on <i>Religion as Ghost and God +Worship</i>.</p> +<p><b>Feron</b> (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. +Councillor of the International Freethought Federation.</p> +<p><b>Ferrari</b> (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6777" href="#xd20e6777" name= +"xd20e6777">128</a>]</span>1811. A disciple of Romagnosi, a study of +whose philosophical writings he published ’35. He also published +the works of Vico, and in ’39 a work entitled <i>Vico and +Italy</i>, and in the following year another on the <i>Religious +Opinions of Campanella</i>. Attacked by the Catholic party, he was +exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with Proudhon +and a contributor to the <i lang="fr">Revue de Deux Mondes</i>. In +’42 he was made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but +appointment was soon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a +<i>History of the Revolution of Italy</i>, ’55, and a work on +<i>China and Europe</i>. His history of the <i>Reason of the State</i>, +’60, is his most pronounced work. In ’59, he was elected to +the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of the most radical +members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.</p> +<p><b>Ferri</b> (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly +professor of criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua +under Professor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence +of Free Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian +school of criminal law reform.</p> +<p><b>Ferri</b> (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. +Studied in Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of +<i>History of Philosophy in Italy</i>, Paris 1868; <i>The Psychology of +Pomponazzi</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e6814" title= +"Source: Ferriere">Ferrière</span></b> (Emile), French writer +and licentiate of letters, b. Paris, 1830; author of <i>Literature and +Philosophy</i>, 1865; <i>Darwinism</i>, 1872, which has gone through +several editions; <i>The Apostles</i>, a work challenging early +Christian Morality, 1879; <i>The Soul the Function of the Brain</i>, a +scientific work of popular character in two vols., 1883; and +<i>Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity</i>, 1884. +All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferrière has +also announced a work <i>Jesus bar Joseph</i>.</p> +<p id="feuerbachfh"><b>Feuerbach</b> (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a +famous German jurist, was b. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied +philology, but set himself to preach what his brother Ludwig taught. He +wrote <i>Theanthropos</i>, a series of Aphorisms (Zurich, ’38), +and an able work on the <i>Religion of the Future</i>, +’43–47; and <i>Thoughts and Facts</i>, Hamburg, ’62. +Died Nurenberg, 24 Jan. 1880. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6849" +href="#xd20e6849" name="xd20e6849">129</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Feuerbach</b> (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the <a href= +"#feuerbachfh">preceding</a>, b. Landshut, Bavaria, 28 July 1804. He +studied theology with a view to the Church, but under the influence of +Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In ’28 he was made professor +at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence of his first published +work, <i>Thoughts upon Death and Immortality</i>, ’30, in which +he limited immortality to personal influence on the human race. After a +wandering life he married in ’37, and settled near Anspach. He +published there a history of modern philosophy from Bacon to Spinoza. +This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In ’38 he wrote on +philosophy and Christianity, and in ’41 his work called the +<i>The Essence of Christianity</i>, in which he resolves theology into +anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans, ’53. He +also wrote <i>Principles of the Philosophy of the Future</i>. After the +revolution of ’48 he was invited to lecture by the students of +Heidelberg, and gave his course on <i>The Essence of Religion</i>, +published in ’51. In ’57 he published <i>Theogony from the +Sources of Classical, Hebrew, and Christian Antiquity</i>, and in +’66 <i>Theism, Freedom, and Immortality from the Standpoint of +Anthropology</i>. Died at Rechenberg, near Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872. +His complete works were published at Leipsic in 1876. He was a deep +thinker and lucid writer.</p> +<p><b>Fichte</b> (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German +thinkers, b. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, +Leipsic, and Wittenberg, embraced “determinism,” became +acquainted with Kant, and published anonymously, <i>A Criticism of all +Revelation</i>. He obtained a chair of philosophy at Jena, where he +developed his doctrines of science, asserting that the problem of +philosophy is to seek on what foundations knowledge rests. He gave +moral discourses in the lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of +holding atheistical opinions. He was in consequence banished from +Saxony, 1799. He appears to have held that God was not a personal +being, but a system of intellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte +took deep interest in the cause of German independence, and did much to +rouse his countrymen against the domination of the French during the +conquest which led to the fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications, +in which he expounds his philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on +<i>The Vocation of Man</i>, <i>The Nature <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e6888" href="#xd20e6888" name="xd20e6888">130</a>]</span>and +Vocation of the Scholar</i>, <i>The Way Towards the Blessed Life</i>, +etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.</p> +<p>“<b>Figaro</b>.” See <a href="#larra"><span class= +"sc">Larra</span> (Mariano José de)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Figuiera</b> (Guillem), Provençal troubadour and precursor +of the Renaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed +against the priests and Court of Rome.</p> +<p><b>Filangieri</b> (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. +Naples, 18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work +is <i lang="it">La Scienza della Legislazione</i>, 1780. In the fifth +volume he deals with pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the +<i>Index</i>. Died 21 July, 1788.</p> +<p><b>Fiorentino</b> (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, +Nicastro, 1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at +Spoletto, in ’62 at Bologna, and in ’71 at Naples. He was +elected deputy to Parliament, Nov. ’70. A disciple of Felice +Tocco, he paid special attention to the early Italian Freethinkers, +writing upon <i>The Pantheism of Giordano Bruno</i>, Naples, ’61; +Pietro Pomponazzi, Florence, ’68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 +vols., ’72–74. He has also written on Strauss and Spinoza. +In the <i lang="it">Nuova Antologia</i> he wrote on J. C. Vanini, and +on Cæsalpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A friend of Bertrando +Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in ’83. Died 22 +Dec. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Fischart</b> (Johann), German satirist called <i>Mentzer</i>, b. +Strasbourg about 1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of +Rabelais, whom he in part translated, and are often directed against +the Church. Died at Forbach in 1614.</p> +<p><b>Fischer</b> (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the +freedom of the will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann’s <i>Philosophy +of the Unconscious</i>, ’72; <i lang="de">Das <span class="corr" +id="xd20e6945" title="Source: Bewusstein">Bewusstsein</span></i>, +’74. Died 1888.</p> +<p><b>Fischer</b> (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at +Sandewald, Silesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was +appointed Professor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are +<i>History of Modern Philosophy</i>, ’52–72; <i>Life and +Character of Spinoza</i>; <i>Francis Bacon</i>, ’56; and +<i>Lessing</i>, ’81.</p> +<p><b>Fiske</b> (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 +March, 1842. Graduated at Harvard, ’63. In ’69–71 was +Lecturer on Philosophy at that University, and from ’72–9 +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e6968" href="#xd20e6968" name= +"xd20e6968">131</a>]</span>Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured largely, +and has written <i>Myths and Mythmakers</i>, ’72; <i>Outlines of +Cosmic Philosophy</i>, 2 vols. ’74; <i>Darwinism, and other +essays</i>, ’79; <i>Excursions of an Evolutionist</i>, ’83; +<i>The Idea of God as Affected by Modern Knowledge</i>, ’85.</p> +<p><b>Flaubert</b> (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. +The son of a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father’s +profession for literature. His masterpiece, <i>Madame Bovary</i>, +published in ’56 in the <i lang="fr">Revue de Paris</i>, drew a +prosecution upon that journal which ended in a triumph for the author. +For his next great work, <i>Salammbô</i>, ’62, an epic of +Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian studies. His +intellectual tendencies are displayed in <i>The Temptation of Saint +Anthony</i>. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for his +artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Théophile Gautier, Ivan +Turgenev, Emile Zola and “George Sand.” His correspondence +with the last of these has been published. He distinctly states therein +that on subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died +at Rouen, 9 May, 1880.</p> +<p><b>Flourens</b> (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near +Béziers, 15 April, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the +Academy of Sciences, after having published a work on the nervous +system of vertebrates; he became perpetual secretary in ’33. A +work on <i>Human Longevity and the Quantity of Life on the Globe</i> +was very popular. Died near Paris, 6 Dec. 1867.</p> +<p><b>Flourens</b> (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris, 4 +Aug. 1838. In ’63 he took his father’s chair at the College +of France, and his course on “Ethnography” attracted much +attention. In the following year he published his work on <i>The +Science of Man</i>. His bold heresy lost him his chair, and he +collaborated on Larousse’s <i>Grand Dictionnaire</i>. In +’65 he left France for Crete, where for three years he fought in +the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon his return he was +arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He showed himself an +ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish near Nanterre, 3 +April, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Fonblanque</b> (Albany William), English journalist, b. London, +1793; the son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the +<i>Times</i>, and contributed to the <i>Westminster Review</i>. In +’30 he became editor of the <i>Examiner</i>, and retained his +post <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7032" href="#xd20e7032" name= +"xd20e7032">132</a>]</span>until ’47. His caustic wit and +literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal views. A +selection of his editorials was published under the title, <i>England +under Seven Administrations</i>. Died 13 Oct. 1872.</p> +<p><b>Fontanier</b> (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place +de Grève, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled <i lang= +"fr">Le Tresor Inestimable</i>. Garasse, with little reason, calls him +an Atheist.</p> +<p id="fontenelle"><b>Fontenelle</b> (Bernard <span class="sc">le +Bovier de</span>), nephew of Corneille, called by Voltaire the most +universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV., b. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657. +Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard, he was educated at the +Jesuits’ College. He went to Paris in 1674; wrote some plays and +<i>Dialogues of the Dead</i>, 1683. In 1686 appeared his +<i>Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds</i>, and in the following +year his <i>History of Oracles</i>, based on the work of Van Dale, for +which he was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the +Church Fathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in +1699, a post he held forty-two years. He wrote <i>Doubts on the +Physical System of Occasional Causes</i>, and is also credited with a +letter on the <i>Resurrection of the Body</i>, a piece on <i>The +Infinite</i>, and a <i>Treatise on Liberty</i>; “but,<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e7074" title="Not in source">”</span> says +l’Abbé Ladvocat, “as these books contain many things +contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are not his.” +Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short time before +he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain, “I only +feel,” he replied, “a difficulty of existing.”</p> +<p><b>Foote</b> (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11 +Jan. 1850. Was “converted” in youth, but became a +Freethinker by reading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868, +and was soon a leading member of the Young Men’s Secular +Association. He taught in the Hall of Science Sunday School, and became +secretary of the Republican League. Devoting his time to propagating +his principles, he wrote in the <i>Secular Chronicle</i> and +<i>National Reformer</i>, and in ’76 started the +<i>Secularist</i> in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after the +ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the +<i>Secular Review</i>. In ’79 Mr. Foote edited the +<i>Liberal</i>, and in Sept. ’81, started the <i>Freethinker</i>, +which he still <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7100" href= +"#xd20e7100" name="xd20e7100">133</a>]</span>edits. In the following +year a prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who +attempted to connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued +a Christmas number with an illustrated “Comic Life of +Christ.” For this a prosecution was started by the City +authorities against him and his publisher and printer, and the trial +came on first in March, ’83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North +refused to discharge the prisoners, and they were tried again on the +5th March; Judge North directing that a verdict of guilty must be +returned, and sentencing Mr. Foote to one year’s imprisonment as +an ordinary criminal subject to the same “discipline” as +burglars. “I thank you, my lord; your sentence is worthy of your +creed,” he remarked. On 24 April, ’83, Mr. Foote was +brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special jury on the +first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which he was highly +complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has debated with Dr. +McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard, the Rev. H. Chapman, +and others. Mr. Foote has written much, and lectures continually. Among +his works we mention <i>Heroes and Martyrs of Freethought</i> (1876); +<i>God, the Soul, and a Future State</i>; <i>Secularism the True +Philosophy of Life</i> (1879); <i>Atheism and Morality</i>; <i>The +Futility of Prayer</i>; <i>Bible Romances</i>; <i>Death’s +Test</i>, afterwards enlarged into <i>Infidel Death-Beds</i>; <i>The +God Christians Swear by</i>; <i>Was Jesus Insane? Blasphemy No +Crime</i>; <i>Arrows of Freethought</i>; <i>Prisoner for Blasphemy</i> +(1884); <i>Letters to Jesus Christ</i>; <i>What Was Christ? Bible +Heroes</i>; and has edited <i>The Bible Hand-book</i> with Mr. W. P. +Ball, and the <i>Jewish Life of Christ</i> with the present writer, in +conjunction with whom he has written <i>The Crimes of Christianity</i>. +From 1883–87 he edited <i>Progress</i>, in which appeared many +important articles from his pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London +Secular Federation, and a Vice-President of the National Secular +Society.</p> +<p><b>Fouillee</b> (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pouëze, +near Angers, 18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably +at Bordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two +works on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor of +Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained a thesis +at the Sorbonne on <i>Liberty and Determinism</i>, which was violently +attacked by <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7166" href="#xd20e7166" +name="xd20e7166">134</a>]</span>the Catholics. This work has gone +through several editions. M. Fonillée has also written an able +<i>History of Philosophy</i>, 1875, <i>Contemporary Social Science</i>, +and an important <i>Critique of Contemporary Moral Systems</i> (1883). +He has written much in the <i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, and is +considered, with Taine, Ribot, and Renan, the principal representative +of French philosophy. His system is known as that of <i lang= +"fr">idèes-forces</i>, as he holds that ideas are themselves +forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.</p> +<p><b>Forberg</b> (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, +30 Aug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent at +Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte’s philosophy, he wrote with +Fichte in Niethammer’s <i>Philosophical Journal</i> on “The +Development of Religious Ideas,” and an article on “The +Ground of our Faith in Divine Providence,” which brought on them +a charge of Atheism, and the journal was confiscated by the Electorate +of Saxony. Forberg held religion to consist in devotion to morality, +and wrote <i>An Apology for Alleged Atheism</i>, 1799. In 1807 he +became librarian at Coburg, and devoted himself to the classics, +issuing a <i>Manuel d’Erotologie Classique</i>. Died +Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.</p> +<p><b>Forder</b> (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to +Woolwich, he became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He +took part in the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, +and was sent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In +’77 he was appointed paid secretary to the National Secular +Society, a post he has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of +Messrs. Foote, Ramsey, and Kemp, in ’83, Mr. Forder undertook +charge of the publishing business. He has lectured largely, and written +some pamphlets.</p> +<p><b>Forlong</b> (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. +Lanarkshire, Scotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the +Indian army ’43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign +’45–6, and in the second <span class="corr" id="xd20e7205" +title="Source: Barmese">Burmese</span> war. On the annexation of Barma +he became head of the Survey, Roads and canal branches. In +’58–9 he travelled extensively through Egypt, Palestine, +Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From ’61–71 was a +superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7208" href="#xd20e7208" name= +"xd20e7208">135</a>]</span>North-west Provinces, and Rajputana, and +’72–76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer to the Government +of Oudh<span class="corr" id="xd20e7210" title="Source: ,">.</span> He +retired in ’77 after an active service of 33 years, during which +he frequently received the thanks of the Indian and Home Governments. +In his youth he was an active Evangelical, preaching to the natives in +their own tongues. He has, however, given his testimony that during his +long experience he has known no one converted solely by force of +reasoning or “Christian evidences.” A great student of +Eastern religions, archæology, and languages, he has written in +various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied the result +of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes called +<i>Rivers of Life</i>, setting forth the evolution of all religions +from their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised +developments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the +movements of thought from 10,000 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> to the +present time.</p> +<p><b>Fourier</b> (François Marie Charles), French socialist, b. +Besançon, 7 April, 1772. He passed some of the early years of +his life as a common soldier. His numerous works amid much that is +visionary have valuable criticisms upon society, and suggestions for +its amelioration. He believed in the transmigration of souls. Died at +Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.</p> +<p><b>Fox</b> (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near +Wrentham, Suffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he +became a Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place, +Finsbury, where he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books +besides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of +toleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He +gradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete +rejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent and +able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained his seat +until his retirement in ’61. He was a prominent worker for +Radicalism, contributing to the <i>Westminster Review</i>, <i>Weekly +Dispatch</i>, and <i>Daily News</i>. For some years he edited the +<i>Monthly Repository</i>. His works, which include spirited +<i>Lectures to the Working Classes</i>, and a philosophical statement +of <i>Religions Ideas</i>, were published in twelve volumes, +’65–68. Died 3 June, 1864. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e7246" href="#xd20e7246" name="xd20e7246">136</a>]</span></p> +<p id="franchi">“<b>Franchi</b> (Ausonio),” the pen name of +Francesco Cristoforo <span class="sc">Bonavino</span>, Italian +ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church and +ordained priest in ’44, the practice of the confessional made him +sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to believe in +its dogmas, ’49. In ’52 he published his <span class="corr" +id="xd20e7255" title="Source: principle">principal</span> work, +entitled <i>The Philosophy of the Italian Schools</i>. The following +year he published <i>The Religion of the Nineteenth Century</i>. He +established <i lang="it">La Razione</i> (Reason) and <i lang="it">Il +Libero Pensiero</i> at Turin, ’54–57; wrote on the +<i>Rationalism of the People</i>, Geneva, ’56, and became an +active organiser of anti-clerical societies. In ’66 he published +a criticism of Positivism, and has since written <i>Critical and +Polemical Essays</i>, 3 vols. Milan, ’70–72. In ’68 +was appointed Professor of Philosophy in the Academy of Milan by +Terenzio Mamiani.</p> +<p><b>Francis</b> (Samuel), M.D., author of <i>Watson Refuted</i>, +published by Carlile, 1819.</p> +<p><b>Francois de Neufchateau</b> (Nicolas Louis), <i>Count</i>, French +statesman, poet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his +youth he became secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his +successor. He favored the Revolution, and was elected to the +Legislative Assembly in ’91. As Member of the Directory, +’97, he circulated d’Holbach’s <i lang="fr">Contagion +Sacrée</i>. He became President of the Senate, +’14–16. He wrote numerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan. +1828.</p> +<p><b>Franklin</b> (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. +Boston 17 Jan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came +to England and worked at his trade ’24–26; returned to +Philadelphia, where he published a paper and became known by his +<i>Poor Richard’s Almanack</i>. He founded the public library at +Philadelphia, and made the discovery of the identity of lightning with +the electric fluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was +sent to England as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he +spoke boldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with +this country, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to +France, and effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. +’78, which secured the independence of the American colonies. +Turgot summed up his services in the fine line <i>Eripuit cælo +fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis</i>. “He wrested the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7305" href="#xd20e7305" name= +"xd20e7305">137</a>]</span>thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre from +kings.” Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.</p> +<p><b>Fransham</b> (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a +teacher of mathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed +Paganism, writing several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died +1810.</p> +<p><b>Frauenstaedt</b> (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and +disciple of Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He +studied philosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at +Frankfort in ’47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made +him his literary executor. Among Frauenstädt’s works are +<i>Letters on Natural Religion</i>, ’58, <i>The Liberty of Men +and the Personality of God</i>, ’38; <i>Letters on the Philosophy +of Schopenhauer</i>, ’54, etc. Died at Berlin, 13 Jan. 1879.</p> +<p><b>Frederick II.</b> (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the +thirteenth century and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was +elected to the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, +founded the Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of +Aristotle and Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able +men of his time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was +twice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope +(Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in ’28. He made a +treaty with the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of +Jerusalem. For some heretical words in his letter, in which he +associates the names of Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported +author of the famous work <i>De Tribus Impostoribus</i>. He addressed a +series of philosophical questions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is +said to have called the Eucharist <i>truffa ista</i>, and is credited +also with the saying “Ignorance is the mother of devotion.” +Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.</p> +<p><b>Frederick the Great</b> (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was +educated in a very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He +ascended the throne and soon displayed his political and military +ability. By a war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several +deistical pieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying +“every man must get to heaven his own way.” He attracted to +his court <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7338" href="#xd20e7338" +name="xd20e7338">138</a>]</span>men like Lamettrie, D’Argens, +Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle, continued all his days +Friedrich’s chief thinker. In 1756 France, Austria, Sweden, and +Russia united against him, but he held his own against “a world +in arms.” After a most active life Frederick died at Potsdam, 17 +Aug. 1786. The <i>Philosophical Breviary</i> attributed to him was +really written by Cérutti.</p> +<p><b>Fredin</b> (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published +translation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll’s +writings. In ’80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish +Academy for an original poem.</p> +<p><b>Freeke</b> (William), b. about 1663, wrote <i>A Brief but Clear +Confutation of the Trinity</i>, which being brought before the notice +of the House of Lords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the +common hangman, and the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General +was fined £500.</p> +<p><b>Freiligrath</b> (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, +1810. In ’35 he acquired notice by some poems. In ’44 he +published his profession of faith <i lang="de">Mein +Glaubensbekenntniss</i>, and was forced to fly the country. In +’48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the <i lang="de">Neue +Rheinische Zeitung</i>. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London, +devoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a +high place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart, +18 March 1876.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e7366" title= +"Source: Freret">Fréret</span></b> (Nicolas), French historical +critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a pupil of Rollin, and was patronised +by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished by his attainments in ancient +history, <span class="corr" id="xd20e7369" title= +"Source: philososophy">philosophy</span> and chronology, he became +member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse on the +“Origin of the Franks,” he was incarcerated for four months +in the Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat +much from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic +<i>Letters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe</i> on Natural and Revealed +Religion, and perhaps of <i lang="fr">La Moisade</i>, a criticism of +the Pentateuch, translated by D. I. Eaton, as <i>A Preservative against +<span class="corr" id="xd20e7380" title= +"Source: Religous">Religious</span> Prejudices</i>. The <i>Letters to +Eugenie</i>, attributed to <span class="corr" id="xd20e7388" title= +"Source: Frèret">Fréret</span>, were written by +D’Holbach, and the <i>Critical Examination of the Apologists of +the Christian Religion</i> by J. Levesque de <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7394" href="#xd20e7394" name= +"xd20e7394">139</a>]</span>Burigny. <i>A Critical Examination of the +New Testament</i>, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been +wrongly attributed to Fréret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.</p> +<p><b>Frey</b> (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist and +philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general, 1839. +Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he became +teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the oppression +and degradation of his country he went to New York in 1866 where he +established co-operative communities and also Russian colonies in +Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to influence his +countrymen. In ’87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Fries</b> (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23 +Aug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of the +Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a <i>System of +Metaphysics</i>, 1824; a <i>Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and +Philosophical Æsthetics</i>, Heidelberg ’32; in which he +resolves religion into poetry. He criticised Kant’s proofs of God +and immortality, and wrote a <i>History of Philosophy</i>. Died Jena, +10 Aug. 1843.</p> +<p><b>Frothingham</b> (Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26 +Nov. 1822. Graduated at Harvard, ’43, and became Unitarian +minister. In ’60 he became pastor of the most radical Unitarian +congregation in New York. In ’67 he became first president of the +Free Religious Association, but, becoming too advanced, resigned in +’79 and came to Europe. Since his return to Boston, ’81, he +has devoted himself to literature. He has published <i>The Religion of +Humanity</i>, N.Y., ’73; <i>Life of Theodore Parker</i>, +’74; <i>The Cradle of the Christ</i>, ’77; <i>Life of +Gerrit Smith</i>, 78; and numerous sermons.</p> +<p><b>Froude</b> (James Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son +of an Archdeacon of Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818, +and educated at Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in +’40, was elected fellow of Exeter College and received +deacon’s orders. At first, under the influence of the Romanising +movement, he became a rationalist and abandoned his fellowship and +clerical life. His <i>Nemesis of Faith</i>, ’48, showed the +nature of his objections. Mr. Froude devoted <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7440" href="#xd20e7440" name= +"xd20e7440">140</a>]</span>his abilities to a literary career, and fell +under the influence of Carlyle. For many years he edited +<i>Fraser’s Magazine</i>, in which he wrote largely. His essays +are collected under the title of <i>Short Studies on Great +Subjects</i>, ’71–83. His largest work is the <i>History of +England</i>, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish +Armada, ’56–76. His <i>Life of Carlyle</i>, ’82, and +publication of <i>Carlyle’s Reminiscenses</i> provoked much +controversy. His magical translation of Lucian’s most +characteristic Dialogue of the Gods is done with too much <i>verve</i> +to allow of the supposition that the translator is not in sympathy with +his author.</p> +<p><b>Fry</b> (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he +was elected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was +declared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was +called to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted +for Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence +was passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote <i>The +Accuser Shamed</i>, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking +against “that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the +Godhead.” He also wrote <i>The Clergy in their Colors</i>, +1650.</p> +<p id="fuller"><b>Fuller</b> (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b. +Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In ’40–42 she +edited the <i>Dial</i>. She also published <i>Woman in the Nineteenth +Century</i>, ’44. Among friends she counted Emerson, Hawthorne, +Channing, and Mazzini. She visited Europe and married at Rome the +Marquis D’Ossoli. Returning she was shipwrecked and drowned off +the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.</p> +<p><b>Furnemont</b> (Léon), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 +April, 1861. Entered the school of Mines Liége in ’76, and +founded the <i>Circle of Progressive Students</i>. Became president of +International Congress of Students, ’84, and represented Young +Belgium at the funeral of Victor Hugo. Radical candidate at the +Brussels municipal elections, he obtained 3,500 votes, but was not +elected. He is a Councillor of the International Federation of +Freethinkers and director of a monthly journal, <i>La Raison</i>, +1889.</p> +<p><b>Gabarro</b> (Bartolomé) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, +Barcelona, 27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7495" href="#xd20e7495" name= +"xd20e7495">141</a>]</span>with a view to taking the clerical habit, he +refused and went to America. After travelling much, he established a +day school in Barcelona and founded an Anti-clerical League of +Freethinkers pledged to live without priests. This induced much +clerical <span class="corr" id="xd20e7497" title= +"Source: whath">wrath</span>, especially when Dr. Gabarro founded some +200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For denouncing the +assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel, sentenced to four +years’ imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere on the +frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal <i>La +Tronada</i>. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an +important work on Pius IX. and History.</p> +<p><b>Gabelli</b> (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, +1830. Author of <i>The Religious Question in Italy</i>, ’64, +<i>Man and the Moral Sciences</i>, ’69, in which he rejects all +metaphysics and supernaturalism, and <i>Thoughts</i>, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Gage</b> (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New +York, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active +abolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in ’45 +she married Henry H. Gage. From ’52 till ’61 she wrote and +spoke against slavery. In ’72 she was made President of the +National Woman’s Suffrage Association. She is joint author of +<i>The History of Woman Suffrage</i> with Miss Anthony and Mrs. +Stanton, and with them considers the Church the great obstacle to +woman’s progress.</p> +<p><b>Gagern</b> (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. +Educated at Berlin, travelled in ’47 to Paris where he became +acquainted with Humboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in +the Pyrenees; served in the Prussian army, became a friend of +Wislicenus and the free-religious movement. In ’52 he went to +Mexico; here he had an appointment under General Miramon. In the +French-Mexican expedition he was taken prisoner in ’63; released +in ’65 he went to New York. He was afterwards military +attaché for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought appears in his +memoirs entitled <i>Dead and Living</i>, 1884, and in his volume +<i>Sword and Trowel</i>, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.</p> +<p><b>Gall</b> (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 +March, 1758. He practised as a physician in Vienna, devoting +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7537" href="#xd20e7537" name= +"xd20e7537">142</a>]</span>much time to the study of the brain, and +began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he was prohibited +from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught their system in +various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.</p> +<p><b>Galton</b> (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in +1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King’s +College, London, and graduated at Cambridge, ’24. In ’48 +and ’50 he travelled in Africa. He wrote a popular <i>Art of +Travel</i>, and has distinguished himself by many writings bearing on +heredity, of which we name <i>Hereditary Genius</i>, ’69, +<i>English Men of Science</i>, ’70. In his <i>Inquiries into +Human Faculty and Developement</i>, ’83, he gives statistical +refutation of the theory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the +British Association from ’63–68, President of the +Geographical Section in ’62 and ’72, and of the +Anthropological Section in ’77 and ’85. He is President of +the Anthropological Institute.</p> +<p><b>Gambetta</b> (Léon Michel), French orator and statesman, +b. Cahors, 30 Oct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished +him to become one. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study +for the law. In ’59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of +Delescluze (14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, +made him famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, +he became the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he +proclaimed the Republic and organised the national defences, leaving +Paris, then invested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he +invigorated every department, and was the inspiration of the few +successes won by the French. Gambetta preserved the Republic against +all machinations, and compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the +alternatives, “<i lang="fr">Se soumettre ou se +demettre</i>.” He founded the <i lang="fr">Republique +Française</i>, and became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was +a professed disciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open +opponent of clericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were +Freethinkers. Died 31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of +the largest gatherings ever witnessed.</p> +<p><b>Gambon</b> (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 +March, 1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the <i lang= +"fr">Journal des Ecoles</i>. In ’48 he was elected <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7573" href="#xd20e7573" name= +"xd20e7573">143</a>]</span>representative. The Empire drove him into +exile, he returned at amnesty of ’59. In ’69 he refused to +pay taxes. In ’71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the +last defenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in +’82. Formed a League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. +1887.</p> +<p><b>Garat</b> (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator +and writer, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of +d’Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the +Assembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As +minister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He +afterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count, +and president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.</p> +<p><b>Garborg</b> (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. +Brought up as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the +University of Christiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper +<i>Fedraheimen</i>, written in the dialect of the peasantry. Held an +appointment for some years in the Government Audit Office. In ’81 +he published a powerfully written tale, <i>A Freethinker</i>, which +created a deal of attention. Since he has published <i>Peasant +Students</i>, <i>Tales and Legends</i>, <i>Youth</i>, <i>Men</i>, etc. +He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on the +Norwegian press.</p> +<p><b>Garcia-Vao</b> (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and +miscellaneous writer, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of +Cardinal Cisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards +studied at the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing +several papers, he attached himself to the staff of <i lang="es">Las +Dominicales del Libre Pensiamento</i>. Among his numerous works are a +volume of poems, <i>Echoes of a Free Mind</i>, <i>Love and the +Monks</i>, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman philosophy, etc. This +promising student was stabbed in the back at Madrid, 18 December, +1886.</p> +<p><b>Garde</b> (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four +little blasphemous books at Paris in 1537.</p> +<p><b>Garibaldi</b> (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4 +July, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a +priest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7623" href="#xd20e7623" name= +"xd20e7623">144</a>]</span>sailor’s life. A trip to Rome made him +long to free his country. He joined Mazzini’s movement, +“Young Italy,” and being implicated in the Genoese revolt +of ’33, he fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he +learnt he was sentenced to death. He went to South America and fought +on behalf of the republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his +beautiful and brave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures. +Returning to Italy he fought against the Austrians in ’48, and +next year was the soul of resistance to the French troops, who came to +restore Papal authority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he +escaped with difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working +for an Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In ’54 he +returned and bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In ’59 he +again fought the Austrians, and in May, ’60, landed at Marsala, +Sicily, took Palermo, and drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a +Republican he saluted Victor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the +cessation of Nice to France, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by +Victor Emanuel’s troops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he +wrote his <i>Rule of the Monk</i>, a work exhibiting his love of +liberty and hatred of the priesthood. In ’64 he visited England, +and was enthusiastically received. In ’67 he again took part in +an attempt to free Rome from the Papal government. In ’71 he +placed his sword at the service of the French Republic, and the only +standard taken from the Germans was captured by his men. Elected Member +of the Italian Parliament in his later years he did much to improve the +city of Rome. In one of his laconic letters of ’80, he says +“Dear Friend,—Man has created God, not God man,—Yours +ever, Garibaldi.” He died 2 June, ’82, and directed in his +will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.</p> +<p><b>Garrison</b> (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet +on <i>The Absence of Design in Nature</i>, 1876.</p> +<p><b>Garth</b> (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. +Yorkshire, 1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish +dispensaries, and lashed the opposition in his poem <i>The +Dispensary</i>. He was made physician to King George I. Died 18 June +1719. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7642" href="#xd20e7642" name= +"xd20e7642">145</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Gaston</b> (H.), French author of a brochure with the title +<i lang="fr">Dieu, voila, l’ennemi</i>, God the enemy, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Gattina</b> (F. P. della). See <a href= +"#petruccellidellagattina"><span class="corr" id="xd20e7656" title= +"Source: Petrucelli">Petruccelli</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Gautama</b> (called also <span class="sc">Gotama</span>, +<span class="sc">Buddha</span>, and <span class="sc">Sakyamuni</span>), +great Hindu reformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Many legends are told of his birth and +life. He is said to have been a prince, who, pained with human misery, +left his home to dedicate himself to emancipation. His system was +rather a moral discipline than a religion. Though he did not deny the +Hindu gods he asserted that all beings were subject to +“Karma,” the result of previous actions. He said, “If +a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the forest, and if he but for +one moment pay homage to a man whose soul is grounded in true +knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice for a hundred +years.” According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha died at +Kusinagara, <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 543.</p> +<p><b>Gautier</b> (Théophile), exquisite French poet and prose +writer, b. Tarbes, 31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against +priestcraft or superstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is +Pagan. His romanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with +“sacred themes” as well as conventional morality. +Baudelaire called him an impeccable master of French literature, and +Balzac said that of the two men who could write French, one was +Théophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.</p> +<p><b>Geijer</b> (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and +critic, b. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the +Swedish Academy’s first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a +Conservative in religious, philosophical, and political matters he +became through his historical researches an ardent adherent of the +principles of the French revolution. His historical work and indictment +against “The Protestant creed” was published in 1820 in a +philosophical treatise, <i>Thorild</i>, which was prosecuted. His +acquittal by an enlightened jury stayed religious prosecutions in +Sweden for over sixty years. He died 23 April 1847. A monument was +erected to him last year at the University of Upsala, where he was +professor of history. His works have been republished. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7689" href="#xd20e7689" name= +"xd20e7689">146</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Geijerstam</b> (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the +Freethinking group of <i>Young Sweden</i>.</p> +<p><b>Geismar</b> (Martin von), editor of a Library of German +Rationalists of the eighteenth century, in five parts, including some +of the works of Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846–7. He +also added pamphlets entitled <i>Germany in the Eighteenth +Century</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gellion-Danglar</b> (Eugène), French writer, b. Paris, +1829. Became Professor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in <i lang="fr">La +Pensée Nouvelle</i>, was made sous préfect of +Compiègne, ’71, wrote <i>History of the Revolution of +1830</i>, and <i>A Study of the Semites</i>, ’82.</p> +<p><b>Gemistos</b> (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver +of Pagan learning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He +early lost his faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem +court at Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Palælogus +in 1438, where he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, +by which he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of +the time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused +him of Paganism. Died 1450.</p> +<p><b>Genard</b> (François), French satirist, b. Paris about +1722. He wrote an irreligious work called <i>A Parallel of the +Portraits of the Age, with the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures</i>, for +which he was placed in the Bastille, where it is believed he finished +his days.</p> +<p><b>Gendre</b> (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15 +Dec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a gold +medal. By reading the works of Büchner, Buckle, and Darwin she +became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed to the +<i lang="fr">Revue Internationale des Sciences</i>, to <i lang="fr">La +Justice and the Nouvelle Revue</i>, etc. Some of her pieces have been +reprinted under the title <i lang="fr">Etudes Sociales</i> (Social +Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by Dr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Gener</b> (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is +a member of the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the +evolution of ideas entitled <i>Death and the Devil</i>, Paris, +’80. This able work is dedicated to Renan and has a preface by +Littré. The author has since translated it into Spanish. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7748" href="#xd20e7748" name= +"xd20e7748">147</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Genestet</b> (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. +Amsterdam, 21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a +Protestant minister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at +Rozendaal, 2 July, 1861.</p> +<p><b>Genin</b> (François), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 +Feb. 1803. He became one of the editors of the <i>National</i>, of +Paris, about ’37, and wrote for it spirited articles against the +Jesuits. He published works on <i>The Jesuits and the Universities</i>, +<i>The Church or the State</i>, etc. In ’45 the French Academy +awarded a prize to his <i>Lexicon of the Language of +Molière</i>. He edited Diderot, ’47, and is known for his +researches into the origin of the French language and literature. Died +Paris, 20 Dec. 1856.</p> +<p><b>Genovesi</b> (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1 +Nov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his +substitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself many +attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is his +<i>Italian Morality</i>. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.</p> +<p><b>Gensonne</b> (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of +the Girondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the +Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the +struggle with the Jacobins, Gensonné was one of the most active +and eloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his +colleagues 31 Oct. 1793.</p> +<p><b>Gentilis</b> (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, +Naples, about 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in +1558 he was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of +sharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland, +where he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his +innovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland, where +he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial he was +condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne, 26 (?) +Sept. 1566. <i>Ladvocat</i> says “He died very impiously, saying +he thought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the +Father, whereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory +of the Son.” <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7788" href= +"#xd20e7788" name="xd20e7788">148</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Geoffrin</b> (Marie Therèse, neé <span class= +"sc">Rodet</span>), a French lady distinguished as a patroness of +learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She was a friend of +Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot, and the +encyclopædists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at Paris, +6 Oct. 1777.</p> +<p><b>Gerhard</b> (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. +Educated at an orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, +Italy, and Switzerland, and in ’61 returned to Amsterdam. He +wrote for <i>De Dageraad</i>, and was correspondent of the +<i>Internationale</i>. Died 5 July, 1886.</p> +<p><b>Gerhard</b> (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, +7 April, 1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors +of <i>De Dageraad</i>.</p> +<p><b>Germond</b> (J. B. L.), editor of Marèchal’s +<i>Dictionnaire des Athées</i>, Brussels, 1833.</p> +<p><b>Gertsen</b> (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See <a href= +"#hertzen">Herzen</a>.</p> +<p id="ghillany"><b>Ghillany</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. +at Erlangan, 18 April, 1807. In ’35 he became Professor of +History at Nurenberg. His principal work is on <i>Human Sacrifices +among the Ancient Jews</i>, Nurnberg, ’42. He also wrote on the +Pagan and Christian writers of the first four centuries. Under the +pseudonym of “Richard von der Alm” he wrote <i>Theological +Letters</i>, 1862; <i>Jesus of Nazareth</i>, 1868; and a collection of +the opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries +upon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.</p> +<p><b>Giannone</b> (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, +7 May, 1676. He devoted many years to a <i>History of the Kingdom of +Naples</i>, in which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated +and fled to Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which +was removed on his avowal of <span class="corr" id="xd20e7848" title= +"Source: heterdox">heterodox</span> opinions. He was driven from +Austria and took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. +Giannone was seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal +shore. He found means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been +enticed into Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of +Sardinia, and confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7851" href="#xd20e7851" name= +"xd20e7851">149</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Gibbon</b> (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. +Putney, 27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent +to a Calvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When +visiting the ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of +writing the <i>Decline and Fall</i> of that empire. For twenty-two +years before the appearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of +arduous application, his investigations extending over the whole range +of intellectual and political activity for nearly fifteen hundred +years. His monumental work, bridging the old world and the new, is an +historic exposure of the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon +was elected to Parliament in ’74, but did not distinguish +himself. He died of dropsy, in London, 16 Jan. 1794.</p> +<p><b>Gibson</b> (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, +Mass. 8 May, 1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the +Bible brought her to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the +American Civil War she organised Ladies’ Soldiers’ Aid +Societies, and was elected chaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer +Artillery. President Lincoln endorsed the appointment, which was +questioned. She has written anonymously <i>Godly Women of the +Bible</i>, and has contributed to the <i>Truthseeker</i>, <i>Boston +Investigator</i>, and <i>Ironclad Age</i>, under her own signature and +that of “Lilian.”</p> +<p id="giessenburg"><b>Giessenburg</b> (Rudolf Charles d’Ablaing +van), one of the most notable of Dutch Freethinkers, b. of noble +family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever in youth, in ’47 he went to +Batavia, and upon his return set up as a bookseller under the name of +R<span class="corr" id="xd20e7879" title="Not in source">.</span> C. +Meijer. With Junghuhn and Günst, he started <i lang="nl">de +Dageraad</i>, and from ’56–68 was one of the contributors, +usually under his name “Rudolf Charles.” He is a man of +great erudition, has written <i lang="nl">Het verbond der vrije +gedachte</i> (The Alliance of Freethought); <i lang="nl">de Tydgenoot +op het gebied der Rede</i> (The Contemporary in the <span class="corr" +id="xd20e7891" title="Source: Reign">Field</span> of Reason); <i lang= +"nl">De Regtbank des Onderzoeks</i> (The Tribunal of Inquiry); <i lang= +"nl">Zedekunde en Christendom</i> (Ethics and Christianity); <i lang= +"nl"><span class="corr" id="xd20e7902" title= +"Source: Curiosities von">Curiositeiten van</span> allerlei aard</i> +(Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has also published the Religion and +Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch and Brooksbank’s work on +Revelation. He was the first who published a complete edition of the +famous <i lang="fr">Testament du Curé Jean Meslier</i> in +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7909" href="#xd20e7909" name= +"xd20e7909">150</a>]</span>three parts (’64), has published the +works of Douwes Dekker and other writers, and also <i lang= +"nl">Curieuse Gebruiken</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gilbert</b> (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He +had printed at Dijon, in 1700, <i lang="fr">Histoire de Calejava, ou de +l’isle des hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale +et du Christianisme</i>. The book has neither the name of author or +printer. It was suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, +which was bought in 1784 by the Duc de La Vallière for 120 +livres. It was in form of a dialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both +Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert married in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 +Feb. 1720.</p> +<p><b>Gill</b> (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the +University of that city. In ’83 he published anonymously a work +on <i>The Evolution of Christianity</i>. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in +his defences before Judge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the +following year he put his name to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also +written a pamphlet on the Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an +introduction, Archbishop Laurence’s <i>Book of Enoch</i>, +1883.</p> +<p><b>Giles</b> (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26 +Oct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he graduated +B.A. as a double first-class in ’28. He was appointed head-master +of the City of London School, which post he left for the Church. The +author of over 150 volumes of educational works, including the <i>Keys +to the Classics</i>; privately he was a confirmed Freethinker, intimate +with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on theology show his heresy, +the principal being <i>Hebrew Records</i> 1850, <i>Christian +Records</i> 1854. These two were published together in amended form in +1877. He also wrote <i>Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti</i> 1852, +<i>Writings of the Early Christians of the Second Century</i> 1857, and +<i>Apostolic Records</i>, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept +1884.</p> +<p><b>Ginguene</b> (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 +April, 1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a +teacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais, and +collaborated with Chamfort in the <i>Historic Pictures of the French +Revolution</i>. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the +fall of Robespierre, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e7961" href= +"#xd20e7961" name="xd20e7961">151</a>]</span>became Director of Public +Instruction. His principal work is a <i>Literary History of Italy</i>. +Died Paris, 11 Nov. 1816.</p> +<p><b>Gilliland</b> (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a +little work on <i>The Future of Morality</i>, from the Agnostic +standpoint, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Gioja</b> (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, +20 Sept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a +bureau of statistics. For his brochure <i>La Scienza del Povero +Diavolo</i> he was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on +<i>Merit and Rewards</i> and <i>The Philosophy of Statistics</i>. Died +at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.</p> +<p><b>Girard</b> (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux +France, 24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about +1760; rose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to +settle in business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the +richest merchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the +whole of a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his +vessels after the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, +Voltaire, Rousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public +improvements and radical movements. On his death he left large bequests +to Philadelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a +college for orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or +minister of any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the +college, or even be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the +officers of the institution are required to instruct the pupils in +secular morality and leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. +This will has been most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 +Dec. 1831.</p> +<p><b>Glain</b> (D. de Saint). See <a href="#saint-glain"><span class= +"sc">Saint Glain</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Glennie</b> (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and +writer, author of <i>In the Morningland</i>, or the law of the origin +and transformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter of +which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, <i>Christ and +Osiris</i>. He has also written <i>Pilgrim Memories</i>, or travel and +discussion in the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. +Buckle, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Glisson</b> (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8016" href="#xd20e8016" name= +"xd20e8016">152</a>]</span>Rampisham, Dorsetshire, 1597. He took his +degree at Cambridge, and was there appointed Regius Professor of +Physic, an office he held forty years. He discovered Glisson’s +capsule in the liver, and was the first to attribute irritability to +muscular fibre. In his <i>Tractatus de natura substantiæ +energetica</i>, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in considering +matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account for the +operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey, and +Boerhaave called him “the most accurate of all anatomists that +ever lived.” Died in 1677.</p> +<p><b>Godwin</b> (Mary). See <a href= +"#wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</a>.</p> +<p><b>Godwin</b> (William), English historian, political writer and +novelist, b. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a +Dissenting minister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied +at Hoxton College, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; +but making the acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English +Jacobins, his views developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the +rejection of the supernatural. In ’93 he published his republican +work on <i>Political Justice</i>. In the following year he issued his +powerful novel of <i>Caleb Williams</i>. He married Mary +Wollstonecraft, ’96; wrote, in addition to several novels and +educational works, <i>On Population</i>, in answer to Malthus, 1820; a +<i>History of the Commonwealth</i>, ’24–28; <i>Thoughts on +Man</i>, ’31; <i>Lives of the Necromancers</i>, ’34. Some +Freethought essays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled +<i>The Genius of Christianity Unveiled</i>, were first published in +’73. They comprise papers on such subjects as future retribution, +the atonement, miracles, and character of Jesus, and the history and +effects of the Christian religion. Died 7 April, 1836.</p> +<p><b>Goethe</b> (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany’s greatest poet, +b. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his +seventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his mind +with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several +languages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic +University. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed +his attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771, and +in the same year composed his drama “Goetz von +Berlichingen.” He went <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8058" +href="#xd20e8058" name="xd20e8058">153</a>]</span>to Wetzlar, where he +wrote <i>Sorrows of Werther</i>, 1774, which at once made him famous. +He was invited to the court of the Duke of Saxe-Weimar and loaded with +honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy of distinguished men. Here he +brought out the works of Schiller and his own dramas, of which +<i>Faust</i> is the greatest. His chief prose work is <i>Wilhelm +Meister’s Apprenticeship</i>. His works are voluminous. He +declared himself “decidedly non-Christian,” and said his +objects of hate were “the cross and bugs.” He was averse to +abstractions and refused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. +In philosophy he followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced +the popular creed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: “You look +upon the gospel as it stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice +from heaven would not convince me that water burns and fire quenches, +that a woman conceives without a man, and that a dead man can rise +again. To you, nothing is more beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a +thousand written pages of ancient and modern inspired men are equally +beautiful.” Goethe was opposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer +admits “stood in opposition to Christianity not merely on points +of theological form, but to a certain extent on points of substance +too.” Goethe devoted much attention to science, and he attempted +to explain the metamorphosis of plants on evolutionary principles in +1790. Died 22 March, 1832.</p> +<p><b>Goldstuecker</b> (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e8073" title="Source: bnt">but</span> a +Freethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn +under Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing +himself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and +assisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the +<i>Cosmos</i>. A democrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction +of ’49 and came to England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in +preparing his <i>Sanskrit-English Dictionary</i>. He contributed +important articles on Indian literature to the <i>Westminster +Review</i>, the <i>Reader</i>, the <i>Athenæum</i> and +<i>Chambers’ Encyclopædia</i>. Died in London, 6 March, +1872.</p> +<p><b>Goldziher</b> (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. +Stuhlweissenburg, 1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in +Buda-pesth; is author of <i>Mythology Among the Hebrews</i>, which +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8102" href="#xd20e8102" name= +"xd20e8102">154</a>]</span>has been translated by Russell Martineau, +’77, and has written many studies on Semitic theology and +literature.</p> +<p><b>Gordon</b> (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. +Kells, Kirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he +supported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished +himself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which +recommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and with +whom he published <i>Cato’s Letters</i> and a periodical entitled +<i>The Independent Whig</i>, which he continued some years after +Trenchard’s death, marrying that writer’s widow. He wrote +many pamphlets, and translated from Barbeyrac <i>The Spirit of the +Ecclesiastics of All Ages</i>. He also translated the histories of +Tacitus and Sallust. He died 28 July, 1750, leaving behind him +posthumous works entitled <i>A Cordial for Low Spirits</i> and <i>The +Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gorlæus</b> (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, +towards the end of the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism +on account of his speculations in a work published after his death +entitled <i>Exercitationes Philosophicæ</i>, Leyden 1620.</p> +<p><b>Govea</b> or <span class="sc">Gouvea</span> [Latin Goveanus] +(Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet, b. 1505, studied in France and +gained great reputation by his legal writings. Calvin classes him with +Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers, as an Atheist and mocker. He wrote +elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin, 5 March, 1565.</p> +<p><b>Gratiolet</b> (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 +July 1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the +brain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.</p> +<p><b>Graves</b> (Kersey), American, author of <i>The Biography of +Satan</i>, 1865, and <i>The World’s Sixteen Crucified +Saviors</i>, 1876. Works of some vogue, but little value.</p> +<p><b>Gray</b> (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, +Oneida Co., New York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. +Wrote <i>Elements of Botany</i>, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. +at Harvard, and was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote +an <i>Examination of Darwin’s Treatise</i> 1861. Succeeded +Agassiz as Governor of Smithsonian Institute, and worked on <i>American +Flora</i>. Died at Cambridge, Mass., 30 Jan. 1888. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8165" href="#xd20e8165" name= +"xd20e8165">155</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Green</b> (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits +the <i>Freethinker’s Magazine</i> published at Buffalo, New +York.</p> +<p><b>Greg</b> (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. +Educated at Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic +studies and literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the +Manchester Statistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law +League, and author of one of its prize essays. In ’40 he wrote on +Efforts for the Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In ’50 he +published his <i>Creed of Christendom</i>, which has gone through eight +editions, and in 1872 his <i>Enigmas of Life</i>, of which there were +thirteen editions in his life. He published also Essays on Political +and Social Science, and was a regular contributor to the <i>Pall Mall +Gazette</i>. His works exhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close +reasoner. Died at Wimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.</p> +<p><b>Grenier</b> (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, +Perigord, 1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free +will, ’68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of +Orleans, imploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author +of Aphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.</p> +<p id="grile">“<b>Grile</b> (Dod),” pen name of Ambrose +Bierce, American humorist, who wrote on the <i>San Francisco +News-Letter</i>. His <i>Nuggets and Dust</i> and <i>Fiend’s +Delight</i>, were blasphemous; has also written in <i>Fun</i>, and +published <i>Cobwebs from an Empty Skull</i>, 1873.</p> +<p><b>Grimm</b> (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic +writer in French, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became +acquainted with D’Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his +friend, but afterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of +Orleans, and wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic +literary bulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. +In 1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court, +and after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia +her minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is +chiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published in +seventeen vols. 1812–1813.</p> +<p><b>Gringore</b> (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8219" href="#xd20e8219" name= +"xd20e8219">156</a>]</span>satirised the pope and clergy as well as the +early reformers. Died about 1544.</p> +<p><b>Grisebach</b> (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. +Studied law, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at +Bucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of +which the best known is <i>The New <span class="corr" id="xd20e8227" +title="Source: Tanhaüser">Tanhäuser</span></i>, first +published anonymously in ’69, and followed by <i><span class= +"corr" id="xd20e8231" title= +"Source: Tanhaüser">Tanhäuser</span> in Rome</i>, ’75. +Has also translated <i>Kin Ku Ki Kuan</i>, Chinese novels. Is a +follower of Schopenhauer, whose bibliography he has compiled, 1888.</p> +<p id="groteg"><b>Grote</b> (George), the historian of Greece, b. near +Beckenham, Kent, 17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was +educated for the employment of a banker and was put to business at the +age of sixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and +became a friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 +he married a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in ’22 his +<i>Analysis of the Influence of Natural Religion</i> was published by +Carlile, under the pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the +<i>Westminster Review</i>. In ’33 he was elected as Radical M.P. +for the City of London and retained his seat till ’41. He was +chiefly known in Parliament for his advocacy of the ballot. In +’46–’56 he published his famous <i>History of +Greece</i>, which cost him the best years of his life; this was +followed by <i>Plato and the other Companions of Socrates</i>. His +review of J. S. Mill’s <i>Examination of Sir William +Hamilton’s Philosophy</i>, ’61, showed he retained his +Freethought until the end of his life. He died 18 June ’71, and +was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p> +<p><b>Grote</b> (Harriet) nee <span class="sc">Lewin</span>, wife of +the above, b. 1792, shared in his opinions and wrote his life. Died 29 +Dec. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Gruen</b> (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, +Lüdenschied, Westphalia, studied at Bonn and Berlin. In ’44 +he came to Paris, was a friend to Proudhon and translated his +<i>Philosophy of Misery</i>, was arrested in ’49 and condemned to +exile; lived at Brussels till ’62, when he was made professor at +Frankfort. He became professor of English at the College of Colmar, +established a Radical journal the <i>Mannheim Evening News</i> and he +wrote <span class="corr" id="xd20e8275" title= +"Source: Biograpical">Biographical</span> Studies of Schiller, +’44, and Feuerbach, ’71. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e8278" href="#xd20e8278" name="xd20e8278">157</a>]</span><i>A +Culture History of the 16th–17th Centuries</i>, and <i>The +Philosophy of the Present</i>, ’76. Died at Vienna 17 February, +1887.</p> +<p><b>Gruet</b> (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death +for blasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his +death papers were found in his possession directed against religion. +They were burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.</p> +<p><b>Gruyer</b> (Louis Auguste Jean François-Philippe), Belgian +philosopher, b. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an <i>Essay of +Physical Philosophy</i>, 1828, <i>Tablettès Philosophiques</i>, +’42. <i>Principles of Physical Philosophy</i>, ’45, etc. He +held the atomic doctrine, and that matter was eternal. Died Brussels 15 +Oct. 1866.</p> +<p><b>Guadet</b> (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion +(Gironde), 20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an +advocate in ’81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the +Revolution, and was elected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement +attacks on the Jacobins contributed to the destruction of his party, +after which he took refuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, +15 June, 1794.</p> +<p><b>Gubernatis</b> (Angelo de), see <a href="#degubernatis">De +Gubernatis</a>.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e8316" title= +"Source: Guepin">Guépin</span></b> (Ange), French physician, b. +Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became M.D. in ’28. After the +revolution of July, ’30, Dr. Guépin was made Professor at +the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first scientific and +philosophical congress, held there in ’33. In ’48 he became +Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in ’50 was deprived of +his situation. In ’54 he published his <i>Philosophy of the +Nineteenth Century</i>. After the fall of the Empire, M. Guépin +became Prefet of La Loire Inférieure, but had to resign from +ill-health. Died at Nantes, 21 May, 1873, and was buried without any +religious ceremony.</p> +<p><b>Gueroult</b> (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29 +Jan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote +to the <i lang="fr">Journal des Debats</i>, the <i lang= +"fr">Republique</i>, <i lang="fr">Credit</i> and <i lang= +"fr">Industrie</i>, and founded <i lang="fr">l’Opinion +National</i>. He was elected to the Legislature in ’63, when he +advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy, 21 July, +1872. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8342" href="#xd20e8342" name= +"xd20e8342">158</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Guerra Junqueiro.</b> Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal +work is a poem on <i>The Death of Don Juan</i>, but he has also written +<i>The Death of Jehovah</i>, an assault upon the Catholic faith from +the standpoint of Pantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his +powers.</p> +<p id="guerrini"><b>Guerrini</b> (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 +Oct. 1845. Educated at Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has +written many fine poems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the +preface to <i lang="it">Nova Polemica</i> he declares +“<span lang="it">Primo di tutto dice, non credo in +Dio</span>” (“First of all I say do not believe in +God.”)</p> +<p><b>Gueudeville</b> (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He +became a Benedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the +boldness of his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. +He escaped to Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught +literature and philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron +de la Hontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the +Travels of La <span class="corr" id="xd20e8367" title= +"Source: Honton">Hontan</span>, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This +dialogue is a bitter criticism of Christian usages. He translated +Erasmus’s <i>Praise of Folly</i> (1713), More’s +<i>Utopia</i> (1715), and C. Agrippa<span class="corr" id="xd20e8376" +title="Not in source">,</span> <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e8380" +title="Source: on">Of</span> the Uncertainty and Vanity of Sciences</i> +(1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.</p> +<p><b>Guichard</b> (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He +became Mayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. +He was exiled in ’52, but again elected in ’71. His +principal work is <i>La Liberté de Penser, fin du Pouvoir +Spirituel</i> (1868). Died at Paris, 11th Nov. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Guild</b> (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In ’35 +he became a Christian minister, but after numerous debates became +turned Universalist. In ’44 he published <i>The Universalist Book +of Reference</i>, which went through several <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e8399" title="Source: edittons">editions</span>. It was followed +by <i>Pro and Con</i>, in which he gives the arguments for and against +Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Guirlando</b> (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death +at Venice for anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.</p> +<p><b>Gundling</b> (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic +philosopher, b. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8413" href="#xd20e8413" name= +"xd20e8413">159</a>]</span><i>History of the Philosophy of Morals</i>, +1706, and <i>The Way to Truth</i>, 1713. One of the first German +eclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived all +ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.</p> +<p><b>Gunning</b> (William D.), American scientific professor, b. +Bloomingburg, Ohio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He +wrote <i>Life History of our Planet</i>, Chicago, 1876, and contributed +to <i>The Open Court</i>. Died <span class="corr" id="xd20e8430" title= +"Source: Greely">Greeley</span>, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e8435" title= +"Source: Gunst">Günst</span></b> (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch +writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam, 19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a +Catholic clergyman; studied at Berne, where he was promoted ’47. +Returning to Holland he became bookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He +was for many years secretary of the City Theatre. Günst +contributed to many periodicals, and became a friend of Junghuhn, with +whom he started <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, the organ of the Dutch +Freethinkers, which he edited from ’55 to ’67. He usually +contributed under pseudonyms as “Mephistho” or (∴). +He was for many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons, +“<span lang="la">Post Nubila Lux</span>,” and wrote on +<i>Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of the Freemasons</i>. He also wrote +<i lang="nl">Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken</i> (Holy Water for the +Roman Catholics); <i lang="nl">De Bloedgetuigen der <span class="corr" +id="xd20e8452" title="Source: Spaanische">Spaansche</span> +Inquisitie</i> (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, ’63); and +<i lang="nl">Heidenen en Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne +zedeleer</i> (Pagans and Jesuits, a comparison of their morals, +’67). In his life and conversation he was <i>frater gaudens</i>. +Died 29 Dec. 1886.</p> +<p><b>Guyau</b> (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned +at the age of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on +Utilitarian morality. In the following year he had charge of a course +of philosophy at the Condorcet lycée at Paris. Ill health, +brought on by excess of work, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where +he occupied himself with literature. His principal works are <i lang= +"fr">La Morale d’Epicure</i> (the morality of Epicurus), in +relation to present day doctrines, 1878, <i lang="fr">La Morale +Anglaise Contemporaine</i> (Contemporary English Ethics), ’79, +crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher, +’81. <i lang="fr">Esquisse d’une morale sans obligation ni +sanction</i> (Sketch of morality without obligation or sanction,) +’84, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8476" href="#xd20e8476" +name="xd20e8476">160</a>]</span>and <i lang="fr">L’Irreligion de +l’Avenir</i> (the Irreligion of the Future) ’87. M. Guyau +was a follower of M. Fouillée, but all his works bear the +impress of profound thought and originality. A chief doctrine is the +expansion of life. Died Mentone, 31 March, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Guyot</b> (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He +wrote with Sigismond Lacroix a <i>Study of the Social Doctrines of +Christianity</i>, ’73, and a work on morality in the <i lang= +"fr">Bibliothèque Matérialiste</i>. Elected on the +Municipal Council of Paris ’74–78, he has since been a +deputy to the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has +written the <i>Principles of Social Economy</i>, ’84, and many +works on that topic; has edited Diderot’s <i lang="fr">La +Religieuse</i> and the journals <i lang="fr">Droits de +l’homme</i> and <i>le Bien public</i>.</p> +<p><b>Gwynne</b> (George), Freethought writer in the <i>Reasoner</i> +and <i>National Reformer</i>, under the pen-name of +“Aliquis.” His reply to J. H. Newman’s <i>Grammar of +Assent</i> shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by pen and +purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.</p> +<p><b>Gyllenborg</b> (Gustaf Fredrik), <i>Count</i>. Swedish poet, b. 6 +Dec. 1731, was one of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and +Chancellor of Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, +etc., among which may be named <i>The Passage of the Belt</i>. His +opinions were Deistic. Died 30 March, 1808.</p> +<p><b>Haeckel</b> (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. +Potsdam, 16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at Würzburg, +Berlin, and Vienna. In ’59 he went to Italy and studied zoology +at Naples, and two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. +Between ’66 and ’75 he travelled over Europe besides +visiting Syria and Egypt, and later he visited India and Ceylon, +writing an interesting account of his travels. He is the foremost +German supporter of evolution; his <i>Natural History of Creation</i>, +’68, having gone through many editions, and been translated into +English ’76, as have also his <i>Evolution of Man</i>, 2 vols. +’79, and <i>Pedigree of Man</i>, ’83. Besides numerous +monographs and an able work on <i>Cellular Psychology</i>, Professor +Haeckel has published important <i>Popular Lectures on Evolution</i>, +’78, and on <i>Freedom in Science and Teaching</i>, published +with a prefatory note by Professor Huxley, ’79. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8550" href="#xd20e8550" name= +"xd20e8550">161</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Hagen</b> (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About +the year 1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the +abuse they received. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of +Robert Owen, and was their chief upholder for many years in the town of +Derby, where he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife +also deserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.</p> +<p><b>Halley</b> (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his +lifetime as “the Infidel Mathematician,” b. Haggerston, +London, 29 Oct. 1656; educated at Oxford. At twenty he had made +observations of the planets and of the spots on the sun. In Nov. +’76 he went to St. Helena where he prepared his <i>Catalogue of +Southern Stars</i>, ’79. He also found how to take the +sun’s parallax by means of the transits of Mercury or Venus. In +’78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later he made observation +on “Halley’s comet,” and in ’83 published his +theory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir Isaac +Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his <i lang="la">Principia</i>. In +’98 he commanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. +In 1713 he was made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 +Astronomer-royal. He then undertook a task which required nineteen +years to perform, viz: to observe the moon throughout an entire +revolution of her nodes. He lived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. +1742. Halley was the first who conceived that fixed stars had a proper +motion in space. Chalmers in his <i>Biographical Dictionary</i> says, +“It must be deeply regretted that he cannot be numbered with +those illustrious characters who thought it not beneath them to be +Christians.”</p> +<p><b>Hammon</b> (W.), pseudonym of <span class="sc">Turner</span> +William, <i>q. v.</i></p> +<p id="hamond"><b>Hamond or Hamont</b> (Matthew), English heretic, by +trade a ploughwright, of Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May +1579, for holding “that the New Testament and the Gospel of +Christ were pure folly, a human invention, a mere fable.” He had +previously been set in the pillory and had both his ears cut off.</p> +<p><b>Hannotin</b> (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and +some time editor of the <i>Journal de la Meuse</i>. Author of <i>New +Philosophical Theology</i>, ’46; <i>Great Questions</i>, +’67; <i>Ten Years of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8598" +href="#xd20e8598" name="xd20e8598">162</a>]</span>Philosophical +Studies</i>, ’72; and an <i>Essay on Man</i>, in which he seeks +to explain life by <i>sensibility</i>.</p> +<p><b>Hanson</b> (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South +Australia, b. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short +time in London, and wrote for the <i>Globe</i> and <i>Morning +Chronicle</i>. In 1830 he took part in the attempt to found a colony in +South Australia. In 1851 he became Advocate-General of the colony, and +subsequently in 1861 Chief Justice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote +on <i>Law in Nature</i> 1865, <i>The Jesus of History</i> 1869, and +<i>St. Paul</i> 1875. Hanson wrote <i>Letters to and from Rome A.D.</i> +61, 62 and 63. <i>Selected and translated by C.V.S.</i> 1873. Died at +Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Hardwicke</b> (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius +<span class="corr" id="xd20e8638" title= +"Source: Harwicke">Hardwicke</span>, F.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In +’75 he qualified as a <span class="corr" id="xd20e8641" title= +"Source: surgeon">surveyor</span>, and in ’86 as a physician. For +twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent of the Government Emigration +Service. He is an Agnostic of the school of Herbert Spencer, and has +contributed to Freethought and scientific periodicals.</p> +<p><b>Hardwicke</b> (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. +Sheffield, 26 Jan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In +’78 he became a member of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. +Next year he was the principal agent in establishing the Sheffield +Public Hospital for Skin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. +Hardwicke set up a press of his own in order to print <i>The Popular +Faith Unveiled</i>, the publishers requiring guarantee in consequence +of the prosecution of Mr. Foote (’84), and <i>Evolution and +Creation</i> (’87). He has contributed to the <i>Agnostic +Annual</i>, and has recently written <i>Rambles in Spain, Italy and +Morocco</i> (’89).</p> +<p><b>Harriot</b> (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, +accompanied Raleigh to Virginia and published an account of the +expedition. He was noted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says +“He was a Deist.” Died 21 July 1621.</p> +<p><b>Harrison</b> (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 +Oct. 1831, educated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in +classics. He was called to the bar in ’58. He has since been +appointed Professor of Jurisprudence and International Law. He has +written many important articles in the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e8668" href="#xd20e8668" name= +"xd20e8668">163</a>]</span>high-class reviews, and has published <i>The +Meaning of History</i>, <i>Order and Progress</i>, and on <i>The Choice +of Books and Other Literary Pieces</i>, ’86, and has translated +vol. ii of Comte’s <i>Positive Polity</i>. He was one of the +founders of the Positivist school, ’70, and of Newton Hall in +’81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine articles bear the +stamp of a cultured man of letters.</p> +<p><b>Hartmann</b> (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist +philosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In ’58 he entered the +Prussian army, but an affection of the knee made him resign in +’65. By the publication of his <i>Philosophy of the +Unconscious</i> in ’69, he became famous, though it was not +translated into English until ’84. He has since written numerous +works of which we name <i>Self-Dissolution of Christianity and The +Religion of the Future</i>, ’75, <i>The Crisis of Christianity in +Modern Theology</i>, ’80, <i>The Religious Consciousness of +Mankind</i>, ’81, and <i>Modern Problems</i>, ’86. Latterly +Hartmann has turned his attention to the philosophy of politics.</p> +<p id="hartoghheysvanzouteveen"><b>Hartogh Heys <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e8705" title="Source: Van">van</span> Zouteveen</b> (Dr. Herman), +a learned Dutch writer, b. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and +natural philosophy at Leyden, and graduated doctor of law in ’64 +and doctor of natural philosophy in ’66. In ’66 he received +a gold medal from the king of Holland for a treatise on the synthesis +of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time professor of chemistry and +natural history at the Hague, but lived at Delft, where he was made +city councillor and in ’69 and ’70 travelled through Egypt +and Nubia as correspondent of <i>Het Vaderland</i> and was the guest of +the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin’s <i>Descent of +Man</i> and <i>Expressions of the Emotions</i>, both with valuable +annotations of his own. He has also translated and annotated some of +the works of Ludwig Büchner and “Carus Sterne,” from +the German, and works from the French, besides writing several original +essays on anthropology, natural history, geology, and allied sciences, +contributing largely to the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In +’72 he visited the United States and the Pacific coast. Since +’73 he has resided at Assen, of which he was named member of the +city council, but could not take his seat because he refused the oath. +He is a director of the Provincial Archæological Museum at Assen, +and a member of the Dutch Literary Society the Royal <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8718" href="#xd20e8718" name= +"xd20e8718">164</a>]</span>Institution of Netherlands, India, and other +scientific associations. For a long while he was a member of the Dutch +Freethinkers’ Society, <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, of which he +became president. To the organ <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> he +contributed important works, such as <i>Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus +of Nazareth</i> and the <i>Origin of Religious Ideas</i>, the last of +which has been published separately.</p> +<p><b>Haslam</b> (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 +April, 1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became +a Socialist and published <i>Letters to the Clergy of all +Denominations</i>, showing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities +of their doctrines, ’38. This work went through several editions, +and the publishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by +<i>Letters to the Bishop of Exeter</i>, containing materials for +deciding the question whether or not the Bible is the word of God, +’41, and a pamphlet <i>Who are the Infidels?</i> In ’61 he +removed to Benton, where he has since lived. In ’85 he issued a +pamphlet entitled <i>The Suppression of War</i>.</p> +<p><b>Hassell</b> (Richard), one of Carlile’s shopmen, sentenced +to two years imprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine’s <i>Age +of Reason</i>, 28 May, 1824. He died in October 1826.</p> +<p><b>Hattem</b> (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a +follower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had several +followers. Died 1706.</p> +<p><b>Haureau</b> (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. +At the age of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a +work on <i>The Mountain</i>. In turn journalist and librarian he has +produced many important works, of which we name his <i>Manual of the +Clergy</i>, ’44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, +and his erudite <i>Critical Examination of the Scholastic +Philosophy</i>, ’50.</p> +<p><b>Hauy</b> (Valentine), French <span class="corr" id="xd20e8777" +title="Source: philanthrophist">philanthropist</span>, b. Saint-Just 13 +Nov. 1745. He devoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and +founded the institute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the +founders of Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed +till 1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at +Paris 18 March, 1822. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8780" href= +"#xd20e8780" name="xd20e8780">165</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Havet</b> (Ernest August Eugène), French scholar and +critic, b. Paris, 11 April, 1813. In ’40 he was appointed +professor of Greek literature at the Normal School. In ’55 he was +made professor of Latin eloquence at the Collége de France. In +’63 an article on Renan’s <i lang="fr">Vie de Jesus</i> in +the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> excited much attention, and +was afterwards published separately. His work on <i>Christianity and +its Origins</i>, 4 vols. 1872–84, is a masterpiece of rational +criticism.</p> +<p><b>Hawkesworth</b> (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in +London about 1715. Became contributor to the <i>Gentleman’s +Magazine</i> and editor of the <i>Adventurer</i>. In ’61 he +edited Swift’s works with a life of that author. He compiled an +account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis, Carteret, and Cook for +government, for which he received £6,000; but the work was +censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of Providence. His +novel <i>Almoran and Hamet</i> was very popular. Died at Bromley, Kent, +17 Nov. 1773.</p> +<p><b>Hawley</b> (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and +by the terms of his will prohibited Christian burial.</p> +<p><b>Hebert</b> (Jacques René), French revolutionist, b. +Alençon 15 Nov. 1757, published the notorious <i lang= +"fr">Père Duchêsne</i>, and with Chaumette instituted the +<i>Feasts of Reason</i>. He was denounced by Saint Just, and +guillotined 2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a +few days later.</p> +<p><b>Hegel</b> (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. +Stuttgart, 27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at Tübingen, but, +becoming acquainted with Schelling, devoted his attention to +philosophy. His <i>Encyclopædia of the Philosophical Sciences</i> +made a deep impression in Germany, and two schools sprang up, one +claiming it as a philosophical statement of Christianity, the other as +Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel said students of philosophy must +begin with Spinozism. He is said to have remarked that of all his many +disciples only one understood him, and he understood him falsely. He +was professor at Jena, Heidelberg, and Berlin, in which last city he +died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried beside Fichte.</p> +<p><b>Heine</b> (Heinrich), German poet and littérateur, b. of +Jewish parents at Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8833" href="#xd20e8833" name= +"xd20e8833">166</a>]</span>Berlin, and Göttingen; became +acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and Hegel; graduated LL.D., +and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and was baptised. The change was +only formal. He satirised all forms of religious faith. His fine +<i>Pictures of Travel</i> was received with favor and translated by +himself into French. His other principal works are the <i>Book of +Songs</i>, <i>History of Recent Literature in Germany</i>, <i>The +Romantic School</i>, <i>The Women of Shakespeare</i>, <i>Atta Troll</i> +and other poems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in +Paris, where “the Voltaire of Germany” became more French +than German. About 1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but +he still employed himself in literary composition with the aid of an +amanuensis. After an illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme +suffering on his “mattress grave,” he died 17 Feb. 1856. +Heine was the greatest and most influential German writer since Goethe. +He called himself a Soldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword +played havoc with the forces of reaction.</p> +<p><b>Heinzen</b> (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and +politician, b. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at +Bonn, and travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published +(Cologne 1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a +work on the <i>Prussian Bureaucracy</i>, for which he was prosecuted +and had to seek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the +<i>German Tribune</i> and the <i>Democrat</i>. At the beginning of +’48 he visited New York but returned to participate in the +attempted German Revolution. Again “the regicide” had to +fly and in August ’50 returned to New York. He wrote on many +papers and established the <i>Pioneer</i> (now <i lang= +"de">Freidenker</i>), first in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in +New York, and from ’59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including +<i>Letters on Atheism</i>, which appeared in <i>The Reasoner</i> 1856, +<i>Poems</i>, <i>German Revolution</i>, <i>The Heroes of German +Communism</i>, <i>The Rights of Women</i>, <i>Mankind the Criminal</i>, +<i>Six Letters to a Pious Man</i> (Boston 1869), <i>Lessons of a +Century</i>, and <i>What is Humanity?</i> (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. +1880.</p> +<p><b>Hellwald</b> (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 +March 1842, and in addition to many works on various countries has +written an able <i>Culture History</i>, 1875. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8912" href="#xd20e8912" name= +"xd20e8912">167</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Helmholtz</b> (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. +Potsdam 31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, +optics and electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural +philosophers in Europe. Among his works we mention <i>The Conservation +of Force</i> (1847), and <i>Popular Scientific Lectures</i> +(1865–76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects the design hypothesis.</p> +<p><b>Helvetius</b> (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18 +Jan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a +large fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted by +reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general to +devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work <i>On +the Mind</i> (De L’Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement +XIII, 31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 +for the hardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said +“he told everybody’s secret.” It was republished at +Amsterdam and London. He also wrote a poem <i>On Happiness</i> and a +work on <i>Man his Faculties and Education</i>. He visited England and +Prussia and became an honored guest of Frederick the Great. Died 26 +Dec. 1771. His wife, <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e8937" title= +"Source: nèe">née</span></i> Anne Catherine <span class= +"sc">De Lingville</span>, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, +where her house was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, +d’Holbach, Morellet, Cabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This +re-union of Freethinkers was known as the Société +d’Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.</p> +<p><b>Henault</b>, or <b>Hesnault</b> (Jean), French Epicurean poet of +the 17th century, son of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and +went to Holland to see <a href="#spinoza">Spinoza</a>. Bayle says he +professed Atheism, and had composed three different systems of the +mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet is on <i>The +Abortion</i>. Died Paris, 1682.</p> +<p><b>Henin de Cuvillers</b> (Etienne Felix), <i>Baron</i>, French +general and writer, b. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist +in England, Venice, and Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, +he was wounded at Arcola, 26 Sept. ’96. He was made Chevalier of +the Legion of Honor in 1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. +In the 8th vol. of his <i lang="fr">Archives du Magnétisme +Animal</i>, he suggests that the miracles of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e8966" href="#xd20e8966" name= +"xd20e8966">168</a>]</span>Jesus were not supernatural, but wrought by +means of magnetism learnt in Egypt. In other writings, especially in +reflections on the crimes committed in the name of religion, ’22, +he shows himself the enemy of fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 +August, 1841.</p> +<p><b>Hennell</b> (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, +1809, author of an able <i>Inquiry concerning the Origin of +Christianity</i>, first published in ’38, a work which powerfully +influenced “George Eliot,” and a translation of which was +introduced to German readers by Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who +induced “George Eliot” to translate Strauss’s <i>Life +of Jesus</i>. He also wrote on <i>Christian Theism</i>. Hennell lived +most of his time in Coventry. He was married at London in ’39, +and died 2 Sept. 1850.</p> +<p><b>Herault de Sechelles</b> (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. +of noble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and +Mirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the +Revolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in ’91, he was +made President of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document +known as the <i>Constitution</i> of 1793, and was president and chief +speaker at the national festival, 10 Aug. ’93. He drew on himself +the enmity of Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille +Desmoulins, 5 April, 1794.</p> +<p><b>Herbart</b> (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 +he was made professor of philosophy at Göttingen, and in 1808 +became Kant’s successor at Königsberg and opposed his +philosophy. Though religiously disposed, his philosophy has no room for +the notion of a God. He was recalled to Göttingen, where he died +14 Aug. 1841.</p> +<p><b>Herbert</b> (Edward), <i>Lord</i> of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. +Montgomery Castle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his +travels. On his return he was made one of the king’s counsellors, +and soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the +Protestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself by +romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in +’31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side +of Parliament. His <span class="corr" id="xd20e8999" title= +"Source: principle">principal</span> work is entitled <i lang="la">De +Veritate</i>, the object of which was to assert the sufficiency of +natural religion apart from revelation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e9005" href="#xd20e9005" name="xd20e9005">169</a>]</span>He also +wrote <i>Lay Religion</i>, his own <i>Memoirs</i>, a <i>History of +Henry VIII.</i>, etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.</p> +<p><b>Hertell</b> (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and +for some years Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or +three small works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his +influence in favour of State secularization.</p> +<p id="hertzen"><b>Hertzen</b> or <b>Gertsen</b> (Aleksandr Ivanovich), +Russian patriot, chief of the revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, +1812. He studied at Moscow University, where he obtained a high degree. +In ’34 he was arrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon +afterwards banished to Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in +’37. He was expelled from Russia in ’42, visited Italy, +joined the “Reds” at Paris in ’48, took refuge at +Geneva, and soon after came to England. In ’57 he set up in +London a Russian printing press for the publication of works prohibited +in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in large +numbers. Among his writings are <i>Dilettantism in Science</i>, +’42; <i>Letters on the Study of Nature</i>, ’45–46; +<i>Who’s to Blame?</i> ’57; <i>Memoirs of the Empress +Catherine</i>, and <i>My Exile</i>, ’55. In ’57 Herzen +started the magazine the <i>Kolokol</i> or <i>Bell</i>. Died at Paris, +21 Jan. 1870. His son, <span class="sc">Alessandro Herzen</span>, b. +Wladimar, 1839, followed his father’s fortunes, learnt most of +the European languages and settled at Florence, where he did much to +popularise physiological science. He has translated Maudsley’s +<i>Physiology of Mind</i>, and published a physiological analysis of +human free will.</p> +<p><b>Herwegh</b> (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31 +May, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for +Literature. His <i>Gedichte eines Lebendigen</i> (Poems of a Living +Man) aroused attention by their boldness. In ’48 he raised a +troop and invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and +Paris. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Hetherington</b> (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. +Soho, London, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most +energetic of working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics’ +institutes. He also founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, +1830, which was the germ both of trades’ unionism and of the +Chartist movement. He resisted <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9068" +href="#xd20e9068" name="xd20e9068">170</a>]</span>the “taxes upon +knowledge” by issuing unstamped <i>The Poor Man’s +Guardian</i>, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary +to “law,” to try the power of “might” against +“right,” ’31–35. For this he twice suffered +sentences of six months’ imprisonment. He afterwards published +<i>The Unstamped</i>, and his persistency had much to do in removing +the taxes. While in prison he wrote his <i>Cheap Salvation</i> in +consequence of conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On +Dec. 8, ’40, he was tried for “blasphemous libel” for +publishing Haslam’s <i>Letters to the Clergy</i>, and received +four month’s imprisonment. Hetherington published <i>A Few +Hundred Bible Contradictions</i>, and other Freethought works. Much of +his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He died 24 Aug. +1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.</p> +<p><b>Hetzer</b> (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, +Switzerland; was an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the +doctrine of the Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates +of Constance on a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 +Feb. 1529.</p> +<p><b>Heusden</b> (C. J. van), Dutch writer in <i>De Dageraad</i>. Has +written several works, <i>Thoughts on a Coming More Universal +Doctrine</i>, by a Believer, etc.</p> +<p><b>Hibbert</b> (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During +the <span class="corr" id="xd20e9104" title= +"Source: imprisoment">imprisonment</span> of Richard Carlile he was +active in sustaining his publications. Learning that a distinguished +political prisoner had received a gift of £1,000, he remarked +that a Freethinking prisoner should not want equal friends, and gave +Carlile a cheque for the same amount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly +£1,000 in fitting up Carlile’s shop in Fleet Street. He +contributed “Theological Dialogues” to the +<i>Republican</i>, and also contributed to the <i>Poor Man’s +Guardian</i>. Hibbert set up a private press and printed in uncial +Greek the <i>Orphic Hymns</i>, ’27, and also <i>Plutarch and +Theophrastus on Superstition</i>, to which he wrote a life of Plutarch +and appended valuable essays “on the supposed necessity of +deceiving the vulgar”; “various definitions of an important +word” [God], and a catalogue of the principal modern works +against Atheism. He also commenced a <i>Dictionary of +Anti-Superstitionists</i>, and <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9123" +href="#xd20e9123" name="xd20e9123">171</a>]</span><i>Chronological +Tables of British Freethinkers</i>. He wrote a short life of Holbach, +published by James Watson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left +£500 each. Died December 1834.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e9129" title= +"Source: Hidenin">Hedin</span></b> (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the +“<span lang="se">Andra Kammaren</span>” [House of Commons], +b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical +candidate<span class="corr" id="xd20e9135" title="Source: .">,</span> +’61. Edited the <i lang="se">Aftonbladet</i>, ’74–76. +Has written many radical works.</p> +<p><b>Higgins</b> (Godfrey), English archæologist, b. Skellow +Grange, near Doncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the +bar, but never practised. Being the only son he inherited his +father’s property, married, and acted as magistrate, in which +capacity he reformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His +first work was entitled <i lang="la">Horæ Sabbaticæ</i>, +1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In ’29 he published <i>An +Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed</i> and <i>Celtic +Druids</i>, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure of +priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the origin +of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily for +about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826, +under the title of “<i>Anacalypsis</i>, an attempt to draw aside +the veil of the Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of +Languages, Nations, and Religions.”</p> +<p><b>Hillebrand</b> (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at +Giessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor at +Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany, Karl was +imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to France. He +taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary to Heine. On +the poet’s death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a +naturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During +the Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the <i>Times</i>, and +was taken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he +translated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to the +<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, <i lang= +"fr">Revue des deux Mondes</i>, <i>North American Review</i>, etc. His +best known work is on France and the French in the second half of the +nineteenth century. Died at Florence, 18 Oct. 1884. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9177" href="#xd20e9177" name= +"xd20e9177">172</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Hins</b> (Eugène), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, +Professor at Royal Athenæum, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As +general secretary of the International, he edited <i lang= +"fr">L’Internationale</i>, in which he laid stress on +anti-religious teaching. He contributed to <i lang="fr">La +Liberté</i>, and was one of the prominent lecturers of the +Societies <i lang="fr">Les Solidaires</i>, and <i lang="fr">La +Libre-pensée</i> of Brussels. He has written <i lang="fr">La +Russie dé voilée au moyen de sa littérature +populaire</i>, 1883, and other works.</p> +<p><b>Hippel</b> (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. +Gerdauen, Prussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it +for law, and became in 1780 burgomaster of Königsberg. His +writings, which were published anonymously, betray his advanced +opinions. Died Bromberg, 23 April, 1796.</p> +<p><b>Hittell</b> (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the +<i>Evidences against Christianity</i> (New York, 1857): has also +written <i>A Plea for Pantheism</i>, <i>A New System of Phrenology</i>, +<i>The Resources of California</i>, a <i>History of San Francisco</i>, +<i>A Brief History of Culture</i> (New York, 1875), and <i>St. +Peter’s Catechism</i> (Geneva, 1883).</p> +<p><b>Hoadley</b> (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 +July, 1836. He studied at Harvard, and in ’47 was admitted to the +bar, and in ’51 was elected judge of the superior court of +Cincinnati. He afterwards resigned his place and established a law +firm. He was one of the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory +Bible reading in the public schools.</p> +<p><b>Hobbes</b> (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April, +1588. In 1608 he <span class="corr" id="xd20e9236" title= +"Source: beame">became</span> tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire, +with whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the +acquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work <i>De Cive</i>. In +1650 appeared in English his work on <i>Human Nature</i>, and in the +following year his famous <i>Leviathan</i>. At the Restoration he +received a pension, but in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism +and profaneness, passed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed +him. The latter years of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of +Devonshire, Chatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.</p> +<p><b>Hodgson</b> (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of +d’Holbach’s <i>System of Nature</i> (1795). In 1794 he was +confined <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9255" href="#xd20e9255" +name="xd20e9255">173</a>]</span>in Newgate for two years for drinking +to the success of the French Republic. In prison he wrote <i>The +Commonwealth of Reason</i>.</p> +<p><b>Hoelderlin</b> (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic +poet, b. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at +Tübingen, but never took to the business. He wrote +<i>Hyperion</i>, a fine romance (1797–99), and <i>Lyric +Poems</i>, admired for their depth of thought. Died Tübingen, 7 +June, 1843.</p> +<p><b>Hoijer</b> (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great +Skedvi, Delecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University +’83, and teacher of philosophy ’98. His promotion was +hindered by his liberal opinions. By his personal influence and +published treatises he contributed much to Swedish emancipation. In +1808 he became Professor of Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, +1812.</p> +<p id="holbach"><b>Holbach</b> (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) +<i>Baron</i>, b. Heidelsheim Jan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he +spent most of his life. Rich and generous he was the patron of the +Encyclopædists. Buffon, Diderot, d’Alembert, Helvetius, +Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac, and other authors often +met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin, and Priestley were also +among his visitors. He translated from the German several works on +chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English, Mark Akenside’s +<i>Pleasures of the Imagination</i>. He contributed many articles to +the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie</i>. In 1765 he visited England, +and from this time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, +usually put out under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at +Amsterdam <i>Christianity Unveiled</i>, attributed to Boulanger. The +<i>Spirit of the Clergy</i>, translated, from the English of Trenchard +and Gordon, was partly rewritten by d’Holbach, 1767. His +<i>Sacred Contagion or Natural History of Superstition</i>, was also +wrongly attributed to Trenchard and Gordon. This work was condemned to +be burnt by a decree of the French parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. +D’Holbach also wrote and published <i>The History of David</i>, +1768, <i>The Critical History of Jesus Christ</i>, <i>Letters to +Eugenia</i>, attributed to Freret, <i>Portable Theology</i>, attributed +to Bernier, an <i>Essay on Prejudices</i>, attributed to M. Du M +[arsais], <i>Religious Cruelty</i>, <i>Hell Destroyed</i>, and other +works, said to be from the English. He also translated <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9319" href="#xd20e9319" name= +"xd20e9319">174</a>]</span>the <i>Philosophical Letters</i> of Toland, +and Collins’s <i>Discourses on Prophecy</i>, and attributed to +the latter a work with the title <i>The Spirit of Judaism</i>. These +works were mostly conveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by +Naigeon, and the secret of their authorship was carefully preserved. +Hence d’Holbach escaped persecution. In 1770 he published his +principal work <i>The System of Nature</i>, or <i>The Laws of the +Physical and Moral World</i>. This text-book of atheistic philosophy, +in which d’Holbach was assisted by Diderot, professed to be the +posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made a great sensation. Within two +years he published a sort of summary under the title of <i>Good +Sense</i>, attributed to the curé Meslier. In 1773 he wrote on +<i>Natural Politics</i> and the <i>Social System</i>. His last +important work was <i>Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded +upon Nature</i>. D’Holbach, whose personal good qualities were +testified to by many, was depicted in Rousseau’s <i lang= +"fr">Nouvelle Héloise</i> as the benevolent Atheist Wolmar. Died +21 Jan. 1789.</p> +<p><b>Holcroft</b> (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was +successively a groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His +comedies “Duplicity,” 1781, and “The Road to +Ruin,” 1792, were very successful. He translated the +<i>Posthumous Works of Frederick the Great</i>, 1789. For his active +sympathy with the French Republicans he was indicted for high treason +with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794, but was discharged without a trial. +Died 23 March, 1809.</p> +<p><b>Holland</b> (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, +1836, graduated at Harvard in ’49, and in ’63 was ordained +Unitarian minister at Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he +resigned, and has since written in the <i>Truthseeker</i>, the +<i>Freethinkers’ Magazine</i>, etc. His principal work is +entitled <i>The Rise of Intellectual Liberty</i>, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Hollick</b> (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. +1813. He was educated at the Mechanics’ Institute of that town, +and became one of the Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a +public discussion with J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on +“What is Christianity?” On the failure of Owenism he went +to America, where some of his works popularising medical science have +had a large circulation. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9377" href= +"#xd20e9377" name="xd20e9377">175</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Hollis</b> (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of <i>Sober +and Serious Reasons for Scepticism</i>, 1796; <i>An Apology for +Disbelief in Revealed Religion</i>, 1799; and <i>Free Thoughts</i>, +1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks 26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an +<span class="corr" id="xd20e9392" title= +"Source: oppulent">opulent</span> dissenting family, was distinguished +by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom, and by his +beneficence.</p> +<p><b>Holmes</b> (William Vamplew), one of Carlile’s brave +shopmen who came up from Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. +He was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1 March, ’22, +for selling blasphemous and seditious libels in <i>An Address to the +Reformers of Great Britain</i>, and when in prison was told that +“if hard labor was not expressed in his sentence, it was +implied.” On his release Holmes went to Sheffield and commenced +the open sale of all the prohibited publications.</p> +<p><b>Holwell</b> (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of +the Black Hole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a +surgeon, went to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against +Surajah Dowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others +in the “Black Hole,” 20th June, 1756, of which he published +a <i>Narrative</i>. He succeeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On +returning to England he published a dissertation directed against +belief in a special providence, and advocating the application of +church endowments to the exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 +Nov. 1798.</p> +<p><b>Holyoake</b> (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27 +Oct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of +Robert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the +abolition of the newspaper stamp—assisting when risk and danger +had to be met—and he co-operated with his brother in the +production of the <i>Reasoner</i> and other publications from ’45 +till ’62. Soon after this he printed and sub-edited the +<i>National Reformer</i>, in which many of his Freethought articles +appeared. Among his pamphlets may be mentioned <i>Heaven and Hell</i>, +<i>Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity</i>, <i>Thoughts on Atheism</i>, +the <i>Book of Esther</i>, and <i>Daniel the Dreamer</i>. He also +composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride in the +character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting its +welfare. His amiable spirit endeared <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e9435" href="#xd20e9435" name="xd20e9435">176</a>]</span>him to +all who knew him. He died 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts +written on his deathbed, in which he repudiated all belief in +theology.</p> +<p><b>Holyoake</b> (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became +mathematical teacher of the Mechanics’ Institution. Influenced by +Combe and Owen he became a Freethinker, and in ’40 a Socialist +missionary. In ’42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in +the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>, Mr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, +and wrote <i>The Spirit of Bonner in the Disciples of Jesus</i>. He was +soon arrested for a speech at Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a +question, that he would put the Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. +’42, he was sentenced to six months imprisonment, of which he +gave a full account in his <i>Last Trial by Jury for Atheism in +England</i>. In Dec. ’43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall the +<i>Movement</i>, bearing the motto from Bentham, “Maximise +morals, minimise religion.” The same policy was pursued in <i>The +Reasoner</i>, which he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many +pamphlets we must notice the <i>Logic of Death</i>, ’50, which +went through numerous editions, and was included in his most important +Freethought work, <i>The Trial of Theism</i>. In ’49 he published +a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In ’51 he first used the term +“Secularist,” and in Oct. ’52 the first Secular +Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In Jan. +’53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant, +and again in Oct. ’54. He purchased the business of James Watson, +and issued many Freethought works, notably <i>The Library of +Reason</i>—a series, <i>The Cabinet of Reason</i>, his own +<i>Secularism</i>, <i>The Philosophy of the People</i>, etc. In +’60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out to Garibaldi. +Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge, and has +devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a history of the +movement and contributed to most of its journals.</p> +<p id="home"><b>Home</b> (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His +legal ability was made known by his publication of <i>Remarkable +Decisions of the Court of Session</i>, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to +the bench as Lord Kames. He published <i>Essays on the Principles of +Morality and Natural Religion</i> (1751), <i>Elements of Criticism</i> +(1762), and <i>Sketches of the History of Man</i>, in <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9491" href="#xd20e9491" name= +"xd20e9491">177</a>]</span>which he proved himself in advance of his +age. Died 27 Dec. 1782.</p> +<p><b>Hon</b>, Le (Henri). See <a href="#lehon">Le Hon</a>.</p> +<p><b>Hooker</b> (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He +studied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D ’39. In ’55 he +became assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from ’65–85 +sole director. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of +science to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.</p> +<p><b>Hope</b> (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for +his anonymous <i>Anastasius</i>, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also +wrote an original work on <i>The Origin and Prospects of Man</i> +’31. Died at London 3 Feb. 1831.</p> +<p><b>Houten</b> (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. +1837; he studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In ’69 he +was chosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings +on political economy. In ’88 he wrote a book entitled <i lang= +"de">Das <span class="corr" id="xd20e9520" title= +"Source: Causalitatgesatz">Causalitätgesetz</span></i> (The Law of +Causality).</p> +<p><b>Houston</b> (George). Was the translator of +d’Holbach’s <i>Ecce Homo</i>, first published in Edinburgh +in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph Webb. A second edition was +issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and was imprisoned two years in +Newgate, with a fine of £200. He afterwards went to New York, +where he edited the <i>Minerva</i> (1822). In Jan. 1827, he started +<i>The Correspondence</i>, which, we believe, was the first weekly +Freethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He +also republished <i>Ecce Homo</i>. Houston helped to establish in +America a “Free Press Association” and a Society of Free +Inquirers.</p> +<p><b>Hovelacque</b> (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. +He studied law and made part of the groupe of <i lang="fr">la +Pensée Nouvelle</i>, with Asseline, Letourneau, Lefevre, etc. He +also studied anthropology under Broca and published many articles in +the <i lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</i>. He founded with +Letourneau, Thulié, Asseline, etc. The “<span lang= +"fr">Bibliothèque des sciences contemporains</span>” and +published therein <i lang="fr">La Linguistique</i>. He also founded +with the same the library of anthropological science and published in +collaboration with G. Hervé a <i lang="fr">prècis</i> of +Anthropology and a study of the <i>Negroes of Africa</i>. He has also +contributed <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9563" href="#xd20e9563" +name="xd20e9563">178</a>]</span>to the Dictionary of Anthropology. For +the “<span lang="fr">Bibliothèque +Materialiste</span>” he wrote a work on Primitive man. He has +also published choice extracts from the works of Voltaire, Diderot and +Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language, and a work on the <i>Avesta +Zoroaster and Mazdaism</i>. In ’78 he was made a member of the +municipal council of Paris, and in ’81 was elected deputy to the +chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.</p> +<p><b>Howdon</b> (John), author of <i>A Rational Investigation of the +Principles of Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral</i>, printed at +Haddington, 1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.</p> +<p><b>Huber</b> (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva, +1694. In a work on the <i>System of Theologians</i>, 1731, she opposed +the dogma of eternal punishment. In ’38 published <i>Letters on +the Religion essential to Man</i>. This was translated into English in +the same year. Other works show English reading. She translated +selections from the <i>Spectator</i>. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.</p> +<p><b>Hudail</b> (Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (<i>Al Allaf</i>.)</p> +<p><b>Huet</b> (Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. +1826. He became minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through +his Freethought left the church in ’63, and became editor of +various newspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of +literary value, and published <i>Letters on the Bible</i>, ’57, +etc. Died 1887.</p> +<p><b>Hugo</b> (Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. +Besançon, 26 Feb. 1802. Was first noted for his <i>Odes</i>, +published in ’21. His dramas “Hernani,” ’30, +and “Marion Delorme,” ’31, were highly successful. He +was admitted into the French Academy in ’41, and made a peer in +’45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of ’48, +and was elected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked +Louis Napoleon, and after the <i>coup d’état</i> was +proscribed. He first went to Brussels, where he published <i>Napoleon +the Little</i>, a biting satire. He afterwards settled at Guernsey, +where he remained until the fall of the Empire, producing <i>The Legend +of the Ages</i>, ’59, <i lang="fr">Les Miserables</i>, ’62, +<i>Toilers of the Sea</i>, ’69, and other works. After his return +to Paris he produced a new series of the <i>Legend of the Ages</i>, +<i>The Pope</i>, <i>Religions and Religion</i>, <i>Torquemada</i>, and +other poems. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9643" href="#xd20e9643" +name="xd20e9643">179</a>]</span>He died 22 May, 1885, and it being +decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon was secularised +for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his death a poem +entitled <i>The End of Satan</i> has been published.</p> +<p><b>Hugues</b> (Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. +Menerbes, 3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but +under the influence of Hugo left the black business. In ’71 he +became head of the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced +to three years’ imprisonment. In ’81 he was elected deputy, +and sits on the extreme left.</p> +<p><b>Humboldt</b> (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious +German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied +under Heyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England +with George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general of +mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico, and in +1804 returned with <span class="corr" id="xd20e9657" title= +"Not in source">a</span> rich collection of animals, plants and +minerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed the +friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living +distinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions +to scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his +celebrated <i>Cosmos</i>, the first volume of which appeared in +’45 and the fourth in ’58. To <a href= +"#varnhagenvonense">Varnhagen von Ense</a> he wrote in 1841: +“Bruno Bauer has found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years +ago I wrote, ‘<span lang="fr">Toutes les réligions +positives offrent trois parties distinctes; un traité de +mœurs partout le même et très pur, un rève +géologique, et un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier +élément obtient le plus +d’importance.</span>’” Later on he says that Strauss +disposes of “the Christian myths.” Humboldt was an +unwearied student of science, paying no attention to religion, and +opposed his brother in regard to his essay <i>On the Province of the +Historian</i>, because he considered it to acknowledge the belief in +the divine government of the world, which seemed to him as complete a +delusion as the hypothesis of a principle of life. He died in Berlin, 6 +May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.</p> +<p><b>Humboldt</b> (Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and +philosopher, b. Potsdam, 22 June<span class="corr" id="xd20e9676" +title="Source: .">,</span> 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to +Paris in 1789, and hailed the revolution with <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9679" href="#xd20e9679" name= +"xd20e9679">180</a>]</span>enthusiasm. In ’92 he published +<i>Ideas on the Organization of the State</i>. He became a friend of +Schiller and Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He +took part in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia +at the Congress of Vienna<span class="corr" id="xd20e9684" title= +"Source: .">,</span> ’14. He advocated a liberal constitution, +but finding the King averse, retired at the end of ’19, and +devoted himself to the study of comparative philology. He said there +were three things he could not comprehend—orthodox piety, +romantic love, and music. He died 8 April, 1835. His works were +collected and edited by his brother.</p> +<p><b>Hume</b> (David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 +April, 1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote his +<i>Treatise on Human Nature</i>, published in 1739. This work then +excited no interest friendly or hostile. Hume’s <i>Essays Moral +and Political</i> appeared in 1742, and in 1752 his <i>Inquiry +Concerning the Principles of Morals</i> which of all his writings he +considered the best. In 1755 he published his <i>Natural History of +Religion</i>, which was furiously attacked by Warburton in an anonymous +tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his <i>History of +England</i>, which he did not complete till 1761. He became secretary +to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was cordially +welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing Rousseau +with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767, and in 1769 +retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After his death his +<i>Dialogues on Natural Religion</i> were published, and also some +unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul, etc. +Hume’s last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous +Dr. Adam Smith, considered him “as approaching as nearly to the +idea of a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of +human frailty will permit.”</p> +<p><b>Hunt</b> (James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder +of the Anthropological Society, of which he was the first president, +’63. He was the author of the <i>Negro’s Place in +Nature</i>, a work on Stammering, etc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.</p> +<p><b>Hunt</b> (James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. +Southgate, Middlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and +Coleridge at Christ’s Hospital, London. He joined his +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9722" href="#xd20e9722" name= +"xd20e9722">181</a>]</span>brother John in editing first the <i>Sunday +News</i>, 1805, and then the <i>Examiner</i>, 1808. They were condemned +to pay a fine, each of £500, and to be imprisoned for two years, +1812–14, for a satirical article, in which the prince regent was +called an “Adonis of fifty.” This imprisonment procured him +the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing the +<i>Indicator</i> he was associated in editing the <i>Liberal</i>. He +wrote many choice books of poems and criticisms, and in his <i>Religion +of the Heart</i>, ’53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. +1859.</p> +<p><b>Hutten</b> (Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble +family Steckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda +to become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied +<i>humaniora</i>. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in +1510, and Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He +returned to Germany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of +Maximilian. His great object was to free his country from +sacerdotalism, and most of his writings are satires against the Pope, +monks and clergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council +of Zurich drove <span class="corr" id="xd20e9747" title= +"Source: him him">him</span> out of their territory and he died on the +isle of Ufnau, Lake Zürich, 29 Aug. 1523.</p> +<p><b>Hutton</b> (James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at +Edinburgh 3 June, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and +investigated the strata of the north of Scotland. He published a +dissertation on <i>Light, Heat, and Fire</i>, and in his <i>Theory of +the World</i>, 1795, attributes geological phenomena to the action of +fire. He also wrote a work entitled <i>An Investigation of the +Principles of Knowledge</i>, the opinions of which, says Chalmers, +“abound in sceptical boldness and philosophical +infidelity.” Died 26 March 1797.</p> +<p><b>Huxley</b> (Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 +May, 1825. He studied medicine, and in ’46 took M.R.C.S., and was +appointed assistant naval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities +for his studies of natural history. In ’51 he was elected Fellow +of the Royal Society, and in ’54 was made Professor at the School +of Mines. In ’60 he lectured on “The Relation of Man to the +Lower Animals,” and afterwards published <i>Evidence as to +Man’s Place in Nature</i> (1863). In addition to numerous +scientific works, Professor Huxley has <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e9770" href="#xd20e9770" name="xd20e9770">182</a>]</span>written +numerous forcible articles, addresses, etc., collected in <i>Lay +Sermons</i>, ’70; <i>Critiques and Addresses</i>, ’73; and +<i>American Addresses</i>, ’79. A vigorous writer, his +<i>Hume</i> in the “English Men of Letters” series is a +model of clear exposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in +his articles on the <i>Evolution of Theology</i>, and in his recent +polemic with the Rev. Mr. Wace in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, +Professor Huxley shows all his freshness, and proves himself as ready +in demolishing theological fictions as in demonstrating scientific +facts. He states as his own life aims “The popularising of +science and untiring opposition to that ecclesiastical spirit, that +clericalism, which in England, as everywhere else, and to whatever +denomination it may belong, is the deadly enemy of science.”</p> +<p><b>Hypatia</b>, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in +the second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished +lecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of +her eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by +St. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked, +cut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story of +Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of St. +Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Bajjat. See <a href="#avempace">Avenpace</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Massara. See <a href="#massara">Massara</a> <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e9808" title="Not in source">in Supplement</span>.</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Rushd. See <a href="#averroes">Averroes</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Sabîn. See <a href="#sabin">Sabin</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Sina. See <a href="#avicenna">Avicenna</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ibn</b> Tofail. See <a href="#abubakribnal-tufail">Abu +Bakr</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ibsen</b> (Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. +Skien, 20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his +attention to literature. In ’52, through the influence of Ole +Bull, he became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a +great deal. From ’57 to ’63 he directed the theatre at +Christiania. In the following year he went to Rome. The Storthing +accorded him an annual pension for his services to literature. His +dramas, <i lang="no">Brand</i>, (<i lang="no"><span class="corr" id= +"xd20e9848" title="Source: Pier">Peer</span> Gynt</i>), <i lang= +"no">Kejser og Galilær</i> (Cæsar [Julian] and the +Galilean), <i lang="no">Nora</i>, and <i lang="no">Samfundets +Stotler</i> (the Pillars of Society), and <i>Ghosts</i> exhibit +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9865" href="#xd20e9865" name= +"xd20e9865">183</a>]</span>his unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open +unbeliever in Christianity. He looks forward to social regeneration +through liberty, individuality, and education without superstition.</p> +<p><b>Ilive</b> (Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol +about 1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, +1751, and some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in +<i>Some Modest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock’s Sermons</i>, +and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 15 June, 1756–10 +June, 1758. He was confined in the Clerkenwell House of Correction and +published some pamphlets exposing the bad condition of the prison and +suggesting means for its improvement. He died in 1768.</p> +<p><b>Imray</b> (I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile’s +<i>Republican</i> and <i>Lion</i>, and published +“Altamont,” an atheistic drama, in 1828.</p> +<p><b>Ingersoll</b> (Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New +York, 11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He +studied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In +’62 he became colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in +the war, being taken prisoner. In ’66 he was appointed +attorney-general for Illinois. At the National Republican Convention, +’76, he proposed Blaine for President in a speech that attracted +much attention. In ’77 he refused the post of Minister to +Germany. He has conducted many important cases, and defended C. B. +Reynolds when tried for blasphemy in ’86. Col. Ingersoll is the +most popular speaker in America. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike +at his command. He is well known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches +directed against Christianity. He had published the <i>Gods</i>, +<i>Ghosts</i>, <i>Some Mistakes of Moses</i>, and a collection of his +Lectures, ’83, and <i>Prose Poems and Extracts</i>, ’84. +Most of his lectures have been republished in England. We mention +<i>What must I do to be Saved?</i> <i>Hell</i>, <i>The Dying Creed</i>, +<i>Myth and Miracle</i>, <i>Do I Blaspheme?</i> <i>Real Blasphemy</i>. +In the pages of the <i>North American Review</i> Col. Ingersoll has +defended Freethought against Judge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. +Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.</p> +<p><b>Inman</b> (Thomas), B.A., physician and archæologist, b. +1820. Educated at London University, he settled at Liverpool, being +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e9926" href="#xd20e9926" name= +"xd20e9926">184</a>]</span>connected with the well-known shipping +family of that port. He is chiefly known by his work on <i>Ancient +Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names</i>, in which he deals with the +evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other nations. It was +first published in ’69. A second edition appeared in ’73. +He also wrote <i>Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed +and Explained</i>, ’69, and a controversial Freethought work, +entitled <i>Ancient Faiths and Modern</i>, published at New York +’76. Dr. Inman was for some time President of the Liverpool +Literary and Philosophical Society, and was physician to the Royal +Infirmary of that city. His professional life was one of untiring +industry. He wrote several medical works, including two volumes on the +<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e9938" title= +"Source: Preseervation">Preservation</span> and Restoration of +Health</i>. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Iron</b> (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, <i>q.v</i>.</p> +<p><b>Isnard</b> (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a +work on <i>Spiritualism and Materialism</i>, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Isnard</b> (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. +1751. He was made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, +“The Law, behold my God. I know no other.” He voted for the +death of the King, and was nominated president of the Convention. On +the fall of the Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the +fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e9960" title="Source: Ffve">Five</span> Hundred. Died +1830.</p> +<p><b>Isoard</b> (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. +Was naval officer in ’48 but arrested as socialist in ’49. +In ’70 he was made sous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote <i lang= +"fr">Guerre aux Jésuites</i>.</p> +<p id="isoarddelisle"><b>Isoard Delisle</b> (Jean Baptiste Claude), +called also Delisle de Sales, French man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. +When young he entered the Congregation of the Oratory, but left +theology for literature. In 1769 he published the <i>Philosophy of +Nature</i>, which in 1771 was discovered to be irreligious, and he was +condemned to perpetual banishment. While in prison he was visited by +many of the philosophers, and a subscription was opened for him, to +which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He went to the court of +Frederick the Great, and subsequently published many works of little +importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e9977" href="#xd20e9977" name="xd20e9977">185</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Jacob</b> (Andre Alexandre). See <a href="#erdan">Erdan +(A.)</a></p> +<p><b>Jacobson</b> (Augustus), American, author of <i>Why I do not +Believe</i>, Chicago 1881, and <i>The Bible Inquirer</i>.</p> +<p>“<b>Jacobus</b> (Dom)” Pseudonym of <a href= +"#potvin"><span class="sc">Potvin</span> (Charles)</a> <i>q.v.</i></p> +<p><b>Jacoby</b> (Leopold) German author of <i>The Idea of +Development</i>. 2 vols. Berlin 1874–76.</p> +<p><b>Jacolliot</b> (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, +1806. Brought up to the law, in ’43 he was made judge at +Pondichery. He first aroused attention by his work, <i>The Bible in +India</i>, ’70. He also has written on <i>Genesis of +Humanity</i>, ’76. <i>The Religions Legislators</i>, +<i>Moses</i>, <i>Manu and Muhammad</i>, ’80, and <i>The Natural +and Social History of Humanity</i>, ’84, and several works of +travel.</p> +<p><b>Jantet</b> (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e10043" title="Source: .">,</span> b. the first in 1826, +the second in ’28, have published together able <i lang= +"fr">Aperçus Philosophiques</i> on Rènan’s Life of +Jesus, ’64, and <i lang="fr">Doctrine Medicale +Matérialiste</i>, 1866.</p> +<p><b>Jaucourt</b> (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of +the Royal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and +Stockholm, b. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and +Leyden, furnished the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie</i> with many +articles, and conducted the <i lang="fr">Bibliothèque +Raisonnée</i>. Died at Compiègne, 3 Feb. 1779.</p> +<p><b>Jefferies</b> (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his +descriptions of nature in <i>The Gamekeeper at Home</i>, <i>Wild Life +in a Southern Country</i>, etc. In his autobiographical <i>Story of My +Heart</i> (1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. +Died Goring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Jefferson</b> (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, +Virginia, 2 April 1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in +1767. He became a member of the House of Burgesses, 1769–75. In +1774 he published his <i>Summary Views of the Rights of +British-Americans</i>. He drafted and reported to Congress the +“Declaration of Independence” which was unanimously +adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia from 1719 to 1781, +and originated a system of education in the State. He was Ambassador to +Paris from 1785–89, secretary of state from 1789–93, +vice-president 1791–1801 and third president of the United States +1801–9. In ’19 he <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10082" +href="#xd20e10082" name="xd20e10082">186</a>]</span>founded the +University of Virginia, of which he was rector till his death, 4 July +1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his <i>Dictionary of Biography</i> says +“In religion he was what is denominated a freethinker.” He +spoke in old age of “the hocus-pocus <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e10087" title="Source: phanton">phantom</span> of God, which like +another Cerberus had one body and three heads.” See his life by +J. Parton.</p> +<p><b>Johnson</b> (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and +statesman, b. Bryant’s Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was +educated at Lexington, studied law, and practiced with success. Became +member of the Kentucky Legislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of +cavalry ’12. Fought with distinction against British and Indians. +Was member of Congress from 1807–19, and from ’29–37; +a United States Senator from ’19–29, and Vice-President of +the United States, ’37–40. Is remembered by his report +against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor of +rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.</p> +<p><b>Johnson</b> (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, +10 Oct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a +“Free Church” at Lynn in ’53. He never attached +himself to any denomination, although in some points his views were +like those of the Unitarians and Universalists. About ’46 he +published, in conjunction with S. Longfellow, brother of the poet, +<i>Hymns of the Spirit</i>, <i>Oriental Religions in relation to +Universal Religion</i>, of which the volume on India appeared in +’72, China ’77, and Persia ’84. Died Andover, 19 Feb. +1882.</p> +<p><b>Jones</b> (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. +Berlin, 25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of +Hanover, who became his godfather. Called to the bar in ’44 in +the following year he joined the Chartist movement, editing the +<i>People’s Paper</i>, <i>Notes to the People</i>, and other +Chartist periodicals. In ’48 he was tried for making a seditious +speech, and condemned to two years’ imprisonment, during which he +wrote <i>Beldagon Church</i> and other poems. He stood for Halifax in +’47, and Nottingham in ’53 and ’57, without success. +He was much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he +died 26 Jan. 1869.</p> +<p><b>Jones</b> (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of +the French Revolution he became a leading member of the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10122" href="#xd20e10122" name= +"xd20e10122">187</a>]</span>London Corresponding Society. Arrested at +Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. He was +subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for impugning the +proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained till his +liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament, June 21. On +26 Dec. ’11 he was again convicted for “a seditious and +blasphemous libel.” He was a resolute advocate of the rights of +free publication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died +Somers Town, 4 April, 1838.</p> +<p><b>Jones</b> (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, +co. Cork, Ireland, in March, 1811. In ’27 he came over to +Manchester, and in ’32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He +became “a social missionary,” and had numerous debates with +ministers, notably one on “The Influence of Christianity” +with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at Manchester, in ’39. Lloyd +Jones was an active supporter of co-operation and trades-unionism, and +frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes between masters and men. He +contributed to the <i>New Moral World</i>, <i>Spirit of the Age</i>, +<i>Glasgow Sentinel</i>, <i>Leeds Express</i>, <i>North British Daily +Mail</i>, <i>Newcastle Chronicle</i>, and <i>Co-operative News</i>. +Died at Stockwell, 22 May, 1886, leaving behind a <i>Life of Robert +Owen</i>.</p> +<p><b>Joseph II.</b>, Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria +Theresa, b. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the +Romans, and in the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. +He wrought many reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in +France as Count Falkenstein, saw d’Alembert but did not visit +Voltaire. He abolished serfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, +suppressed several convents, regulated others, abridged the power of +the pope and the clergy, and mitigated the condition of the Jews. +Carlyle says “a mighty reformer he had been, the greatest of his +day. Austria gazed on him, its admiration not unmixed with terror. He +rushed incessantly about, hardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his +bearskin on the floor of any inn or hut;—flew at the throat of +every absurdity, however broad and based or dangerously armed. +‘Disappear I say.’ A most prompt, severe, and yet +beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely ambitious, that must +be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich; bent <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10157" href="#xd20e10157" name= +"xd20e10157">188</a>]</span>to imitate him with profit. ‘Very +clever indeed’ says Friedrich, ‘but has the fault<a id= +"xd20e10159" name="xd20e10159"></a> (a terribly grave one!) of +generally taking the second step without having taken the +first.’” Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.</p> +<p><b>Jouy</b> (Victor Joseph <span class="sc">Etienne de</span>), +French author b. Jouy near Versailles 1764. He served as soldier in +India and afterwards in the wars of the Republic. A disciple of +Voltaire to whom he erected a temple, he was a prolific writer, his +plays being much esteemed in his own day. Died 4 Sept. 1846.</p> +<p><b>Julianus</b> (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople +17 Nov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine +he escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but returned +to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared Cæsar. He made +successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul and in +361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience and sought to +uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of which only +fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e10172" title="Not in source">,</span> tact, industry, +and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned of the Roman +Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361—26 June, 363), +comprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while +seeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by the +triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.</p> +<p><b>Junghuhn</b> (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. +Mansfeld, Prussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. +Franz studied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for +botany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and +was sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There he +simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz, whence he +escaped to Algiers. In ’34 he joined the Dutch Army in the Malay +Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making a botanical +and geological survey. In ’54 he published his <i lang="nl">Licht +en <span class="corr" id="xd20e10181" title= +"Source: Schaduwbulden">Schaduwbeelden</span> uit de binnenlanden van +Java</i> (Light and Shadow pictures from the interior of Java), which +contains his ideas of God, religion and science, together with sketches +of nature and of the manners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much +indignation from the pious, but also much agreement among <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10185" href="#xd20e10185" name= +"xd20e10185">189</a>]</span>freethinkers, and led to the establishment +of <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> (The Daybreak,) the organ of the Dutch +Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and died 21 +April, ’64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His <i>Light and +Shadow pictures</i> have been several times reprinted.</p> +<p><b>Kalisch</b> (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in +Pomerania, 16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he +studied under Vatke and others. Early in ’49 he came to England +as a political refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild +family. His critical <i>Commentary on the Pentateuch</i> commenced with +a volume on Exodus, ’55, Genesis ’58, Leviticus in two +vols. in ’67 and ’72 respectively. His rational criticism +anticipated the school of Wellhausen. He published <i>Bible Studies</i> +on Balaam and Jonah ’77, and discussions on philosophy and +religion in a very able and learned work entitled <i>Path and +Goal</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e10205" title="Source: .">,</span> +’80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott’s series of +Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.</p> +<p><b>Kames</b> (Lord). See <a href="#home">Home (Henry)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Kant</b> (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. +Königsberg, 22 April, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in +1770. In 1781 he published his great work, <i>The Critick of Pure +Reason</i>, which denied all knowledge of the “Thing +itself,” and overthrew the dogmatism of earlier metaphysics. In +1792 the philosopher fell under the royal censorship for his +<i>Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason</i>. Kant effected a +complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate influence is not +yet exhausted. Died at Königsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.</p> +<p><b>Kapila.</b> One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is +known as the Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya +Karika, an important relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His +aphorisms have been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.</p> +<p><b>Karneades.</b> See <a href="#carneades">Carneades</a>.</p> +<p><b>Keeler</b> (Bronson C.) American author of an able <i>Short +History of the Bible</i>, being a popular account of the formation and +development of the canon, published at Chicago 1881.</p> +<p><b>Keim</b> (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart, 17 +Dec. 1825. Was educated at Tübingen, and became professor +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10248" href="#xd20e10248" name= +"xd20e10248">190</a>]</span>of theology at Zürich. Is chiefly +known by his <i>History of Jesus of Nazara</i> +(’67–’72). He also wrote a striking work on +<i>Primitive Christianity</i> (’78), and endeavored to reproduce +the lost work of Celsus. His rationalism hindered his promotion, and he +was an invalid most of his days. Died at Giessen, where he was +professor, 17 Nov. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Keith</b> (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine +1685, was appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being +confiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and +like his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died +Berlin, 25 May, 1778.</p> +<p><b>Keith</b> (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. +Inverugie, Scotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender +and was wounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with +distinction in Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under +the Empress Elizabeth. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e10264" title= +"Source: 1647">1747</span> he took service with Frederick the Great as +field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him +“a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, +the more he knows him, likes him the better.” From their +correspondence it is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of +Frederick. After brilliant exploits in the seven years’ war at +Prague, Rossbach, and Olmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of +Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.</p> +<p><b>Kenrick</b> (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, +Herts, about 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name +of Ontologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His +first poetic production was a volume of <i>Epistles, Philosophical and +Moral</i> (1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of +scepticism. In 1775 he commenced the <i>London Review</i>, and the +following year attacked Soame Jenyns’s work on Christianity. He +translated some of the works of Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 +June 1779.</p> +<p><b>Kerr</b> (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, +Western Pennsylvania<span class="corr" id="xd20e10281" title= +"Source: .">,</span> 15 March <span class="corr" id="xd20e10284" title= +"Source: 1871">1827</span>. He was member of the Indiana Legislature +’56, and elected to Congress in ’74 and endeavoured to +revise the tariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, +Virginia, 19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10287" href="#xd20e10287" name= +"xd20e10287">191</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Ket</b>, <b>Kett</b>, or <b>Knight</b> (Francis), of Norfolk, a +relative of the rebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He +was prosecuted for heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 +Jan. 1588. Stowe says he was burnt for “divers detestable +opinions against Christ our Saviour.”</p> +<p id="khayyam"><b>Khayyam</b> (Omar) or <span class="sc">Umar +Khaiyam</span>, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur Khorassan, in +the second half of the eleventh century, and was distinguished by his +reformation of the calendar as well as by his verses (Rubiyat), which +E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in English. He alarmed his +contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to the Sufis. Died about +1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests, and told men to be +happy instead of worrying themselves about God and the Hereafter. He +makes his soul say, “I myself am Heaven and Hell.”</p> +<p><b>Kielland</b> (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e10309" title="Not in source">.</span> Stavanger, 18 +Feb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His +stories, <i>Workpeople</i>, <i>Skipper Worse</i>, <i>Poison</i>, and +<i>Snow</i> exhibit his bold opinions.</p> +<p><b>Kleanthes.</b> See Cleanthes.</p> +<p><b>Klinger</b> (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. +Frankfort, 19 Feb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to +the Grand Duke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting +the revolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him +“a true apostle of the Gospel of nature.” Died at +Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.</p> +<p><b>Kneeland</b> (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 +April, 1774, became a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. +He invented a new system of orthography, published a translation of the +New Testament, 1823, <i>The Deist</i> (2 Vols.), ’22, edited the +<i>Olive Branch</i> and the <i>Christian Inquirer</i>. He wrote <i>The +Fourth Epistle of Peter</i>, ’29, and a <i>Review of the +Evidences of Christianity</i>, being a series of lectures delivered in +New York in ’29. In that year he removed to Boston, and in April +’31 commenced the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, the oldest +Freethought journal. In ’33 he was indicted and tried for +blasphemy for saying that he “did not believe in the God which +Universalists did.” He was sentenced 21 Jan. ’34, to two +months’ imprisonment <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10359" +href="#xd20e10359" name="xd20e10359">192</a>]</span>and fine of five +hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts of Appeal in +’36, and he received two months’ imprisonment. Kneeland was +a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and soon +after left the <i>Boston Investigator</i> in the hands of P. Mendum and +Seaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August, +1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire’s <i>Philosophical +Dictionary</i>, was published in two volumes in 1852.</p> +<p><b>Knoblauch</b> (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. +1757. He was a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed +against supernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. +1794.</p> +<p><b>Knowlton</b> (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. +Templeton, Mass., 10 May, 1800. He published the <i>Fruits of +Philosophy</i>, for which he was imprisoned in ’32. He was a +frequent correspondent of the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, and held a +discussion on the Bible and Christianity with the Rev. Mr. Thacher of +Harley. About ’29 he published <i>The Elements of Modern +Materialism</i>. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.</p> +<p id="knutzen"><b>Knutzen</b> (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, +1645. He early lost his parents, and was brought to an uncle at +Königsberg, where he studied philosophy. He took to the +adventurous life of a wandering scholar and propagated his principles +in many places. In 1674 he preached Atheism publicly at Jena, in +Germany, and had followers who were called “Gewissener,” +from their acknowledging no other authority but conscience. It is said +there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What became of him and them is +unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his principles. He denied the +existence of either God or Devil, deemed churches and priests useless, +and held that there is no life beyond the present, for which conscience +is a sufficient guide, taking the place of the Bible, which contains +great contradictions. He also wrote two dialogues.</p> +<p><b>Koerbagh</b> (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. +He became a doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published <i>A +Flower Garden of all Loveliness</i>, a dictionary of definitions in +which he gave bold explanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and +the writer fled to <span class="corr" id="xd20e10395" title= +"Source: Culenborg">Culemborg</span>. There he translated a book +<i lang="la">De Trinitate</i>, and began a work entitled <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10401" href="#xd20e10401" name= +"xd20e10401">193</a>]</span><i>A Light Shining in Dark Places</i>, to +illuminate the chief things of theology and religion by Vrederijk +Waarmond, inquisitor of truth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh +was tried for blasphemy, heavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned +for ten years, to be followed by ten years banishment. He died in +prison, Oct. 1669.</p> +<p><b>Kolb</b> (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. +Spires 14 Sept. 1808, author of an able <i>History of Culture</i>, +1869–70. Died at Munich 15 May<span class="corr" id="xd20e10412" +title="Source: .">,</span> 1884.</p> +<p><b>Koornhert</b> (Theodore). See <a href="#coornhert">Coornhert +(Dirk Volkertszoon.)</a></p> +<p id="korn"><b>Korn</b> (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish +birth, b. Prague, 26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the +name of “F. Nork,” he wrote many works on mythology which +may still be consulted with profit. A list is given in Fuerst’s +<i lang="la">Bibliotheca Judaica</i>. We mention <i>Christmas and +Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship</i>, Leipsic, ’36; +<i>Brahmins and Rabbins</i>, Weissen, ’36; <i>The Prophet Elijah +as a Sun Myth</i>, ’37; <i>The Gods of the Syrians</i>, +’42; <i>Biblical Mythology of the Old and New Testament</i>, 2 +vols. Stuttgart, ’42–’43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia, +16 Oct. 1850.</p> +<p id="krause"><b>Krause</b> (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific +writer, b. Zielenzig 22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed +to the <i lang="de">Vossische Zeitung</i> and <i lang= +"de">Gartenlaube</i>. In ’63 he published, under the pen-name of +“Carus Sterne,” a work on <i>The Natural History of +Ghosts</i>, and in ’76 a work on <i>Growth and Decay</i>, a +history of evolution. In ’77 he established with Hæckel, +Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger, the monthly magazine +<i>Kosmos</i>, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This he conducted +till ’82. In <i>Kosmos</i> appeared the germ of his little book +on <i>Erasmus Darwin</i>, ’79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a +preliminary notice. As “Carus Sterne” he has also written +essays entitled <i>Prattle from Paradise</i>, <i>The Crown of +Creation</i>, ’84, and an illustrated work in parts on <i>Ancient +and Modern Ideas of the World</i>, ’87, etc.</p> +<p><b>Krekel</b> (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 +March, 1815. Went with parents to America in ’32 and settled in +Missouri. In ’42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and +afterwards county attorney. In ’52 he was elected <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10484" href="#xd20e10484" name= +"xd20e10484">194</a>]</span>to the Missouri State Legislature. He +served in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of the +constitutional convention of ’65 and signed the ordinance of +emancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was +appointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, ’65. A pronounced +Agnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife +not to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died +at Kansas 14 July, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Krekel</b> (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, +Elkhart Indiana 13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her +16th year became a teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, +she devoted her services to the Freethought platform.</p> +<p><b>Kropotkin</b> (Petr Aleksyeevich) <i>Prince</i>, Russian +anarchist, b. Moscow 9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of +Pages he went to Siberia for five years to pursue geological +researches. In ’71 he went to Belgium and Switzerland and joined +the International. Arrested in Russia, he was condemned to three years +imprisonment, escaped ’76 and came to England. In ’79 he +founded at Geneva, <i lang="fr">Le Révolté</i> was +expelled. Accused in France in ’83 of complicity in the outrage +at Lyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released +in ’86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who +translated Herbert Spencer’s “Biology” into Russian, +died in Siberia in the autumn of 1886.</p> +<p><b>Laas</b> (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. +He has written three volumes on <i>Idealism and Positivism</i>, +1879–’84, and also on <i>Kant’s Place in the History +of the Conflict between Faith and Science</i>, Berlin, 1882. He was +professor of philosophy at Strassburg, where he died 25 July, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Labanca</b> (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the +University of Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national +movement of ’48, and in ’51 was imprisoned and afterwards +expelled from Naples. He has written on progress in philosophy and also +a study on primitive Christianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the +martyr of Freethought, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Lachatre</b> (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a +“Library of Progress,” in which has appeared his own +<i>History of the Inquisition</i>, and <i>History of the Popes</i>, +’83. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10525" href="#xd20e10525" +name="xd20e10525">195</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Lacroix</b> (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph +<span class="sc">Krzyzanowski</span>, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His +father was a refugee. He wrote with Yves Guyot <i>The Social Doctrines +of Christianity</i>. In ’74 he was elected a municipal councillor +of Paris. In ’77 he was sentenced to three months’ +imprisonment for calling Jesus “<i lang="fr">enfant +adulterin</i>” in <i lang="fr">Le Radical</i>. In Feb. ’81 +he was elected president of the municipal council, and in ’83 +deputy to the French parliament.</p> +<p><b>Laffitte</b> (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. +1823 at Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his +executors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of his +master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former +<span class="corr" id="xd20e10546" title= +"Source: appartment">apartment</span> of Comte. M. Laffitte has +published discourses on <i>The General History of Humanity</i>, +’59, and <i>The Great Types of Humanity</i>, ’75–6. +In ’78 he founded <i>La Revue Occidentale</i>.</p> +<p><b>Lagrange</b> (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. +Turin, 25 Jan. 1736. He published in 1788 his <i>Analytical +Mechanics</i>, which is considered one of the masterpieces of the human +intellect. He became a friend of D’Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, +and Delambre. He said he believed it impossible to prove there was a +God. Died 10 April 1813.</p> +<p><b>La Hontan</b> (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. +In his account of <i>Dialogues with an American Savage</i>, 1704, which +was translated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in +Hanover, 1715.</p> +<p><b>Lainez</b> (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, +of the same family with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a +wandering Bohemian life and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris +18 April, 1710.</p> +<p><b>Laing</b> (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the +son of S. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his +degree ’32; called to the bar ’42; became secretary of the +railway department of the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for +Kirkwall ’52; helped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. +In ’60 he became finance minister for India. His <i>Modern +Science and Modern Thought</i>, ’85, is a plain exposition of the +incompatibility of the old and new <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e10583" href="#xd20e10583" name="xd20e10583">196</a>]</span>view +of the universe. In the <i>Modern Zoroastrian</i>, ’87, he gives +the philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by +Mr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In ’88 he +entered into a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the +subject of Agnosticism his portion of which has been published.</p> +<p><b>Lakanal</b> (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. +Studied for priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor +into the Revolution, was a member of the Convention 1792–5, and +there protected the interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he +retired to America, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president +of the University of <span class="corr" id="xd20e10592" title= +"Source: Louisana">Louisiana</span>. He returned to France after the +Revolution of ’30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.</p> +<p id="lalande"><b>Lalande</b> (Joseph Jèrome <span class="sc" +lang="fr">le Francais</span> de), distinguished French astronomer, b. +Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits, he was made a +member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In 1762 he became +Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In 1764 he published +his <i>Treatise of Astronomy</i>, to which Dupuis subjoined a memoir, +which formed the basis of his <i>Origin of all Religions</i>, the idea +of which he had taken from Lalande<span class="corr" id="xd20e10609" +title="Source: ,">.</span> In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded his own life to +save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he concealed in the +observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande’s +observations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At +Lalande’s instigation Sylvain Maréchal published his +<i>Dictionary of Atheists</i>, to which the astronomer contributed +supplements after Maréchal’s death. Lalande professed +himself prouder of being an Atheist than of being an astronomer. His +<i lang="fr">Bibliographie Astronomique</i> is called by Prof. de +Morgan “a perfect model of scientific bibliography.” It was +said that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without +receiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.</p> +<p><b>Lamarck</b> (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de <span class= +"sc">Monet</span>) French naturalist, b. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated +for the Church, but entered the army in 1761, and fought with +distinction. Having been disabled, he went to Paris, studied Botany, +and published <i>French Flora</i> in 1788, which opened to him the +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10629" href="#xd20e10629" name= +"xd20e10629">197</a>]</span>Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at +the Museum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his +<i>Zoological Philosophy</i>, a theory of transmutation of species. His +<i>Natural History of Invertebrate Animals</i> (1815–22) was +justly celebrated. He became blind several years before his death, 18 +Dec. 1829.</p> +<p><b>Lamborelle</b> (Louis). Belgian author of books on <i>The Good +Old Times</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e10644" title= +"Source: Brussells">Brussels</span>, 1874; <i>The Apostles and Martyrs +of Liberty of Conscience</i>, Antwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical +works. Lamborelle lost a post under government through his anticlerical +views, and is one of the council of the Belgian Freethought party.</p> +<p id="lamettrie"><b>Lamettrie</b> (Julian <span class= +"sc">Offray</span> de). French physician and philosopher, b. St. Malo, +25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated under the +Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying under +Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon to the +French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and Dettingen. +Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with his physical +state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The boldness with +which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he took refuge in +Holland. Here he published <i>The Natural History of the Soul</i>, +under the pretence of its being a translation from the English of Charp +[Sharp], 1745. This was followed by <i>Man a Machine</i> (1748), a work +which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the +author’s arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a +second edition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to +D’Argens. Lamettrie held that the senses are the only avenues to +knowledge, and that it is absurd to assume a god to explain motion. +Only under Atheism will religious strife cease. Lamettrie found an +asylum with Frederick the Great, to whom he became physician and reader +(Feb. 1748). Here he published <i>Philosophical Reflections on the +Origin of Animals</i> (1750), translated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He +died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired by his will to be buried in the garden +of Lord Tyrconnel. The great king thought so well of him that he +composed his funeral eulogy.</p> +<p id="lamothelevayer"><b>La Mothe Le Vayer</b> (François de). +French sceptical philosopher, b. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis +XIV., and was <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10670" href= +"#xd20e10670" name="xd20e10670">198</a>]</span>preceptor to the Duke of +Anjou. Published <i>The Virtue of Pagans</i> and <i>Dialogues after the +Manner of the Ancients</i>, in which he gave scope to his scepticism. +Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither of these +contains <i>The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero</i> (Frankfort 1606, +probably a false date). Died 1672.</p> +<p><b>Lancelin</b> (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. +Became a constructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able +<i>Introduction to the Analysis of Science</i>, 3 vols. 1801–3, +and a physico-mathematical theory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. +Died Paris, 1809.</p> +<p><b>Land</b> (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, +1834. Has written critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an +edition of the philosopher’s works in conjunction with J. van +Vloten.</p> +<p><b>Landesmann</b> (Heinrich). See <a href="#lorm">Lorm</a>.</p> +<p><b>Landor</b> (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, +Warwickshire, 30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, +inheriting a fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He +published a volume of poems in 1795, and <i>Gebir</i> in 1798. An +ardent Republican, he served as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army +against Napoleon from 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum +of money to the Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about +1816. His reputation chiefly rests on his great <i>Imaginary +Conversations</i>, in which many bold ideas are presented in beautiful +language. Landor was unquestionably the greatest English writer of his +age. While nominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought +sentiments over his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.</p> +<p><b>Lanessan</b> (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint +André de Cubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a +naval physician, and M.D. in ’68. He was elected in ’79 as +Radical member of the <span class="corr" id="xd20e10713" title= +"Source: Muncipal">Municipal</span> Council of Paris, and re-elected in +’81. In August of the same year he was elected Deputy for the +Department of the Seine. He founded <i lang="fr">Le Reveil</i>, edited +the <i>Marseillaise</i>, and started the International Biological +Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine of Darwin. He +has written a standard work on botany, and has <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10722" href="#xd20e10722" name= +"xd20e10722">199</a>]</span>written vol. iii. of the +“Materialists’ Library,” on the <i>Evolution of +Matter</i>.</p> +<p><b>Lanfrey</b> (Pierre), French author and senator, b. +Chambéry, 26 Oct. 1828, became known by a book on <i>The Church +and the Philosophers of the Eighteenth Century</i>, ’55, and +celebrated by his <i>History of Napoleon I.</i> ’67–75. M. +Lanfrey also wrote <i>The Political History of the Popes</i>, a work +placed on the <i>Index</i>. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.</p> +<p><b>Lang</b> (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. +Educated at St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his +translation of the <i>Odyssey</i> with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful +poems and ballads. He has written <i>In the Wrong Paradise</i>, and +many other pleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in <i>Custom +and Myth</i>, ’84, and <i>Myth, Ritual and Religion</i>, +’87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor, Mr. Lang successfully upholds the +evolutionary view of mythology.</p> +<p><b>Lang</b> (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied +theology under Baur at Tübingen, and became teacher at +Zürich, where he died, 13 Jan. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Lange</b> (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. +Wald, near Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher +in the gymnasium of Cologne, ’52. In ’53 he returned to +Bonn as teacher of philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of +Ueberweg. He became proprietor and editor of the democratic +<i>Landbote</i>, and filled various municipal offices. In ’70 he +was called to the chair of philosophy at Zürich, but resigned in +’72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg, where he died 21 Nov. +1875. His fame rests on his important <i>History of Materialism</i>, +which has been translated into English.</p> +<p><b>Langsdorf</b> (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, +author of <i>God and Nature</i>, a work on the immortality of the soul, +and some mathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.</p> +<p><b>Lankester</b> (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. +London, 15 May, 1847, and educated at St. Paul’s School and +Oxford. Has published many scientific memoirs, revised the translation +of Haeckel’s <i>History of Creation</i>, and has done much to +forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876 he exposed the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10788" href="#xd20e10788" name= +"xd20e10788">200</a>]</span>spiritist medium Slade, and procured his +conviction. He is Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the +University of London.</p> +<p><b>La Place</b> (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers, b. +Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor peasant. +Through the influence of D’Alembert, La Place became professor of +mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary +abilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which he +enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his <i>Exposition of +the System of the Universe</i>, a popularisation of his greater work on +<i>Celestial Mechanics</i>, 1799–1825. Among his sayings were, +“What we know is but little, what we know not is immense.” +“There is no need for the hypothesis of a God.” Died Paris, +5 March, 1827.</p> +<p><b>Larevelliere-Lepaux</b> (Louis Marie <span class="sc">DE</span>), +French politician, b. Montaigu 25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the +ideas of Rousseau, he was elected with Volney to represent Angers in +the national assembly. He was a moderate Republican, defended the +proscribed Girondins, was doomed himself but escaped by concealment, +and distinguished himself by seeking to replace Catholicism with +theophilanthropy or natural religion. He wrote <i>Reflections on +Worship and the National Fêtes</i>. He became President of the +Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired, refusing to swear fealty +to the empire though offered a pension by Napoleon. Died Paris, 27 +March, 1824.</p> +<p><b>Larousse</b> (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor +parents, 23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He +edited many school books and founded the <i lang="fr">Grand +Dictionnaire Universel du XIXe. Siecle</i>, 1864–77. This is a +collection of dictionaries, and may be called the Encyclopedie of this +century. Most of M. Larousse’s colleagues were also Freethinkers. +Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.</p> +<p id="larra"><b>Larra</b> (Mariano José de), distinguished +Spanish author, b. Madrid, 4 March, 1809. He went with his family to +France and completed his education. He returned to Spain in ’22. +At eighteen he published a collection of poems, which was followed by +<i lang="es">El Duende Satirico</i> (The Satirical Goblin). In +’31 <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10824" href="#xd20e10824" +name="xd20e10824">201</a>]</span>appeared his <i lang="es">Pobrecito +Hablador</i> (Poor Gossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised +the public affairs and men of Spain. It was suppressed after its +fourteenth number. He edited in the following year the <i lang= +"es">Revista <span class="corr" id="xd20e10831" title= +"Source: Espanola">Española</span></i>, signing his articles +“Figaro.” He travelled through Europe, and on his return to +Madrid edited <i lang="es">El Mundo</i>. Larra wrote also some dramas +and translated Lamennais’ <i lang="es">Paroles d’un +Croyant</i>. Being disappointed in love he shot himself, 13 April, +1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra’s scepticism, adds, +“Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All the +truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a cigarette +paper!”</p> +<p><b>Larroque</b> (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, +1801. He became a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, +1830–36, and rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and +Lyons, 1836–49. In the latter year he was denounced for his +opposition to clerical ideas and lost his place. Among his numerous +works we mention <i lang="fr">De l’Esclavage chez les Nations +Chrétiennes</i>, ’57, in which he proves that Christianity +did not abolish slavery. This was followed by an <i>Critical +<span class="corr" id="xd20e10850" title= +"Source: Examnation">Examination</span> of the Christian Religion</i>, +’59, and a work on <i>Religious Renovation</i>, ’59, which +proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were for a while +prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on <i>Religion and +Politics</i>, ’78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Lassalle</b> (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German +Social Democratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in +Breslau, studied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a +follower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, ’46, was +charmed with him. Humboldt called him “Wunderkind.” In 1858 +he published a profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For +planning an insurrection against the Prussian Government he was +arrested, but won his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.</p> +<p><b>Lastarria</b> (José Victorino), Chilian statesman and +Positivist, b. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to +teaching and journalism, and in ’38 was appointed teacher of +civil law and literature in the National Institute. He has founded +several journals and literary societies. From ’43 he has been +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10869" href="#xd20e10869" name= +"xd20e10869">202</a>]</span>at different times deputy to the +legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has also served +as minister to Peru and Brazil. In ’73 he founded the Santiago +Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works, and his +<i lang="it">Lecciones de Politicia Positiva</i> has been translated +into French by E. de Rivière and others, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Lau</b> (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at +Königsberg, 15 June 1670, studied at Königsberg and Halle, +and about 1695 travelled through Holland, England, and France. In 1717 +he published in Latin, at Frankfort, <i>Philosophical Meditations on +God, the World, and Man</i>, which excited an outcry for its +materialistic tendency and was <span class="corr" id="xd20e10881" +title="Source: supressed">suppressed</span>. He was a follower of +Spinoza, and held several official positions from which he was deposed +on account of his presumed atheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.</p> +<p><b>Laurent</b> (François), Belgian jurisconsult, b. +Luxembourg, 8 July, 1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In +’35 he was made Professor of Civil Law in the University of +Ghent, a post he held, despite clerical protests, till his retirement +in ’80. A voluminous author on civil and international law, his +principal work is entitled <i>Studies in the History of Humanity</i>. +He was a strong advocate of the separation of Church and State, upon +which he wrote, 1858–60. He also wrote <i>Letters on the +Jesuits</i>, ’65. Died in 1887.</p> +<p><b>Law</b> (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied +the secular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the +<i>Secular Chronicle</i>, 1876–1879.</p> +<p><b>Lawrence</b> (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, +1773, of good Lancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became +acquainted with Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was +detained with English prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his +<i>The Empire of the Nairs, or the Rights of Women</i>, a free-love +romance which he wrote in German, French, and English. He also wrote in +French and English, a curious booklet <i>The Children of God</i>, +London, 1853. He addressed a poem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the +occasion of his denouncing the religions of the world. It appears in +<i>The Etonian Out of Bounds</i>. Died at London 26 Sept. 1841. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10914" href="#xd20e10914" name= +"xd20e10914">203</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Lawrence</b> (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. +Admitted M.R.C.S., 1805, in ’13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two +years later was named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal +College of Surgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his +<i>Lectures on Man</i>, which on their publication in 1819 roused a +storm of bigotry. In his early manhood, Lawrence was an earnest +advocate of radical reform; but notwithstanding his early unpopularity, +he acquired a lucrative practice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.</p> +<p><b>Layton</b> (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at +Gray’s Inn, being called to the bar. He wrote anonymously +observations on Dr. Bentley’s <i>Confutation of Atheism</i> +(1693), and a <i>Search After Souls, and Spiritual Observations in +Man</i> (1700).</p> +<p><b>Leblais</b> (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans, +1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled +<i>Materialism and Spiritualism</i> (1865), to which Littré +contributed a preface.</p> +<p><b>Le Bovier de Fontenelle.</b> See <a href= +"#fontenelle">Fontenelle</a>.</p> +<p><b>Lecky</b> (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, +26 March, 1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which +are characterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are +<i>A History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe</i> +(’65), <i>A History of European Morals from Augustus to +Charlemagne</i> (’69), and <i>A History of England in the +Eighteenth Century</i> (1878–87).</p> +<p><b>Leclerc</b> (Georges Louis). See <a href= +"#buffon">Buffon</a>.</p> +<p><b>Leclerc de Septchenes</b> (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to +Louis XVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an +essay on the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of +Lalande, he prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. +Died at Plombieres, 9 June, 1788.</p> +<p><b>Leconte de Lisle</b> (Charles Marie René), French poet, b. +Isle of Bourbon, 23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to +Paris, and took part in the revolution of ’48, but has since +devoted himself mainly to poetry, though he has written also <i>A +Republican Catechism</i> and <i>A Popular History of Christianity</i> +(’71). One of his finest poems is <i>Kain</i>. On being elevated +to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in ’87, he gave umbrage +to <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e10984" href="#xd20e10984" name= +"xd20e10984">204</a>]</span>Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking +of Moses as “the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.”</p> +<p><b>Lecount</b> (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was +engaged in the battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician +in the construction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he +wrote a history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes +entitled <i>A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil +and other Old Matters</i>, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. +Hetherington (’43). The author’s name occurs on p. 144, vol +i., as “the Rev. Peter Lecount.”</p> +<p><b>Leenhof</b> (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. +Became a minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled +<i>Heaven on Earth</i> (1703), which subjected him to accusations of +Atheism. It was translated into German in 1706.</p> +<p><b>Lefevre</b> (André), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. +1834. He became, at the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the +<i lang="fr">Magasin Pittoresque</i>. He wrote much in <i lang="fr">La +Libre Pensée</i> and <i lang="fr">La Pensée Nouvelle</i>; +has translated <i>Lucretius</i> in verse (’76), and written +<i>Religions and Mythologies Compared</i> (’77); contributed a +sketchy <i>History of Philosophy</i> to the Library of Contemporary +Science (’78); has written <i>Man Across the Ages</i> (’80) +and the <i>Renaissance of Materialism</i> (’81). He has also +edited the <i lang="fr">Lettres Persanes</i> of Montesquieu, some +<i>Dialogues</i> of Voltaire, and Diderot’s <i lang="fr">La +Religieuse</i> (’86).</p> +<p><b>Lefort</b> (César), disciple of Comte. Has published a +work on the method of modern science (Paris, 1864).</p> +<p><b>Lefrancais de Lalande.</b> See <a href= +"#lalande">Lalande</a>.</p> +<p><b>Legate</b> (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. +about 1572, was thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King +James had many personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king +asked him if he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had +done so in the days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. +“Away, base fellow!” said His Majesty, “It shall +never be said that one stayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to +the Savior for seven years together.” He was burnt at Smithfield +by the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11053" href="#xd20e11053" +name="xd20e11053">205</a>]</span>King’s writ, <i lang="la">De +Hæretico Comburendo</i>, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last +persons so punished in England.</p> +<p><b>Leguay de Premontval.</b> See <a href= +"#premontval">Premontval</a>.</p> +<p id="lehon"><b>Le Hon</b> (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. +Ville-Pommerœul (Hainault) 1809, was captain in the Belgian army, +professor at the military school of Brussels, and Chevalier of the +Order of Leopold. Author of <i lang="fr">L’Homme Fossile en +Europe</i>, ’66. Translated Professor Omboni’s exposition +of Darwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.</p> +<p><b>Leidy</b> (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9 +Sept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of +Philadelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American +palæontology.</p> +<p><b>Leigh</b> (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the +<i>Religions of the World</i>, 1869.</p> +<p><b>Leland</b> (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He +edited with Wakeman the journal <i>Man</i>. Died 2 June, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Lemaire</b> (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint +Quentin, author of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., +entitled <i>Initiation to the Philosophy of Liberty</i>, Paris, +1842.</p> +<p><b>Lemonnier</b> (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, +1845, author of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he +evinces his freethought sentiments.</p> +<p><b>Lenau</b> (Nicolaus), <i>i.e.</i> Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von +<span class="sc">Strehlenau</span>, Hungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. +1802. His poems, written in German, are pessimistic, and his +constitutional melancholy deepened into insanity. Died +Ober-Döbling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.</p> +<p><b>Lennstrand</b> (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle, +30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish +Utilitarian Society, March ’88, and in May was sentenced to a +fine of 250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th +Nov. he was imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has +written several pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. +In company with <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11116" href= +"#xd20e11116" name="xd20e11116">206</a>]</span>A. Lindkvist he has +founded the <i>Fritankaren</i> as the organ of Swedish freethought.</p> +<p><b>Leontium</b>, Athenian Hetæra, disciple and mistress of +Epicurus (q.v.) She acquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a +treatise against Theophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in +a skilful and elegant manner.</p> +<p><b>Leopardi</b> (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. +Recanati (Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among +poets by his lines addressed <i>To Italy</i>. His <i>Canti</i>, +’31, are distinguished by eloquence and pathos, while his prose +essays, <i>Operette Morali</i>, ’27, are esteemed the finest +models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi’s short life +was one long disease, but it was full of work of the highest character. +As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is among the greatest of +modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.</p> +<p><b>Lequinio</b> (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. +Sarzeau, 1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar +to the Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the +death of Louis XVI. “regretting that the safety of the state did +not permit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.” In +1792 he published <i>Prejudices Destroyed</i>, signed “Citizen of +the World,” in which he considered religion as a political chain. +He took part in the Feasts of Reason, and wrote <i>Philosophy of the +People</i>, 1796. Died 1813.</p> +<p><b>Lermina</b> (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. +Founded the <i>Corsair</i> and <i>Satan</i>, and has published an +illustrated biographical dictionary of contemporary France, +1884–5.</p> +<p><b>Lermontov</b> (Mikhail Yur’evich), Russian poet and +novelist, b. Moscow, 3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, +he studied at Moscow University, from which he was expelled. In +’32 he entered the Military Academy at St. Petersburg, and +afterwards joined the Hussars. In ’37 some verses on the death of +Pushkin occasioned his being sent to the Caucasus, which he describes +in a work translated into English, ’53. His poems are much +admired. <i>The Demon</i>, exhibiting Satan in love, has been +translated into English, and so has his romance entitled <i>A Hero of +Our Times</i>. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11168" href="#xd20e11168" name= +"xd20e11168">207</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Leroux</b> (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. +Bercy, near Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, +he invented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. +In 1824 he became editor of the <i>Globe</i>. Becoming a Saint +Simonian, he made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with +Reynaud <i lang="fr">L’Encyclopédie Nouvelle</i>, and +afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George Sand the <i lang="fr">Revue +Indépendante</i> (’41), which became noted for its pungent +attacks on Catholicism. His principal work is <i lang="fr">De +l’Humanite</i> (’40). In June ’48 M. Leroux was +elected to the Assembly. After the <i lang="fr">coup +d’état</i> he returned to London and Jersey. Died at +Paris, 12 April, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Leroy</b> (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of +Versailles, b<span class="corr" id="xd20e11193" title= +"Source: ,">.</span> 1723, one of the writers on the <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie</i>. He defended the work of Helvetius on the +Mind against Voltaire, and wrote <i>Philosophical Letters on the +Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals</i> (1768), a work +translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.</p> +<p><b>Lespinasse</b> (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, +14 May, 1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at +Deventer and afterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the +<i lang="nl">Dageraad</i> he wrote many interesting studies under the +pen-name of “Titus,” and translated the work of Dupuis into +Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to America and became director of a large +farm in Iowa. Died in Orange City (Iowa) 1881.</p> +<p><b>L’Espinasse</b> (Julie Jeanne Eléonore de). French +beauty and wit, b. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the +protégé of Madame du Deffand, and gained the favor of +D’Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility and spirit. +Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.</p> +<p><b>Lessing</b> (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, +b. Kamenz, 22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became +acquainted with Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at +Wolfenbüttel he published <i>Fragments of an Unknown</i> (1777), +really the <i>Vindication of Rational Worshippers of God</i>, by +Reimarus, in which it was contended that Christian evidences are so +clad in superstition as to be unworthy credence. Among his writings +were <i>The Freethinker</i> and <i>Nathan the Wise</i>, his +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11229" href="#xd20e11229" name= +"xd20e11229">208</a>]</span>noblest play, in which he enforces lessons +of toleration and charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was +decidedly sceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest +German emancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.</p> +<p><b>Lessona</b> (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has +translated some of the works of Darwin.</p> +<p><b>Leucippus.</b> Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.</p> +<p><b>L’Estrange</b> (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a +view to entering the Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 +Feb. ’44, but became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley’s +Introduction to the Iliad, he became convinced that the +“cooking” process there described, has been undergone by +all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas Scott’s series +valuable tracts on <i>Our First Century</i>, <i>Primitive Church +History</i>, <i>Irenæus</i>, <i>Order</i>, <i>The Eucharist</i>. +He also edited Hume’s <i>Dialogues on Natural Religion</i>, and +wrote <i>The First Ten Alleged Persecutions</i>.</p> +<p><b>Levallois</b> (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In +’55 he became secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote <i lang= +"fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e11270" title= +"Source: Deismé">Déisme</span> et Christianisme</i>, +1866.</p> +<p><b>Lewes</b> (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, +18 April, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In +1845–6 appeared his <i>Biographical History of Philosophy</i>, +which showed higher power. This has been republished as <i>History of +Philosophy from Thales to Comte</i>. Lewes was one of the first to +introduce English readers to Comte in his account of <i>Comte’s +Philosophy of the Sciences</i>, ’47. In ’49 he became one +of the founders of the <i>Leader</i>, for which he wrote till +’54. In that year he began his association with “George +Eliot” (<i>q.v.</i>). His <i>Life of Goethe</i> appeared in +’55, and from this time he began to give his attention to +scientific, especially biological, studies. In ’64 he published +an important essay on Aristotle. On the foundation of the +<i>Fortnightly Review</i>, ’65, Lewes was appointed editor. His +last work, <i>Problems of Life and Mind</i>, 5 vols. +’74–79, was never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. +1878. He bequeathed his books to Dr. Williams’s library.</p> +<p><b>Lichtenberg</b> (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and +scientist, b. Ober-Ramstädt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11307" href="#xd20e11307" name= +"xd20e11307">209</a>]</span>he left many thoughts showing his advanced +opinions. Died Göttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.</p> +<p><b>Lick</b> (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, +Pa., 25 Aug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large +fortune by investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and +bequeathed large sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for +other philanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Lilja</b> (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. +Studied at Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, +on <i>Man; his Life and Destiny</i>. Died Lund 1870.</p> +<p><b>Lincoln</b> (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States, +b. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery, his +election (Nov. ’60) led to the civil war and the emancipation of +slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he “read Volney +and Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein he +reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but he +never denied or regretted its composition.” Mrs. Lincoln said, +“Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of +those words.” Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the +following morning.</p> +<p><b>Lindet</b> (Robert Thomas), “apostate” French bishop, +b. Bernay, 1743. Was elected to the States-General by the clergy of his +district. He embraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was +made Bishop of L’Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 +Nov. 1793, renounced his bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals +should take the place of religious ones. He became member of the +<i lang="fr">Conseil des Anciens</i>. Died Bernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and +was buried without religious service.</p> +<p><b>Lindh</b> (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. +Studied at Helsingfors University, ’51–57; became lawyer in +’71, and is now a member of the <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e11336" title="Source: Muncipal">Municipal</span> Council of +Borgo. He has written many poems in Swedish, and also translated from +the English poets, and has published Freethought essays, which have +brought him into controversy with the clergy.</p> +<p><b>Lindkvist</b> (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11343" href="#xd20e11343" name= +"xd20e11343">210</a>]</span>of pious parents. At the University of +Upsala he studied European literature, and became acquainted with the +works of Mill, Darwin, and Spencer. He has published two volumes of +poems, <i>Snow Drops</i> and <i>April Days</i>, and lost a stipend at +the University by translating from the Danish a rationalistic life of +Jesus entitled <i>The Reformer from Galilee</i>. Mr. Lindkvist has +visited Paris, and collaborated on a Stockholm daily paper. In +’88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in propagating Freethought, +and in Nov. received a month’s imprisonment for having translated +one of J. Symes’s anti-Christian pamphlets. He now edits <i lang= +"se">Fritankaren</i> in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.</p> +<p><b>Lindner</b> (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, +28 Nov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained +in several works on music. He edited the <i lang="de">Vossische +Zeitung</i> from ’63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.</p> +<p id="liniere"><b>Liniere</b> (François <span class= +"sc">Payot</span> de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628; known as +the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety he ever did +was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her finger in it. +Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have undertaken a +criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.</p> +<p><b>Linton</b> (Eliza, née <span class="sc">Lynn</span>) +novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar of Crosthwaite, Cumberland, +b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely to the leading Radical +journals, and has written numerous works of fiction, of which we must +mention <i>Under which Lord?</i> and <i>The Rebel of the Family</i>. In +’72 she published <i>The True History of Joshua Davidson</i>, +<i>Christian and Communist</i>, and in ’85 the <i>Autobiography +of Christopher Kirkland</i>. She has also written on the woman +question, and contributed largely to periodical literature.</p> +<p><b>Linton</b> (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at +London, 1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated +with the chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic +press, and also, we believe, to the <i>Oracle of Reason</i>. He wrote +the <i>Reasoner</i> tract on “The Worth of Christianity.” +He was one of the founders of the <i>Leader</i>, has edited the +<i>Truthseeker</i>, the <i>National</i> and the <i>English +Republic</i>, and has published <i>Famine a Masque</i>, a <i>Life of +Paine</i>, and a memoir of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11423" +href="#xd20e11423" name="xd20e11423">211</a>]</span><i>James Watson</i> +and some volumes of poems. In ’67 he went to America, but has +recently returned.</p> +<p><b>Liscow</b> (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German +satirists, b. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and +became acquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor +of War at Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with +literature until his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow’s principal +satires are <i>The Uselessness of Good Works for our Salvation</i> and +<i>The Excellence and Utility of Bad Writers</i>. He has been called +the German Swift, and his works show him to have been an outspoken +Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Lisle</b> (Lionel), author of <i>The Two Tests: the Supernatural +Claims of Christianity Tried by Two of its own Rules</i> (London, +1877).</p> +<p id="liszinski"><b>Liszinski</b> (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble +birth. Denounced as an Atheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and +Posnovia, he was decapitated and burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His +ashes were placed in a cannon and scattered abroad. Among the +statements in Liszinski’s papers was that man was the creator of +God, whom he had formed out of nothing.</p> +<p><b>Littre</b> (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and +philosopher, b. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and +most of the sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors +of the <i>National</i>. His edition of the works of Hippocrates +(1839–61) proved the thoroughness of his learning. He embraced +the doctrines of Comte, and in ’45 published a lucid analysis of +the Positive Philosophy. He translated the <i>Life of Jesus</i>, by +Strauss, and wrote the <i>Literary History of France</i>. His +<i>Dictionary of the French Language</i>, in which he applied the +historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal works ever +performed by one man. He wrote on <i>Comte and Positive Philosophy</i>, +<i>Comte and Mill</i>, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his later +vagaries. From ’67 till his death he conducted <i>La Philosophie +Positive</i>. Littré also wrote <i>Science from the Standpoint +of Philosophy</i>, ’73; <i>Literature and History</i>, ’75; +<i>Fragments of Positive Philosophy and Contemporary Sociology</i>, +’76. He was proposed for the Academy in ’63, but was +bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in ’71. In +the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in ’75 +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11484" href="#xd20e11484" name= +"xd20e11484">212</a>]</span>was chosen senator. Under the Empire he +twice refused the Legion of Honor. After a long life of incessant +labor, he died at Paris, 2 June 1881.</p> +<p><b>Lloyd</b> (John William), American poet and writer, b. of +Welsh-English stock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly +self-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became +assistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became +an Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in <i>Liberty</i> and +<i>Lucifer</i>.</p> +<p><b>Lohmann</b> (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied +a good position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he +practised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the <i>Mirror +of Faith</i>. Died 1642.</p> +<p><b>Lollard</b> (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end +of thirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected +the sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose twelve +apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many followers. +Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying with great +courage.</p> +<p><b>Loman</b> (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. +1823. He holds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the +Pauline Epistles to belong to the second century, and has written many +critical works.</p> +<p><b>Lombroso</b> (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. +1836, has been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism +to Italy. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the +physiology of criminals.</p> +<p><b>Longet</b> (François Achille), French physiologist, b. St. +Germain-en-Laye, 1811, published a <i>Treatise on Physiology</i> in 3 +vols. and several medical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.</p> +<p><b>Longiano</b> (Sebastiano). See <a href="#fausto"><span class= +"sc">Fausto</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Longue</b> (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service +of the house of Conti; wrote <i lang="fr">Les Princesses de +Malabares</i>, Adrianople, 1734, in which he satirised religion. It was +condemned to be burnt 31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in +Holland with the imprint Tranquebar, 1735.</p> +<p><b>Lorand</b> (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11542" href="#xd20e11542" name= +"xd20e11542">213</a>]</span>law at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an +active propagator of Atheistic doctrines among the youth of the +University and in workmen associations. He edits <i lang="fr">La +Réforme</i> at Brussels, the ablest daily exponent of +Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has lately headed +an association for the suppression of the standing army.</p> +<p id="lorm">“<b>Lorm</b> (Hieronymus),” the pen name of +Heinrich <span class="sc">Landesmann</span>. German pessimistic poet, +b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many philosophical poems, he +has written essays entitled <i>Nature and Spirit</i>, Vienna, +’84.</p> +<p><b>Lozano</b> (Fernando), Spanish writer in <i lang="es">Las +Dominicales dal Libre Pensamiento</i>, where he uses the signature +“Demofilo.” He has written <i>Battles of Freethought</i>, +<i>Possessed by the Devil</i>, <i>The Church and Galeote</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Lubbock</b> (Sir John), banker, archæologist, scientist and +statesman, b. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken +into his father’s bank at the age of fourteen, and became a +partner in ’56. By his archæological works he has most +distinguished himself. He has written <i>Prehistoric Times as +Illustrated by Ancient Remains, and the Manners and Customs of Modern +Savages</i> (’65), and <i>The Origin of Civilisation and the +Primitive Condition of Man</i> (’70).</p> +<p><b>Lucretius Carus</b> (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> 99. Little is known of his life, but his +name is immortalised by his atheistic work, <i>De Rerum Natura</i>, in +six books, which is the finest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius +has been said to have believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he +expounds. Full of animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests +philosophy with the grace of genius. Is said to have died by his own +hand <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 55.</p> +<p><b>Luetzelberger</b> (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist b. +Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He wrote +on <i>The Church Tradition of the Apostle John</i>. He also wrote a +work on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck’s <i>Qu’est ce que la +Religion</i>. In ’56 he was appointed town librarian at +Nuremberg.</p> +<p><b>Lunn</b> (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets <i>On +Prayer, its Folly, Inutility, etc.</i> 1839, and <i>Divine Revelation +Examined</i>, 1841. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11617" href= +"#xd20e11617" name="xd20e11617">214</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Luys</b> (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is +physician at l’Hopital de la Charité, Paris, and author of +a work on <i>The Brain and its Functions</i> in the +“International Scientific Series.”</p> +<p><b>Lyell</b> (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14 +Nov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself +to geology. In 1830–33 appeared his great work, <i>The Principles +of Geology</i>, which went through numerous editions. His last +important work was <i>Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man</i>, +in which he accepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.</p> +<p><b>Maccall</b> (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated +at Glasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left as +insufficiently broad. He wrote <i>Elements of Individualism</i> +(’47), translated Spinoza’s Treatise on Politics +(’54), wrote to the <i>Critic</i> as “Atticus,” +contributed to the <i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Secular Review</i>, +etc., published <i>Foreign Biographies</i> (’73), and translated +Dr. Letourneau’s <i>Biology</i> and other works. Maccall was an +idealistic Pantheist of strong individual character. Died at Bexley, 19 +Nov. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Macchi</b> (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. +Became professor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming +obnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was +deprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism, +founded <i>l’Italia</i>, a Republican journal, for which he was +exiled. He was associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in +the <i>Libero Pensiero</i> and the <i>Libero Pensatore</i>, and founded +an Italian Association of Freethinkers. In ’61 he was elected +deputy to Parliament for Cremona, and in ’79 was elevated to the +Senate. Died at Rome, 24 Dec. 1880. One of his principal works is on +the <i>Council of Ten</i>.</p> +<p><b>Macdonald</b> (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York +<i>Truthseeker</i>, b. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the +printer’s trade in New York, where he became foreman to D. M. +Bennett, and contributed to the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. +Bennett’s death.</p> +<p><b>Macdonald</b> (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11686" href="#xd20e11686" name= +"xd20e11686">215</a>]</span>the <i>Truthseeker</i>, and now conducts +<i>Freethought</i>, of San Francisco, in company with S. P. Putnam. +George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>McDonnell</b> (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. +Author of <i>The Heathens of the Heath</i> and <i>Exeter Hall</i>, +’73, both Freethought romances.</p> +<p><b>Mackay</b> (Robert William), author of <i>The Progress of the +Intellect</i>, 1850, <i>Sketch of the Rise and Progress of +Christianity</i>, ’53, and <i>The Tubingen School</i>, +’63.</p> +<p><b>Mackey</b> (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of +Norwich, who is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He +wrote <i>The Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients</i>, Norwich, +1822–24, <i>Pious Frauds</i>, ’26, A Lecture on Astronomy +and Geology, edited by W. D. Saull, ’32, <i>Urania’s +Key</i> to the Revelation, ’33, and <i>The Age of Mental +Emancipation</i>, ’36–39. Mackey also wrote the +<i>Sphinxiad</i>, a rare book. Died 1846.</p> +<p><b>Mackintosh</b> (Thomas Simmons), author of <i>The Electrical +Theory of the Universe</i>, 1848, and <i>An Inquiry into the Nature of +Responsibility</i>. Died 1850.</p> +<p><b>MacSweeney</b> (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He +came to London, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, +adopted his views. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the +<i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, and other papers. +He published a pamphlet on <i>Moses and Bacchus</i> in 1874. Died Jan. +1881.</p> +<p><b>Madach</b> (Imré), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. +1823<span class="corr" id="xd20e11763" title="Source: .">,</span> at +Sztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards +lived at Cseszlova. He was in ’52 incarcerated for a year for +having given asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in +’61 delegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem +<i lang="hu">Az Ember <span class="corr" id="xd20e11768" title= +"Source: Tragédiaja">Tragédiája</span></i> (The +Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as Adam, with Lucifer +in his company. Many Freethought views occur in this poem. Died 5 Oct. +1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.</p> +<p><b>Maier</b> (Lodewyk). See <a href="#meyer">Meyer</a>.</p> +<p id="maillet"><b>Maillet</b> (Benôit de). French author, b. +Saint Michiel, 12 April, 1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and +at <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11782" href="#xd20e11782" name= +"xd20e11782">216</a>]</span>Leghorn; and died at Marseilles, 30 Jan. +1738. After his death was published “Telliamed” (the +anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land was +originally covered with water and that every species of animal, man +included, owes its origin to the sea.</p> +<p>“<b>Mainlaender</b>” (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp +<span class="sc">Batz</span>, German pessimist, author of a profound +work entitled the <i>Philosophy of Redemption</i>, the first part of +which was published in 1876. It was said that +“Mainländer” committed suicide in that year, but the +second part of his work has come out 1882–86. He holds that +Polytheism gives place to Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to +Atheism. “God is dead, and his death was the life of the +world.”</p> +<p><b>Malherbe</b> (François de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He +served in the civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of +Henry IV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. +Many stories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told +upon his death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like +others and would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.</p> +<p><b>Mallet</b> (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on <i>The +Bible</i>, its origin, errors and contradictions (1882).</p> +<p><b>Malon</b> (Benoît). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, +1841. One of the founders of the <i>International</i>; he has written a +work on that organisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He +is editor on <i lang="fr">L’Intransigeant</i>, conducted the +<i lang="fr">Revue Socialiste</i>, and has written on the religion and +morality of the Socialists and other works.</p> +<p><b>Malvezin</b> (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June +1841. Author of <i lang="fr">La Bible Farce</i> (Brussels, 1879.) This +work was condemned and suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to +three month’s imprisonment. He conducts the review <i lang= +"fr">La Fraternité</i>.</p> +<p><b>Mandeville</b> (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, +was made a doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he +published a poetical satire, <i>The Grumbling Hive</i>, or Knaves +Turned Honest. In 1709, he published <i>The Virgin Unmasked</i>, and in +1723, <i>Free Thoughts on Religion the Church and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11842" href="#xd20e11842" name= +"xd20e11842">217</a>]</span>National Happiness</i>. In the same year +appeared his <i>Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public +Benefits</i>. This work was presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, +1723 and 1728. It was attacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville +replied to Berkeley in <i>A Letter to Dion</i>, occasioned by a book +called Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote <i>An +Inquiry of Honor</i>, and <i>Usefulness of Christianity in War</i>, +1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.</p> +<p><b>Mantegazza</b> (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31 Oct. +1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled +considerably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first +book <i>The Physiology of Pleasure</i>. He has also written on the +physiology of pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on +Ecstacy, Love and other topics, and a fine romance <i lang="it">Il Dio +Ignoto</i>, the unknown god (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most +popular and able of Italian writers.</p> +<p><b>Manzoni</b> (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, +studied philosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on +the doctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer <i>A Life of Jesus</i>, +also <i lang="it">Il Prete</i>, a work translated into German with the +title Religion as a Pathological Phenomenon, etc.</p> +<p><b>Marchena</b> (José), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, +1768. Brought up for the church, reading the writings of the French +philosophers brought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he +became a friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced +<i lang="fr">Essai de Théologie</i>, 1797, and translated into +Spanish Molière’s <i>Tartufe</i>, and some works of +Voltaire. He translated <span class="corr" id="xd20e11888" title= +"Source: Dupins">Dupuis</span>’ <i lang="fr">Origine de tous les +Cultes</i>, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.</p> +<p><b>Marechal</b> (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. +1750; was brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of +literature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his place +by his <i>Book Escaped from the Deluge</i>, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech +(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In +1781 he wrote <i lang="fr">Le Nouveau Lucrece</i>. In 1788 appeared his +<i>Almanack of Honest People</i>, in which the name of Jesus Christ was +found beside that of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, +burnt at the hands of the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11907" +href="#xd20e11907" name="xd20e11907">218</a>]</span>hangman, and +Maréchal imprisoned for four months. He welcomed the Revolution, +and published a republican almanack, 1793. In 1797 and 1798 he +published his <i>Code of a Society of Men without God</i>, and <i>Free +Thoughts on the Priests</i>. In 1799 appeared his most learned work, +<i>Travels of Pythagoras</i> in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage, +Gaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Maréchal puts a host of +bold philosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he +published his famous <i>Dictionary of Atheists</i>, which the +Government prohibited and interdicted journals from noticing. In the +following year appeared his <i>For and Against the Bible</i>. Died at +Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His beneficence is highly spoken of by +Lalande.</p> +<p><b>Maret</b> (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 +March, 1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits <i>Le +Radical</i>; was elected deputy in ’81.</p> +<p><b>Marguerite</b>, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. +b. at Angouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to +religious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.</p> +<p><b>Marguetel de Saint Denis.</b> See <a href="#saintevremond">Saint +Evremond (C.)</a></p> +<p><b>Mario</b> (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited +the <i>Tribune</i> and <i>Free Italy</i>, became aide-de-camp to +Garibaldi and married Jessie White, an English lady. In ’60 he +wrote a polemic against the papacy entitled <i>Slavery and Thought</i>. +Died 2 June, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Marlow</b> (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. +Canterbury, 8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he +took his degree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and +according to some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at +Deptford, 1 June, 1593, in time to escape being tried on an information +laid against him for Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius +is displayed in <i>Tamburlaine</i> and <i>Dr. Faustus</i>. Of the +latter, Goethe said “How greatly is it all planned.” +Swinburne says “He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring +and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.”</p> +<p><b>Marr</b> (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of <i>Religious +Excursions</i>, 1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.</p> +<p><b>Marsais</b> (Cesar Chesneau du). See <a href="#dumarsais">Du +Marsais</a>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e11981" href= +"#xd20e11981" name="xd20e11981">219</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Marselli</b> (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. +Author of advanced works on the Science of History, <i>Nature and +Civilisation</i>, the <i>Origin of Humanity</i>, the <i>Great Races of +Humanity</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Marston</b> (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. +1850. He became blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of +D. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and sincere. +Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his own wishes in +unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious service.</p> +<p><b>Marsy</b> (François Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as +a Jesuit. He brought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was +confined in the Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.</p> +<p><b>Marten</b> (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at +Oxford, where he proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in +1640, and expelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed +his seat 6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King +Charles’s judges, and became one of the Council of State. He +proposed the repeal of the statute of banishment against the Jews, and +when it was sought to expel all profane persons, proposed to add the +words “and all fools.” Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he +was kept in Chepstow Castle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls +him “sworn foe of Cant in all its figures; an indomitable little +Pagan if not better.”</p> +<p><b>Martin</b> (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, +1812. Brought up as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the <i>Bristol +Magazine</i>. She wrote the <i>Exiles of Piedmont</i> and translated +from the Italian the Maxims of Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and +Southwell for blasphemy led her to inquire and embrace the Freethought +cause. While Holyoake and Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about +committing the “crime” for which they were imprisoned. In +’43 she published <i>Baptism A Pagan Rite</i>. This was followed +by <i>Tracts for the People</i> on the Bible no Revelation, Religion +Superseded, Prayer, God’s Gifts and Men’s Duties, a +conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote on +the <i>Punishment of Death</i>, to which she was earnestly opposed. +Died Oct. 1851. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12027" href= +"#xd20e12027" name="xd20e12027">220</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Martin</b> (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. +Quentin<span class="corr" id="xd20e12032" title="Source: .">,</span> 20 +Feb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for +history. His <i>History of France</i>, in nineteen vols. +(1838–53), is a monumental work of erudition<span class="corr" +id="xd20e12038" title="Source: ,">.</span> A confirmed Republican, he +warmly opposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of +the National Assembly, ’71<span class="corr" id="xd20e12041" +title="Source: .">,</span> and senator, ’76. He was elected +member of the Academy, ’78. In addition to his historical works +he contributed to <i lang="fr">le Siecle</i>, <i lang="fr">la +<span class="corr" id="xd20e12050" title= +"Source: Liberte">Liberté</span> de penser</i>, and <i lang= +"fr">l’Encyclopédie Nouvelle</i>, etc. Died 14 Dec. +1883.</p> +<p><b>Martin</b> (Louis), author of <i lang="fr">Les Evangiles Sans +Dieu</i> (called by Victor Hugo <i lang="fr">cette noble page</i>), +Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist Socialist.</p> +<p><b>Martin</b> (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, +1811, editor of the <i lang="fr">Morale Independante</i> and member of +the Institute of Geneva. For his <i>True and False Catholics</i> +(’58), he was fined three thousand francs and imprisoned for six +months. He published the <i lang="fr">Annuaire Philosophique</i>. +Several of his works are placed on the Roman <i>Index</i>. Died Paris, +6 April, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Martinaud</b> (M.), an ex-abbé who refused ordination, and +wrote Letters of a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to +his bishop, Paris, 1868, in which he says, “Religion is the +infancy of peoples, Atheism their maturity.”</p> +<p><b>Martineau</b> (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from +a Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing +Devotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature as a +means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations of political +economy. The <i>Letters on the Laws of Man’s Nature and +Development</i>, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared +in ’51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of +Thought. In ’53 she issued a condensed account of Comte’s +philosophy. She wrote a <i>History of England during the Thirty +Years’ Peace</i>, and numerous other works. Died at Ambleside 27 +June, 1876. Her <i>Autobiography</i>, published after her death, shows +the full extent of her unbelief.</p> +<p><b>Masquerier</b> (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot +descent, b. 1 March, 1802. Wrote <i>The Sataniad</i>, established +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12108" href="#xd20e12108" name= +"xd20e12108">221</a>]</span><i>Greenpoint Gazette</i>, and contributed +to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>. Died 7 Jan. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Massenet</b> (Jules Emile Fréderic), French musical +composer, b. Montard, 12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular +oratorio on <i>Marie Magdeleine</i>, and an opera, +<i>Herodiade</i>.</p> +<p><b>Massey</b> (Gerald), poet and archæologist, b. of poor +parents at Tring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was +sent to a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen +he came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way, and +became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the men of +’48, he started <i>The Spirit of Freedom</i>, ’49. It cost +him five situations in eleven months. In ’53 his <i>Ballad of +Babe Christabel, with other Lyrical Poems</i> at once gave him position +as a poet of fine taste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to +the study of Egyptology, the result of which is seen in his <i>Book of +Beginnings</i> and <i>Natural Genesis</i>, ’81–83, in which +he shows the mythical nature of Christianity. Mr. Massey has also +lectured widely on such subjects as Why Don’t God Kill the Devil? +The Historical Jesus and the Mythical Christ, The Devil of Darkness in +the Light of Evolution, The Coming Religion, etc. His poems are being +re-published under the title <i>My Lyrical Life</i>.</p> +<p><b>Massey</b> (James). See <a href="#tyssotdepatot">Tyssot. +(S.)</a></p> +<p><b>Massol</b> (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 +March, 1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in ’30 and +became a Saint Simonian. In ’48 he wrote on Lamennais’ +<i lang="fr">La Réforme</i>, and on the <i lang="fr">Voix du +Peuple</i> with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In +’65 he established <i lang="fr">La Morale Independante</i> with +the object of showing morality had nothing to do with theology. Died at +Paris 20 April, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Maubert de Gouvest</b> (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20 +Nov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon +army. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal +nuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This he +did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this he went +to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by Lord +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12168" href="#xd20e12168" name= +"xd20e12168">222</a>]</span>Bolingbroke. He published <i lang= +"fr">Lettres Iroquoises</i>, Irocopolis, 1752, and other anonymous +works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as a fugitive monk and +vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died at Altona, 21 Nov. +1767.</p> +<p><b>Maudsley</b> (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5 +Feb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated M.D. in +1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon reached +eminence in his profession. From ’69–’79 he was +professor of medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His +works on <i>The Physiology and Pathology of the Mind</i> (’67), +<i>Body and Mind</i> (’70), <i>Responsibility in Mental +Disease</i> (’73), and Body and Will (’83) have attracted +much attention. His <i>Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings</i> +(’80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all +superstition.</p> +<p><b>Mauvillon</b> (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though +feeble in body, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer +corps of Hanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the +service of the Duke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he +defended the French Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously +<i>Paradoxes Moraux</i> (Amsterdam, 1768) and <i>The Only True System +of the Christian Religion</i> (Berlin, 1787), at first composed under +the title of <i>False Reasonings of the Christian Religion</i>. Died in +Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.</p> +<p><b>Mazzini</b> (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. +In ’26 he graduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and +plunged into politics, becoming the leader of Young Italy, with the +object of uniting the nation. Condemned to death in ’33, he went +to Switzerland and was expelled, then came to England in ’37. In +’48 he returned, and in March ’49 was made triumvir of Rome +with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled, after a desperate resistance, to +retire, he returned to London. He wrote in the <i>Westminster +Review</i> and other periodicals <span class="corr" id="xd20e12210" +title="Source: and and">and</span> his works are numerous though mostly +of a political character. They are distinguished by highmindedness, +love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called Mazzini “a man +of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity, humanity and +nobleness of mind.” Died at <span class="corr" id="xd20e12213" +title="Source: Pìsa">Pisa</span> 10 March, 1872. He was a Deist. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12216" href="#xd20e12216" name= +"xd20e12216">223</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Meissner</b> (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has +written Ziska, an epic poem, <i>The Son of Atta Troll</i>, +<i>Recollections of Heine</i>, etc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Meister</b> (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. Bückeburg, 6 +Aug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and +became acquainted with D’Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a +short life, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the <i>Origin of +Religious Principles</i>, 1762, and <i>Natural Morality</i>, 1787.</p> +<p><b>Menard</b> (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In +’48–’49 he wrote <i>Prologue of a Revolution</i>, for +which he was obliged to leave France. Has written on <i>Morality before +the Philosophers</i>, ’60, <i>Studies on the Origin of +Christianity</i>, ’67, and <i>Freethinkers’ Religious +Catechism</i>, ’75.</p> +<p><b>Mendoza</b> (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish +author, b. of distinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the +church, he studied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the +university he joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic +novel, <i>Lazarillo de Tormes</i>, which was condemned by the +Inquisition. Sent on an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was +greatly shocked at his audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work +is his <i>History of the Moorish Wars</i>, which remained unprinted +thirty years, through the intolerant policy of Philip II. +Mendoza’s satires and burlesques were also prohibited by the +Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and translated his Mechanics. Died +at Valladolid, April, 1575.</p> +<p><b>Mendum</b> (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the <i>Boston +Investigator</i>, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a +printer, and in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after +his imprisonment engaged to print the <i>Investigator</i>, and when +Kneeland left Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on +the paper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the +founders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of +Freethought in that city.</p> +<p><b>Mentelle</b> (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, +11 Oct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Crévier. +His <i lang="fr">Précis de l’Histoire des +Hébreux</i> (1798), and <i lang="fr">Précis <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12282" href="#xd20e12282" name= +"xd20e12282">224</a>]</span>de l’Histoire Universelle</i> are +thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever existed. He was a +member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. Died at +Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.</p> +<p><b>Mercier</b> (L. A.), author of <i lang="fr">La Libre <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e12291" title="Source: Pensee">Pensée</span></i>, +Brussels, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Meredith</b> (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of <i>The +Prophet of Nazareth</i> (1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of +Jesus, and <i>Amphilogia</i>, a reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and +the Rev. J. F. Francklin, ’67.</p> +<p><b>Meredith</b> (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. +Hampshire, 1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the +law, he adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet +with <i>Poems</i> (’51). Of his powerful novels we mention the +<i>Ordeal of Richard Feveril</i> (’59), <i>Emilia in England</i> +(’64), now <i>Sandra Belloni</i>, with Vittoria (’66) for a +sequel. <i>Rhoda Fleming</i>, <i>Beauchamp’s Career</i> +(’76), <i>The Egoist</i> (’79), <i>The Tragic Comedians</i> +(’81) and <i>Diana of the Crossways</i> (’85). Deep thought +and fine grace characterise his writings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not +popular, but his volumes of verse are marked by the highest qualities, +and give him a place apart from the throng of contemporary singers.</p> +<p><b>Merimee</b> (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. +1808, author of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector +General of Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in +’44. In his anonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis +(Brussels), ’64, there is an open profession of Atheism. Died at +Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.</p> +<p><b>Merritt</b> (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 +June, 1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and +contributed to the <i>Reasoner</i>, using the signature +“Christopher.” He wrote on <i>Dirt and Pictures</i> and +<i>Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles</i>, etc. Died in London, 10 +July, 1877.</p> +<p><b>Meslier</b> or <b>Mellier</b> (Jean), curé of Etrepigny, +Champagne, b. Mazerny, Rethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After +his death a will was discovered of which he had made three copies, in +which he repudiated Christianity and requested to be buried in his own +garden. His property he left to his <span class="corr" id="xd20e12361" +title="Source: parishoners">parishioners</span>. Voltaire published it +under the title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To +Meslier has been attributed the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e12364" href="#xd20e12364" name="xd20e12364">225</a>]</span>work +entitled <i lang="fr">Le Bon Sens</i>, written by Baron +D’Holbach. <i lang="fr">Le Testament de Jean Meslier</i> has been +published in three volumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by +Rudolf Charles (R. C. d’Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in +question all the dogmas of Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to +the National Convention to erect a statue to this “honest +priest.”</p> +<p><b>Metchnikov</b> (Léon), Russian writer in French; author of +a work on Japan and of able articles, notably one on Christian +Communion in the <i lang="fr">Revue Internationale des Sciences +Biologiques</i>, tome 12.</p> +<p><b>Metrodorus</b> of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span>, a disciple and intimate friend of +Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles of which are preserved by +Diogenes Laertius. Died <span class="sc">B.C.</span> 277.</p> +<p><b>Mettrie</b>, see <a href="#lamettrie">La Mettrie</a><span class= +"corr" id="xd20e12395" title="Not in source">.</span></p> +<p><b>Meunier</b> (Amédée Victor), French writer, b. +Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has done much to popularise science by his +<i>Scientific Essays</i>, 1851–58, the <i>Ancestors of Adam</i>, +’75, etc.</p> +<p id="meyer"><b>Meyer</b> (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and +follower of Spinoza, who published <i lang="la">Exercitatio +Paradoxa</i> on the philosophical interpretation of scripture, +Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has been wrongly attributed to +Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch in 1667. He is also credited with +<span lang="la">Lucii Antistic Constantes, de jure ecclesiasticorum. +Alethopoli</span> (Amst.), 1665. This work is also attributed to +another writer, viz. P. de la Court.</p> +<p><b>Mialhe</b> (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe +(Tarn)<span class="corr" id="xd20e12422" title="Not in source">,</span> +1834. From ’60–62 he was with the French army of occupation +at Rome. He has organised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited +<i lang="fr">L’Union des Libres-Penseurs</i>, and has written +<i lang="fr">Mémoires d’un libre Penseur</i> (Nevers, +1888).</p> +<p><b>Michelet</b> (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. +Became a Professor of History in 1821. Has written a <i>History of +France</i> and of the <i>French Revolution</i>; <i>The Jesuits</i>, +with his friend Quinet, ’43; <i>The Priest, Woman and the +Family</i>, ’44; <i>The Sorceress</i>, dealing with witchcraft in +the Middle Ages, ’62; <i>The Bible of Humanity</i>, ’64. +His lectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and +after the <i>coup d’état</i> he was <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12457" href="#xd20e12457" name= +"xd20e12457">226</a>]</span>deprived of his chair. All Michelet’s +works glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he was +a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at +Hyères, 9 Feb. 1874.</p> +<p><b>Michelet</b> (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, +b. Berlin, 4 Dec. 1801. In ’29 he became Professor of Philosophy. +A disciple of Hegel, he edited his master’s works, ’32. His +principle work is <i>A System of Philosophy as an Exact Science</i>, +’76–81<span class="corr" id="xd20e12466" title= +"Source: ,">.</span> He has also written on the relation of Herbert +Spencer to German philosophy.</p> +<p><b>Middleton</b> (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. +His <i>Letters from Rome</i>, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity +had borrowed from Paganism, and his <i>Free Inquiry into the Miraculous +Powers supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church</i>, 1749, +was a severe blow to hitherto received “Christian +Evidences.” He also wrote a classic <i>Life of Cicero</i>. Died +at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.</p> +<p><b>Mignardi</b> (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published <i lang= +"it">Memorie di un Nuovo Credente</i> (Memoirs of a New Believer).</p> +<p><b>Milelli</b> (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. +His family intended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank +Pagan, as may be seen in his <i lang="it">Odi Pagane</i>, ’79, +<i>Canzonieri</i>, ’84, and other works.</p> +<p><b>Mill</b> (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, +Montrose, 6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished +himself by his attainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was +licensed as preacher in the Scotch Church, but removed to London in +1800, and became editor of the <i>Literary Review</i>, and contributed +to the reviews. He published, ’17–’19, his <i>History +of British India</i>. He contributed many articles to the fifth edition +of the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>. A friend of Bentham, he +wrote largely in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and did much to forward +the views of Philosophic Radicalism. His <i>Analysis of the Human +Mind</i>, ’39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete +sceptic. Reading Bishop Butler’s <i>Analogy</i> made him an +Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.</p> +<p><b>Mill</b> (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the +preceding, b. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12527" href="#xd20e12527" name= +"xd20e12527">227</a>]</span>without religion, he became clerk in the +East India House, and early in life contributed to the +<i>Westminster</i> and <i>Edinburgh Reviews</i>. Of the first he became +joint editor in ’35. His <i>System of Logic</i>, ’43, first +made him generally known. This was followed by his <i>Principles of +Political Economy</i>. In ’59 appeared his small but valuable +treatise <i>On Liberty</i>, in which he defends the unrestricted free +discussion of religion. Among subsequent works were +<i>Utilitarianism</i>, ’63; <i>Auguste Comte and Positivism</i>, +’67; <i>Examination of Sir William Hamilton’s +Philosophy</i> ’65; <i>Dissertations and Discussions</i>, +’59–’75; and the <i>Subjection of Women</i>, +’69. In ’65 he was elected to Parliament for Westminster, +but lost his seat in ’68. In ’67 he was chosen Rector of +St. Andrews, and delivered the students an able address. Prof. Bain +says “in everything characteristic of the creed of Christendom he +was a thorough-going negationist. He admitted neither its truth nor its +utility.” Died at Avignon, 8 May, 1873, leaving behind his +interesting <i>Autobiography</i> and three essays on +“Nature,” “Theism,” and +“Religion.”</p> +<p><b>Mille</b> (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, +educated at Paris. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of +Philosophy, from a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with +Codreano, and after the latter’s death (’77), in spreading +Socialism. Millé contributes to the Rivista Sociala and the +Vütorul, edited by C. Pilitis.</p> +<p><b>Milliere</b> (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, +Lamarche (Côte d’Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, +and founded the <i>Proletaire</i> at Clermont Ferrand. For writing +<i>Revolutionary Studies</i> he was, after the <i>coup +d’état</i>, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of +’59. In ’69 Millière started, with Rochefort, the +<i>Marseillaise</i>, of which he became one of the principal directors. +At the election for the National Assembly he was elected for Paris by +73,000 votes. Although he took no part in the Commune, but sought to +act as an intermediary, he was arrested and summarily shot near the +Pantheon, Paris, 26 May, 1871. He died crying “<i lang="fr">Vive +l’Humanité</i>.”</p> +<p><b>Mirabaud</b> (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. +He translated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the +French Academy. He wrote <i>Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews</i>, a +<i>Critical Examination of the New Testament</i>, (published +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12597" href="#xd20e12597" name= +"xd20e12597">228</a>]</span>under the name of Fréret), <i>The +World: its Origin and Antiquity</i>, 1751, <i>Sentiments of a +Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul</i> inserted in the collection +entitled <span lang="fr">Nouvelle libertés de Penser</span>, +Amst. (Paris) 1743. The <i>System of Nature</i>, attributed to +Mirabaud, was written by d’Holbach. Mirabaud died 24 June, +1760.</p> +<p><b>Mirabeau</b> (Honoré Gabriel <span class= +"sc">Riquetti</span> Comte de), French statesman and orator, b. at the +Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He inherited a passionate +nature, a frank strong will, generous temper, and a mind of prodigious +activity. He entered the army in 1767, but by an amorous intrigue +provoked the ire of his father, by whom he was more than once +imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and employed himself in +literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his <i lang= +"el">Erotika Biblion</i>, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. +In 1786 he was sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected +materials for his work on <i>The Prussian Monarchy</i>. He returned to +the opening of the States General and soon became leader of the +Revolution, being in Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National +Assembly. He advocated the abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords +and bishops, the spoliation of the Church and the National Guard. +Carlyle calls him “far the strongest, best practical intellect of +that time.” He died 2 April, 1791<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e12625" title="Source: ,">.</span> Among his last words were, +“Envelop me with perfumes and crown me with flowers that I may +pass away into everlasting sleep.”</p> +<p><b>Miranda</b> (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, +b. Caracas 1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, +tried to free Guatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the +Girondins and became second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was +a friend of Thomas Paine. In 1806–11 he was engaged seeking to +free Peru from the Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in +a dungeon at Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a +sceptic of James Mill.</p> +<p><b>Miron.</b> See <a href="#morin"><span class="sc">Morin</span> +(André Saturnin.)</a></p> +<p><b>Mitchell</b> (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of <i>Dates and +Data</i> (1876) and <i>Chrestos; a Religious Epithet</i> (1880). Dr. +Mitchell has also written in the <i>National Reformer</i>, using his +initials only. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12655" href= +"#xd20e12655" name="xd20e12655">229</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Mitchell</b> (Logan), author of Lectures published as <i>The +Christian Mythology Unveiled</i>. This work was also issued under the +title <i>Superstition Besieged</i>. It is said that Mitchell committed +suicide in Nov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of £500 to any +bookseller who had the courage to publish his book. It was first +published by B. Cousens, and was republished in ’81.</p> +<p><b>Mittermaier</b> (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. +Munich, 5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he +became professor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He +obtained a chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented +Baden in Parliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an +active part in the Radical movement of ’48. His writings are all +in the direction of freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.</p> +<p><b>Mittie</b> (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church +bells to make money and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished +himself by other anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.</p> +<p><b>Mocenicus</b> (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a +Venetian philosopher, whose heretical <i>Contemplations</i> were +printed at Geneva, 1588, with the <i>Peripatetic Question of +Cæsalpinus</i> and the books of Telesio on <i>The Nature of +Things</i> in the volume entitled <i lang="la">Tractationum +Philosophicarum</i>.</p> +<p><b>Moleschott</b> (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch +parents at <span class="corr" id="xd20e12694" title= +"Source: Herzogenbusch">’s Hertogenbosch</span>, 9 Aug. 1822; +studied at Heidelburg where he graduated M.D. Became Professor of +Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at Turin. Becoming a naturalised +Italian he was in ’76 made a senator, and in ’78 Professor +of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has written <i>Circulation +of Life</i>, <i>Light and Life</i>, <i>Physiological Sketches</i>, and +other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him “the father +of the modern Materialistic movement.”</p> +<p><b>Molesworth</b> (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the +eighth baronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In ’32 +he was returned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from ’37–41 sat +for Leeds. In ’53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and +in ’55 was Secretary for the Colonies. He was for <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12710" href="#xd20e12710" name= +"xd20e12710">230</a>]</span>some time proprietor and conductor of the +<i>Westminster Review</i>, in which he wrote many articles. A noble +edition of Hobbes was produced at his expense, ’39–45, and +he contributed to the support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.</p> +<p><b>Mommsen</b> (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30 Nov. +1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from ’44 to 47. He became +Professor of Law of Leipsic, Zürich and Berlin. Is best known by +his <i>History of Rome</i>, ’53–85, a work of great +research and suggestiveness in which he expresses the opinion that it +is doubtful if the world was improved by Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Monboddo</b> (Lord). See <a href="#burnett">Burnett +(James)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Monge</b> (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. +Taught physics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, +became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the +influence of Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was +one of the founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a +senator, created him Count of <span class="corr" id="xd20e12733" title= +"Source: Pelusuin">Pelusium</span>, and gave him an estate for his many +services to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was +deprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Maréchal and +Lalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.</p> +<p><b>Mongez</b> (Antoine), French archæologist, b. Lyons, 30 +June 1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the +Academy of Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said +“he had the honor to be an Atheist.” He was one of the most +ardent members of the Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at +Paris, 30 July, 1835.</p> +<p><b>Monroe</b> (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the <i>Ironclad +Age</i>, b. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In ’50 he went +to Rochford, where he had a good practice as a doctor. In ’55 he +started the <i>Rochford Herald</i>, and in July, ’57, the +<i>Seymour Times</i>. During the Civil War he was appointed surgeon to +the 150th regiment, and after some hard service his own health broke +down. In ’75 Dr. Monroe published his dramas and poems in a +volume. From this time his paper became more Freethought and less +political. In April, ’82, he removed to <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e12754" title="Source: Indianopolis">Indianapolis</span>, Indiana, +and changed the name to <i>The Age</i>, afterwards Monroe’s +Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man, with a +remarkable fund of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12761" href= +"#xd20e12761" name="xd20e12761">231</a>]</span>natural humor. Among his +publications are poems on <i>The Origin of Man</i>, etc., <i>Genesis +Revised</i>, and <i>Holy Bible Stories</i>.</p> +<p><b>Montaigne</b> (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the +family castle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a +judge at Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous +“Essays,” which indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most +independent spirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects +an epoch in literature. Emerson says, “Montaigne is the frankest +and honestest of all writers.” Montaigne took as his motto: Que +<span class="corr" id="xd20e12776" title= +"Source: scais je">sçais-je</span>? [What know I?] and said that +all religious opinions are the result of custom. Buckle says, +“Under the guise of a mere man of the world, expressing natural +thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a spirit of lofty and +audacious inquiry.” Montaigne seems to have been the first man in +Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning people for a +difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of the +Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.</p> +<p><b>Monteil</b> (Charles François Louis Edgar), French +journalist, b. Vire, 26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing +in <i lang="fr">Le Rappel</i>. During the Commune he was secretary to +Delescluze. For his <i lang="fr">Histoire d’un Frère +Ignorantin</i>, ’74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers, +and condemned to one year’s imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and +10,000 francs damages. In ’77 he wrote a <i>Freethinker’s +Catechism</i>, published at Antwerp, and in ’79 an edition of +<i lang="fr">La République Française</i>. In ’80 he +was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected in +’84. In ’83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. +He has compiled an excellent secular <i>Manual of Instruction</i> for +schools.</p> +<p id="montesquieu"><b>Montesquieu</b> (Charles de <span class= +"sc">Secondat</span>), <i>Baron</i>, eminent French writer, b. near +Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitled +<i>Persian Letters</i>, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the +French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that +his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the +<i>Spirit of Laws</i>, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of +the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on +Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, which <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12814" href="#xd20e12814" name= +"xd20e12814">232</a>]</span>Voltaire pronounced to be worthy of +Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.</p> +<p><b>Montgomery</b> (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, +Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw +Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended at <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e12820" title="Source: Heidelburg">Heidelberg</span> the lectures +of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He +wrote in German and published at Munich in ’71, <i>The Kantian +Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint</i>. In +’67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells +in Animal Bodies<span class="corr" id="xd20e12826" title= +"Source: ,">.</span> In ’71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his +scientific studies on life. He has written in the <i>Popular Science +Monthly</i>, <i>The Index</i>, and <i>The Open Court</i> and +<i>Mind</i>. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of +a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.</p> +<p><b>Montgolfier</b> (Michel Joseph), aeronaut<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e12846" title="Source: .">,</span> b. Aug. 1740. He was the first +to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La +Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June +1810.</p> +<p><b>Mook</b> (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, +studied philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the +latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became +lecturer to a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popular +<i>Life of Jesus</i>, published at Zürich, ’72–3. He +travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His +brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some +poems.</p> +<p><b>Moor</b> (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of +the <i>Hindu Pantheon</i>, 1810 and <i>Oriental Fragments</i>, +’34. Died 1840.</p> +<p><b>Moreau</b> (Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, +April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in +’30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose +work entitled <i>The <span class="corr" id="xd20e12872" title= +"Source: Miseltoe">Mistletoe</span> and the Oak</i>. His life, which +was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. +1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by +Sainte-Beuve.</p> +<p><b>Moreau</b> (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12880" href="#xd20e12880" name= +"xd20e12880">233</a>]</span>He became a distinguished alienist of the +materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point +of view, ’36, and many physiological works.</p> +<p><b>Morelly</b>, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. +Vitry-le-Français, author of a work called <i lang="fr">Code de +la Nature</i>, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in +1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity +is minimised.</p> +<p><b>Morgan</b> (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book +as <i>The Moral Philosopher</i>, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was +deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He +edited Radicati’s Dissertation on Death, 1731. His <i>Moral +Philosopher</i> seeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls +Moses “a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid,” +and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was +supplemented by <i>A Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason</i>, +1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. +He replied to his opponents over the signature +“Philalethes.” His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. +Lechler calls Morgan “the modern Marcion.” Died at London, +14 Jan. 1743.</p> +<p><b>Morgan</b> (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at +Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney +Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he +is author of <i>Sketches of the Philosophy of Life</i>, ’18, and +the <i>Philosophy of Morals</i>, ’19. The <i>Examiner</i> says, +“He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais +or Bayle.” Died 28 Aug. 1843.</p> +<p id="morin"><b>Morin</b> (André Saturnin), French writer, b. +Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. +In ’30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. +In ’48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he +combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under +the signature “Miron,” in the <i>Rationaliste</i> of +Geneva, the <i lang="fr">Libre Pensée</i> of Paris, the <i lang= +"it">Libero-pensiero</i> of Milan, and other papers. He was intimately +associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian +Freethinkers. His principal work is an <i>Examination of +Christianity</i>, in three volumes, ’62. His <i>Jesus Reduced to +his True Value</i> has gone <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12936" +href="#xd20e12936" name="xd20e12936">234</a>]</span>through several +editions. His <i lang="fr">Essai de Critique Religieuse</i>, ’85, +is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of the <i lang= +"fr">Bibliothèque Démocratique</i>, to which he +contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one on <i>Confession</i> +being translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In ’76 he was +elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the +question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, +and was cremated at Milan.</p> +<p><b>Morison</b> (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man +of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., +’59. In ’63 he published the <i>Life and Times of Saint +Bernard</i>. He was one of the founders of the <i>Fortnightly +Review</i>, in which he wrote, as well as in the <i>Athenæum</i>. +He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley’s +“Men of Letters” Series. In ’86 he published his +striking work <i>The Service of Man</i>, an Essay towards the Religion +of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been +much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest +and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of +France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but +the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and +he never did justice to his powers. Even the <i>Service of Man</i> was +postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. +Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of +friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at +Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Morley</b> (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 +Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C. +Morison. He contributed to <i>The Leader</i> and the <i>Saturday +Review</i>, edited the <i>Morning Star</i>, and the <i>Fortnightly +Review</i>, ’67–82, in which appeared the germs of most of +his works, such as <i>On Compromise</i>, <i>Voltaire</i>, ’72; +<i>Rousseau</i>, ’73; <i>Diderot and the Encyclopædists</i> +’78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared +in that review. From May, ’80 till Aug. ’83 he edited the +<i>Pall Mall Gazette</i>. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was +elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. ’86 was +appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e12998" href="#xd20e12998" name= +"xd20e12998">235</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Morselli</b> (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. +Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on +<i>Suicide</i> in the International Scientific Series, and a study on +“The Religion of Mazzini.” He edits the <i>Rivista di +Filosofia Scientifica</i>, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the +past and future of religion.</p> +<p><b>Mortillet</b> (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. +Meylan (Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. +Condemned in ’49 for his political writings he took refuge in +Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. +Has written <i>Materials to serve for the positive and philosophical +history of man</i>, ’64. <i>The Sign of the Cross before +Christianity</i>, ’66, <i>Contribution to the History of +Superstition</i>, and <i>Prehistoric Antiquity of Man</i>, ’82. +He contributed to the <i>Revue Indépendante</i>, <i lang= +"fr">Pensée Nouvelle</i>, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the +Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.</p> +<p><b>Moss</b> (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has +written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in <i>Waves +of Freethought</i>, ’85. Others are <i>Nature and the Gods</i>, +<i>Man and the Lower Animals</i>, <i>Two Revelations</i>, etc. Mr. Moss +has been a contributor to the <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, <i>Secular +Review</i>, <i>Freethinker</i>, <i>Truthseeker</i>, and other journals, +and has had a written debate on “Was Jesus God or Man.” A +School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on +Sunday. A collection of his <i>Lectures and Essays</i> has been +published, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Mothe Le Vayer.</b> See <a href="#lamothelevayer">La Mothe Le +Vayer</a>.</p> +<p><b>Mott</b> (Lucretia), American reformer, <i>nee</i> <span class= +"sc">Coffin</span>, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but +on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who +preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she +took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to +the World’s Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but +excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. +Took an active part in Women’s Rights conventions. Died at +Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.</p> +<p><b>Muhammad</b> ibn al Hudail <i>al Basri</i>, philosopher of Asia +Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. +about 757. Died about 849. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13088" +href="#xd20e13088" name="xd20e13088">236</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan</b> (Abu Nasr.) See <a href= +"#alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>.</p> +<p><b>Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat.</b> See <a href= +"#avempace">Avempace</a>.</p> +<p><b>Muhammad Jalal ed din.</b> See <a href="#akbar">Akbar</a>.</p> +<p><b>Muller</b> (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has +contributed good articles to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i> (the +Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of +Amsterdam.</p> +<p><b>Murger</b> (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to +the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, tales poems and dramas. In +his poem <i>Le Testament</i> in “Winter Nights” he says in +answer to the inquiring priest “<span lang="fr">Reponds lui que +j’ai lu Voltaire.</span>” His most popular work is entitled +<i>Scenes of Bohemian Life</i>. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.</p> +<p><b>Musset</b> (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11 +Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the +Romantic school. His prose romance, <i lang="fr">Confession d’un +Enfant du Siècle</i>, ’36, exhibits his intellectual +development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four +poems entitled <i lang="fr">Nuits</i>. He contributed to the <i lang= +"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, and was admitted into the Academy in +’52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.</p> +<p><b>Naber</b> (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, +16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem +gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has +edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson +of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and +disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.</p> +<p><b>Nachtigal</b> (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23 +Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became +private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote +an account thereof, <i>Sahara und Sudan</i>. He became German Consul +General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Naigeon</b> (Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon +1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of +Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and +conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. He <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13162" href="#xd20e13162" name= +"xd20e13162">237</a>]</span>contributed to the Encyclopédie, +notably the articles <span class="sc">Ame</span> and <span class= +"sc">Unitaires</span> and composed the <i lang="fr">Militaire +Philosophe</i>, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father +Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being +written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that +writer, notably in the <i lang="fr">Theologie Portative</i>. He +published the <i lang="fr">Recuéil Philosophique</i>, 2 vols., +Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach’s Essay on Prejudices and +his <i lang="fr">Morale Universelle</i>. He also edited the works of +Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland’s +philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient +and Modern Philosophy in the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie +Méthodique</i> (Paris 1791–94.) He addressed the National +Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the +name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man. +Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.</p> +<p><b>Naquet</b> (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 +Oct. 1834, became M.D. in ’59. In ’67 he received fifteen +months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with +M. Regnard, the <i lang="fr">Revue Encyclopédique</i>, which was +suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In ’69 he +issued a work on <i>Religion, Property, and Family</i>, which was +seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of +five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He +represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with +the extreme left. He was re-elected in ’81. The new law of +divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet’s +energetic advocacy. In ’83 he was elected to the Senate, and of +late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General +Boulanger.</p> +<p><b>Nascimento</b> (Francisco Manuel do). <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e13200" title="Source: Portugese">Portuguese</span> poet, b. +Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated +Molière’s <i>Tartuffe</i>, was accused of heresy (1778), +and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems +and satires under the name of “Filinto Elysio.” Died 25 +Feb. 1819.</p> +<p><b>Navez</b> (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of <i lang= +"fr">La Libre Pensée</i>, of Antwerp, and active member of the +Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13214" href="#xd20e13214" name= +"xd20e13214">238</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Nelson</b> (Gustave), a writer in the New York +<i>Truthseeker</i>, conjectured to be the author of <i>Bible Myths and +their Parallels in other Religions</i>, a large and learned work, +showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.</p> +<p><b>Newcomb</b> (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, +(Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in ’53, +and was appointed computor on the <i>Nautical Almanack</i>. In +’77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. +He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and +has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well as +<i>Principles of Political Economy</i>, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Newman</b> (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. +London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at +Balliol College ’26, but resigned in ’30, being unable +conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in +force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a +Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not +conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became +classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor +at London University. In <i>The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations</i>, +’49, he states his Theistic position, and in <i>Phases of +Faith</i>, ’50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. +He has also written <i>A History of the Hebrew Monarchy</i>, ’47, +<i>Theism: Doctrinal and Practical</i>, ’58, and a number of +Scott’s tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, +the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of +Protestantism, etc. Also <i>Religion not History</i>, ’77; +<i>What is Christianity without Christ?</i> ’81; <i>Christianity +in its Cradle</i>, ’84; and <i>Life after Death</i>, +’86.</p> +<p><b>Neymann</b> (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, +friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.</p> +<p><b>Nicholson</b> (William), English writer on chemistry and natural +philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon +returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published +useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the +British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also +wrote <i>The Doubts of the Infidels</i>, submitted to the Bench of +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13275" href="#xd20e13275" name= +"xd20e13275">239</a>]</span>Bishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work +republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor +circumstances 21 May, 1815.</p> +<p><b>Nicolai</b> (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 +March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted +for founding “The Universal German Library.” He wrote +anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 +Jan. 1811.</p> +<p><b>Nietzsche</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 +Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and +of <i>Morgenröthe</i>, and other philosophical works. Died +1889.</p> +<p><b>Nieuwenhuis</b> (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. +Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on +Nov. 25, ’77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to +believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then +contributed to <i lang="nl">De Banier</i> (Banner) <i lang="nl">de +Dageraad</i> (Dawn) and <i lang="nl">de Vragen des Tijds</i> (Questions +of the time.) On 1st March, ’79 he started a Socialist paper +<i lang="nl">Recht voor Allen</i>, now an important daily organ of +Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are—<i>With +Jesus</i>, <i>For or against Socialism</i>, <i>The Religious Oath +Question</i>, <i>The Religion of Reason</i>, <i>The Religion of +Humanity</i>. On Jan. 19, ’87, he was sentenced to one +years’ solitary confinement for an article he had not written, +and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was +liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.</p> +<p><b>Noeldeke</b> (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, +1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been +professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has +written a <i>History of the Koran</i>, ’56; a <i>Life of +Mahomet</i>, ’63; and a <i>Literary History of the Old +Testament</i>, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg +and J. Soury, ’73.</p> +<p><b>Noire</b> (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at +Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of +Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist +philosophy, ’77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, ’77. +He contends that language originates in <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e13337" href="#xd20e13337" name= +"xd20e13337">240</a>]</span>instinctive sounds accompanying will in +associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Noorthouck</b> (John), author of a <i>History of London</i>, +1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been +credited with the <i>Life of the Man After God’s Own Heart</i>. +See <a href="#annet">Annet</a>.</p> +<p><b>Nordau</b> (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, +1849. He became a physician in ’73. He has written several books +of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work on <i>Convential +Lies of our Civilisation</i>. He has since written on <i>The Sickness +of the Century</i>.</p> +<p><b>Nork</b> (Felix). See <a href="#korn">Korn (Selig)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Nott</b> (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, +South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote <i>The Physical History of the +Jewish Race</i>, <i>Types of Mankind</i>, ’54, and <i>Indigenous +Races of the Earth</i>, ’55; the last two conjointly with G. R. +Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of +the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.</p> +<p><b>Noun</b> (Paul), French author of <i>The Scientific Errors of the +Bible</i>, 1881.</p> +<p><b>Noyes</b> (Thomas Herbert), author of <i>Hymns of Modern Man</i>, +1870.</p> +<p><b>Nunez</b> (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 +Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in +philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.</p> +<p><b>Nuytz</b> (Louis André). See <a href= +"#andre-nuytz">Andre-Nuytz</a>.</p> +<p><b>Nystrom</b> (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. +1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, ’68. +He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of +’67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has +established a Positivist Society and Workmen’s Institute. Has +written a <i>History of Civilisation</i>.</p> +<p><b>Ocellus Lucanus</b>, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the +eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a +translation by the Marquis d’Argens, and Thomas Taylor published +an English version.</p> +<p><b>Ochino</b> (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, +1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. +Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, he <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13423" href="#xd20e13423" name= +"xd20e13423">241</a>]</span>had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to +England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in +London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to +Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 +for <i>Thirty Dialogues</i>, in one of which he shows that neither in +the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. +He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, +and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of +Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the +special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.</p> +<p><b>O’Connor</b> (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. +Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen +and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was +tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose +to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of +Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also +edited the <i>Journal of Religious Freedom</i>. Died at Bignon, 25 +April, 1852.</p> +<p><b>O’Donoghue</b> (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at +law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity +College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and published <i>Theology and +Mythology</i>, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and +the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.</p> +<p><b>Oest</b> (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote +poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.</p> +<p><b>Offen</b> (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. +He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of +Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote <i>Biblical +Criticism</i> and <i>A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion</i>, +and supported the <i>Correspondent</i>, <i>Free Inquirer</i>, and +<i>Boston Investigator</i>. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.</p> +<p><b>Offray de la Mettrie</b> (Julian). See <a href= +"#lamettrie">Lamettrie</a>.</p> +<p><b>O’Keefe</b> (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an +essay <i>On the Progress of the Human Understanding</i>, 1795, in which +he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was a <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13480" href="#xd20e13480" name= +"xd20e13480">242</a>]</span>follower of Kant, and was classed with +<i>Living Authors of Great Britain</i> in 1816.</p> +<p><b>O’Kelly</b> (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the +O’Kelly’s; author of <i>Consciousness, or the Age of +Reason</i>, 1853; <i>Theological Papers</i>, published by Holyoake; and +<i>Theology for the People</i>, ’55, a series of short papers +suggestive of religious Theism.</p> +<p><b>Oken</b> (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. +Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became a +<span class="corr" id="xd20e13502" title= +"Source: privat-doceut">privat-docent</span> in that university. In a +remarkable <i>Sketch of Natural Philosophy</i>, 1802, he advanced a +scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work on +<i>Generation</i>, 1805, and a <i>Manual of Natural Philosophy</i>, +1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. +From ’17 till ’48 he edited the scientific journal +<i>Isis</i>. In ’32 he became a professor at Zürich, where +he died, 11 Aug. 1851.</p> +<p><b>Oliver</b> (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. +Died 1764.</p> +<p><b>Omar Khayyam.</b> See <a href="#khayyam">Khayyam</a>.</p> +<p><b>Omboni</b> (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 +June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many +scientific works.</p> +<p><b>Onimus</b> (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. +near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, +and wrote a treatise on <i>The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological +Sciences</i>, 1866. In ’73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna +Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of +the <i>Psychology in the Plays of Shakespere</i>, ’78, and has +written in the <i lang="fr">Revue Positive</i> and other +periodicals.</p> +<p><b>Oort</b> (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. +Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has +written many works, of which we mention <i>The Worship of Baalim in +Israel</i>, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, and <i>The Bible for Young +People</i>, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. +H. Wickstead, 1873–79.</p> +<p><b>Orelli</b> (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. +Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13560" href="#xd20e13560" name= +"xd20e13560">243</a>]</span>favor of Strauss at the time when there was +an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. +1849.</p> +<p><b>Osborne</b> (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. +Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His <i>Advice to a +Son</i>, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who +drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, +and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died +1659.</p> +<p><b>Oscar</b> (L.), Swiss writer, author of <i>Religion Traced Back +to its Source</i>, Basel, 1874. He considers religion “a belief +in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies” +of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled “The +Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology.”</p> +<p><b>Ossoli</b> (Countess d’). See <a href="#fuller">Fuller +(Margaret)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Oswald</b> (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many +popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Oswald</b> (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. +Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural +history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He +has contributed to the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, <i>The +Truthseeker</i> and other journals, and has published <i>Summerland +Sketches</i>, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central +America, ’81; Physical Education, ’82; <i>The Secrets of +the East</i>, ’83, which argues that Christianity is derived from +Buddhism, and <i>The Bible of Nature</i> or the Principles of +Secularism, ’88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural +History in Brazil.</p> +<p><b>O’Toole</b> (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to +death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says +he “denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the +trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection +of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; +the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the +<span class="corr" id="xd20e13610" title= +"Source: Apostolike">Apostolic</span> see erronious.”</p> +<p id="ouida">“<b>Ouida,</b>” See Ramée (Louise de +la).</p> +<p><b>Ouvry</b> (Henry Aimé), Col., translator of +Feuchterslebens, <i>Dietetics of the Soul</i> and Rau’s +<i>Unsectarian Catechism</i>, and author of several works on the land +question. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13631" href="#xd20e13631" +name="xd20e13631">244</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Overton</b> (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on +relics, 1642, and a treatise on <i>Man’s Mortality</i> (London, +1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally +mortal.</p> +<p><b>Owen</b> (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, +Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business +talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the +daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole +manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools +and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810–15 he +published <i>New Views on Society</i>, or, Essays on the Formation of +Character. In ’17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that +the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the +creature of circumstances. In ’24 he went to America and +purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new +community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at +Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In ’28 he debated at +Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He +published a numerous series of tracts, <i>Robert Owen’s +Journal</i>, and <i>The New Moral World</i>, ’35. He debated on +his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his +mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, +17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the +direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his +energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.</p> +<p><b>Owen</b> (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. +Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to +Fellenberg’s school, near Berne, Switzerland. In ’25 he +went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, +Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances +Wright, in Nov. ’28, the publication of the <i>Free Inquirer</i>, +which was continued till ’32. In that year he had a written +discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the +authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought +cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mention +<i>Situations</i>, 1839; <i>Address on Free Inquiry</i>, 1840; +<i>Prossimo’s Experience</i>, <i>Consistency</i>, <i>Galileo and +the Inquisition</i>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13676" href= +"#xd20e13676" name="xd20e13676">245</a>]</span>He was elected to +Congress in ’43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the +women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge +d’affaires at Naples in ’53. During the civil war he +strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a +Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.</p> +<p><b>Paalzow</b> (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg +(Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire’s commentaries on +<i>The Spirit of the Laws</i> and Burigny’s <i>Examination of the +Apologists of Christianity</i> (Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a <i>History +of Religious Cruelty</i> (Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.</p> +<p><b>Paepe</b> (Cesar de). See <a href="#depaepe">De Paepe</a>.</p> +<p><b>Pagano</b> (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). +Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied +at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of +criminal law in 1787. For his <i>Political Essays</i> in three volumes +(1783–92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on +<i>Criminal Process</i> and a work on <i>God and Nature</i>. Taking +part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, +he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.</p> +<p><b>Page</b> (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of +introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through +many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited +<i>Life Lights of Song</i>, ’64. His <i>Man Where, Whence, and +Whither?</i>, ’67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in +Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend +of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that +writer’s <i>Vestiges of Creation</i>, in the scientific details +of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.</p> +<p><b>Paget</b> (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of +“Vernon Lee,” has written <i>Studies of the Eighteenth +Century in Italy</i> and <i>Baldwin</i>, dialogues on views and +aspirations 1886. Since ’71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, +and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in the +<i>Contemporary</i> (May ’83) on “Responsibilities of +Unbelief” being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget’s +writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13737" href="#xd20e13737" name= +"xd20e13737">246</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Pageze</b> (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat +and the Budget des Cultes, ’86, Separation of Church and State, +’87, etc.</p> +<p><b>Paine</b> (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. +His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the +trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, +where he married the daughter of <span class="corr" id="xd20e13746" +title="Source: a an">an</span> exciseman, and entered the excise. He +was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a +paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in +London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went +in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the +<i>Pennsylvanian Magazine</i> and contributed to the Pennsylvanian +journal a strong anti-slavery essay. <i>Common Sense</i>, published +early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more +than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each +number of the <i>Crisis</i>, which appeared during the war, was read by +Washington’s order to each regiment in the service. Paine +subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. +After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, +and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his +attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he +endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the +Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of +royalty. In 1791 he published his <i>Rights of Man</i>, in reply to +Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to +France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the +execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the +Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. +During this time he wrote the first part of the <i>Age of Reason</i>, +which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable +in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian +dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought +work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant +slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his +own direction was buried on his farm at New <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13765" href="#xd20e13765" name= +"xd20e13765">247</a>]</span>Rochelle. Cobbett is said to have +disinterred him and brought his bones to England.</p> +<p><b>Pajot</b> (François). See <a href="#liniere"><span class= +"sc">Liniere</span></a>.</p> +<p><b>Paleario</b> (Aonio), <i>i.e.</i>, Antonio, della Paglia, Italian +humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman +Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant +men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles +V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin +poem on the Mortality of the Soul—modeled on Lucretius. He was +Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of +heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all +men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into +the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ’s Death has been +attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to +Benedetto da Mantova.</p> +<p><b>Pallas</b> (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. +Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, +he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History +at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the +Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. +Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of +modern geology.</p> +<p><b>Pallavicino</b> (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza +1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing +some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his +head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the +Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.</p> +<p><b>Palmer</b> (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 +March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in ’69. He was +brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while +still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In ’80 +he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for +the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the +<i>Freethinker’s Magazine</i>, <i>Truthseeker</i>, etc. A sister +married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 +July, 1888, and was <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13801" href= +"#xd20e13801" name="xd20e13801">248</a>]</span>cremated at Fresh Pond, +his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.</p> +<p><b>Palmer</b> (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, +1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but +became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack +of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New +York. After this he dictated his <i>Principles of Nature</i>, 1802, a +powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in ’19. He +also wrote <i>Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year +1804</i>. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati +founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, +1806.</p> +<p><b>Panaetius</b> (<span class="trans" title="Panaitios"><span class= +"Greek" lang= +"el">Παναίτιος</span></span>), +Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and +perhaps of Carneades. About 150 <span class="sc">B.C.</span> he visited +Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the +conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He +wrote a work <i>On Duties</i>, to which Cicero expresses his +indebtedness in his <i lang="la">De Officiis</i>. Died in Athens 111 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span></p> +<p><b>Pancoucke</b> (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. +Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with +d’Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, +Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated +Lucretius, 1768, brought out the <i lang="fr">Mercure de France</i>, +projected in 1781 the important <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie +Méthodique</i>, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the +<i lang="fr">Moniteur</i>, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.</p> +<p><b>Pantano</b> (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the +Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Papillon</b> (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. +Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote an <i>Introduction to Chemical +Philosophy</i>, ’65; contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue de +Philosophie Positive</i> and the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux +Mondes</i>. His <span class="corr" id="xd20e13867" title= +"Source: principle">principal</span> work is entitled <i>Nature and +Life</i>, ’73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.</p> +<p id="paquet"><b>Paquet</b> (Henri Remi René), French writer, +b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went +to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his main +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13877" href="#xd20e13877" name= +"xd20e13877">249</a>]</span>attention to literature. Under the anagram +of “Nérée Quépat” he has published +<i lang="fr">La Lorgnette Philosophique</i>, ’72<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e13882" title="Source: .">,</span> a dictionary of the +great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie +entitled <i>Materialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century</i> and +other works.</p> +<p><b>Pare</b> (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. +Birmingham<span class="corr" id="xd20e13892" title= +"Not in source">,</span> <span class="corr" id="xd20e13895" title= +"Not in source">11 Aug.</span> 1805. Wrote an abridgment of +Thompson’s <i>Distribution of Wealth</i>, also works on +<i>Capital and Labor</i> ’54, <i>Co-operative Agriculture</i>, at +Rahaline, ’70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the <i>Biography of +Robert Owen</i>. Died at Croydon, 18 June<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e13911" title="Source: .">,</span> 1873.</p> +<p id="parfaitn"><b>Parfait</b> (Noel), French writer and politician, +b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of ’30, +and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d’état he +took refuge in Belgium. In ’71 was elected deputy and sat on the +extreme left.</p> +<p><b>Parfait</b> (Paul), son of the <a href="#parfaitn">foregoing</a>, +b. Paris, 1841. Author of <i lang="fr">L’Arsenal de la +Dévotion</i>, ’76, Notes to serve for a history of +superstition, and a supplement <i lang="fr">Le Dossier des +Pélerinages</i>, ’77, and other pieces. Died 1881.</p> +<p><b>Parisot</b> (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote <i lang= +"fr">La Foy <span class="corr" id="xd20e13938" title= +"Source: de voilée">devoilée</span> par la raison</i>, +1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have +occasioned its suppression.</p> +<p><b>Parker</b> (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., +24 Aug. 1810. From his father—a Unitarian—he inherited +independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in +poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while +laboring on the farm. In March, ’31, he became an assistant +teacher at Boston. In June, ’37, he was ordained Unitarian +minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of +the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the +Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a +hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. His <i>Discourse +on Matters Pertaining to Religion</i>, ’47, exhibited his +fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette’s Critical +Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive +Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in ’59 +failing health compelled him to relinquish his <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e13949" href="#xd20e13949" name= +"xd20e13949">250</a>]</span>duties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He +bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public +Library.</p> +<p><b>Parmenides</b>, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Is said to have been a disciple of +Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470 <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> in a didactic poem <i>On Nature</i>, fragments of +which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our +guide, and considered nature eternal.</p> +<p><b>Parny</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e13968" title= +"Source: Evariste">Évariste</span> Désiré +<span class="sc">de Forges</span> de), <i>Viscount</i>. French poet, b. +St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose +the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired +his “Amatory Poems,” and he afterwards wrote the audacious +<i>War of the Gods</i>, <i>Paradise Lost</i>, and <i>The Gallantries of +the Bible</i>. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and +he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French +Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.</p> +<p><b>Parton</b> (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. +Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York. +He married Miss Willis, “Fannie Fern,” and has written many +biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, ’74, and of +Voltaire, ’81. He has also written on <i>Topics of the Time</i>, +’71, and <i>Church Taxation</i>. He resided in New York till +’75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.</p> +<p><b>Parvish</b> (Samuel), Deistic author of <i>An Inquiry into the +Jewish and Christian Revelation</i> (London, 1739), of which a second +edition was issued in 1746.</p> +<p><b>Pasquier</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e14008" title= +"Source: Etienne">Étienne</span>). French journalist, b. 7 +April, 1529, at Paris<span class="corr" id="xd20e14011" title= +"Source: ,">.</span> Brought up to the bar he became a successful +pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also +attacked in a bitter satire, <i lang="fr">Catéchisme des +<span class="corr" id="xd20e14016" title= +"Source: Jesuites">Jésuites</span></i>. Died Paris, 30 Aug. +1615.</p> +<p id="passerano"><b>Passerano</b> (Alberto <span class= +"sc">Radicati</span> di) <i>count</i>. Italian philosopher of last +century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some +pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the +Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the +acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died +about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at +Rotterdam <i lang="fr">Recueil de Pièces <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14031" href="#xd20e14031" name= +"xd20e14031">251</a>]</span>curieuses sur les matieres les plus +íntéressantes</i>, etc., which contains a <i>Parallel +between Mahomet and Sosem</i> (anagram of Moses), <i>an abridged +history of the Sacerdotal Profession</i>, and a <i>Faithful and comic +recital of the religion of modern cannibals</i>, by Zelin Moslem; also +a <i>Dissertation upon Death</i>, which was published separately in +1733. The <i>Recueil</i> was republished at London in 1749. He also +wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, +satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.</p> +<p><b>Pasteur</b> (Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, +became doctor in ’47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in +’48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in +’56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry. +Decorated with the Legion of honor in ’53, he was made commander +’68 and grand officer ’78. His researches into innoculation +have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large +institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the +Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name as +Vice-President of the British Secular Union.</p> +<p><b>Pastoret</b> (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), <i>Marquis</i>, +French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. +1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an +<i>Elege de Voltaire</i>. By his works on <i>Zoroaster, Confucius and +Mahomet</i> (1787) and on <i>Moses Considered as Legislator and +Moralist</i> (1788) he did something for the infant science of +comparative religion. His principal work is a learned <i>History of +Legislation</i>, in 11 vols. (1817–37), in which he passes in +review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became +President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the +erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the +conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On +the 19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation +of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as +deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the +French Academy, in ’23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor, +and in ’29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. +1840.</p> +<p><b>Pater</b> (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14078" href="#xd20e14078" name= +"xd20e14078">252</a>]</span>1839. B.A. at Oxford in ’62, M.A. in +’65. Has written charming essays in the <i>Westminster +Review</i>, <i>Macmillan</i>, and the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>. In +’73 he published <i>The Renaissance</i>, and in ’85 +<i>Marius the Epicurean, His Sensations and Ideas</i>.</p> +<p><b>Paterson</b> (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. +After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the +<i>Oracle of Reason</i>. For exhibiting profane placards he was +arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months’ +imprisonment. His trial was reported under the title <i>God</i> v. +<i>Paterson</i> (’43.) He insisted on considering God as the +plaintiff and in quoting from “the Jew book” to show the +plaintiff’s bad character. When released he went to Scotland to +uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. +’43 to fifteen months’ imprisonment for selling +“blasphemous” publications at Edinburgh. On his release he +was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington +presiding. Paterson went to America.</p> +<p><b>Patin</b> (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near +Beauvais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. +His reputation is chiefly founded on his <i>Letters</i>, in which he +attacked superstition. Larousse says “<span lang= +"fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e14117" title= +"Source: C’etait">C’était</span> un libre penseur de +la famille de Rabelais.</span>” Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.</p> +<p><b>Patot</b>. See <a href="#tyssotdepatot">Tyssot de Patot +(S.)</a></p> +<p><b>Pauw</b> (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. +He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the +Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for +his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the +uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.</p> +<p><b>Peacock</b> (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He +wrote many poems in the <i>National Reformer</i>, and in ’67 +published <i>Hours of Reverie</i>. Died 4 May, 1877.</p> +<p><b>Peacock</b> or <b>Pecock</b> (Reginald), the father of English +rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of +which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St +Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good +Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be +accommodated to “the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14149" +href="#xd20e14149" name="xd20e14149">253</a>]</span>doom of +reason.” He questioned the genuineness of the Apostles’ +Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of +martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery +at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him,</p> +<div class="lgouter"> +<p class="line">“Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan,</p> +<p class="line">How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man.”</p> +</div> +<p class="firstpar">His books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in +1460. His influence doubtless contributed to the Reformation.</p> +<p><b>Pearson</b> (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled <i>The +Ethic of Freethought</i>, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. ’79, +M.A. ’82.</p> +<p><b>Pechmeja</b> (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he +wrote a socialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, +called Télèphe, 1784. Died 1785.</p> +<p><b>Peck</b> (John), American writer in the <i>Truthseeker</i>. Has +published <i>Miracles and Miracle Workers</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Pecqueur</b> (A.), contributor to the <i lang= +"fr">Rationaliste</i> of Geneva, 1864.</p> +<p><b>Pelin</b> (Gabriel), French author of works on <i>Spiritism +Explained and Destroyed</i>, 1864, and <i>God or Science</i>, +’67.</p> +<p><b>Pelletan</b> (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son +of the following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lycée +Louis le Grand. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La Tribune +Française</i>, and <i lang="fr">Le Rappel</i>, and since +’80 has conducted <i lang="fr">La Justice</i> with his friend +Clémenceau, of whom he has written a sketch.</p> +<p><b>Pelletan</b> (Pierre Clement Eugène), French writer, b. +Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in +<i lang="fr">La Presse</i>, under the name of “Un Inconnu,” +articles distinguished by their love of liberty and progress. He also +contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>. In ’52 +he published his <i>Profession of Faith of the Nineteenth Century</i>, +and in ’57 <i>The Law of Progress</i> and <i>The Philosophical +Kings</i>. From ’53–’55 he opposed Napoleon in the +Siècle, and afterwards established <i lang="fr">La Tribune +Française</i>. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e14233" title= +"Source: ’83">’63</span> he was elected deputy, but his +election being annulled, he was re-elected in ’64. He took +distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After the battle of +Sedan he was made member of the Committee of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14236" href="#xd20e14236" name= +"xd20e14236">254</a>]</span>National Defence, and in ’76 of the +Senate, of which he became vice-president in ’79. In ’78 he +wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled <i lang="fr">Un Roi +Philosophe</i>, and in ’83 <i>Is God Dead?</i> Died at Paris, 14 +Dec. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Pemberton</b> (Charles Reece). English actor and author, b. +Pontypool, S. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world +and wrote <i>The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice</i>, which with other +remains was published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.</p> +<p><b>Pennetier</b> (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the +Museum of Natural History at Rouen. Author of a work on the +<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e14256" title= +"Source: Orgin">Origin</span> of Life</i>, ’68, in which he +contends for spontaneous generation. To this work F. A. Pouchet +contributed a preface.</p> +<p><b>Perfitt</b> (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the +<i>Pathfinder</i>, ’59–61. Preached at South Place Chapel. +Wrote <i>Life and Teachings of Jesus of Nazareth</i>, ’61.</p> +<p><b>Periers</b> (Bonaventure des). See <a href= +"#desperiers">Desperiers</a>.</p> +<p><b>Perot</b> (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on +<i>Man and God</i>, which has been translated into English, 1881, and +<i>Moral and Philosophical Allegories</i> (Paris, 1883).</p> +<p><b>Perrier</b> (Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of +Natural History, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on +Natural History, and one on <i>Transformisme</i>, ’88.</p> +<p><b>Perrin</b> (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on +<i>The Religion of Philosophy</i>, or the Unification of Knowledge: a +comparison of the chief philosophical and religious systems of the +world, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Perry</b> (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile’s shopmen, +sentenced 1824 to three years’ imprisonment in Newgate for +selling Palmer’s <i>Principles of Nature</i>. He became a chemist +at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned Parliament for the prisoners for +blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe, stating that his own imprisonment had +not fulfilled the judge’s hope of his recantation.</p> +<p><b>Petit</b> (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de +Grève in 1665 as the author of some impious pieces.</p> +<p><b>Petronius</b>, called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at +the Court of Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his +veins and bled to death in <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 66, conversing +meanwhile <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14320" href="#xd20e14320" +name="xd20e14320">255</a>]</span>with his friends on the gossip of the +day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning “Primus +in orbe Deos fecit timor.” Petronius is famous for his +“pure Latinity.” He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with +the same excuse, his romance being a satire on Nero and his court.</p> +<p id="petruccellidellagattina"><b>Petruccelli della Gattina</b> +(Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples, 1816, has travelled much and +written many works. He was deputy to the Naples Parliament in +’48, and exiled after the reaction.</p> +<p id="petrusdeabano"><b>Petrus de Abano.</b> A learned Italian +physician, b. Abano 1250. He studied at Paris and became professor of +medicine at Padua. He wrote many works and had a great reputation. He +is said to have denied the existence of spirits, and to have ascribed +all miracles to natural causes. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as +a heretic, a magician and an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was +acquitted. He was accused a second time but dying (1320) while the +trial was preparing, he was condemned after death, his body disinterred +and burnt, and he was also burnt in effigy in the public square of +Padua.</p> +<p><b>Peypers</b> (H. F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De <span class="corr" +id="xd20e14334" title="Source: Dijp">Rijp</span>, 2 Jan. 1856, studied +medicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and +good natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much to +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and is at present one of the five editors +of that Freethought monthly.</p> +<p><b>Peyrard</b> (François), French mathematician, b. Vial +(Haute Loire) 1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of +those who (7 Nov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An +intimate friend of Sylvian Maréchal, Peyrard furnished him with +notes for his <i>Dictionnaire des Athées</i>. He wrote a work on +<i>Nature and its Laws</i>, 1793–4, and proposed the piercing of +the Isthmus of Suez. He translated the works of Euclid and Archimedes. +Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.</p> +<p><b>Peyrat</b> (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. +He wrote in the <i>National</i> and <i>la Presse</i>, and combated +against the Second Empire. In ’65 he founded <i>l’Avenir +National</i>, which was several times condemned. In Feb. ’71, he +was elected deputy of the Seine, and proposed the proclamation of the +Republic. In ’76 he was chosen senator. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14363" href="#xd20e14363" name= +"xd20e14363">256</a>]</span>He wrote a History of the Dogma of the +Immaculate Conception, ’55; <i>History and Religion</i>, +’58; <i>Historical and Religious Studies</i>, ’58; and an +able and scholarly <i>Elementary and Critical History of Jesus</i>, +’64.</p> +<p><b>Peyrere</b> (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and +brought up as a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of +Condé, and became intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. +His work entitled <i>Præadamitæ</i>, 1653, in which he +maintained that men lived before Adam, made a great sensation, and was +burnt by the hangman at Paris. The bishop of Namur censured it, and la +Peyrère was arrested at Brussels, 1656, by order of the +Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of the Prince of +Condé on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The following +epitaph was nevertheless made on him:</p> +<div lang="fr" class="lgouter"> +<p class="line">La Peyrere ici gît, ce bon Israelite,</p> +<p class="line">Hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite:</p> +<p class="line">Quatre religions lui plurent à la fois:</p> +<p class="line xd20e14390">Et son indifférence était si +peu commune</p> +<p class="line">Qu’après 80 ans qu’il eut à +faire un choix</p> +<p class="line xd20e14390">Le bon homme partit, et n’en choisit +pas une.</p> +</div> +<p class="firstpar">Died near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.</p> +<p><b>Pfeiff</b> (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. +Editor of the free religious periodical, <i>The Truthseeker</i>, since +1882. He has also translated into Swedish some of the writings of +Herbert Spencer.</p> +<p><b>Pharmacopulo</b> (A.P.) Greek translator of Büchner’s +<i>Force and Matter</i>, and corresponding member of the International +Federation of Freethinkers.</p> +<p><b>Phillips</b> (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b. +London, 1767. He was hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher, +republican, Sheriff of London (1807–8), and Knight. He compiled +many schoolbooks, chiefly under pseudonyms, of which the most popular +were the Rev. J. Goldsmith and Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen +most in his <i>Million of Facts</i>. Died at Brighton 2 April, +1840.</p> +<p><b>Phillippo</b> (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near +Thetford, Norfolk. A deist who wrote an <i>Essay on Political and +Religious Meditations</i>, 1868. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e14426" href="#xd20e14426" name="xd20e14426">257</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Pi-y Margall</b> (Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican +statesman, b. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the +<i>Ruins</i> of Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has +written many political works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has +much admiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and +philosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with +Castelar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic, +being Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.</p> +<p><b>Pichard</b> (Prosper). French Positivist, author of <i>Doctrine +of Reality</i>, “a catechism for the use of people who do not pay +themselves with words,” to which Littré wrote a preface, +1873.</p> +<p><b>Pierson</b> (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 +April, 1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical +congregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor +at Heidelberg. He resigned his connection with the Church in ’64. +He has written many works of theological and literary value of which we +mention his <i>Poems</i> ’82, <i>New Studies on Calvin</i>, +’83, and <i>Verisimilia</i>, written in conjunction with S. A. +Naber, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Pigault-Lebrun</b> (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French +author, b. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of +Boulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and <i lang="fr">Le +Citateur</i>, 1803, a collection of objections to Christianity, +borrowed in part from Voltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 +Napoleon threatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It +was suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently +reprinted. Pigault-Lebrun<a id="xd20e14461" name="xd20e14461"></a> +became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon, and died at La +Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.</p> +<p><b>Pike</b> (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, +1826, wrote <i>My Religious Experience</i> and <i>What I found in the +Bible</i>, 1867.</p> +<p><b>Pillsbury</b> (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22 +Sep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till ’35, when he entered +Gilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in ’38<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e14478" title="Not in source">,</span> studied a year at +Andover, was congregational minister for one <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14481" href="#xd20e14481" name= +"xd20e14481">258</a>]</span>year, and then, perceiving the churches +were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the ministry. He became an +abolitionist lecturer, edited the <i>Herald of Freedom</i>, <i>National +Anti-Slavery Standard</i>, and the <i>Revolution</i>. He also preached +for free religious societies, wrote <i>Pious Frauds</i>, and +contributed to the <i>Boston Investigator</i> and +<i>Freethinkers’ Magazine</i>. His principal work is <i>Acts of +the Anti-Slavery Apostles</i>, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Piron</b> (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. +His pieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of +his profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being +drunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even +deity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried +by his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written +parodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book +in the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered +“Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin.” Died at Paris, 21 +Jan. 1773.</p> +<p><b>Pisarev</b> (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and +materialist, b. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the +Scholastics of the nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July +1868. His works are published in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.</p> +<p><b>Pitt</b> (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English +statesman and orator, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. <span class="corr" +id="xd20e14517" title="Source: 1808">1708</span>. The services to his +country of “the Great Commoner,” as he was called, are well +known, but it is not so generally recognised that his <i>Letter on +Superstition</i>, first printed in the <i>London Journal</i> in 1733, +entitles him to be ranked with the Deists. He says that “the more +superstitious people are, always the more vicious; and the more they +<i>believe</i>, the less they practice.” Atheism furnishes no man +with arguments to be vicious; but superstition, or what the world made +by religion, is the greatest possible encouragement to vice, by setting +up something as religion, which shall atone and commute for the want of +virtue. This remarkable letter ends with the words “Remember that +the only true divinity is humanity.”</p> +<p><b>Place</b> (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 +at Charing Cross. He early became a member of the London, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14533" href="#xd20e14533" name= +"xd20e14533">259</a>]</span>Corresponding Society. He wrote to +Carlile’s <i>Republican</i> and <i>Lion</i>. A friend of T. +Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and +Hibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was +connected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left many +manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are now in +the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist—see +<i>Reasoner</i>, 26 March, ’54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan. +1854.</p> +<p><b>Platt</b> (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author +of popular works on <i>Business</i>, ’75; <i>Morality</i>, +’78; <i>Progress</i>, ’80; <i>Life</i>, ’81; <i>God +and Mammon</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Pliny</b> (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, +b. Verona, <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 22. He distinguished himself in +the army, was admitted into the college of Augurs, appointed procurator +in Spain, and honored with the esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote +the history of his own time in 31 books, now lost, and a +<i><span class="corr" id="xd20e14571" title= +"Source: National">Natural</span> History</i> in 37 books, one of the +most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean Atheism +appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. <span class= +"sc">A.D.</span> 79, he observed the <span class="corr" id="xd20e14578" +title="Source: erruption">eruption</span> of Mount Vesuvius, and +landing to assist the inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious +vapors.</p> +<p><b>Plumacher</b> (Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and +authoress of a work on <i>Pessimism in the Past and Future</i>, +Heidelberg, 1884. She has also defended her views in <i>Mind</i>.</p> +<p><b>Plumer</b> (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 +June, 1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on +account of scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the +Legislature eight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was +governor of New Hampshire, 1812–18, wrote to the press over the +signature “Cincinnatus,” and published an <i>Address to the +Clergy</i>, ’14. He lived till 22 June, 1850.</p> +<p><b>Plutarch</b>. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheronæa +in Bœtia, about <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 50. He visited +Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of Trajan. His <i>Parallel +Lives</i> of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made him immortal. He +wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works, including a +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14608" href="#xd20e14608" name= +"xd20e14608">260</a>]</span>treatise on Superstition. He condemned the +vulgar notions of Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds +popularly ascribed to the gods, that he would rather men said there was +no Plutarch than traduce his character. In other words, superstition is +more impious than Atheism. Died about <span class="sc">A.D.</span> +120.</p> +<p><b>Poe</b> (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe, +who figured in the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His +mother was an actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing +<i>Tamerlane and other Poems</i>, ’27, he enlisted in the United +States Army, but was cashiered in ’31. He then took to literary +employment in Baltimore and wrote many stories, collected as the +<i>Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor</i>. In ’45 appeared +<i>The Raven and other Poems</i>, which proved him the most musical and +dextrous of American poets. In ’48 he published <i>Eureka, a +Prose Poem</i>, which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed +his greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His +personal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not unlike +that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.</p> +<p><b>Poey</b> (Andrés), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of +French and Spanish descent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the <i>Modern +Thinker</i>, and is author of many scientific memoirs and a popular +exposition of Positivism (Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on +Darwinism and Comtism.</p> +<p><b>Pompery</b> (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A +follower of Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism, +’79, and a Life of Voltaire, ’80.</p> +<p><b>Pomponazzi</b> (Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher, +b. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua, where +he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was appointed +professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence with +Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at Ferrara +and Bologna. His treatise <i>De Immortalitate Animæ</i>, 1516, +gave great offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the +doctrine of the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the +hangman at Venice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo’s intercession +with Pope Leo X. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14648" href="#xd20e14648" name= +"xd20e14648">261</a>]</span>Among his works is a treatise on Fate, Free +Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive man, and was nicknamed +“Peretto.” He held that doubt was necessary for the +development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation for upright +conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525, and was buried +at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.</p> +<p id="ponnat"><b>Ponnat</b> (de), <i>Baron</i>, French writer, b. +about 1810. Educated by Jesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and +democrat and a friend of A. S. Morin, with whom he collaborated on the +<i>Rationaliste</i> of Geneva. He wrote many notable articles in <i>La +Libre Pensée</i>, <i>Le Critique</i>, and <i>Le Candide</i>, for +writing in which last he was sentenced to one year’s +imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan, <i>The +Cross or Death</i>, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the +Ecumenical Council at Rome (Brussels, ’62). His principal work is +a history of the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church +(Paris, ’82). Died in 1884.</p> +<p><b>Porphyry</b> (<span class="trans" title="Porphyrios"><span class= +"Greek" lang= +"el">Πορφύριος</span></span>), +Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia, 233 <span class= +"sc">A.D.</span> His original name was <span class="sc">Malchus</span> +or <span class="sc">Melech</span>—a “King.” He was a +pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that he was +of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards rejected +Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and intelligence; +the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote (in Greek) a +famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some fragments of +which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It is certain he +showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian writings, exposed +their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between Peter and Paul, +and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes. He wrote many +other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and Pythagorus. Died at +Rome about 305.</p> +<p><b>Porzio</b> (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when +lecturing at Pisa, the students cried “What of the soul?” +He frankly professed his belief that the human soul differed in no +essential point from the soul of a lion or plant, and that those who +thought otherwise were prompted by pity for our mean estate. These +assertions are in his treatise <i>De Mente Humanâ</i>. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14701" href="#xd20e14701" name= +"xd20e14701">262</a>]</span></p> +<p>“<b>Posos</b> (Juan de),” an undiscovered author using +this pen-name, expressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary +travels, published in Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into +German at Leipsic, 1721.</p> +<p><b>Post</b> (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From ’28 she +was a leading advocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman’s +suffrage and religious reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan. +1889.</p> +<p><b>Potter</b> (Agathon Louis de<span class="corr" id="xd20e14715" +title="Source: .)">).</span> See <a href="#depotteral">De Potter (A. +L.)</a></p> +<p><b>Potter</b> (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See <a href= +"#depotterlaj">De Potter (L. A. J.)</a></p> +<p id="potvin"><b>Potvin</b> (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. +1818, is member of the Royal Academy of Letters, and professor of the +history of literature at Brussels. He wrote anonymously <i lang= +"fr">Poesie et Amour</i> ’58, and <i>Rome and the Family</i>. +Under the name of “Dom Jacobus” he has written an able work +in two volumes on <i>The Church and Morality</i>, and also <i>Tablets +of a Freethinker</i>. He was president of “<span lang="fr">La +Libre Pensée</span>” of Brussels from ’78 to +’83, is director of the <span lang="fr">Revue de Belgique</span> +and has collaborated on the <i lang="fr">National</i> and other +papers.</p> +<p><b>Pouchet</b> (Felix Archimède), French naturalist, b. Rouen +26 Aug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author +of <i>Mme. Bovary</i>, and became doctor in ’27. He was made +professor of natural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his +experiments enriched science with many discoveries. He defended +spontaneous generation and wrote many monographs and books of which the +principal is entitled <i>The Universe</i>, ’65. Died at Rouen, 6 +Dec. 1872.</p> +<p><b>Pouchet</b> (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the +proceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in ’64, and in ’79 +professor of comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at +Paris. In ’80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has +written on <i>The Plurality of the Human Race</i>, ’58, and +collaborated on the <i lang="fr">Siècle</i>, and the <i lang= +"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> and to <i lang="fr">la Philosophie +Positive</i>.</p> +<p><b>Pouchkine</b> (A.), see <a href="#pushkin">Pushkin</a>.</p> +<p><b>Pougens</b> (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural +son of the Prince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 +he was blinded by small pox. He became an intimate <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14792" href="#xd20e14792" name= +"xd20e14792">263</a>]</span>friend of the philosophers, and, sharing +their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though it ruined his +fortunes. He wrote <i>Philosophical Researches</i>, 1786, edited the +posthumous works of D’Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary +of the French language. His <i>Jocko</i>, a tale of a monkey, exhibits +his keen sympathy with animal intelligence, and in his <i>Philosophical +Letters</i>, 1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, +D’Alembert, Pechmeja, Franklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near +Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.</p> +<p><b>Poulin</b> (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of +<i>What is God? What is Man?</i> a scientific solution of the religious +problem (Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as <i>God According to +Science</i>, ’75, in which he maintains that man and God exclude +each other, and that the only divinity is moral harmony.</p> +<p><b>Poultier D’Elmolte</b> (François Martin), b. +Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31 Oct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast +aside his frock at the Revolution, married, and became chief of a +battalion of volunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the +death of the King. He conducted the journal, <i lang="fr">L’Ami +des lois</i>, and became one of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in +1816, he died at Tournay in Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote <i lang= +"fr">Morceaux Philosophiques</i> in the <i lang="fr">Journal +Encyclopédique</i>; <i lang="fr">Victoire</i>, or the +Confessions of a Benedictine; <i lang="fr">Discours +Décadaires</i>, for the use of Theophilantropists, and +<i>Conjectures on the Nature and Origin of Things</i>, Tournay, +1821.</p> +<p><b>Powell</b> (B. F.), compiler of the <i>Bible of Reason</i>, or +Scriptures of Ancient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.</p> +<p><b>Prades</b> (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. +Castel-Sarrasin, about 1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless +became intimate with Diderot and contributed the article <span class= +"sc">Certitude</span> to the Encyclopédie. On the 18th Nov. 1751 +he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the doctorate, remarkable as +the first open attack on Christianity by a French theologian. He +maintained many propositions on the soul, the origin of society, the +laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary to the dogmas of the Church, +and compared the cures recorded in the Gospels to those attributed to +Esculapius. The thesis made a great scandal. His opinions were +condemned by Pope <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14850" href= +"#xd20e14850" name="xd20e14850">264</a>]</span>Benedict XIV., and he +fled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by +d’Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became +reader to that monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de +Prades’ work on ecclesiastical history, published as <i lang= +"fr">Abrége de l’Histoire ecclesiastique de Fleury</i>, +Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice at Glogau (Silesia), +given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.</p> +<p><b>Prater</b> (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted +himself to the propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the +century, he wrote on the <i>Physiology of the Blood</i>, 1832. He +published <i>Letters to the American People</i>, and <i>Literary +Essays</i>, ’56. Died 20 July, 1885. He left the bulk of his +money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep wound to be made in his +arm to insure that he was dead.</p> +<p><b>Preda</b> (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on +<i>Revelation and Reason</i>, published at Geneva, 1865, under the +pseudonym of “Padre Pietro.”</p> +<p id="premontval"><b>Premontval</b> (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French +writer, b. Charenton, 16 Feb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in +the college of Plessis Sorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma +of the Eucharist. He studied mathematics and became member of the +Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He wrote <i lang="fr">Le Diogene de +D’Alembert</i>, or Freethoughts on Man, 1754, <i>Panangiana +Panurgica</i>, or the false Evangelist, and <i lang="fr">Vues +Philosophiques</i>, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote <i lang="fr">De +la Théologie de L’Etre</i>, in which he denies many of the +ordinary proofs of the existence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.</p> +<p><b>Priestley</b> (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, +near Leeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way +to broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the +doctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to +his edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the +sentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in his +<i>Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit</i>, 1777. Through the obloquy +these works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord +Shelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of an +independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14899" href="#xd20e14899" name= +"xd20e14899">265</a>]</span><i>History of the Corruptions of +Christianity</i> and <i>History of the Early Opinions Concerning Jesus +Christ</i>, which involved him in controversy with Bishop Horsley and +others. In consequence of his sympathy with the French Revolution, his +house was burnt and sacked in a riot, 14 July, 1791. After this he +removed to Hackney, and was finally goaded to seek an asylum in the +United States, which he reached in 1794. Even in America he endured +some uneasiness on account of his opinions until Jefferson became +president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.</p> +<p><b>Pringle</b> (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of <i>Ingersoll +in Canada</i>, 1880.</p> +<p><b>Proctor</b> (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 +March, 1837. Educated at King’s College, London, and at St. +John’s, Cambridge, where he became B.A. in ’60. In +’66 he became Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which +he afterwards became hon. sec. He maintained in ’69 the +since-established theory of the solar corona. He wrote, lectured, and +edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty volumes, chiefly +popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for a while a +Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and science, and +in a letter to the <i>New York Tribune</i>, Nov. ’75, formally +renounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His +remarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in <i>The Universe of Suns, +and other Science Gleanings</i>, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his +heresy. In ’81 he started <i>Knowledge</i>, in which appeared +many valuable papers, notably one (Jan. ’87), “The +Beginning of Christianity.” He entirely rejected the miraculous +elements of the gospels, which he considered largely a +<i>rechauffé</i> of solar myths. In other articles in the +<i>Freethinkers’ Magazine</i> and the <i>Open Court</i> he +pointed out the coincidence between the Christian stories and solar +myths, and also with stories found in Josephus. The very last article +he published before his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel +Ingersoll in his controversy with Gladstone in the <i>North American +Review</i>. In ’84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he +contracted yellow fever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.</p> +<p><b>Proudhon</b> (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political +thinker, b. Besançon, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14943" href="#xd20e14943" name= +"xd20e14943">266</a>]</span>printer, and won a prize of 1,500 francs +for the person “best fitted for a literary or scientific +career.” In ’40 appears his memoir, What is Property? in +which he made the celebrated answer “<i lang="fr">C’est le +vol.</i>” In ’43 the <i>Creation of Order in Humanity</i> +appeared, treating of religion, philosophy and logic. In ’46 he +published his <i>System of Economical Contradictions</i>, in which +appeared his famous aphorism, “<i lang="fr">Dieu, c’est le +mal.</i>” In ’48 he introduced his scheme of the +organisation of credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though +Proudhon saw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte +when President, and was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment +and a fine of 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. ’50 he married by private +contract while in prison. For his work on <i>Justice in the Revolution +and in the Church</i> he was condemned to three years’ +imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in ’58. He took refuge in +Belgium and returned in ’63. Died at Passy, 19 Jan. 1865. Among +his posthumous works was <i>The Gospels Annotated</i>, ’66. +Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations, but he +lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works have +been published in 26 vols.</p> +<p><b>Protagoras</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> Is said to have been a disciple of +Democritus, and to have been a porter before he studied philosophy. He +was the first to call himself a sophist. He wrote in a book on the +gods, “Respecting the gods, I am unable to know whether they +exist or do not exist.” For this he was impeached and banished, +and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek Islands, and died +about 411. He believed all things were in flux, and summed up his +conclusions in the proposition that “man is the measure of all +things, both of that which exists and that which does not exist.” +Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy “had the +merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative nature +of cognition.”</p> +<p><b>Prudhomme</b> (Sully). See <a href="#sullyprudhomme">Sully +Prudhomme</a>.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e14980" title= +"Source: Pueckler Muskau">Pückler Muskau</span></b> (Hermann +Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer, b. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He +travelled widely and wrote his observations in a work entitled +<i>Letters of a Defunct</i>, 1830; this was followed by <i lang= +"it">Tutti Frutti</i>, ’32; <i>Semilasso in Africa</i>, +’36, and other works. Died 4 Feb. 1871. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e14992" href="#xd20e14992" name= +"xd20e14992">267</a>]</span></p> +<p id="pushkin"><b>Pushkin</b> (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian +poet, often called the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From +youth he was remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, +which circulated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny’s +<i lang="fr">Guerre des Dieux</i>, and entitled the Gabrielade, the +archangel being the hero. He was exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired +largely by reading Voltaire and Byron, put forward numerous poems and +romances, of which the most popular is Eugene Onéguine, an +imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote some histories and founded the +<i>Sovremennik</i> (Contemporary), 1836. In Jan. 1837 he was mortally +wounded in a duel.</p> +<p><b>Putnam</b> (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up +as a minister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became +secretary to the American Secular Union, of which he was elected +president in Oct. 1887. In ’88 he started <i>Freethought</i> at +San Francisco in company with G. Macdonald. Has written poems, +<i>Prometheus</i>, <i>Ingersoll and Jesus</i>, <i>Adami and Heva</i>; +romances entitled <i>Golden Throne</i>, <i>Waifs and Wanderings</i>, +and <i>Gottlieb</i>, and pamphlets on the <i>Problem of the +Universe</i>, <i>The New God</i>, and <i>The Glory of +Infidelity</i>.</p> +<p><b>Putsage</b> (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of +the Colins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on <i>Determinism +and Rational Science</i>, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in +<i lang="fr">La Philosophie de L’Avenir</i> of Paris and <i lang= +"fr">La Societe Nouvelle</i> of Brussels.</p> +<p><b>Pyat</b> (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, +4 Oct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college +at Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and +Courier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in +many papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as <i>The Rag-picker of +Paris</i>, ’47. After ’52 he lived in England, where he +wrote an apology for the attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, +’58. In ’71 he founded the journal <i lang="fr">le +Combat</i>. Elected to the National Assembly he protested against the +treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and condemned to death +in ’73. He returned to France after the armistice, and has sat as +deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice, 3 Aug. 1889.</p> +<p><b>Pyrrho</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15066" title= +"Source: Πυρρον"><span class="trans" +title="Pyrrōn"><span class="Greek" lang= +"el">Πύρρων</span></span></span>). Greek +philosopher, a native of Elis, in <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e15075" href="#xd20e15075" name= +"xd20e15075">268</a>]</span>Peloponesus, founder of a sceptical school +about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been attracted to +philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself to +Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great, +and became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian +Gymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all +things, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his +equanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept +house with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He +reached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians +honored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his +school, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus and +Empiricus.</p> +<p><b>Quental.</b> See <a href="#antherodequental">Anthero de +Quental</a>.</p> +<p>“<b>Quepat</b> (Nérée.”) See <a href= +"#paquet">Paquet (René<span class="corr" id="xd20e15091" title= +"Source: .)">).</span></a></p> +<p><b>Quesnay</b> (François), French economist, b. Mérey, +4 June 1694. Self educated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted +for his <i>Tableau Economique</i>, 1708, and his doctrine of <i>Laissez +Faire</i>. He derived moral and social rules from physical laws. Died +Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.</p> +<p><b>Quinet</b> (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. +1803. He attracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of +Herder’s <i>The Philosophy of History</i>. With his friend +Michelet he made many attacks on Catholicism, the <i>Jesuits</i> being +their joint work. He fought in the Revolution of ’48, and opposed +the Second Empire. His work on <i>The Genius of Religion</i>, +’42, is profound, though mystical, and his historical work on +<i>The Revolution</i>, ’65 is a masterpiece. Died at Versailles, +27 March, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Quintin</b> (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of +the Libertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in +1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and +burnt at Tournay in 1530.</p> +<p><b>Quris</b> (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published +some works on law and <i>La Défense Catholique et la +Critique</i>, Paris, 1864.</p> +<p><b>Rabelais</b> (François), famous and witty French satirist +and philosopher, b. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15135" href="#xd20e15135" name= +"xd20e15135">269</a>]</span>age he joined the order of Franciscans, but +finding monastic life incompatible with his genial temper, quitted the +convent without the leave of his superior. He studied medicine at +Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised at Lyons. His great +humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was denounced as +heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their order but +their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was appointed +curé of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings show +surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, “Beyond a doubt +he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his +age.”</p> +<p><b>Radenhausen</b> (Christian), German philosopher, b. +Friedrichstadt, 3 Dec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a +lithographer, he resided at Hamburg, where he published <i>Isis</i>, +Mankind and the World (4 vols.), ’70–72; <i>Osiris</i>, +’74; <i>The New Faith</i>, ’77; <i>Christianity is +Heathenism</i>, ’81; <i>The True Bible and the False</i>, +’87; <i>Esther</i>, ’87.</p> +<p><b>Radicati</b> (Alberto di), <i>Count</i>. See <a href= +"#passerano">Passerano</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ragon</b> (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, +1781. By profession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of +Bureau to the Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on +Freemasonry, and <i>The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the +Ancient Mysteries</i>, 1844. Died at Paris, 1862.</p> +<p><b>Ram</b> (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the +seventeenth century, who was accused of Atheism.</p> +<p><b>Ramaer</b> (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East +Friesland, 2 Aug. 1812. From ’29 he served as officer in the +Dutch army. He afterwards became a tax collector, and in ’60 was +pensioned. He wrote on Schopenhauer and other able works, and also +contributed largely to <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, often under the +pseudonym of “Laçhmé.” He had a noble mind +and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16 Feb. +1867.</p> +<p><b>Ramee</b> (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French +extraction, Bury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of +“Ouida,” a little sister’s mispronunciation of +Louisa, she has published many popular novels, exhibiting her free and +pessimistic opinions. We mention <i>Tricotin</i>, <i>Folle Farine</i>, +<i>Signa</i>, <i>Moths</i> and <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e15205" href="#xd20e15205" name="xd20e15205">270</a>]</span><i>A +Village Commune</i>. She has lived much in Italy, where the scenes of +several novels are placed.</p> +<p><b>Ramee</b> (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth +(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused +of impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the +massacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.</p> +<p><b>Ramsey</b> (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a +Freethinker early in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall +of Science and became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. +Starting in business for himself he published the <i>Freethinker</i>, +for which in ’82 he was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. +Tried in March ’83, after a good defence, he was sentenced to +nine months’ imprisonment, and on Mr. Foote’s release acted +as printer of the paper.</p> +<p><b>Ranc</b> (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. +1831, and was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. +He took the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and +studied law at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the +Second Empire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He +collaborated on <i>La Marseillaise</i>, was elected on the Municipal +Council of Paris in ’71, and Deputy, ’73. Has written +<i>Under the Empire</i> and many other political works.</p> +<p><b>Randello</b> (Cosimo), <span class="corr" id="xd20e15235" title= +"Source: Italia">Italian</span> author of <i>The Simple Story of a +Great Fraud</i>, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, +directed against Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Rapisardi</b> (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. +Has translated Lucretius, ’80, and published poems on +<i>Lucifer</i>, and <i>The Last Prayer of Pius IX.</i>, ’71, +etc.</p> +<p><b>Raspail</b> (François Vincent), French chemist and +politician b. Carpentras 24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics +and intended for the Church. He became, while quite young, professor of +philosophy at the theological seminary of Avignon but an examination of +theological dogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from +1815–24 gave lessons, and afterwards became a scientific +lecturer. He took part in the Revolution of ’30. Louis Philippe +offered him the Legion of Honor but he refused. Taking part in all the +revolutionary outbreaks <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15255" href= +"#xd20e15255" name="xd20e15255">271</a>]</span>he was frequently +imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in ’69 and sat on the extreme +left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Rau</b> (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. +He studied theology and became preacher to free congregations in +Stuttgart and Mannheim. He wrote <i>Gospel of Nature</i>, <i>A +Catechism of the Religion of the Future</i>, and other works. Died +Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Rawson</b> (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author, +b. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and +art, he made four visits to the East, and made in ’51–2 a +pilgrimage from Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of +medicine. He has published many maps and typographical and philological +works, and illustrated Beecher’s <i>Life of Jesus</i>. Has also +written on the <i>Antiquities of the Orient</i>, New York, ’70, +and Chorography of Palestine, London, ’80. Has written in the +<i>Freethinkers’ Magazine</i>, maintaining that the Bible account +of the twelve tribes of Israel is non-historical.</p> +<p><b>Raynal</b> (Guillaume Thomas François) <i><span class= +"corr" id="xd20e15286" title= +"Source: l’abbe">l’abbé</span></i>, French historian +and philosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as +a priest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris, +1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With the +assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a +philosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies (4 +vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious and +political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was censured +by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May, 1781. +Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near Paris, 6 +March, 1796.</p> +<p><b>Reade</b> (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew +of Charles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland, +26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart of +Africa, and wrote <i>Savage Africa</i>, <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e15296" title="Not in source">’</span>63, <i>The African +Sketch Book</i>, and in ’73, <i>The Story of the Ashantee +Campaign</i>; which he accompanied as <i>Times</i> correspondent. In +the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e15310" title= +"Source: Martrydom">Martyrdom</span> of Man</i> (’72), he rejects +the doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions +and is still worth reading. He also wrote <i>Liberty Hall</i>, a novel, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e15317" title= +"Not in source">’</span>60; <i>The <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e15322" href="#xd20e15322" name="xd20e15322">272</a>]</span>Veil +of Isis</i>, ’61, and <i>See Saw</i>, a novel, ’65. He +wrote his last work <i>The Outcast</i>, a Freethought novel, with the +hand of death upon him. Died 24 April, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Reber</b> (George), American author of <i>The Christ of Paul</i>, +or the Enigmas of Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he +exposes the frauds and follies of the early fathers.</p> +<p><b>Reclus</b> (Jean Jacques Elisée), French geographer and +socialist, the son of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande +(Gironde), 15 March, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and +afterwards at Berlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for +liberty, and left France after the <i lang="fr">coup +d’état</i> of 2 Dec. ’51, and travelled till +’57 in England, Ireland, and the North and South America, +devoting himself to studying the social and political as well as +physical condition of the countries he visited, the results being +published in the <i lang="fr">Tour du monde</i>, and <i lang="fr">Revue +des Deux Mondes</i>, in which he upheld the cause of the North during +the American war. In ’71 he supported the Commune and was taken +prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent men in +England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted to +banishment. At the amnesty of March ’79, he returned to Paris, +and has devoted himself to the publication of a standard <i>Universal +Geography</i> in 13 vols. In ’82 he gave two of his daughters in +marriage without either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a +preface to Bakounin’s <i>God and the State</i>, and many other +works.</p> +<p><b>Reddalls</b> (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham, +Nov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham <i>Daily Post</i>, +but wishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for +himself, and issued the <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, ’73, which was +contributed to by Francis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He +died 13 Oct. 1875.</p> +<p><b>Reghillini de Schio</b> (M.), Professor of Chemistry and +Mathematics, b. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in +French an able exposition of <i>Masonry</i>, 1833, which he traced to +Egypt; and an <i>Examination of Mosaism and Christianity</i>, +’34. He was mixed in the troubles of Venice in ’48, and +fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at Brussels Aug. 1853. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15377" href="#xd20e15377" name= +"xd20e15377">273</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Regnard</b> (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. +Lachante (Nièvre), 20 March, 1836, author of <i lang="fr">Essais +d’Histoire et de Critique Scientifique</i> (Paris, +’65)—a work for which he could find no publisher, and had +to issue himself—in which he proclaimed scientific materialism. +Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet and Clemenceau, the +<i lang="fr">Revue Encyclopédique</i>, which being suppressed on +its first number, he started <i lang="fr">La Libre Pensée</i> +with Asseline, Condereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him +and Eudes a condemnation of four months’ imprisonment. He wrote +<i>New Researches on Cerebral Congestion</i>, ’68, and was one of +the French delegates to the anti-Council of Naples, ’69. Has +published <i>Atheism</i>, studies of political science, dated Londres, +’78; a <i>History of England since 1815</i>; and has translated +Büchner’s <i>Force and Matter</i>, ’84. He was +delegate to the Freethinkers’ International Congress at Antwerp, +’85.</p> +<p><b>Regnard</b> (Jean François), French comic poet, b. Paris. +8 Feb. 1655. He went to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was +captured by an Algerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an +intrigue with one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The +French consul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He +wrote a number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a +treasurer of France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.</p> +<p><b>Regnier</b> (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21 +Dec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for +its austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained a +canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22 Oct. +1613.</p> +<p><b>Reich</b> (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of +Sclav descent on his father’s side, b. Olmütz, 6 March 1839. +He studied at Jena and has travelled much, and published over thirty +volumes besides editing the <i>Athenæum</i> of Jena ’75, +and <i>Universities</i> of Grossenbain, ’83. Of his works we +mention <i>Man and the Soul</i>, ’72; <i>The Church of +Humanity</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e15428" title= +"Not in source">’</span>74; <i>Life of Man as an Individual</i>, +’81; <i>History of the Soul</i>, ’84; <i>The Emancipation +of Women</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd20e15441" title= +"Not in source">’</span>84.</p> +<p><b>Reil</b> (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East +Friesland, 20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to +medicine; after practising some years in his native <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15448" href="#xd20e15448" name= +"xd20e15448">274</a>]</span>town he went in 1787 to Halle, and in 1810 +he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin University. He wrote many +medical works, and much advanced medical science, displacing the old +ideas in a way which brought on him the accusation of pantheism. +Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle he was attacked by the +malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.</p> +<p><b>Reimarus</b> (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22 +Dec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and +Wittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector +of the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of +the most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on +<i>The Principle Truths of Natural Religion</i>, 1754, and left behind +the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e15459" title= +"Source: Wolfenbültel">Wolfenbüttel</span> Fragments</i>, +published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg, 1 March, 1768. Strauss +has written an account of his services, 1862.</p> +<p><b>Reitzel</b> (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, +1849. Named after Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from +New York to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant +church. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker +of a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now +editor of <i lang="de">Der Arme Teufel</i> of Detroit, and says he +“shall be a poor man and a Revolutionaire all my life.”</p> +<p><b>Remsburg</b> (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. +Has written a series of pamphlets entitled <i>The Image Breaker, False +Claims of the Christian Church</i>, ’83, <i>Sabbath Breaking, +Thomas Paine</i>, and a vigorous onslaught on <i>Bible Morals</i>, +instancing twenty crimes and vices sanctioned by scripture, +’85.</p> +<p><b>Renan</b> (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. +Tréguier (Brittany) 27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church +and went to Paris to study. He became noted for his linguistic +attainment, but his studies and independence of thought did not accord +with his intended profession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by +metaphysics nor philosophy but by historical criticism. In ’45 he +gave up all thoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In +’48 he gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic +Languages, afterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In +’52 he published <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15487" href= +"#xd20e15487" name="xd20e15487">275</a>]</span>his work on +Averroës and Averroïsm. In ’56 was elected member of +the Academy of Inscriptions, and in ’60 sent on a mission to +Syria; having in the meantime published a translation of <i>Job</i> and +<i>Song of Songs</i>. Here he wrote his long contemplated <i lang= +"fr">Vie de Jesus</i>, ’63. In ’61 he had been appointed +Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of France, but denounced by +bishops and clergy he was deprived of his chair, which was, however, +restored in ’70. The Pope did not disdain to attack him +personally as a “French blasphemer.” The <i>Vie de +Jesus</i> is part of a comprehensive <i>History of the Origin of +Christianity</i>, in 8 vols., ’63–83, which includes <i>The +Apostles</i>, <i>St Paul</i>, <i>Anti-Christ</i>, <i>The Gospels</i>, +<i>The Christian Church</i>, and <i>Marcus Aurelius, and the end of the +Antique World</i>. Among his other works we must mention <i>Studies on +Religious History</i> (’58)<span class="corr" id="xd20e15527" +title="Source: .">,</span> <i>Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments</i> +(’76), <i>Spinoza</i> (’77), <i>Caliban</i>, a satirical +drama (’80), the Hibbert Lecture on the Influence of Rome on +Christians, <i>Souvenirs</i>, ’84; <i>New Studies of Religious +History</i>,’84; <i>The Abbess of Jouarre</i>, a drama which made +a great sensation in ’86; and <i>The History of the People of +Israel</i>, ’87–89.</p> +<p><b>Renand</b> (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled <i>Nouvelle +Symbolique</i>, on the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published +at Brussels in 1861.</p> +<p><b>Rengart</b> (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and +freethought friend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.</p> +<p><b>Renard</b> (Georges), French professor of the Academie of +Lausanne; author of <i>Man, is he Free?</i> 1881, and a <i>Life of +Voltaire</i>, ’83.</p> +<p><b>Renouvier</b> (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. +Montpellier, 1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical +philosophy. Among his works are <i>Manual of Ancient Philosophy</i> (2 +vols., ’44); <i>Republican Manual</i>, ’48; <i>Essays of +General Criticism</i>, ’54; <i>Science of Morals</i>, ’69; +a translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume’s <i>Psychology</i>, +’78; and <i>A Sketch of a Systematic Classification of +Philosophical Doctrines</i>, ’85.</p> +<p><b>Renton</b> (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. +Educated in Germany. Wrote poems entitled <i>Oil and Water Colors</i>, +and a work on <i>The Logic of Style</i>, ’74. At Keswick he +published <i>Jesus</i>, a psychological estimate of that hero, +’76. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15609" href="#xd20e15609" +name="xd20e15609">276</a>]</span>Has since published a romance of the +last generation called <i>Bishopspool</i>, ’83.</p> +<p><b>Rethore</b> (François), French professor of philosophy at +the Lyceum of Marseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled +<i>Condillac, or Empiricism and Rationalism</i>, ’64. Has +translated H. Spencer’s <i>Classification of Sciences</i>.</p> +<p><b>Reuschle</b> (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12 +Dec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, ’71, and Philosophy +and Natural Science, ’74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. +Strauss. Died at Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Revillon</b> (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and +deputy, b. Saint-Laurent-les Mâcon (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first +a lawyer in ’57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many +journals, and published many romances and brochures. In ’81 he +was elected deputy.</p> +<p><b>Rey</b> (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He +printed all the works of d’Holbach and Rousseau and some of +Voltaire’s, and conducted the <i lang="fr">Journal des +Savans</i>.</p> +<p><b>Reynaud</b> (Antoine Andre Louis), <i>Baron</i>, French +mathematician, b. Paris, 12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the +National Guard of Paris. He was teacher and examiner for about thirty +years in the Polytechnic School. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 +Feb. 1844.</p> +<p><b>Reynaud</b> (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. +1806. For a time he was a Saint Simonian. In ’36 he edited with +P. Leroux the <i lang="fr">Encyclopédie Nouvelle</i>. He was a +moderate Democrat in the Assembly of ’48. His chief work, +entitled <i>Earth and Heaven</i>, ’54, had great success. It was +formally condemned by a clerical council held at Périgueux. Died +Paris, 28 June, 1863.</p> +<p><b>Reynolds</b> (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was +brought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher, but +was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy at +Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by Col. +Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was a paltry +fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, +<i>Truthseeker</i>, and <i>Ironclad Age</i>. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15670" href="#xd20e15670" name= +"xd20e15670">277</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Reynolds</b> (George William MacArthur), English writer; author +of many novels. Wrote <i>Errors of the Christian Religion</i>, +1832.</p> +<p><b>Rialle</b> (J. <span class="sc">Girard</span> de), French +anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La +Pensée Nouvelle</i>, conducted the <i lang="fr">Revue de +Linguistique et de Philologie comparée</i>, and has written on +<i>Comparative Mythology,</i> dealing with fetishism, etc., ’78, +and works on Ethnology.</p> +<p><b>Ribelt</b> (Léonce), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, +author of several political works and collaborator on <i>La Morale +Indépendante</i>.</p> +<p><b>Ribeyrolles</b> (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel +(Lot) 1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; +edited the <i>Emancipation</i> of Toulouse, and <i lang="fr">La +Réforme</i> in ’48. A friend of V. Hugo, he shared in his +exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.</p> +<p><b>Ribot</b> (Théodule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp +(Côtes du-Nord) 1839; has written <i>Contemporary English +Psychology</i> ’70, a resume of the views of Mill, Bain, and +Spencer, whose <i>Principles of Psychology</i> he has translated. Has +also written on <i>Heredity</i>, ’73; <i>The Philosophy of +Schopenhauer</i>, ’74; The maladies of Memory, personality and +Will, 3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the +<i>Revue Philosophique</i>.</p> +<p><b>Ricciardi</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15734" title= +"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, +b. Capodimonte (Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, +Count of Camaldoli, 1758–1842. Early in life he published +patriotic poems. He says that never after he was nineteen did he kneel +before a priest. In ’32 he founded at Naples <i lang="it">Il +Progresso</i>, a review of science, literature, and art. Arrested in +’34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned eight months +and then lived in exile in France until ’48. Here he wrote in the +<i lang="fr">Revue Indépendante</i>, pointing out that the +Papacy from its very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected +deputy to the Neapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He +wrote a <i>History of the Revolution of Italy in ’48</i> (Paris +’49). Condemned to death in ’53, his fortune was seized. He +wrote an <i>Italian Martyrology from 1792–1847</i> (Turin +’56), and <i>The Pope and Italy</i>, ’62. At the time of +the <span class="corr" id="xd20e15753" title= +"Source: Eucumenical">Ecumenical</span> Council he <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15756" href="#xd20e15756" name= +"xd20e15756">278</a>]</span>called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at +Naples, ’69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it +led to the International Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi +published an account of the congress. His last work was a life of his +friend Mauro Macchi, ’82. Died 1884.</p> +<p><b>Richepin</b> (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. +Médéah (Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and +during the Franco-German war took to journalism. In ’76 he +published the <i>Song of the Beggars</i>, which was suppressed. In +’84 appeared <i lang="fr">Les Blasphèmes</i>, which has +gone through several editions.</p> +<p><b>Richer</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e15773" title= +"Source: Leon">Léon</span>), French Deist and journalist, b. +Laigh, 1824. He was with A. Guéroult editor of <i lang= +"fr">l’Opinion Nationale</i>, and in ’69 founded and edits +<i lang="fr">L’Avenir des Femmes</i>. In ’68 he published +<i>Letters of a Freethinker to a Village Priest</i>, and has written +many volumes in favor of the emancipation of women, collaborating with +Mdlle. Desraismes in the Women’s Rights congresses held in +Paris.</p> +<p><b>Rickman</b> (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several +volumes of poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom +he also published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved +by Sharpe.</p> +<p><b>Riem</b> (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He +became a preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of +a hospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of +the Academy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the <i lang= +"de">Aufklaring</i>. Died 1807.</p> +<p><b>Ritter</b> (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has +translated into French Strauss’s Essay of Religious History, +George Eliot’s <i>Fragments and Thoughts</i>, and Zeller’s +<i>Christian Baur and the Tübingen School</i>.</p> +<p><b>Roalfe</b> (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the +blasphemy prosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to +uphold the right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated +a manifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed +useful “whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy +Scriptures and the Christian Religion.” When prosecuted for +selling <i>The Age of Reason</i>, <i>The <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e15815" href="#xd20e15815" name="xd20e15815">279</a>]</span>Oracle +of Reason</i>, etc., she expressed her intention of continuing her +offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to two months +imprisonment 23 Jan. ’44, and on her liberation continued the +sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter +Sanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.</p> +<p><b>Robert</b> (Pierre François Joseph), French conventionnel +and friend of Brissot and Danton, b. Gimnée (Ardennes) 21 Jan. +1763. Brought up to the law he became professor of public law to the +philosophical society. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote +<i>Republicanism adapted to France</i>, 1790, became secretary to +Danton, and voted for the death of the king. He wrote in +Prudhomme’s <i lang="fr">Révolutions de Paris</i>. Died at +Brussels 1826.</p> +<p><b>Robertson</b> (A. D.), editor of the <i>Free Enquirer</i>, +published at New York, 1835.</p> +<p><b>Robertson</b> (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. +1856. He became journalist on the <i>Edinburgh Evening News</i>, and +afterwards on the <i>National Reformer</i>. Mr. Robertson has published +a study of Walt Whitman in the “Round Table Series.” +<i>Essays towards a Critical Method</i>, ’89, and has contributed +to <i>Our Corner</i>, <i>Time</i>, notably an article on Mithraism, +March, ’89, <i>The Westminster Review</i>, etc. He has also +issued pamphlets on <i>Socialism and <span class="corr" id="xd20e15860" +title="Source: Malthusiasm">Malthusianism</span></i>, and <i>Toryism +and Barbarism</i>, ’85, and edited Hume’s <i>Essay on +Natural Religion</i>, ’89.</p> +<p id="roberty"><b>Roberty</b> (Eugène de), French positivist +writer, of Russian birth, b. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on +Sociology, Paris, ’81, and <i>The Old and the New Philosophy</i>, +an essay on the general laws of philosophic development, ’87. He +has recently written a work entitled <i>The Unknowable</i>, +’89.</p> +<p><b>Robin</b> (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of +the Institute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 +June, 1821. Became M.D. in ’46, and D.Sc. ’47. In company +with Littré he refounded Nysten’s <i>Dictionary of +Medicine</i>, and he has written many important medical works, and one +on <i>Instruction</i>. In ’72 his name was struck out of the list +of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God, and it thus remained +despite many protests until ’76. In the same year <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15889" href="#xd20e15889" name= +"xd20e15889">280</a>]</span>he was elected Senator, and sits with the +Republican Left. He has been decorated with the Legion of Honor.</p> +<p><b>Robinet</b> (Jean Baptiste René), French philosopher, b. +Rennes, 23 June, 1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to +Holland to publish his curious work, <i>De la Nature</i>, 1776, by some +attributed to Toussaint and to Diderot. He continued Marsy’s +<i>Analysis of Bayle</i>, edited the <i>Secret Letters</i> of Voltaire, +translated Hume’s <i>Moral Essays</i>, and took part in the +<i lang="fr">Recueil Philosophique</i>, published by J. L. Castilhon. +Died at Rennes, 24 March, 1820.</p> +<p><b>Robinet</b> (Jean Eugène François), French +physician and publicist, b. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached +himself to the person and doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his +physician and one of his executors. During the war of ’70 he was +made Mayor of the Sixth Arrondissement of Paris. He has written a +<i>Notice of the Work and Life of A. Comte</i>, ’60, a memoir of +the private life of <i>Danton</i>, ’65, <i>The Trial of the +Dantonists</i>, ’79, and contributed an account of the +<i>Positive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte</i> to the +“<span lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e15928" title= +"Source: Bibliotheque">Bibliothèque</span> Utile</span>,” +vol. 66, ’81.</p> +<p><b>Roell</b> (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author +of a Deistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort +in 1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.</p> +<p><b>Rogeard</b> (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 +April, 1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend +mass. In ’49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary +movement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in +’65 was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment for writing +<i lang="fr">Les Propos de Labienus</i> (London, <i>i.e.</i> +Zürich), ’65. He fled to Belgium and wrote some excellent +criticism on the Bible in the <i lang="fr">Rive Gauche</i>. In +’71 he assisted Pyat on <i lang="fr">Le Vengeur</i>, and was +elected on the Commune but declined to sit. An incisive writer, he +signed himself “Atheist.” Is still living in Paris.</p> +<p><b>Rokitansky</b> (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of +the <span class="corr" id="xd20e15956" title= +"Source: Vienese">Viennese</span> school in medicine, b. +Königgrätz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804, studied medicine at Prague +and Vienna, and received his degree of Doctor in ’28. His +principal work is a <i>Manual of Practical Anatomy</i>, +’42–6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e15962" href="#xd20e15962" name= +"xd20e15962">281</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Roland</b> (Marie Jeanne), <i>née</i> Phlipon, French +patriot, b. Paris, 17 March, 1754. Fond of reading, <i>Plutarch’s +Lives</i> influenced her greatly. At a convent she noted the names of +sceptics attached and read their writings, being, she says, in turn +Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist, and deist. The last she remained, +though Miss Blind classes her with Agnostics. After her marriage in +1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la Platiêre (b. Lyons, 1732), +Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies of her husband, and the +Revolution found her an ardent consort. On the appointment of her +husband to the ministry, she became the centre of a Girondist circle. +Carlyle calls her “the creature of Simplicity and Nature, in an +age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant,” and “the +noblest of all living Frenchwomen.” On the fall of her party she +was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband, then in +hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself, 15 Nov. +1793.</p> +<p><b>Rolph</b> (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English +father, Berlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became <i>privat-docent</i> of Zoology +in the University of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on <i>Biological +Problems</i>, ’84, in which he accepts evolution, discards +theology, and places ethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.</p> +<p><b>Romagnosi</b> (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and +jurist, b. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able +work on penal legislation, <i>Genesis of Penal Law</i>, many pages of +which are borrowed from d’Holbach’s <i>System of +Nature</i>. He became Professor of Law in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A +member of the Italian Academy, he was named professor at Corfu, where +he died 8 June, 1835. In ’21 he wrote <i>Elements of +Philosophy</i>, followed by <i>What is a Sound Mind?</i> (’27) +and <i>Ancient Moral Philosophy</i>, ’32. A somewhat obscure +writer, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of +sociology.</p> +<p><b>Romiti</b> (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy +in the University of Siena. Has published <i>Anatomical Notes</i>, and +a Discourse which excited some commotion among the theologians.</p> +<p><b>Romme</b> (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became +deputy to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16013" href="#xd20e16013" name= +"xd20e16013">282</a>]</span>Convention in 1792. In Sept. 1793 he +introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which was drawn by +<span class="corr" id="xd20e16015" title= +"Source: Laland">Lalande</span>, and the names assigned by Fabre +d’Eglantine. He advocated the Fêtes of Reason. Being +condemned to death, he committed suicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother +Charles, b. 1744, was also an eminent geometrician, and a friend of +Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.</p> +<p><b>Ronge</b> (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde +(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau, and became +a Catholic priest in ’40. His liberal views and bold preaching +soon led to his suspension. In ’44 his letter denouncing the +worship of “the holy coat,” exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of +Treves, made much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many +free congregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of +’49 and took refuge in England. In ’51 he issued a +revolutionary manifesto. In ’61 he returned to Frankfort, and in +’73 settled at Darmstadt. Died at Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Ronsard</b> (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. +1524. He became page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. +of Scotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French +Court. Died 27 Dec. 1585.</p> +<p><b>Roorda van Eysinga</b> (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. +Batavia (Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was +expelled about ’64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He +contributed to the <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> and <i lang="fr">Revue +Positive</i>. Died Clarens (Switzerland), 23 Oct. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Roquetaillade</b> (Jean de la), also known as <span class= +"sc">Rupescina</span>, early French reformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), +who entered the order of the Franciscans. His bold discourses led to +his imprisonment at Avignon 1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he +wrote an apology. Accused of Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at +Avignon in 1362, but this has been disputed.</p> +<p><b>Rose</b> (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of +<i>A Light to Lighten the Gentiles</i>, 1881.</p> +<p><b>Rose</b> (Ernestine Louise) <i>née</i> Süsmond +Potowsky, Radical reformer and orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. +1810. Her father was a Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16058" href="#xd20e16058" name= +"xd20e16058">283</a>]</span>and inquiring disposition. At the age of 17 +she went to Berlin. She was in Paris during the Revolution of +’30. Soon after she came to England where she embraced the views +of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here she married Mr. +William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In May ’36, +they went to the United States and became citizens of the Republic. +Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system, the +formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against slavery +in the slave-owning states and sent in ’38 the first petition to +give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one of the +inaugurators of the Woman’s Rights Movement, and a constant +champion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses +have been published. <i>Defence of Atheism</i>, <i>Women’s +Rights</i> and <i>Speech at the Hartford Bible Convention in +’54</i>. About ’73 she returned to England where she still +lives. One of her last appearances at public was at the Conference of +Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in ’76, where she +delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face and head, and +though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest in the +Freethought cause.</p> +<p><b>Roskoff</b> (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, +Hungary, 30 Aug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and +has written works on <i>Hebrew Antiquity</i>, ’57. The Samson +legend and Herakles myth, ’60, and a standard <i>History of the +Devil</i> in 2 vols., Leipzig, ’69.</p> +<p><b>Ross</b> (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. +Author of poems and educational works, and editor of <i>Secular +Review</i>, now <i>The Agnostic Journal</i>. Wrote <i>God and his +Book</i>, ’87, and several brochures published under the pen name +of “Saladin.”</p> +<p><b>Rosseau</b> (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva +under the name of L. Russelli. He published separately the <i>Female +Followers of Jesus</i>, founded the <i>Horizon</i>, contributed to +<i lang="fr">la Libre Pensée</i>, and was editor of <i lang= +"fr">l’Athée</i>. Died 1870.</p> +<p><b>Rossetti</b> (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian +parents, London, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King’s College, he +became a student at the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. +As a poet artist he exhibited the richest <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e16112" href="#xd20e16112" name="xd20e16112">284</a>]</span>gifts +of <span class="corr" id="xd20e16114" title= +"Source: orignality">originality</span>, earnestness, and splendour of +expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Rossetti</b> (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother +of the preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King’s +College, he became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He +has acted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief +being an edition of Shelley, ’70, with a memoir and numerous +notes. He is Chairman of the <span class="corr" id="xd20e16121" title= +"Source: Commitee">Committee</span> of the Shelley Society.</p> +<p><b>Rossmaessler</b> (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 +March, 1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote +many scientific works of repute. In ’48 he was elected to +Parliament. Among his writings are <i>Man in the Mirror of Nature</i>. +’49–55. <i>The History of the Earth</i>, ’68. Died as +a philosopher 8 April, 1867.</p> +<p><b>Roth</b> (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and +Priestcraft, Leipzig, 1869; <i>Jesuitism</i>, ’71.</p> +<p><b>Rothenbuecher</b> (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little +<i>Handbook of Morals</i>, written from the Secular standpoint, +Cottbus, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Rotteck</b> (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman +b. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in 1798 be +became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his University in +the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by his liberal +views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper and was +deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death, which +occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck’s <i>General History of the +World</i> (9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest +views of history which had then appeared.</p> +<p><b>Rousseau</b> (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 +June, 1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and +supported himself. In <span class="corr" id="xd20e16160" title= +"Source: 1715">1751</span> he obtained a prize from the academy of +Dijon for negative answer to the question “whether the +re-establishment of the arts and sciences has conduced to the purity of +morals.” This success prompted further literary efforts. He +published a dictionary of music, the <i>New Heloise</i> (1759), a love +<span class="corr" id="xd20e16166" title="Source: stories">story</span> +in the form of letters, which had great <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e16169" href="#xd20e16169" name= +"xd20e16169">285</a>]</span>success, and <i>Emilius</i> (May 1762), a +moral romance, in which he condemns other education than that of +following nature. In this work occurs his <i>Confession of Faith of a +Savoyard Vicar</i>, discarding the supernatural element in +Christianity. The French parliament condemned the book 9 June, 1762, +and prosecuted the writer, who fled to Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII +fulminated against Emile, and Rousseau received so many insults on +account of his principles that he returned to Paris and on the +invitation of Hume came to England in Jan. 1766. He knew little English +and soon took offence with Hume, and asked permission to return to +Paris, which he obtained on condition of never publishing anything +more. He however completed his <i>Confessions</i>, of which he had +previously composed the first six books in England. Rousseau was a +sincere sentimentalist, an independent and eloquent, but not deep +thinker. His captious temper spoiled his own life, but his influence +has been profound and far-reaching. Died near Paris, 2 July, 1778.</p> +<p><b>Rouzade</b> (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has +written several brochures and novels, notably <i lang="fr">Le Monde +Renversé</i>, 1872, and <i lang="fr">Ci et ca, ca et la</i>, +ideas upon moral philosophy and social progress. Writes in +Malon’s <i lang="fr">Revue Socialiste</i>, and is one of the +editors of <i>Les Droits des Femmes</i>.</p> +<p><b>Roy</b> (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach’s +<i>Essence of Christianity</i>, 1864, and <i>Religion, Death, +Immortality</i>, ’66. Has also translated Marx’s +<i>Capital</i>.</p> +<p><b>Royer</b> (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 +April, 1830, of Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in +’54, she studied our language and literature. Going to +Switzerland, in ’59 she opened at Lausanne a course of logic and +philosophy for women. In ’60 she shared with Proudhon in a prize +competition on the subject of taxation. In ’62 she translated +Darwin’s <i>Origin of Species</i>, with a bold preface and notes. +In ’64 her philosophical romance <i>The Twins of Hellas</i> +appeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work is +on <i>The Origin of Man and of Societies</i>, ’69. In this she +states the scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the +Christian creed. This was followed by many memoirs, <i>Pre-historic +Funeral Rites</i>, ’76; <i>Two Hypotheses of Heredity</i>, +’77; <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16230" href="#xd20e16230" +name="xd20e16230">286</a>]</span><i>The Good and the Moral Law</i>, +’81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the <i lang="fr">Revue +Moderne</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue de Philosophie</i>, <i lang= +"fr">Positive</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</i>, etc., +and has assisted and spoken at many political, social, and scientific +meetings.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e16248" title= +"Source: Ruedt">Rüdt</span></b> (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer +and “apostle of unbelief,” b. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. +Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he studied philosophy, philology, +and jurisprudence at Heidelberg University, ’65–69. Dr. +Rüdt became acquainted with Lassalle, and started a paper, +<i lang="de">Die Waffe</i>, and in ’70 was imprisoned for +participation in social democratic agitation. From ’74 to +’86 he lived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted +himself to Freethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been +published.</p> +<p><b>Ruelle</b> (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. +Author of <i>The History of Christianity</i>, ’66, and <i lang= +"fr">La Schmita</i>, ’69.</p> +<p><b>Ruge</b> (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle Rügen), +13 Sept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member +of the Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in +’30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded +the Hallische Jahrbücher, ’38, which opposed Church and +State. In ’48 he started <i lang="de">Die Reform</i>. Elected to +the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the Extreme Left. When compelled to +fly he came to England, where he wrote <i>New Germany</i> in +“Cabinet of Reason” series, and translated Buckle’s +<i>History of Civilisation</i>. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton, +where he died 30 Dec. 1880.</p> +<p><b>Ruggieri</b> (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, +patronised by Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish +<i>Almanachs</i> in 1604, which he issued annually. He died at Paris in +1615, declaring himself an Atheist, and his corpse was in consequence +denied Christian burial.</p> +<p><b>Rumpf</b> (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and +Progress, and <i>The Bible and Christ</i>, a criticism (Strasburg, +1858). Edited <i>Das Freire Wort</i> (Basle, ’56).</p> +<p><b>Russell</b> (John). See <a href="#amberley">Amberley</a>.</p> +<p><b>Ryall</b> (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the +Anti-Persecution Union, 1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on +<i>The Oracle of Reason</i> and <i>The Movement</i>. Died 1846. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16312" href="#xd20e16312" name= +"xd20e16312">287</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Rydberg</b> (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. +Jönköping, 18 Dec. 1829. He has written many works of which +we mention <i>The Last Athenian Roman Days</i>, and <i>The Magic of the +Middle Ages</i>, which have been translated into English.</p> +<p><b>Rystwick</b> (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell +and taught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all +matter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty upon +abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time, he was +arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.</p> +<p id="sabin"><b>Sabin</b> (Ibn), <i>Al Mursi</i>, Spanish Arabian +philosopher, b. Murcia about 1218 of noble family. About 1249 he +corresponded with Frederick II., replying to his philosophical +questions. Committed suicide about 1271.</p> +<p><b>Sadoc</b>, a learned Jewish doctor in the third <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e16338" title="Source: centnry">century</span> +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> He denied the resurrection, the existence +of angels, and the doctrine of predestination, and opposed the idea of +future rewards and punishments. His followers were named after him, +Sadducees.</p> +<p><b>Saga</b> (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for +Anti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.</p> +<p><b>Saigey</b> (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote +<i>Modern Physics</i>, 1867, and <i>The Sciences in the Eighteenth +Century: Physics of Voltaire</i>, ’74. Died 1875.</p> +<p><b>Saillard</b> (F.), French author of <i>The Revolution and the +Church</i> (Paris, ’69), and <i>The Organisation of the +Republic</i>, ’83.</p> +<p><b>Sainte Beuve</b> (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of +letters b. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied +medicine, which he practised several years. A favorable review of V. +Hugo’s <i>Odes and Ballades</i> gained him the intimacy of the +Romantic school. As a critic he made his mark in ’28 with his +<i>Historical and Critical Picture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth +Century</i>. His other principal works are his <i>History of Port +Royal</i>, ’40–62; <i>Literary Portraits</i>, +’32–39; and <i lang="fr">Causeries du Lundi</i>, +’51–57. In ’45 he was elected to the Academy, and in +’65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative, +comprehensive, and impartial.</p> +<p id="saintevremond"><b>Saint Evremond</b> (Charles de Marguetel de +Saint Denis) seigneur de, French man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast +(Normandy), <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16392" href= +"#xd20e16392" name="xd20e16392">288</a>]</span>1 April, 1713. He +studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became +major-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal +Mazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles II. He +died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. +Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God, he +replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works, +consisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in 3 +vols. 1705.</p> +<p id="saint-glain"><b>Saint-Glain</b> (Dominique de), French +Spinozist, b. Limoges, about 1620. He went into Holland that he might +profess the Protestant religion more freely; was captain in the service +of the States, and assisted on the Rotterdam <i>Gazette</i>. Reading +Spinoza, he espoused his system, and translated the Tractatus +Theologico-Politicus into French, under the title of <i lang="fr">La +Clef du Sanctuaire</i>, 1678. This making much noise, and being in +danger of prosecution, he changed the title to <i lang="fr">Ceremonies +Superstitieuses des Juifs</i>, and also to <i lang="fr">Reflexions +Curieuses d’un Esprit Desintéressé</i>, 1678.</p> +<p id="saint-hyacinthe"><b>Saint-Hyacinthe</b> (Themiseul de +<span class="sc">Cordonnier</span> de), French writer, b. Orleans, 24 +Sept. 1684. Author of <i>Philosophical Researches</i>, published at +Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire published +his <i lang="fr">Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers</i> under the name +of St. Hyacinthe.</p> +<p><b>Saint John</b> (Henry). See <a href="#bolingbroke">Bolingbroke, +<i>Lord</i></a>.</p> +<p><b>Saint Lambert</b> (Charles, or rather Jean François de), +French writer, b. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the +Jesuits he entered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. +He became a devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du +Chatelet. He wrote some articles in the <i lang= +"fr">Encyclopédie</i>, and many fugitive pieces and poems in the +literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured him admission +to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and Bolingbroke, and +<i lang="fr">Le Catéchisme Universel</i>. His <i>Philosophical +Works</i> were published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.</p> +<p><b>Sale</b> (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, +educated at Canterbury. He was one of a society which <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16449" href="#xd20e16449" name= +"xd20e16449">289</a>]</span>undertook to publish a <i>Universal +History</i>, and was also one of the compilers of the <i>General +Dictionary</i>. His most important work was a translation of the +<i>Koran</i>, with a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. +He was one of the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of +Learning. Died 14 Nov. 1736.</p> +<p><b>Salieres</b> (A.), contributor to <i lang= +"fr">l’Athée</i>, 1870. Has written a work on +<i>Patriotism</i>, 1881.</p> +<p><b>Sallet</b> (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French +descent, b. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, +he was imprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In +’34 he attended Hegel’s lectures at Berlin, and in +’38 quitted the army. He wrote a curious long poem entitled the +Layman’s Gospel, in which he takes New Testament texts and +expounds them pantheistically—the God who is made flesh is +replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau (Silesia), 21 Feb. +1843.</p> +<p><b>Salmeron y Alonso</b> (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo +Seco, 1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy +to the Cortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic +of ’73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on <i>Philosophy +and Arts</i>, ’78, and his own works were issued in 1881.</p> +<p><b>Salt</b> (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. +<span class="corr" id="xd20e16485" title="Source: 1821">1851</span>; +educated at Eton, where he <span class="corr" id="xd20e16488" title= +"Source: bacame">became</span> assistant master. A contributor to +<i>Progress</i>, he has written <i>Literary Sketches</i>, ’88. A +monograph on Shelley, and a <i>Life of James Thomson</i>, +“<i>B.V.</i>”, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Saltus</b> (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June +1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In ’84 he +published a sketch of <i>Balzac</i>. Next year appeared <i>The +Philosophy of Disenchantment</i>, appreciative and well written views +of Schopenhauer and Hartmann. This was followed by <i>The Anatomy of +Negation</i>, a sketchy account of some atheists and sceptics from +Kapila to Leconte de Lisle, ’86. Has also written several novels, +and <i>Eden</i>, an episode, ’89. His brother Francis is the +author of <i>Honey and Gall</i>, a book of poems (Philadelphia, +’73.) <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16524" href= +"#xd20e16524" name="xd20e16524">290</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Salverte</b> (Anne Joseph Eusèbe <span class= +"sc">Baconniere de</span>), French philosopher, b. Paris, 18 July, +1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote <i>Epistle to a Reasonable +Woman</i>, an Essay on <i>What should be Believed</i>, 1793, +contributed to Maréchal’s <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des +Athées</i>, published an eloge on Diderot, 1801, and many +brochures, among others a tragedy on the Death of Jesus Christ. Elected +deputy in ’28, he was one of the warm partisans of liberty, and +in ’30, demanded that Catholicism should not be recognised as the +state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his work on <i>The Occult +Sciences</i>, ’29, which was translated into English, ’46. +To the French edition of ’56 Littré wrote a Preface. He +died 27 Oct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.</p> +<p id="sand"><b>Sand</b> (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile +Aurore <span class="sc">Dupin</span>, afterwards baroness <span class= +"sc">Dudnevant</span>, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and +brought up by her grandmother at the <span class="corr" id="xd20e16555" +title="Source: Chateau">Château</span> de Nohant. Reading +Rousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She +remained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an +elderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom after +some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her whole +fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of +’48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and +translated Mazzini’s <i>Republic and Royalty in Italy</i>, Died +at her Chateau of Nohant, 8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in +England, where she was thought of as an assailant of marriage and +religion, but a better appreciation of her work and genius is making +way.</p> +<p><b>Sarcey</b> (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, +editor of <i lang="fr">Le XIXe. Siècle</i>, has written plays, +novels, and many anti-clerical articles.</p> +<p>“<b>Sarrasi</b>,” pseudonym of A. de C....; French +Orientalist b. Department of Tarn, 1837, author of <i lang= +"fr">L’Orient Devoilé</i>, ’80, in which he shows +the mythical elements in Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Saull</b> (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He +established a free geological museum, contributed to the erection of +the John Street Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening +the old Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16580" href="#xd20e16580" name= +"xd20e16580">291</a>]</span>on the connection between astronomy, +geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in Kensal Green, +near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.</p> +<p><b>Saunderson</b> (Nicholas), English <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e16586" title="Source: mathematican">mathematician</span> b. +Thurleston (Yorkshire), 2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his +sight by small pox when but a year old, yet he became conversant with +Euclid, Archimedes, and Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He +lectured at Cambridge University, explaining Newton’s +Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, and even his works on +light and color. It was said, “They have turned out Whiston for +believing in but one God, and put in Saunderson, who believes in no God +at all.” Saunderson said that to believe in God he must first +touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.</p> +<p><b>Sauvestre</b> (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of +the editors of <i lang="fr">L’Opinion Nationale</i>. Has written +on <i>The Clergy and Education</i> (’61), <i lang="la">Monita +Secreta Societatis Jesu</i>; <i>Secret Instructions of the Jesuits</i> +(’65), <i>On the Knees of the Church</i> (’68), +<i>Religious Congregations Unveiled</i> (’70), and other +anti-clerical works. He died at Paris in 1883.</p> +<p><b>Saville</b> (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman, +b. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign of +James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test Acts. +He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious account of +his opinions, which he probably tones down.</p> +<p><b>Sawtelle</b> (C. M.), American author of <i>Reflections on the +Science of Ignorance</i>, or the art of teaching others what you +don’t know yourself, Salem, Oregon, 1868.</p> +<p><b>Sbarbaro</b> (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, +1838; studied jurisprudence. He published a work on <i>The Philosophy +of Research</i>, ’66. In ’70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a +book on <i>The Task of the Nineteenth Century</i>, and presided at a +congress of Freethinkers held at Loreto. Has written popular works on +the Conditions of Human Progress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay +entitled <i>From Socino to Mazzini</i>, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Schade</b> (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed +in the immortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16640" href="#xd20e16640" name= +"xd20e16640">292</a>]</span>for his opinions on the Isle of +Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775, where he died in +1795.</p> +<p><b>Scherer</b> (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 +April, 1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at +Geneva, but his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went +to Strasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal +Protestants, and in the <i lang="fr">Revue de Théologie et de +Philosophie Chrétienne</i>, ’50–60, put forward +views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also wrote in the +<i lang="fr">Bibliotheque Universelle</i> and <i lang="fr">Revue des +Deux-Mondes</i>. Some of his articles have been collected as <i lang= +"fr">Mélanges de Critique Religieuse</i>, ’60; and +<i lang="fr">Mélanges d’Histoire Religieuse</i>, +’64. He was elected deputy in ’71, and sat with the +Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.</p> +<p><b>Scherr</b> (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3 Oct. +1817. Educated at Zürich and Tübingen, he wrote in ’43 +with his brother Thomas a <i>Popular History of Religious and +Philosophical Ideas</i>, and in ’57 a <i>History of Religion</i>, +in three parts. In ’60 he became Professor of History and +Literature at Zürich, and has written many able literary studies, +including histories of German and English literature. Died at +Zürich, 21 Nov. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Schiff</b> (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, +1823. Educated at Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of +Comparative Anatomy at Berne, ’54–63; of Physiology at +Florence, ’63–76, and at Genoa. Has written many +physiological treatises, which have been attacked as materialistic.</p> +<p><b>Schiller</b> (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German +poet and historian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to +become a minister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A +friend of Goethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and +poems, a History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty +Years’ War. He died in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, +1805.</p> +<p><b>Schmidt</b> (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. +1823. He travelled widely, and became professor of natural history at +Jena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has +illustrated its application in many directions, <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16684" href="#xd20e16684" name= +"xd20e16684">293</a>]</span>and published an able work on <i>The +Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism</i> in the “International +Scientific Series.” Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.</p> +<p id="schmidtk"><b>Schmidt</b> (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. +Bayreuth, 25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and +Königsberg, first theology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym +of “Max Stirner” he wrote a system of individualism <i>The +Only One, and His Possession</i> (<span lang="de">Der Einzige und sein +Eigenthum</span>), ’45. He also wrote a <i>History of +Reaction</i> in two parts (Berlin, ’52), and translated +Smith’s <i>Wealth of Nations</i> and Say’s <i>Text-book of +Political Economy</i>. Died at Berlin, 25 June, 1856.</p> +<p><b>Schneeberger</b> (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, +1827. Has written some popular novels under the name of “Arthur +Storch,” and was one of the founders of the German +Freethinkers’ Union.</p> +<p><b>Schœlcher</b> <span class="corr" id="xd20e16716" title= +"Not in source">(</span> Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 +July 1804. While still young he joined the secret society <i lang= +"fr">Aide-toi, le ciel t’aidera</i>, and studied social +questions. He devoted himself from about ’26 to advocating the +abolition of slavery, and wrote many works on the subject. On 3 March, +’48, he was made Under Secretary of the Navy, and caused a decree +to be issued by the Provisional Government enfranchising all slaves on +French territory. He was elected Deputy for Martinique ’48 and +’49. After 2 Dec. ’51, he came to London, where he wrote +occasionally in the <i>Reasoner</i> and <i>National Reformer</i>. He +returned to France during the war, and took part in the defence of +Paris. In ’71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in +’75 he was elected a life senator.</p> +<p><b>Scholl</b> (Aurélien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 +July, 1833. He began life as a writer on the <i>Corsaire</i>, founded +<i>Satan</i>, <i lang="fr">Le Nain Jaune</i>, etc., and writes on +<i lang="fr">l’Evénement</i>. Has written several novels, +and <i lang="fr">le Procès de Jésus Christ</i>, +’77.</p> +<p><b>Scholl</b> (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free +religious bodies of Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. +1820. He became a minister ’44, but was suspended for his free +opinions in ’45. His first important work was on the <i>Messiah +Legend of the East</i> (Hamburg, ’52), and in ’61 he +published a volume on <i>Free Speech</i>, a collection of extracts from +French, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16757" href="#xd20e16757" +name="xd20e16757">294</a>]</span>English, and American Freethinkers. In +’70 he started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, +<i>Es Werde Licht!</i> which continued for many years. Has published +many discourses, and written <i>Truth from Ruins</i>, ’73, and on +<i>Judaism and the Religion of Humanity</i>, ’79.</p> +<p><b>Schopenhauer</b> (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. +Danzig, 22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant +and a vivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and +studied at Göttingen science, history, and the religions and +philosophies of the East. After two visits to Italy, and an +unsuccessful attempt to obtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode +at Frankfort. In 1815 he wrote his chief work, <i>The World as Will and +Idea</i>, translated into English in ’83. His philosophy is +expressed in the title, will is the one reality, all else appearance. +He also wrote <i>The Two Ground Problems of Ethics</i>, ’61, +<i>On the Freedom of Will</i>, and a collection of essays entitled +<i>Parega and Paralipomena</i> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e16785" +title="Not in source">’</span>51). Died at Frankfort, 21 Sept. +1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of every form +of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms; they +require darkness to shine in.</p> +<p><b>Schroeter</b> (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 +June, 1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious +communion in ’45. In ’50, he went to America, living since +’53 in Sauk City, and frequently lecturing there. In ’81, +he attended the International Conference of Freethinkers at Brussels. +He was a constant contributor to the <i>Freidenker</i>, of Milwaukee, +until his death 2 April, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Schroot</b> (A.), German author of <i>Visions and Ideas</i> +(Berlin, 1865), <i>Natural Law and Human Will</i>; <i>Creation and +Man</i>, and <i>Science and Life</i> (Hamburg, 1873).</p> +<p><b>Schuenemann Pott</b> (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 +April, 1826. He joined the “<span lang="de">Freie +Gemeinde</span>,” and was expelled from Prussia in ’48. +After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part in democratic +agitation, for which he was tried for high treason, but acquitted. In +’54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing tours over the +States settling at San Francisco.</p> +<p><b>Schultze</b> (Karl August<a id="xd20e16823" name= +"xd20e16823"></a> Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May, 1846, +studied at Jena, Göttingen and Münich, has <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16825" href="#xd20e16825" name= +"xd20e16825">295</a>]</span>written an able study on <i>Fetishism</i>, +Leipzig ’71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools, ’72, +a <i>History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance</i>, ’74, and +<i>Kant and Darwin</i>, ’75. In ’76, he was appointed +Professor of Philosophy in Jena, since which he has written <i>The +Elements of Materialism</i>, ’80, <i>Philosophy of the Natural +Sciences</i>, 2 vols. ’81–82, and <i>Elements of +Spiritualism</i>, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Schumann</b> (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. +Nekau, 8 July, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for +music. He started a musical journal ’34, which he edited for some +years. His lyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a +“profane” oratorio, <i>Paradise and the Peri</i> +(’40). His character and opinions are illustrated by his +<i>Letters</i>. Died 29 July, 1856.</p> +<p><b>Schweichel</b> (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. +Königsberg, 12 July, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to +literature. Taking part in the events of ’48, after the reaction +he went to Switzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss +life, also a <i>Life of Auerbach</i>. He wrote the preface to +Dulk’s <i lang="de">Irrgang des Leben’s Jesu</i>, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Schweitzer</b> (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. +Frankfort, 12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; +became after Lassalle’s death president of the German +Workmen’s Union, and was sent to Parliament in ’67. He +wrote the <i>Zeitgeist and Christianity</i>, ’62, <i>The +Darwinians</i>, ’75, and several other works. Died 28 July, +1875.</p> +<p><b>Scot</b> (Reginald), English rationalist, author of <i>The +Discoverie of Witchcraft</i>, 1584, the first English work to question +the existence of witches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and +was republished in 1886. Scot died in 1599.</p> +<p><b>Scott</b> (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early +life he travelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. +X, of France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life +devoted himself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly +pamphlets among the clergy and cultured classes. From +’62–77, he issued from Mount Pleasant, Ramsgate, over a +hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds, F. W. Newman, Kalisch, +Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which were given away. He +issued a challenge to the <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16887" +href="#xd20e16887" name="xd20e16887">296</a>]</span>Christian Evidence +Society, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox<span class="corr" id="xd20e16889" +title="Source: .">,</span> <i>The English Life of Jesus</i> ’71. +Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little known +outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should secure him +lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Seaver</b> (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25 +Aug. 1810. In ’37 he became a compositor on the <i>Boston +Investigator</i>, and during Kneeland’s imprisonment took the +editorship, which he continued for upwards of fifty years during which +he battled strenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were +always very plain and to the point. A selection of them has been +published with the title <i>Occasional Thoughts</i> (Boston, +’88). With Mr. Mendum, he helped the erection of the Paine +Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of all Freethinkers in America. Died, +21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration was delivered by Colonel +Ingersoll.</p> +<p><b>Sebille</b> (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym of +“Dr. Fabricus,” published <i>God, Man, and his latter +end</i>, a medico-psychological study, 1868, and <i>Letters from a +Materialist to Mgr. Dupanloup</i>, 1868–9.</p> +<p><b>Sechenov</b> or <b>Setchenoff</b> (Ivan), Russian philosopher, +who, in 1863, published <i>Psychological Studies</i>, explaining the +mind by physiology. The work made a great impression in Russia, and has +been translated into French by Victor Derély, and published in +’84 with an introduction by M. G. Wyrouboff.</p> +<p><b>Secondat</b> (Charles de). See <a href= +"#montesquieu">Montesquieu</a>.</p> +<p><b>Seeley</b> (John Robert), English historian and man of +letters<span class="corr" id="xd20e16937" title= +"Not in source">,</span> b. London, 1834, educated at City of London +School and Cambridge, where he graduated in ’57. In ’63, he +was appointed Professor of Latin in London University. In ’66, +appeared his <i lang="la">Ecce Homo</i>, a survey of the Life and Work +of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord Shaftesbury +denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of hell. In +’69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and has +since written some important historical works as well as <i>Natural +Religion</i> (’82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical +Society. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e16946" href="#xd20e16946" +name="xd20e16946">297</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Segond</b> (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, +author of a plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, +and of several medical works.</p> +<p><b>Seidel</b> (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end +of the sixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted +Messiah, and endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish +Socinians. He wrote three Letters on the Messiah, <i>The Foundations of +the Christian Religion</i>, in which he considered the quotation from +the Old Testament in the new, and pointed out the errors of the +latter.</p> +<p><b>Sellon</b> (Edward), English archæologist, author of <i>The +Monolithic Temples of India</i>; <i>Annotations on the Sacred Writings +of the Hindus</i>, 1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.</p> +<p><b>Semerie</b> (Eugène), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. +1832. Becoming physician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and +in ’67 published a work on <i>Intellectual Symptoms of +Madness</i>, in which he maintained that the disordered mind went back +from Positivism to metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This +work was denounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote <i>A +Simple Reply to M. Dupanloup</i>, ’68. During the sieges of Paris +he acted as surgeon and director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre +Lafitte, he edited the <i lang="fr">Politique Positive</i>, and wrote +<i>Positivists and Catholics</i>, ’73, and <i>The Law of the +Three States</i>, ’75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Semler</b> (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. +1725. He was professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical +Biblical criticism there. He translated Simon’s <i>Critical +History of the New Testament</i>, and by asserting the right of free +discussion drew down the wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, +1791.</p> +<p><b>Serafini</b> (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a +<i>Catechism for Female Freethinkers</i> (Geneva, 1869), and a work on +<i>Marriage and Divorce</i> (Salerno, ’73).</p> +<p><b>Serveto y Reves</b> (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, +Spanish martyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, +he left it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied +medicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject of the +Trinity, against which he <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17008" +href="#xd20e17008" name="xd20e17008">298</a>]</span>wrote <i lang= +"la">De Trinitatis Erroribus</i> and <i lang="la">Christianismi +Restitutio</i>, which excited the hatred of both Catholics and +Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his last work. Calvin, +through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic authorities at Lyons. +He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to Naples passed through +Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of Calvin, tried for +blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire, 26 Oct. 1553.</p> +<p><b>Seume</b> (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, +29 Jan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian, +but the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an +adventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote <i>Promenade to +Syracuse</i>, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, +1810.</p> +<p><b>Sextus Empiricus</b>, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, +who probably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He +left two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in three +books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.</p> +<p><b>Shadwell</b> (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, +Norfolk, 1640. Although damned by Dryden in his <i>Mac Flecknoe</i>, +Shadwell’s plays are not without merit, and illustrate the days +of Charles II. Died 6 Dec. 1692.</p> +<p id="shaftesbury"><b>Shaftesbury</b> (Anthony Ashley <span class= +"sc">Cooper</span>), third Earl, b. London, 26 Feb. 1671. Educated by +Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole, and proposed granting +counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His health suffering, he +resigned and went to Holland, where he made the acquaintance of Bayle. +The excitement induced by the French Prophets occasioned his <i>Letters +upon Enthusiasm</i>, 1708. This was followed, by his <i>Moralists</i> +and <i lang="la">Sensus Communis</i>. In 1711 he removed to Naples, +where he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under the +title of <i>Characteristics</i>, 1732. They went through several +editions, and did much to raise the character of English Deism.</p> +<p><b>Shakespeare</b> (William). The greatest of all dramatists, b. +Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his life +are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he +became an actor and produced his marvellous <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17058" href="#xd20e17058" name= +"xd20e17058">299</a>]</span>plays, the eternal honor of English +literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and retired to his +native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas warrant the +inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green says, +“Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life and +death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the common +theological solutions around him.” His comprehensive mind +disdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in what +the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his <i>Inquiry into the +Philosophy and Religion of Shakespeare</i>, sustains the position that +he was an Atheist.</p> +<p><b>Shaw</b> (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. +1841. Brought up on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the +Southern Army, took part in some battles, and was wounded. He +afterwards entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry, ’70; studied +biblical criticism to answer sceptics, and his own faith gave way. He +left the Church in March, ’83, and started the <i>Independent +Pulpit</i> at Waco, Texas, in which he publishes bold Freethought +articles. He rejects all supernaturalism, and has written <i>The Bible, +What Is It?</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e17072" title= +"Not in source">,</span> <i>Studies in Theology</i>, <i>The Bible +Against Itself</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Shelley</b> (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place +(Sussex), 4 Aug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to +Oxford. Here he published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for +which he was expelled <span class="corr" id="xd20e17085" title= +"Not in source">from</span> the University. His father, Sir Timothy +Shelley, also forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote <i>Queen +Mab</i>, and met Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two +children had been born, they separated. In ’16 Shelley learned +that his wife had drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his +children, but, in March, ’17, Lord Eldon decided against him, +largely on account of his opinions. Shelley had previously written <i>A +Letter to Lord Ellenborough</i>, indignantly attacking the sentence the +judge passed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine’s <i>Age of +Reason</i>. On 30 Dec. ’16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of +William Godwin and Mary <span class="corr" id="xd20e17097" title= +"Source: Woolstonecraft">Wollstonecraft</span>. In ’18, fearing +their son might also be taken from him, he left England never to +return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron, composed <i>The +Cenci</i>, the <i>Witch of Atlas</i>, <i>Prometheus Unbound</i>, +<i>Adonais</i>, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17113" href= +"#xd20e17113" name="xd20e17113">300</a>]</span><i>Epipsychidion</i>, +<i>Hellas</i>, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty, the glory of +our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia, 8 July, 1822. +Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny, who knew him well, +says he was an Atheist to the last.</p> +<p><b>Siciliani</b> (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. +Galatina, 19 Sep. 1835, author of works on <i>Positive Philosophy</i>, +<i>Socialism</i>, <i>Darwinism</i>, and <i>Modern Sociology</i>, +’79; and <i>Modern Psychogeny</i>, with a preface by J. Soury, +’82. Died 28 Dec. ’85.</p> +<p><b>Sidney</b> (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of +Robert, Earl of Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of +Parliament, and a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he +remained abroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, +was condemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. +1678.</p> +<p><b>Sierebois</b> (P.)<span class="corr" id="xd20e17148" title= +"Not in source">.</span> See <a href= +"#boissiere">Boissière</a>.</p> +<p><b>Siffle</b> (Alexander François), Dutch writer, b. +Middleburg, 11 May, 1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at +Middleburg. He wrote several poems and works of literary value, and +contributed to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i>. He was a man of wide +reading. Died at Middleburg, 7 Oct. 1872.</p> +<p><b>Sigward</b> (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. +An active French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican +calendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris +’89, and is one of the editors of <i>Le Danton</i>.</p> +<p><b>Simcox</b> (Edith), author of <i>Natural Law</i> in the English +and Foreign Philosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in +the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, 1872, under the signature “H. +Lawrenny.”</p> +<p><b>Simon de Tournai</b><span class="corr" id="xd20e17182" title= +"Not in source">,</span> a Professor at Paris University early in the +XIIIth century. He said that “Three seducers,” Moses, +Jesus, and Muhammad, “have mystified mankind with their +doctrines.” He was said to have been punished by God for his +impiety.</p> +<p id="simon"><b>Simon</b> (Richard), learned French theological +critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May, 1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the +Oratory, he distinguished himself by bold erudition. His <i>Critical +History of the Old Testament</i>, 1678, was suppressed by Parliament. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17192" href="#xd20e17192" name= +"xd20e17192">301</a>]</span>He followed it with a <i>Critical History +of the New Testament</i>, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe, 11 +April, 1712.</p> +<p><b>Simonis.</b>—A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in +Poland for his opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled <i>Simonis +Religio</i>, published at Cracow, 1588.</p> +<p><b>Simpson</b> (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 +put forward a <i>Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and +attributes of God</i>, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the +signature “Antitheos.” Died about 1844.</p> +<p><b>Sjoberg</b> (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives +near Helsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet +there. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures +at Stockholm.</p> +<p><b>Skinner</b> (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of <i>Thoughts +on Superstition or an attempt to Discover Truth</i> (Cupar, 1822), was +credited also with <i>Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews</i>, +published by Carlile in 1819.</p> +<p><b>Slater</b> (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for +many years been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on +the Town Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.</p> +<p><b>Slenker</b> (Elmina), née <span class="sc">Drake</span>, +American reformer, b. of Quaker parents, 23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she +began notes for her work, <i>Studying the Bible</i>, afterwards +published at Boston, ’70; she conducts the Children’s +Corner in the <i>Boston Investigator</i>, and has contributed to most +of the American Freethought papers. Has written <i>John’s Way</i> +(’78), Mary Jones, <i>The Infidel Teacher</i> (’85), <i>The +Darwins</i> (’79), Freethought stories. Resides at Snowville, +Virginia.</p> +<p><b>Smith</b> (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, +1799, graduated at Hamilton’s College. He was elected to Congress +in 1850, but only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding +family, he largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In +religion, originally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and +wrote <i>The Religion of Reason</i>, ’64, and <i>Nature the base +of a Free Theology</i>, ’67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.</p> +<p><b>Snoilsky</b> (Karl Johan Gustav), <i>Count</i>, Swedish poet, b. +Stockholm, 8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, ’60. Displays +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17269" href="#xd20e17269" name= +"xd20e17269">302</a>]</span>his Freethought in his poems published +under the name of “Sventröst.”</p> +<p id="socinus"><b>Socinus</b> [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), +anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5 Dec. 1539. He adopted the views of his +uncle, Laelio, (1525–1562), and taught them with more boldness. +In 1574 he went to Switzerland, and afterwards to Poland, where he made +many converts, and died 3 March, 1604.</p> +<p><b>Sohlman</b> (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, +1824. He edited the <i lang="se">Aftonbladet</i>, of Stockholm, from +’57, and was a distinguished Liberal politician. Died at +Stockholm, 1874.</p> +<p><b>Somerby</b> (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has +issued many important Freethought works, and is business manager of the +<i>Truthseeker</i>.</p> +<p><b>Somerset</b> (Edward Adolphus <span class="sc">Saint +Maur</span>), 12th <i>Duke of</i>, b. 20 Dec. 1804. Educated at Eton +and Oxford. He married a daughter of Thomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for +Totnes, ’34–35, and was Lord of the Treasury, +’35–39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, +’59–66. In ’72 he startled the aristocratic world by +a trenchant attack on orthodoxy entitled <i>Christian Theology and +Modern Scepticism</i>. He also wrote on mathematics and on Monarchy and +Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.</p> +<p><b>Soury</b> (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In +’65 he became librarian at the <span lang= +"fr">Bibliothèque Nationale</span>. He has contributed to the +<i lang="fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, <i lang="fr">Revue +Nouvelle</i>, and other journals, and has published important works on +<i>The Bible and Archæology</i>, ’72; <i>Historical Studies +on Religions</i>, ’77; <i>Essays of Religious Criticism</i>, +’78; <i>Jesus and the Gospels</i>, ’78, a work in which he +maintains that Jesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has +been translated into English, together with an essay on <i>The Religion +of Israel</i> from his <i>Historical Studies</i>. <i>Studies of +Psychology</i>, ’79, indicated a new direction in M. +Soury’s Freethought. He has since written <i>A Breviary of the +History of Materialism</i>, ’80; <i>Naturalist Theories of the +World and of Life in Antiquity</i>, ’81; <i>Natural +Philosophy</i>, ’82; <i>Contemporary Psychological Doctrines</i>, +’83. He has translated Noeldeke’s <i>Literary History of +the Old Testament</i>, 73; Haeckel’s <i>Proofs of Evolution</i>, +’79; and Preyer’s <i>Elements of General Physiology</i>, +’84. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17361" href="#xd20e17361" +name="xd20e17361">303</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Southwell</b> (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He +served with the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social +missionary. In Nov. ’41 he started <i>The Oracle of Reason</i> at +Bristol, for an article in which on “The Jew Book” he was +tried for blasphemy 14 Jan. ’42, and after an able defence +sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, and a fine of one +hundred pounds. After coming out he edited the <i>Lancashire +Beacon</i>. He also lectured and debated both in England and Scotland; +wrote <i>Christianity Proved Idolatry</i>, ’44; <i>Apology for +Atheism</i>, ’46; <i>Difficulties of Christianity</i>, ’48; +<i>Superstition Unveiled</i>; <i>The Impossibility of Atheism</i> which +he held on the ground that Theism was unproved, and <i>Another +Fourpenny Wilderness</i>, in answer to G. J. Holyoake’s criticism +of the same. He also wrote about ’45, <i>Confessions of a +Freethinker</i>, an account of his own life. In ’56 he went to +New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.</p> +<p><b>Souverain</b> (N.), French author of <i>Platonism Unveiled</i> +1700, a posthumous work. He had been a minister in Poitou and was +deposed on account of his opinions.</p> +<p><b>Sozzini</b>. See <a href="#socinus">Socinus</a>.</p> +<p><b>Spaink</b> (Pierre François), Dutch physician, b. +Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862, and studied at the city, wrote for a time on +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, with the pen names “A. Th. +Eist.” and “F.R.S.” Has translated Romanes’ +<i>Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution</i>.</p> +<p><b>Spaventa</b> (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since +’61 he has been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written +upon the Philosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died +1888.</p> +<p><b>Specht</b> (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July, +1845. Has been for many years editor of <i lang="de">Menschenthum</i> +at Gotha, and has written on <i>Brain and Soul</i>, <i>Theology and +Science</i> and a <i>Popular History of the <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e17437" title="Source: Worlds">World’s</span> +Development</i>, which has gone through several editions. Dr. Specht is +a leading member of the German Freethinkers’ Union.</p> +<p><b>Spencer</b> (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He +was articled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He wrote +in the <i>Westminster Review</i>, and at the house of Dr. Chapman met +Mill, Lewes and “George Eliot.” His first important +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17449" href="#xd20e17449" name= +"xd20e17449">304</a>]</span>work was <i>Social Statistics</i>, +’51. Four years later appeared his <i>Principles of +Psychology</i>, which with First Principles, ’62; Principles of +Biology, ’64; Principles of Sociology, ’76–85, and +Data of Ethics, ’79, form part of his “Synthetic +Philosophy” in which he applies the doctrines of evolution to the +phenomena of mind and society no less than to animal life. He has also +published <i>Essays</i>, 3 vols, ’58–74; a work on +<i>Education</i> ’61; <i>Recent Discussions on Science, +Philosophy and Morals</i>, ’71; <i>The Study of Sociology</i>, +’72; <i>Descriptive Sociology</i>, ’72–86, an immense +work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed against +Socialism; <i>The Coming Slavery</i>, ’84; and <i>Man and the +State</i>, ’85, and has contributed many articles to the best +reviews.</p> +<p id="spinoza"><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e17481" title= +"Source: Spinosa">Spinoza</span></b> (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, +b. of Jewish parents, Amsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the +study of theology and philosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, +was excommunicated by the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time +he narrowly escaped death by a fanatic’s dagger. To avoid +persecution, he retired to Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to +philosophy, earning his living by polishing lenses. About 1670 he +settled at the Hague, where he remained until his death. In 1670 he +issued his <i>Tractatus Theologico-politicus</i>, which made a great +outcry; and for more than a century this great thinker, whose life was +gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as an atheist, a monster, and +a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with Lessing and Goethe, upon whom +he had great influence. Though formerly stigmatized as an atheist, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e17487" title= +"Source: Spinosa">Spinoza</span> is now generally recognised as among +the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague, 21 Feb. +1677. His <i>Ethics</i> was published with his <i lang="la">Opera +Posthuma</i>. The bi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an +eloquent address from M. Rénan.</p> +<p><b>Spooner</b> (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19 +Jan. 1808. His first pamphlet was <i>A Deist’s Reply to the +alleged Supernatural Evidences of Christianity</i>. He started +letter-carrying from Boston to New York, but was overwhelmed with +prosecutions. He published many works against slavery, and in favor of +Individualism. Died at Boston, 14 May, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Stabili</b> (Francesco), see <a href="#ceccodascoli">Cecco’ +d’Ascoli</a>.</p> +<p><b>Stamm</b> (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote <i>The +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17516" href="#xd20e17516" name= +"xd20e17516">305</a>]</span>Religion of Action</i>, translated into +English, 1860. After the events of ’48, he came to England, went +to America, Aug. ’54.</p> +<p><b>Standring</b> (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. +1855, was for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but +discarded theology after independent inquiry in ’73. He became +hon. sec. of the National Secular Society about ’75, resigning on +appointment of paid sec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. +Started <i>Republican Chronicle</i>, April, 1875, this was afterwards +called <i>The Republican</i>, and in Sept. ’88 <i>The +Radical</i>. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation, and has +contributed to the <i>National Reformer</i>, <i>Freethinker</i>, +<i>Progress</i>, <i>Our Corner</i>, <i>Reynolds’s</i> and <i>Pall +Mall Gazette</i>. His brother, Sam., b. 27 July, 1853, is also an +active Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Stanley</b> (F. Lloyd), American author of <i>An Outline of the +Future Religion of the World</i> (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic +work in which he criticises preceding religions.</p> +<p><b>Stanton</b> (Elizabeth, née <b>Cady</b>), American +reformer, b. Johnstone, New York, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine +Rose and Lucretia Mott, she was associated with them in the +Anti-Slavery and the Woman’s Rights crusades, of which last the +first convention was held at her home in Seneca Falls, July ’48. +She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony and Parker Pilsbury, <i>The +Revolution</i>, and is joint author of <i>History of Woman’s +Suffrage</i> (’80–86). She has written in the <i>North +American Review</i> notably on “Has Christianity Benefited +Woman,” May, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Stap</b> (A.), author of <i>Historic Studies on the origins of +Christianity</i>. Bruxelles, 1864, and <i>The Immaculate +Conception</i>, 1869.</p> +<p><b>Starcke</b> (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the +University of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple of +Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in ’83. This able +Monograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in +’85, published in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since +published in the “International Scientific Series,” a work +on <i>The Primitive Family</i>, in which he critically surveys the +views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan, etc. He is now engaged on a work on +<i>Ethics</i> based on the doctrines of Ludwig Feuerbach.</p> +<p><b>Stecchetti</b> (Lorenzo). See <a href="#guerrini"><span class= +"corr" id="xd20e17599" title="Source: Guerini">Guerrini</span> (O.)</a> +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17603" href="#xd20e17603" name= +"xd20e17603">306</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Stefanoni</b> (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, +1842. In ’59, his first Romance, <i>The Spanish in Italy</i> was +suppressed by the Austrians. He joined Garibaldi’s volunteers and +contributed to <i>Unita Italiana</i>. In ’66, he founded at Milan +the Society of Freethinkers and the organ <i>Il Libero Pensiero</i>, in +which he wrote <i>A critical History of Superstition</i>, afterwards +published separately 2 vols. ’69. He also compiled a +Philosophical Dictionary, ’73–75; and wrote several +romances as <i>L’Inferno</i>, <i>The Red and Black of Rome</i>, +etc. He translated Büchner’s <i>Force and Matter</i>, +Morin’s <i>Jesus réduit</i>, La Mettrie’s +<i>Man-machine</i>, Letourneau’s <i>Physiology of the +Passions</i>, and Feuerbach’s <i>Essence of Religion</i>.</p> +<p><b>Steinbart</b> (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. +Züllichau, 21 Sept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he +became a Freethinker through reading Voltaire. In ’74, he became +Prof. of Philosophy at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a <i>System of +Pure Philosophy</i>, ’78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.</p> +<p><b>Steinthal</b> (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gröbzig, 16 +May, 1823, has written many works on language and mythology.</p> +<p><b>Steller</b> (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical +work, <i>Pilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus</i>, Dresden, +1674.</p> +<p>“<b>Stendhal</b> (M. de),” Pseud, see <a href= +"#beyle">Beyle (M. H.)</a></p> +<p><b>Stephen</b> (<i>Sir</i> James FitzJames), English judge and +writer, b. London, 3 March, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. +’52, and was called to the bar in ’54. He was counsel for +the Rev. Rowland Williams when tried for heresy for writing in +<i>Essays and Reviews</i>, and his speech was reprinted in ’62. +He wrote in the <i>Saturday Review</i>, and reprinted <i>Essays by a +Barrister</i>. From Dec. ’69, to April, ’72, he was Legal +Member of the Indian Council, and in ’79 was appointed judge. He +is author of <i>Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity</i>, ’73, and +some valuable legal works. He has written much in the <i>Nineteenth +Century</i>, notably on the Blasphemy Law ’83, and Modern +Catholicism, Oct. ’87.</p> +<p><b>Stephen</b> (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of +preceding, b. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he +graduated M.A., ’57. He married a daughter of <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17696" href="#xd20e17696" name= +"xd20e17696">307</a>]</span>Thackeray, and became editor of the +<i>Cornhill Magazine</i> from ’71–82, when he resigned to +edit the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>. Mr. Stephen also +contributed to <i>Macmillan</i>, the <i>Fortnightly</i>, and other +reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found in <i>Essays on +Freethinking and Plainspeaking</i>, ’73. He has also written an +important <i>History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century</i>, +’76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and <i>The Science of +Ethics</i>, ’82, besides many literary works.</p> +<p><b>Stern</b> (J)., <i>Rabbiner</i>, German writer, b. of Jewish +parents, Liederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the +town. In ’58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and +studied the Kabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do +this he studied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In ’63 +he graduated at Stuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave +discourses collected in his first book, <i>Gottesflamme</i>, ’72. +His <i>Old and New Faith Among the Jews</i>, ’78, was much +attacked by the orthodox Jews. In <i>Women in the Talmud</i>, +’79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written <i>Jesus +as a Jewish Reformer</i>, <i>The Egyptian Religion and Positivism</i>, +and <i>Is the Pentateuch by Moses?</i> In ’81 he went to live at +Stuttgart, where he has translated Spinoza’s Ethics, and is +engaged on a history of Spinozism.</p> +<p>“<b>Sterne</b> (Carus)”; pseud. See <a href= +"#krause">Krause (E)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Stevens</b> (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American +Secular Union, b. 8 June, 1846. Author of <i>God in the State</i>, and +contributor to the American Freethought journals.</p> +<p><b>Stewart</b> (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London +before 1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked +through India, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in +London, 20 Feb. 1822.</p> +<p>“<b>Stirner</b> (Max).” See <a href="#schmidtk">Schmidt +(Kaspar)</a>.</p> +<p><b>Stosch</b> (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also <span class= +"sc">Stoss</span> (Johann Friedrich), b. Berlin, 1646, and studied at +Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he published a little book, <i>Concordia +rationis et fidei</i>, Amst. [or rather Berlin]. It was rigorously +suppressed, and the possession of the work was threatened with a +penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes him with German +Spinozists, and says “Stosch curtly denies not only the +immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul.” Died 1704. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17784" href="#xd20e17784" name= +"xd20e17784">308</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Stout</b> (<i>Sir</i> Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick +(Shetland Isles), 1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in ’63 +left for New Zealand. In ’67 he began the study of the law, was +elected to the General Assembly in ’75, and became +Attorney-General in March, ’78. He has since been Minister of +Education of the Colony.</p> +<p><b>Strange</b> (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for +many years a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, +and long an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and +ended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest +advocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent student +and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death, and sought to +bring the prisoner “to Jesus.” He professed himself +influenced, but at the gallows “he proclaimed his trust to be in +Rama and not in Christ.” This set the judge thinking. He +investigated Christianity’s claims, and has embodied the result +in his works. <i>The Bible, Is it the Word of God?</i> ’71; +<i>The Speaker’s Commentary Reviewed</i>, ’71; <i>The +Development of Creation on the Earth</i>, ’74; <i>The Legends of +the Old Testament</i>, ’74; and <i>The Sources and Development of +Christianity</i>, ’75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, +he died at Norwood, 4 Sept. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Strauss</b> (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg +(Wurtemburg), 27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at Tübengen, was +ordained in ’30, and in ’32 became assistant-teacher. His +<i>Life of Jesus Critically Treated</i>, ’35, in which he shows +the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused much controversy, and he +was deprived of his position. In ’39 the Zürich Government +appointed him professor of church history, but they were obliged to +repeal their decision before the storm of Christian indignation. His +next important work was on the <i>Christian Doctrines</i> (2 vols.), +’40. In ’47 he wrote on <i>Julian the Apostle</i>, and in +’58 an account of the <i>Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten</i>. +He prepared a <i>New Life of Christ for the German People</i>, +’64, followed by the <i>Christ of the Creeds</i> and the <i>Jesus +of History</i>. In ’70 he published his lectures on +<i>Voltaire</i>, and two years later his last work <i>The Old Faith and +the New</i>, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but +with the belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17843" href="#xd20e17843" name= +"xd20e17843">309</a>]</span>of truth, his mind was always advancing. He +died at his native place, 8 Feb. 1874.</p> +<p><b>Strindberg</b> (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the +Scandinavian Rousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published +many prominent rationalistic works, as <i>The Red Chamber</i> and +<i>Marriage</i>. The latter was confiscated. He is one of the most +popular poets and novelists in Sweden.</p> +<p><b>Stromer</b> (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured +on astronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote +<i>Confessions of a Freethinker</i>. Died 1887.</p> +<p><b>Strozzi</b> (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. +of noble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned +it for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry +II. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June 1558, +and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus, he calmly +declared himself an Atheist.</p> +<p><b>Suard</b> (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. +Besançon, 15 Jan, 1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron +d’Holbach and of Garat, and corresponded with Hume and Walpole. +He wrote <i>Miscellanies of Literature</i>, etc. He had the post of +censor of theatres. Died at Paris 20 July, 1817.</p> +<p><b>Sue</b> (Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. +Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which <i>The Mysteries +of Paris</i> and <i>The Wandering Jew</i>, ’42–45, were the +most popular. In ’50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme +left, but was exiled by the <i lang="fr">coup d’etat</i>. He died +as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.</p> +<p><b>Sullivan</b> (J.), author of <i>Search for Deity</i>, an inquiry +as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).</p> +<p id="sullyprudhomme"><b>Sully Prudhomme</b> (Renè +François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He +studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In +’78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in ’82 member of +the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of +philosophical suggestion.</p> +<p><b>Sunderland</b> (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter +(Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was +prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17902" href="#xd20e17902" name= +"xd20e17902">310</a>]</span>He came out of the Church as the great +bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years +preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, +’47; <i>Book of Human Nature</i>, ’53, and <i>Ideology</i>, +3 vols., ’86–9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Suttner</b> (Bertha von), <i>Baroness</i>, Austrian author of +<i>Inventory of a Soul</i>, 1886, and of several novels.</p> +<p><b>Sutton</b> (Henry S.), anonymous author of <i>Quinquenergia</i>; +or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, and <i>Letters from a +Father to a Son on Revealed Religion</i>.</p> +<p><b>Swinburne</b> (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. +London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where +he spent some time with W. S. Landor. <i>Atalanta in Calydon</i>, a +splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. +<i>Poems and Ballads</i>, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical +passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In his <i>Songs before +Sunrise</i>, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with +unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward +many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, +studies, and prose miscellanies.</p> +<p><b>Symes</b> (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 +Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In ’64 he offered himself +as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, +Richmond, and in ’67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to +doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in ’72, preached his first open +Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. ’76. Had several +debates, wrote <i>Philosophic Atheism</i>, <i>Man’s Place in +Nature</i>, <i>Hospitals not of Christian Origin</i>, <i>Christianity a +Persecuting Religion</i>, <i>Blows at the Bible</i>, etc. He +contributed to the <i>Freethinker</i>, and was ready to conduct it +during Mr. Foote’s imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. +’83, and there established the <i>Liberator</i>, and has written +<i>Life and Death of My Religion</i>, ’84; <i>Christianity and +Slavery</i>, <i>Phallic Worship</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Symonds</b> (John Addington), English poet and author, b. +Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in +’62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his +marriage. His chief work is on the <i>Renaissance in <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e17984" href="#xd20e17984" name= +"xd20e17984">311</a>]</span>Italy</i>, 7 vols., completed in ’86. +He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health +compels his living abroad.</p> +<p><b>Taine</b> (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of +letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon +(now the Condorcet Lyceum), in ’53 he took the degree of Doctor +of Letters. In ’56 appears his <i>French Philosophers of the +Nineteenth Century</i>, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist +and religious school. He came to England and studied English +Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy +prize, ’63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on +account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote on <i>English +Positivism</i>, a study of J. S. Mill. In ’71 Oxford made him +D.C.L., and in Nov. ’78, he was elected to the French Academy; +his latest work is <i>The Origins of Contemporary France</i>.</p> +<p><b>Talandier</b> (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. +1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in +the revolution of ’48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to +England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated +Smiles’s Self-Help, and wrote in the <i>National Reformer</i>. +Returned to Paris in ’70 and became professor at the Lycée +Henri IV. In ’74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the +Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and +was re-elected in ’81. In ’83 he published a <i>Popular +Rabelais</i> and has written in <i>Our Corner</i> on that great +Freethinker.</p> +<p><b>Taubert</b> (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann’s first +wife. She wrote <i>The Pessimists and their Opponents</i>, 1873.</p> +<p><b>Taule</b> (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of <i>Notions +on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter</i>. Paris, 1866.</p> +<p><b>Taurellus</b> (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. +Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and +Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how the <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e18032" title= +"Source: Aristotlelian">Aristotelian</span> doctrine of the eternity of +the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was +stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of +which is <i lang="la">Philosophiæ Triumphans</i>, 1573. He died +of the plague 28 Sept. 1606. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18038" +href="#xd20e18038" name="xd20e18038">312</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Taylor</b> (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. +Edmonton<span class="corr" id="xd20e18043" title= +"Not in source">,</span> 18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy’s +and St. Thomas’s Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded +to join the Church, he entered St. John’s, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, +in Jan. ’13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He +was curate at Midhurst till ’18, when he first became sceptical +through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah +which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and +published <i>The Clerical Review</i> and started “The Society of +Universal Benevolence.” In ’24 he came to London and +started “The Christian Evidence Society,” and delivered +discourses with discussion; also edited the <i>Philalethian</i>. In +’27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able +defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. ’28 sentenced to one +year’s imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote his +<i>Syntagma</i> on the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work, +<i>The Diegesis</i>, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and +early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter to +<i>The Lion</i>, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his +liberation they both went on “an infidel mission” about the +country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where +Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in +<i>The Devil’s Pulpit</i>. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 +July, ’31, was sentenced to two year’s imprisonment. He was +badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady +and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.</p> +<p><b>Taylor</b> (Thomas), known as “The Platonist,” b. +London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of +the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, +Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on +the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of +Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to +have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died +in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.</p> +<p><b>Taylor</b> (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an +acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations +from the German, notably Lessing’s <i>Nathan <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18075" href="#xd20e18075" name= +"xd20e18075">313</a>]</span>the Wise</i>, brought him some repute. He +also wrote a <i>Survey of German Poetry</i> and <i>English +Synonyms</i>, 1830. He edited the Norwich <i>Iris</i>, 1802, which he +made the organ of his political and religions views. In ’10 he +published anonymously <i>A Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of +Luke</i>, also entitled <i>Who was the Father of Jesus Christ</i>? +1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. +Also wrote largely in the <i>Monthly Review</i>, replying therein to +the Abbé Barruel; and the <i>Critical Review</i> when edited by +Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. +Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.</p> +<p><b>Tchernychewsky</b> (N. G.) See <a href= +"#chernuishevsky">Chernuishevsky</a>.</p> +<p>“<b>Tela</b> (Josephus),” the Latinised name of Joseph +Webbe who in 1818 edited the <i>Philosophical Library</i>, containing +the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., +and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the +production of <i>Ecce Homo</i>, ’13. Cushing, in his <i>Initials +and Pseudonyms</i>, refers Tela to “Joseph Webb,” +1735–87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in +America; died in Boston.” I am not satisfied that this is the +same person.</p> +<p><b>Telesio</b> (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family +at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his +learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote +in Latin <i>On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles</i>, +1565. He opposed the <span class="corr" id="xd20e18128" title= +"Source: Aristotleian">Aristotelian</span> doctrine in physics, and +employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was +prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in +the <i>Index</i>, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, +1590.</p> +<p><b>Telle</b> (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. +Zierikzee, 1578. He translated Servetus <i>On the Errors of the +Trinity</i>, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.</p> +<p><b>Testa</b> (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious +<i>Storia di Gesù di Nazareth</i>, 1870, in which he maintains +that Jesus was the son of <span class="corr" id="xd20e18148" title= +"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span> Pandera, a Calabrian of +Brindisi.</p> +<p><b>Thaer</b> (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 +May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18155" href="#xd20e18155" name= +"xd20e18155">314</a>]</span>inspired Lessing’s work on <i>The +Education of the Human Race</i>. Died 28 Oct. 1828.</p> +<p><b>Theodorus</b> of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions +resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his +native city. He resided at Athens about 312 <span class= +"sc">B.C.</span> When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered +little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.</p> +<p><b>Theophile de Viau</b>, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For +the alleged publication of <i>Le Parnasse Satyriques</i>, he was +accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, +and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, +25 Sept. 1626.</p> +<p><b>Thompson</b> (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on +<i>The Problem of Evil</i>, ’87; <i>The Religious Sentiments</i>, +etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.</p> +<p><b>Thomson</b> (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. +Went to sea in ’49 and became a merchant captain in ’57, +and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna +he started a Utilitarian Society in ’88, of which he is +president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his +Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote +and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in +the conduct of <i>Fritänkaren</i>.</p> +<p><b>Thomson</b> (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. +1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a +schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he +afterwards assisted on the <i>National Reformer</i>. To this paper he +contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including +his famous “City of Dreadful Night,” the most powerful +pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, ’74, afterwards +published with other poems in ’80). “Vane’s +Story” with other poems was issued in ’81, and “A +Voice from the Nile,” and “Shelley” (privately +printed in ’84). Thomson also contributed to the +<i>Secularist</i> and <i>Liberal</i>, edited by his friend Foote, who +has published many of his articles in a volume entitled <i>Satires and +Profanities</i>, which includes “The Story of a Famous Old Jewish +Firm,” also published separately. Thomson employed much of his +genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18208" href="#xd20e18208" name= +"xd20e18208">315</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Thomson</b> (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author +of <i>The Distribution of Wealth</i>, 1824; <i>Appeal for Women</i>, +’25; <i>Labor Reward</i>, ’27, and in the <i>Co-operative +Magazine</i>.</p> +<p><b>Thorild</b> (Thomas), or <span class="sc">Thoren</span>, Swedish +writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in +1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous +pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wrote +<i>Cromwell</i>, an epic poem. In 1786 he wrote <i>Common Sense on +Liberty</i>, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was +a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was +imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a <i>Sermon of Sermons</i>, +attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died +at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, +and is now becoming appreciated.</p> +<p><b>Thulie</b> (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and +anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In ’56 he founded a journal, +“Realism.” In ’66 he published a work on <i>Madness +and the Law</i>. He contributed to <i>La Pensée Nouvelle</i>, +defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study, +<i>La Femme</i>, Woman, published in ’85. M. Thulie has been +President of the Paris Municipal Council.</p> +<p><b>Tiele</b> (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. +1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the +service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in +editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, ’68. He has +written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works +have been translated into English, viz., <i>Outlines of the History of +Religion</i>, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. +’88; and <i>Comparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian +Religions</i>, ’82.</p> +<p><b>Tillier</b> (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, +11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling +pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, +of which we note <i>My Uncle Benjamin</i>. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. +1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.</p> +<p><b>Tindal</b> (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, +Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was +induced to turn Romanist in the reign of <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e18275" href="#xd20e18275" name="xd20e18275">316</a>]</span>James +II., but returned to Protestantism and wrote <i>The Rights of the +Christian Church</i>. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who +even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to +be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he published <i>Christianity +as Old as the Creation</i>, to which no less than 150 answers were +published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in +MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.</p> +<p><b>Toland</b> (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, +30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early +youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and +proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. +He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and +became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the +orthodox with his <i>Christianity not Mysterious</i>, which was +“presented” by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by +the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, +Sept. 1697. He wrote a <i>Life of Milton</i> (1698), in which, +mentioning <i>Eikon Basilike</i>, he referred to the +“suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and +other great persons.” For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall +before Parliament. He replied with <i>Amytor</i>, in which he gives a +catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the +Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote <i>Letters to Serena</i> (1704), +which, says Lange, “handles the kernel of the whole question of +Materialism.” In 1709 he published <i>Adeisidænon</i> and +<i>Origines Judaicæ</i>. In 1718 <i>Nazarenus</i>, on Jewish, +Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the +Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitled +<i>Tetradymus</i> and <i>Pantheisticon</i>, which described a society +of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland +died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. +Lange praises him highly.</p> +<p><b>Tollemache</b> (<i>Hon.</i> Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron +Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many +articles in <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, reprinted (privately) as +<i>Stones of Stumbling</i>, ’84. Has also written <i>Safe +Studies</i>, ’84; <i>Recollections of Pallison</i>, ’85; +and <i>Mr. Romanes’s Catechism</i>, ’87. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18342" href="#xd20e18342" name= +"xd20e18342">317</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Tone</b> (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, +1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in +1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept +relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the +French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken +prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.</p> +<p><b>Topinard</b> (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam +1830. Editor of the <i lang="fr">Revue d’Anthropologie</i>, and +author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of +Contemporary Science.</p> +<p><b>Toulmin</b> (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of +<i>The Antiquity and Duration of the World</i>, 1785; <i>The Eternity +of the Universe</i>, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.</p> +<p><b>Tournai</b> (Simon de). See <a href="#simon">Simon</a>.</p> +<p><b>Traina</b> (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on <i>The +Ethics of Herbert Spencer</i>, Turin, 1881.</p> +<p><b>Travis</b> (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested +himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend +and literary executor to Robert Owen. In ’51–53 he edited +<i>Robert Owen’s Journal</i>. He also wrote on <i>Effectual +Reform</i>, <i>Free Will and Law</i>, <i>Moral Freedom and +Causation</i>, and <i>A Manual of Social Science</i>, and contributed +to the <i>National Reformer</i>. Died 4 Feb. 1884.</p> +<p><b>Trelawny</b> (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became +intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in +August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married +a daughter of a Greek chief. He wrote <i>Adventures of a Younger +Son</i>, ’31; and <i>Records of Shelley, Byron, and the +Author</i>, ’78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, +his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was +a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. +Swinburne calls him “World-wide liberty’s lifelong +lover.”</p> +<p><b>Trenchard</b> (John), English Deist and political writer, b. +Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was +appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction +with Gordon he wrote <i>Cato’s Letters</i> on civil and +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18418" href="#xd20e18418" name= +"xd20e18418">318</a>]</span>religious liberty, and conducted <i>The +Independent Whig</i>. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for +Taunton; he also wrote the <i>Natural History of Superstition</i>, +1709; but <i lang="fr">La Contagion Sacree</i>, attributed to him, is +really by d’Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.</p> +<p><b>Trevelyan</b> (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e18433" title="Not in source">.</span>, a writer in the +<i>Reasoner</i> and <i>National Reformer</i>. Published <i>The Insanity +of Mankind</i> (Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a +Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 +Feb. 1878.</p> +<p><b>Trezza</b> (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was +brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study +led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions +of a Sceptic, ’78; Critical Studies, ’78; New Critical +Studies, ’81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of +High Studies, Florence. To the first number of the <i lang="fr">Revue +Internationale</i> ’83, he contributed <i lang="fr">Les Dieux +s’en vont</i>. He also wrote Religion and Religions, ’84; +and a <span class="corr" id="xd20e18455" title= +"Source: Monk">work</span> on St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has +reached its third edition, ’87.</p> +<p><b>Tridon</b> (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon +sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were +rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In ’64 he +published in <i lang="fr">Le Journal des Ecoles</i>, his remarkable +study of revolutionary history <i lang="fr">Les Hébertistes</i>. +In May, ’65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., <i lang="fr">Le +Candide</i>, the precursor of <i lang="fr">La Libre Pensée</i>, +’66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were +expounded. Delegated in ’65 to the International Students +Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop +Dupanloup; he got more than two years’ imprisonment for articles +in <i lang="fr">Le Candide</i> and <i lang="fr">La Libre +Pensée</i>, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which +killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his work +<i lang="fr">Du Molochisme Juif</i>, critical and philosophical studies +of the Jewish religion, only published in ’84. After 4 Sept. +’70, he founded <i>La Patrie en Danger</i>. In Feb. ’71 he +was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting +against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris +Commune, retiring after <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18488" href= +"#xd20e18488" name="xd20e18488">319</a>]</span>the collapse to Brussels +where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid +Freethinker’s funeral witnessed in Belgium.</p> +<p><b>Truebner</b> (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. +After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and +distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, +philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Truelove</b> (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early +in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was +secretary of the John Street Institution. In ’44 and ’45 he +threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In +’52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced +literature. He published Voltaire’s <i>Philosophical +Dictionary</i> and <i>Romances</i>, Paine’s complete works, +D’Holbach’s <i>System of Nature</i>, and Taylor’s +<i>Syntagma</i> and <i>Diegesis</i>. In ’58 he was prosecuted for +publishing a pamphlet on <i>Tyrannicide</i>, by W. E. Adams, but the +prosecution was abandoned. In ’78 he was, after two trials, +sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for publishing R. D. +Owen’s <i>Moral Physiology</i>. Upon his release he was presented +with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.</p> +<p><b>Trumbull</b> (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, +b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army +in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him +Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and +then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted +himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.</p> +<p><b>Tschirnhausen</b> (Walthier Ehrenfried), German <i>Count</i>, b. +1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a +follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.</p> +<p><b>Tucker</b> (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., +17 April, 1854. Edits <i>Liberty</i>, of Boston.</p> +<p><b>Turbiglio</b> (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 +July, <span class="corr" id="xd20e18542" title= +"Source: 1642">1842</span>, author of a work on <i>Spinoza and the +Transformation of his Thoughts</i>, 1875.</p> +<p><b><span class="corr" id="xd20e18550" title= +"Source: Turgeuev">Turgenev</span></b> (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian +novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels, <i>Fathers and Sons</i> +and <i>Virgin Soil</i> <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18559" href= +"#xd20e18559" name="xd20e18559">320</a>]</span>he has depicted +characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 +Sept. 1883.</p> +<p><b>Turner</b> (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name +of William Hammon, published an <i>Answer to Dr. Priestley’s +Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever</i>, 1782, in which he avows +himself an Atheist.</p> +<p><b>Tuuk</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e18572" title= +"Source: Tilia">Titia</span>, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. +1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of +the editors of <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>.</p> +<p><b>Twesten</b> (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e18582" title="Source: Krel">Kiel</span>, 22 April, +1820. Studied law, ’38–41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and +became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National +Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of +Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), ’72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. +1870.</p> +<p><b>Tylor</b> (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English +anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to +the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority +upon the subject. He has wrote <i>Anahuac</i>, or Mexico and the +Mexicans, ’61; <i>Researches into the Early History of +Mankind</i>, ’65; <i>Primitive Culture</i>; being researches into +the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 +vols.), ’71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, +the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook of +<i>Anthropology</i>, an introduction to the Study of Man and +Civilisation, ’81; and contributed to the <i>Encyclopædia +Britannica</i>, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of +the Anthropological Society.</p> +<p><b>Tyndall</b> (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near +Carlow, 1820. In ’47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College +(Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In ’56 he went +to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on +glaciers. He contributed to the <i>Fortnightly Review</i>, notably an +article on Miracles and Special Providence, ’66. In ’72 he +went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was +president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a +great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific +works he has <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18612" href= +"#xd20e18612" name="xd20e18612">321</a>]</span>published popular +<i>Fragments of Science</i>, which has gone through several +editions.</p> +<p><b>Tyrell</b> (Henry). See <a href="#church">Church</a>.</p> +<p id="tyssotdepatot"><b>Tyssot de Patot</b> (Simon), b. of French +family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. +Under the pen name of “Jacques Massé” he published +<i>Voyages and Adventures</i>, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic +and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. +Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.</p> +<p><b>Ueberweg</b> (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 +Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor +of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief +work is a <i>History of Philosophy</i>. Lange cites Czolbe as saying +“He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and +Materialist.”</p> +<p><b>Uhlich</b> (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious +reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a +preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and +founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures +defending his opinions. His <i>Religion of Common Sense</i> has been +translated and published in America. Died at <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e18645" title="Source: Madgeburg">Magdeburg</span>, 23 March, +1872.</p> +<p><b>Ule</b> (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. +Studied at Halle and Berlin. In ’52 he started the journal <i>Die +Natur</i>, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 +Aug. 1876.</p> +<p><b>Underwood</b> (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New +York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. +He fought at Ball’s Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. ’61, was +wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In ’81 he +edited the <i>Index</i> in conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in +’87 started <i>The Open Court</i> at Chicago. He has had numerous +debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being +published. He has also published <i>Essays and Lectures</i>, <i>The +Religion of Materialism</i>, <i>Influence of Christianity on +Civilisation</i>, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written <i>Heroines of +Freethought</i>, New York, 1876.</p> +<p><b>Vacherot</b> (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. +In ’39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18682" href="#xd20e18682" name= +"xd20e18682">322</a>]</span>at the Sorbonne. For his free opinions +expressed in his <i>Critical History of the School of Alexandria</i>, a +work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, ’46–51, he +was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He +afterwards wrote <i>Essays of Critical Philosophy</i>, ’64, and +<i>La Religion</i>, ’69.</p> +<p><b>Vacquerie</b> (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A +friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, +and was director of <i>Le Rappel</i>.</p> +<p><b>Vaillant</b> (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 +Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took +part in the Commune, and in ’84 was elected Muncipal Councillor +of Paris.</p> +<p id="vairasse"><b>Vairasse</b> (Denis) d’Alais, French writer +of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author +of <i>Histoire des Sevarambes</i>, 1677; imaginary travels in which he +introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.</p> +<p><b>Vale</b> (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for +the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he +edited the <i>Citizen of the World</i> and the <i>Beacon</i>. He +published <i>Fanaticism; its Source and Influence</i>, N.Y. 1835, and a +<i>Life of Paine</i>, ’41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.</p> +<p><b>Valk</b> (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being +a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> between 1860–70, using the pen name +of “Thomas.”</p> +<p><b>Valla</b> (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having +hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was +condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. +Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him +to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.</p> +<p><b>Vallee</b> (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote +<i lang="fr">La Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le +Fléo de la Foy</i>, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and +hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.</p> +<p><b>Valliss</b> (Rudolph), German author of works on <i>The Natural +History of Gods</i> (Leip., 1875); <i>The Eternity of the World</i>, +’75; <i>Catechism of Human Duty</i>, ’76, etc. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18759" href="#xd20e18759" name= +"xd20e18759">323</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Van Cauberg</b> (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders +and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died +1886.</p> +<p><b>Van Effen.</b> See <a href="#effen">Effen</a>.</p> +<p><b>Vanini</b> (Lucilio, afterwards <span class="sc">Julius +Cæsar</span>), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano +(Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the +Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and +France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic +opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his +track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in +1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and +published a Pantheistic work in Latin <i>On the Admirable Secrets of +Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals</i>. It was condemned by the +Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no +repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his +scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body +burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. +1619. President Gramond, author of <i>History of France under Louis +XIII.</i>, writes “I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to +execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to +repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. +‘<i>He</i> sweated with fear and weakness, and I die +undaunted.’”</p> +<p><b>Vapereau</b> (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 +April, 1819. In ’41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He +collaborated on the <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire des Sciences +Philosophiques</i> and the <i lang="fr">Liberté de Penser</i>, +but is best known by his useful <i lang="fr">Dictionnaire Universel des +Contemporains</i>. In ’70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but +on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in +’73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a <i>Universal +Dictionary of Writers</i>, ’76, and <i>Elements of the History of +French Literature</i>, 1883–85.</p> +<p id="varnhagenvonense"><b>Varnhagen von Ense</b> (Earl August Ludwig +Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied +medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and +served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of +Alex. von Humboldt, and shared his <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e18810" href="#xd20e18810" name= +"xd20e18810">324</a>]</span>Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 +Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in his +<i>Diary</i>.</p> +<p id="vauvenargues"><b>Vauvenargues</b> (Luc de <span class= +"sc">Clapiers</span>), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. +At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined +health in 1743. He published in 1746 an <i>Introduction to the +Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims</i>, +which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 +May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously +suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.</p> +<p><b>Velthuysen</b> (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He +wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, +<i lang="la">De Officio Pastorum</i> and <i lang="la">De Idolatria et +Superstitione</i> were proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off +with a fine. Died 1685.</p> +<p><b>Venetianer</b> (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of <i>Der +Allgeist</i>, 1874, and a work on <i>Schopenhauer as a +Scholastic</i>.</p> +<p><b>Vereschagin</b> (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He +studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and +has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of +his <i>Holy Family</i> and <i>Resurrection</i> were the cause of their +being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. ’85, by order +of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into +English, ’87, he shows his free opinions.</p> +<p><b>Vergniaud</b> (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. +Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected +to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the +Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the +people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and +Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being +beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. +Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: “Reason thinks, +Religion dreams.” He had prepared poison for himself, but as +there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with +them.</p> +<p><b>Verlet</b> (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18864" href="#xd20e18864" name= +"xd20e18864">325</a>]</span><i>La Libre Pensée</i>, 1871, and +author of a pamphlet on <i>Atheism and the Supreme Being</i>.</p> +<p><b>Verliere</b> (Alfred), French author of a <i lang="fr">Guide du +Libre-Penseur</i> (Paris, 1869); collaborated <i lang="fr">La Libre +Pensée</i>, <i lang="fr">Rationaliste</i>, etc. To Bishop +Dupanloup’s <i lang="fr"><span class="corr" id="xd20e18885" +title="Source: Atheisme">Athéisme</span> et Peril Social</i> he +replied with <i lang="fr">Deisme et Peril Social</i>, for which he was +condemned to several months’ imprisonment.</p> +<p><b>Vermersch</b> (Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about +1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical +papers.</p> +<p><b>Vernes</b> (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has +published <i lang="fr">Melanges de Critique Religieuse</i>, and +translated from Kuenen and Tiele.</p> +<p><b>Veron</b> (Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, +29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, founded <i lang="fr">La France +Republicaine</i> at Lyons, and <i lang="fr">l’Art</i> at Paris. +Besides historical works he has written <i lang= +"fr">L’Esthetique</i> in the “Library of Contemporary +Science,” ’78; <i>The Natural History of Religions</i>, 2 +vols., in the <span lang="fr">Bibliothèque Materialiste</span>, +’84; and <i lang="fr">La Morale</i>, ’84.</p> +<p><b>Viardot</b> (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, +1800<span class="corr" id="xd20e18930" title="Not in source">. +He</span> came to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in +Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on the <i lang="fr">Globe +National</i> and <i lang="fr">Siècle</i>. In ’41 he +founded the <i lang="fr">Revue Independante</i> with “George +Sand,” and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, +and in addition to many works on art he wrote <i>The Jesuits</i>, +’57; <i>Apology of an Unbeliever</i>, translated into English, +’69, and republished as <i lang="fr">Libre Examen</i>, ’71. +Died 1883.</p> +<p><b>Vico</b> (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples +1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, +and published a <i>New Science of the Common Nature of Nations</i>, +1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by +immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 +Jan. 1743.</p> +<p><b>Virchow</b> (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein +<span class="corr" id="xd20e18964" title= +"Source: Ponnerania">Pomerania</span>, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine +at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of +’48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. His +<i>Cellular Pathology</i>, ’58, established his reputation. He +was chosen <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e18970" href="#xd20e18970" +name="xd20e18970">326</a>]</span>deputy and rose to the leadership of +the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he +opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.</p> +<p><b>Vischer</b> (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. +Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a +minister, but renounced theology and became professor of <span class= +"gap" title= +"Missing one or more lines, for the following reason: missing in source."> +[<i>missing text</i>]</span> and is <i lang="de">Jahrbücher der +Gegenwart</i>, ’44, was accused of blasphemy and for his +Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of +’48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In ’55 he +became Professor at Zürich. His work on <i>Æsthetic</i>, or +the Science of the Beautiful, ’46–54, is considered +classic. He has also written, <i>Old and New</i>, ’81, and +several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Vitry</b> (Guarin de) French author of a <i>Rapid Examination of +Christian Dogma</i>, addressed to the Council of 1869.</p> +<p><b>Vloten</b> (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; +studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in ’43. He has, +however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, +translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his +life—translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited also +<i lang="nl">De Levensbode</i>, 1865, etc.</p> +<p><b>Voelkel</b> (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz +(Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e19005" title="Not in source">’</span>59–65) theology, +natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He +returned ’70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher +schools. Since ’80 has been “sprecher” of Freethought +associations and since ’85 editor of the <i lang="de">Neues +<span class="corr" id="xd20e19010" title= +"Source: Freireligioses">Freireligiöses</span> Sonntags-Blatt</i>, +at <span class="corr" id="xd20e19014" title= +"Source: Magdenburg">Magdeburg</span>. In ’88 he was several +times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented +several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, +’89.</p> +<p><b>Voglet</b> (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was +blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in +consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his +own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared in <i lang= +"fr">La Tribune du Peuple</i>, which he edited.</p> +<p><b>Vogt</b> (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the +son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19028" href="#xd20e19028" name= +"xd20e19028">327</a>]</span>became acquainted with Agassiz. In +’48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of +his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. +His lectures on <i>Man, His Position in Creation and in the History of +the Earth</i>, ’63, made a sensation by their endorsement of +Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the +Anthropological Society. He has also written a <i>Manual of +Geology</i>, <i>Physiological Letters</i>, <i>Zoological Letters</i>, +<i>Blind Faith and Science</i>, etc., and has contributed to the +leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.</p> +<p><b>Volkmar</b> (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. +Studied at Marburg ’29–32; became <i>privat docent</i> at +Zurich, ’53, and professor ’63. He has written rationalist +works on the Gospel of Marcion, ’52; Justin Martyr, ’53; +the <i>Origin of the Gospels</i>, ’66; <i>Jesus and the first +Christian Ages</i>, ’82, etc.</p> +<p id="volney"><b>Volney</b> (Constantin François <span class= +"sc">Chassebouf</span> de), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) +3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in +1774. Here he met D’Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for +Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made +Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the +Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of +landed property. In 1791 his eloquent <i>Ruins</i> appeared. During the +Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In ’95 he visited +America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in +the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when +he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his +other works was a <i>History of Samuel</i> and the <i>Law of +Nature</i>. Died 25 April, 1820.</p> +<p id="voltaire"><b>Voltaire</b> (François Marie. <span class= +"sc">Arouet</span> de), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. +Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished +himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV +he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed +again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he +came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became +acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His <i lang="fr">Lettres +Philosophiques</i> translated as “Letters on the English,” +1732, <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19085" href="#xd20e19085" +name="xd20e19085">328</a>]</span>gave great offence to the clergy and +was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the +Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We +may mention <i>Mahomet</i>, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to +see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 +he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But +he could not help laughing at the great king’s poetry. The last +twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan +territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He +did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other +relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last +he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His +works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty +works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one +hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the +clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, +1778.</p> +<p><b>Voo</b> (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more +than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French +language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many +articles to <i lang="fr">De Dageraad</i>.</p> +<p><b>Vosmaer</b> (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. +Studied law at Leyden. He edited the <i lang="fr">Tydstroom</i> +(1858–9) and <i>Spectator</i> (1860–73), and wrote several +works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e19108" title="Source: Montreaux">Montreux</span> (Switzerland), +12 June, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Voysey</b> (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. +Graduated B.A. at Oxford, ’51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, +’64–71, and deprived 11 Feb. ’71 for heresy in +sermons published in <i>The Sling and the Stone</i>. He has since +established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his +sermons are regularly published. He has also issued <i>Fragments from +Reimarus</i>, ’79, edited <i>The Langham Magazine</i> and +published <i>Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Vulpian</b> (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. +1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at +the School of Medicine, ’69, was violently opposed <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19131" href="#xd20e19131" name= +"xd20e19131">329</a>]</span>on account of his Atheism. He was +afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Wagner</b> (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, +b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From ’42–49 he was conductor of +the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his +exile to Switzerland, where he produced his “Lohengrin.” In +’64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many +fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should +aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed +himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.</p> +<p><b>Waite</b> (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, +N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted +to the Bar in ’47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was +appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In +’81 he issued his <i>History of the Christian Religion to the +year <span class="sc">A.D.</span> 200</i>, a rationalistic work, which +explodes the evangelical narratives.</p> +<p><b>Wakeman</b> (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 +Dec. 1834, was one of the editors of <i>Man</i> and a president of the +New York Liberal Club. A contributor to the <i>Freethinkers’ +Magazine</i>.</p> +<p><b>Walferdin</b> (François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, +1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of +science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He +published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in ’57, and left +the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.</p> +<p><b>Walker</b> (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of <i>Is the Bible +True?</i> and <i>What is Blasphemy?</i> 1843.</p> +<p><b>Walker</b> (Edwin C.), editor of <i>Lucifer</i> and <i>Fair +Play</i>, Valley Falls, Kansas.</p> +<p><b>Walker</b> (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. +Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In +’77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, +Melbourne. In ’82 he started the Australian Secular Association, +of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In +’85 he was convicted for lecturing <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e19185" href="#xd20e19185" name="xd20e19185">330</a>]</span>on +Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In +’87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President +of Australian Freethought Union.</p> +<p><b>Walser</b> (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. +Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature +of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to +try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or +drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a +Freethought University.</p> +<p><b>Ward</b> (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, +18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and +was wounded. In ’65 he settled at Washington and became librarian +of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and +fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on +paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled +<i>Dynamic Sociology</i>. He has contributed <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e19199" title="Not in source">to</span> the <i>Popular Science +Monthly</i>.</p> +<p><b>Ward</b> (Mary A.), translator of <i>Amiel’s Journal</i>, +and authoress of a popular novel <i>Robert Elsmere</i>, 1888.</p> +<p><b>Warren</b> (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took +an active part in Robert Owen’s communistic experiment at New +Harmony, Indiana, in ’25–6. His own ideas he illustrated by +establishing a “time store” at Cincinnati. His views are +given in a work entitled <i>True Civilisation</i>. Died Boston, Mass. +14 April, 1874.</p> +<p><b>Washburn</b> (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, +Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In ’57 he went to Barre. Was +sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, +Feb. ’70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, +and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he +organised the first Freethought Society in the State. He <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e19226" title="Source: aftewards">afterwards</span> +resided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which +several have been published. He now edits the <i>Boston +Investigator</i>.</p> +<p><b>Waters</b> (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of <i>Rome v. +Reason</i>, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.</p> +<p><b>Watson</b> (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton +(Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his +shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London to <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19243" href="#xd20e19243" name= +"xd20e19243">331</a>]</span>Leeds. In Feb. ’23 he was arrested +for selling Palmer’s <i>Principles of Nature</i>, tried 23 April, +and sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, during which he +read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor +on the <i>Republican</i>. In ’31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type +and presses, and he issued Volney’s <i>Lectures on History</i>. +In Feb. ’33 he was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment +for selling <i>The Poor Man’s Guardian</i>. Hibbert left him +£450, which he used in printing d’Holbach’s <i>System +of Nature</i>, Volney’s <i>Ruins</i>, F. Wright’s +<i>Lectures</i>, R. D. Owen’s pamphlets, Paine’s works, and +other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.</p> +<p><b>Watson</b> (Thomas), author of <i>The Mystagogue</i>, Leeds, +1847.</p> +<p><b>Watts</b> (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. +Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a +lecturer and assistant editor on the <i>National Reformer</i>. Mr. +Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. +Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the +<i>Secular Review</i> with G. W. Foote, and afterwards <i>Secular +Thought</i> of Toronto. He wrote a portion of <i>The +Freethinker’s Text Book</i>, and has published <i>Christianity: +its Origin, Nature and Influence</i>; <i>The Teachings of Secularism +compared with Orthodox Christianity</i>, and other brochures.</p> +<p><b>Watts</b> (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts +<i>Watts’s Literary Gazette</i> and edits the <i>Agnostic +Annual</i>.</p> +<p><b>Watts</b> (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 +Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to +Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the +<i>Reasoner</i>, and afterwards for a time edited the <i>National +Reformer</i>. He edited <i>Half Hours With Freethinkers</i> with +“Iconoclast,” and published several pamphlets, <i>Logic and +Philosophy of Atheism</i>, <i>Origin of Man</i>, <i>Is Man +Immortal?</i> <i>The Devil</i>, <i>Who were the Writers of the New +Testament</i>, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.</p> +<p><b>Watts</b> (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the <i>Yahoo</i>, a +satire in verse (first published in 1833), also <i>The Great Dragon +Cast Out</i>.</p> +<p><b>Webber</b> (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth +century wrote heretical works <i>On the Temptation of Christ</i> and +<i>The Seduction of Adam and Eve</i>, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he +surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19357" href="#xd20e19357" name= +"xd20e19357">332</a>]</span>wrote <i>The True Origin, Continuance and +Destruction of Satan</i>. Died in 1679.</p> +<p><b>Weber</b> (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, +1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while +in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his +satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of <i>Monkery</i>, +1818–20; <i>Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany</i>, +’26–28; and <i>Demokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a +Laughing Philosopher</i>, ’32–36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, +1832.</p> +<p><b>Weitling</b> (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, +1808. He was a leader of “<span lang="de">Der Bund der +Gerechten</span>,” the League of the Just, and published at +Zürich <i>The Gospel of Poor Sinners</i>. He also wrote +<i>Humanity, As It Is and As It Should Be</i>. He emigrated to America, +where he died 25 Jan. 1871.</p> +<p><b>Wellhausen</b> (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, +studied theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, +Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for his <i>History of Israel</i> in +progress, ’78, etc., and his <i>Prolegomena</i> to the same, and +his contributions to the <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</p> +<p><b>Westbrook</b> (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike +co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in +’40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about +’60, and has since written <i>The Bible: Whence and What?</i> and +<i>Man: Whence and Whither?</i> In ’88 Dr. Westbrook was elected +President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize +for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.</p> +<p><b>Westerman</b> (W. B.) During many years, from 1856–68, an +active co-operator on <i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>.</p> +<p><b>Westra</b> (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for +some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, +“<span lang="nl">De Dageraad</span>.”</p> +<p><b>Wettstein</b> (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 +April, 1838. About ’48 his parents emigrated. In ’58 he set +up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the +<i>Freethinkers’ Magazine</i>, <i>The Ironclad Age</i>, and other +journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.</p> +<p><b>White</b> (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 +Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19439" href="#xd20e19439" name= +"xd20e19439">333</a>]</span>in ’53; travelled in Europe, and in +’57 was elected professor of history and English literature in +the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in +’67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has +largely endowed. Among his works we must mention <i>The Warfare of +Science</i> (N.Y., ’76) and <i>Studies in General History and in +the History of Civilisation</i>, ’85.</p> +<p><b>Whitman</b> (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, +N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, +and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a +volunteer army nurse. His chief work, <i>Leaves of Grass</i>, with its +noble preface, appeared in ’55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as +“the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has +yet contributed.” It was followed by <i>Drum Taps</i>, +<i>November Boughs</i> and <i>Sands at Seventy</i>. This “good +gray poet” has also written prose essays called <i>Democratic +Vietas</i> and <i>Specimen Days and Collect</i>.</p> +<p><b>Wicksell</b> (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, +30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in +’85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, +Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, +as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of +’89.</p> +<p><b>Wieland</b> (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. +near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the +Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice <i>Dialogues of the +Gods</i>, <i>Agathon</i>, a novel, and <i>Euthanasia</i>, in which he +argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and +Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were “To +be or not to be.”</p> +<p><b>Wiener</b> (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic +work on the <i>Elements of Natural Laws</i>, 1863.</p> +<p><b>Wiessner</b> (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination +of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).</p> +<p><b>Wigand</b> (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, +10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he +issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other +Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870. <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e19503" href="#xd20e19503" name="xd20e19503">334</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Wightman</b> (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of +Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last +person burnt for heresy in England.</p> +<p><b>Wihl</b> (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, +16 Jan. 1882.</p> +<p><b>Wilbrandt</b> (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. +Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of +Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mention +<i>Giordano Bruno</i>, 1874, and also some novels.</p> +<p><b>Wilhelmi</b> (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of +<i>Vortrage</i>, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris +Congress of ’89.</p> +<p><b>Wilkinson</b> (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with +Squire Farrah an able <i>Examination of Dr. Godwin’s Arguments +for the Existence of God</i>, published at Bradford, 1853.</p> +<p><b>Williams</b> (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He +became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of +<i>Sermons on Religious Hypocrisy</i>, 1774, dissolved the connections. +In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a +<i>Liturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality</i>, +which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish +Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational +works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 +June, 1816.</p> +<p><b>Willis</b> (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He +studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came +to London, and in ’23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the +College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of +Spinoza, ’70, and <i>Servetus and Calvin</i>, ’77. He also +wrote on <i>The Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the +Science and Moral Senses of our Age</i>, and <i>A Dialogue by Way of +Catechism</i>, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. +1878.</p> +<p><b>Wilson</b> (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of +<i>Thoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics</i>, 1885.</p> +<p><b>Wirmarsius</b> (Henrik), Dutch author of <i>Den Ingebeelde +Chaos</i>, 1710.</p> +<p><b>Wislicenus</b> (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19575" href="#xd20e19575" name= +"xd20e19575">335</a>]</span>20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, +and became a minister, but in consequence of his work <i>Letter or +Spirit</i> (1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For +his work on <i>The Bible in the Light of Modern Culture</i> he was, in +Sept. ’53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, +and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in +’56, and stayed in Zürich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His +chief work, <i>The Bible for Thinking Readers</i>, was published at +Leipsic in ’63.</p> +<p><b>Wittichius</b> (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. +Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.</p> +<p><b>Wixon</b> (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the +“Children’s Corner” in the <i>Truthseeker</i>, has +for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and +women’s rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board +of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She +contributes to the <i>Boston Investigator</i>.</p> +<p><b>Wollny</b> (Dr. F.), German author of <i>Principles of +Psychology</i> (Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes +himself an Atheist.</p> +<p id="wollstonecraft"><b>Wollstonecraft</b> (Mary), English authoress, +b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled +in London, and began her literary labors with <i>Thoughts on the +Education of Daughters</i>. She also wrote a <i>Vindication of the +Rights of Man</i>, in answer to Burke, and <i>Vindication of the Rights +of Woman</i>. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in +childbirth.</p> +<p><b>Wooley</b> (Milton), Dr., American author of <i>Science of the +Bible</i> 1877; <i>Career of Jesus Christ</i>, ’77; and a +pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.</p> +<p><b>Woolston</b> (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. +He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a +minister. He published in 1705 <i>The Old Apology</i>, which was +followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of +Scripture. In 1726 he began his <i>Six Discourses upon the +Miracles</i>, which were <span class="corr" id="xd20e19640" title= +"Source: assailad">assailed</span> in forcible, homely language. Thirty +thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were +written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced +(March, 1729) to one <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19643" href= +"#xd20e19643" name="xd20e19643">336</a>]</span>year’s +imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died +in prison 29 Jan. 1733.</p> +<p><b>Wright</b> (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, +Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale +College, ’26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the +Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery +Society, and edited the <i>Abolitionist</i> and <i>Commonwealth</i>. He +was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the +<i>Boston Investigator</i>, the <i>Freethinker’s Magazine</i>, +etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. ’85. His funeral oration was +delivered by Col. Ingersoll.</p> +<p><b>Wright</b> (Frances), afterwards <span class= +"sc">D’Arusmont</span>, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. +1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote <i>A Few Days in Athens</i>, in +which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited +the United States, and wrote <i>Views on Society and Manners in +America</i>, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it +with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined +Owen’s experiment; in part edited the <i>New Harmony Gazette</i>, +and afterwards the <i>Free Inquirer</i>. A <i>Course of Popular +Lectures</i> was published at New York in ’29, in which she +boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables +and tracts, and assisted in founding the <i>Boston Investigator</i>. +Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.</p> +<p><b>Wright</b> (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, +Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery +orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote +<i>The Living, Present and the Dead Past</i>. Died Pawtucket, Rhode +Island, 16 Aug. 1870.</p> +<p><b>Wright</b> (Susannah), one of Carlile’s shopwomen. Tried 14 +Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, +in the course of which she was continually interrupted.</p> +<p><b>Wundt</b> (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), +16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at +Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of +physiology at Heidelberg in ’64, and has since held chairs at +Zurich and Leipsic. His principal works <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e19703" href="#xd20e19703" name="xd20e19703">337</a>]</span>are +<i>Principles of Physiological Psychology</i>, ’74; <i>Manual of +Human Physiology</i>; <i>Logic</i>, ’83; <i>Essays</i>, +’85; <i>Ethik</i>, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Wuensch</b> (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, +1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the +Oder, 1828.</p> +<p><b>Wyrouboff</b> (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established +the <i>Revue de Philosophie Positive</i> with Littré, and edited +it with him from 1867–83.</p> +<p><b>Xenophanes</b>, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 +<span class="sc">B.C.</span> He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a +poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in +his own image.</p> +<p><b>Ximines</b> (Augustin Louis), <i>Marquis de</i>, French writer, +b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote +several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.</p> +<p><b>York</b> (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became +a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally +Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California +Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the +States.</p> +<p><b>Yorke</b> (J. F.), author of able <i>Notes on Evolution and +Christianity</i>, London, 1882.</p> +<p><b>Youmans</b> (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. +Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great +student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, +popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and +evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the +“International Scientific Series,” and in ’72 +established the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, in which he wrote +largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Zaborowski Moindrin</b> (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. +La Créche, 1851. Has written on <i>The Antiquity of Man</i>, +’74; <i>Pre-historic Man</i>, ’78; <i>Origin of +Languages</i>, ’79; <i>The Great Apes</i>, ’81; +<i>Scientific Curiosities</i>, ’83.</p> +<p><b>Zambrini</b> (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. +1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature +and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19788" href="#xd20e19788" name= +"xd20e19788">338</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Zarco</b> (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. +1829. Edited <i lang="es">El Siglo XIX</i> and <i lang="es">La +Ilustracion</i>, in which he used the pen-name of “Fortun.” +He was elected to Congress in ’55, and imprisoned by the +reactionaries in ’60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and +President of Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. +1869.</p> +<p><b>Zeller</b> (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar +(Würtemberg), 22 Jan. 1814. Studied theology at Tübingen and +Berlin, became professor at Berne, ’47. He married a daughter of +Baur; gave up theology for philosophy, of which he has been professor +at Berlin since ’72. Has written a memoir of Strauss, ’74; +<i>Outlines of the History of Greek Philosophy</i>, ’83; +<i>Frederick the Great as a Philosopher</i>, ’86; and other +important works.</p> +<p><b>Zijde</b> (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, +1838. Has been teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten +Bergen he wrote <i>The Devil’s Burial</i>, 1874. Besides this he +has written many literary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and +German at Zaandam.</p> +<p><b>Zimmern</b> (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in +England since ’50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of +Schopenhauer and Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi’s <i>Shah +Nahmeh</i>.</p> +<p><b>Zola</b> (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 +April, 1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as <i>Les +Rougon Macquart</i>, he made himself the leader of the +“naturalist” school, which claims to treat fiction +scientifically, representing life as it is without the ideal.</p> +<p><b>Zorrilla</b> (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, +1834, became a lawyer, and in ’56 was returned to the Cortes by +the Progressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was +prosecuted. In ’70 he became President of the Cortes, and has +since been exiled for his Republicanism.</p> +<p><b>Zouteveen</b> (H. H. H. van). See <a href= +"#hartoghheysvanzouteveen">Hartogh</a>.</p> +<p><b>Zuppetta</b> (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, +21 June, 1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic +movement of ’48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been +Professor of Penal Law in the University of Pavia. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19845" href="#xd20e19845" name= +"xd20e19845">339</a>]</span></p> +<div class="footnotes"> +<hr class="fnsep"> +<p class="footnote"><span class="label"><a class="noteref" id= +"xd20e4620" href="#xd20e4620src" name="xd20e4620">1</a></span> So +varied was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that his +works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different persons +of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single gentlemen will +be rolled into one.</p> +</div> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="main">Supplement.</h2> +<p class="firstpar"><i>Those which have already appeared are marked +*</i></p> +<p><b>Abd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin.</b> See <a href= +"#sabin">Sabin</a>.</p> +<p id="massara"><b>Abu Abd’allah Muhammad ibn Massara al +Jabali.</b> Arabian pantheist b. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and +studied the works of Empedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused +of impiety, he left Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to +Spain and collected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the +most eminent predecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His +works were publicly burned at Seville.</p> +<p>* <b>Acosta</b> (Uriel), the name of his work was <i lang= +"la">Examen Traditorum Philosophicarum ad legem Scriptam</i>.</p> +<p><b>Acuna</b> (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid +about 1854. Contributes to <i lang="es">Las Dominicales</i> of Madrid. +Has written <i>The Doll’s House</i>, and other educational +works.</p> +<p>* <b>Adams</b> (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and +lecturer, the son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became +a sea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written in +<i>Secular Thought</i>, the <i>Truthseeker</i> and the <i><span class= +"corr" id="xd20e19895" title= +"Source: Freethinkers’">Freethinker’s</span> Magazine</i>, +and published rational lectures under the title <i>Pioneer Pith</i>, +’89. In ’89 he was elected President of the Canadian +Secular Union.</p> +<p><b>Admiraal</b> (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede<span class= +"corr" id="xd20e19906" title="Not in source">,</span> 13 Oct. 1833. At +first a schoolmaster, he became in ’60 director of the telegraph +bureau at Schoonhoven. He wrote from ’56 for many years in +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i> over the anagram “Aramaldi.” +In ’67 he published <i>The Religion of the People</i> under the +pseudonym “Bato van der Maas,” a name he used in writing to +many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble constitution. +He died 12 Nov. 1878. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19915" href= +"#xd20e19915" name="xd20e19915">340</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Airoldi</b> (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a +poet and writer of talent.</p> +<p><b>Albaida</b> (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one +of the founders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his +principles; returned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in +1869.</p> +<p>* <b>Alchindus.</b> Died about 864.</p> +<p>* <b>Aleardi</b> had better be deleted. I am now told he was a +Christian.</p> +<p><b>Alfarabi.</b> See <a href="#alpharabius">Alpharabius</a>.</p> +<p><b>Algeri</b> (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was +accused of heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling +oil, pitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.</p> +<p><b>Alkemade</b> (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to +<i lang="nl">De Dageraad</i>, and also published a work containing many +Bible contradictions, 1862; and in ’59 a work on the Bible under +the pen name “Alexander de M.”</p> +<p><b>Allais</b> (Denis de). See <a href="#vairasse">Vairasse</a>.</p> +<p><b>Allais</b> (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, +1847.</p> +<p><b>Almquist</b> (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor +of philology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new +ideas and Freethought.</p> +<p><b>Altmeyer</b> (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20 +Jan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an +<i>Introduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of +Humanity</i>, ’36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. +1877.</p> +<p><b>Amari</b> (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. +Palmero, 7 July, 1806. In ’32 he produced a version of +Scott’s <i>Marmion</i>. He wrote a standard History of the +Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of Garibaldi, he was made head of +public instruction in the island. He took part in the anti-clerical +council of ’69. Died at Florence, July 1889.</p> +<p>* <b>Amaury de Chartres.</b> According to L’Abbè +Ladvocat his disciples maintained that the sacraments were useless, and +that there was no other heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, +nor any other hell than ignorance and sin. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e19987" href="#xd20e19987" name= +"xd20e19987">341</a>]</span></p> +<p id="anderson"><b>Anderson</b> (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. +the Hague, 2 Aug. 1842. She has written many good articles in <i lang= +"nl">de Dageraad</i>, and was for some time editress of a periodical +<i lang="nl">De Twintigste Eeuw</i> (the twentieth century). She has +also written some novels. She resides now at <span class="corr" id= +"xd20e19998" title="Source: Würmburg">Würzburg</span>, +Germany, and contributes still to <i lang="nl">de Dageraad</i>. As +pen-name she formerly used that of “<span class="corr" id= +"xd20e20004" title="Source: Meirouw">Mevrouw</span> +Quarlès” and now “Dr. Al. Dondorf.”</p> +<p>* <b>Anthero de Quental</b>. This name would be better under +Quental.</p> +<p><b>Apono.</b> See <a href="#petrusdeabano">Petrus de Abano</a>. This +would probably be best under Abano.</p> +<p>* <b>Aquila.</b> Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila’s +version of the Scriptures.</p> +<p><b>Aranda</b> (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), <i>Count</i>, Spanish +statesman, b. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was +soldier and ambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the +Encyclopædists, and contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits +from Spain in 1767. He also disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was +elected Spanish minister to France. He was recalled and exiled to +Aragon, where he died in 1799.</p> +<p><b>Argilleres</b> (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards +a Protestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and +his head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561–2, for having eight +years previously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at +Pont-de-Veyle in Bresse.</p> +<p>* <b>Arnould</b> (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the +Positivist <i lang="fr">Revue</i> and <i lang="fr">La Societé +Nouvelle</i>. From 1868 to ’73 he edited <i lang="fr">La +Liberté</i>, in which many a battle for Freethought has been +fought.</p> +<p><b>Ascarate</b> (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the +University of Madrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of +the ablest Radical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a +follower of Krause. He has written <i>Social Studies</i>, +<i>Self-Government and Monarchy</i>, and other political works.</p> +<p><b>Aszo y Del Rio</b> (Ignacio <span class="sc">Jordan</span> de), +Spanish jurist and naturalist, b. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at +Madrid, and left many important works on various branches of science. +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20067" href="#xd20e20067" name= +"xd20e20067">342</a>]</span>In his political works he advocated the +abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.</p> +<p>* <b>Aubert de Verse</b> (Noel) had probably better be omitted, +although accused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to +Spinoza, which I have not been able to see.</p> +<p><b>Auerbach</b> (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction, b. +Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in ’41 he +published a life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, +having previously published an historical romance on the same subject. +Died Cannes, 8 Feb. 1882.</p> +<p>* <b>Aymon</b> (Jean). <i lang="fr">La vie et L’Esprit de M. +Benoit Spinoza</i> (La Haye, 1719) was afterwards issued under the +famous title <i>Treatise of Three Impostors</i>.</p> +<p>* <b>Bahrdt</b> (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this <i lang= +"fr">enfant terrible</i> of the German <span lang= +"de">Aufklarung</span> fill 120 volumes.</p> +<p>* <b>Bailey</b> (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered +much on account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius +Fisk erected a monument to his memory.</p> +<p>* <b>Bancel</b> (Francis Désiré). In his work <i lang= +"fr">Les Harangues de l’Exil</i>, 3 vols., 1863, his Freethought +views are displayed. He also wrote in <i lang="fr">La Revue +Critique</i>.</p> +<p><b>Barnaud</b> (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphiné. Lived during +the latter half of the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, +Spain, and Germany, and to him is attributed the authorship of a +curious work entitled <i lang="fr">Le Cabinet du Roy de France</i>, +which is largely directed against the clergy.</p> +<p><b>Barreaux.</b> See <a href="#desbarreaux">des Barreaux</a>.</p> +<p><b>Barth</b> (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In +’48 he attained reputation as orator to working men and took part +in the revolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and +Zurich, where he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his +freethought.</p> +<p><b>Bartrina</b>, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where +he died in 1880.</p> +<p><b>Bedingfield</b> (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, +1823, wrote in <i>National Reformer</i> as B.T.W.R., established +<i>Freelight</i>, ’70. Died 14 Feb. 1876. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20149" href="#xd20e20149" name= +"xd20e20149">343</a>]</span></p> +<p>* <b>Berigardus</b> (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.</p> +<p>* <b>Bertillon</b> (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, +<span class="corr" id="xd20e20160" title="Source: Apil">April</span>, +’68, he said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a +Freethinker. Died 1883.</p> +<p>* <b>Berwick</b> (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was +the author of the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the +signature of “Presbyter Anglicanus.”</p> +<p><b>Blein</b> (F. A. A.), <i>Baron</i>, French author of <i lang= +"fr">Essais Philosophiques</i>, Paris, 1843.</p> +<p><b>Blum</b> (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. +1807. He took an active part in progressive political and religious +movements, and published the <i>Christmas Tree</i> and other +publications. In ’48 he became deputy to the Frankfort Parliament +and head of the Republican party. He was one of the promoters at the +insurrection of Vienna, and showed great bravery in the fights of the +students with the troops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.</p> +<p>* <b>Blumenfleld</b> (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a +pseudonym.</p> +<p><b>Bolin</b> (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. +1835. Studied at Helsingford, ’52, and became Doctor of +Philosophy in ’66, and Professor in ’73. He has written on +the Freedom of the Will, The Political Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A +subject of Russian Finland; he has been repeatedly troubled by the +authorities for his radical views on religious questions.</p> +<p><b>Bolivar</b> (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at +the University of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian +ideas.</p> +<p><b>Boppe</b> (Herman C.), editor of <i lang="de">Freidenker</i> of +Milwaukee, U.S.A.</p> +<p><b>Borsari</b> (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of +a work of the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous +propagator of Freethought.</p> +<p><b>Bostrom</b> (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. +4 Jan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant +criticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.</p> +<p><b>Boucher</b> (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the <i lang= +"fr">Rationaliste</i> at Geneva, where he died 1882. His work <i>Search +for the Truth</i> was published at Avignon, 1884. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20224" href="#xd20e20224" name= +"xd20e20224">344</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Bourneville</b> (Magloire Désir), French deputy and +physician, b. Garancières, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at +Paris, and in ’79 was appointed physician to the asylum of +Bicêtre. He was Municipal Councillor of Paris from ’76 to +’83. On the death of Louis Blanc he was elected deputy in his +place. Wrote <i>Science and Miracle</i>, ’75; <i>Hysteria in +History</i>, ’76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the +erection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.</p> +<p><b>Boutteville</b> (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the +Lycee Bonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, +1867; wrote in <i lang="fr">La Pensée Nouvelle</i>, ’68; +is author of a large and able work on the <i>Morality of the Church and +Natural Morality</i>, ’66; and has edited the posthumous works of +Proudhon, 1870.</p> +<p>* <b>Bovio</b> (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. +Author of a dramatic piece, <i lang="it">Cristo alla festa di +Purim</i>, and of a <i>History of Law in Italy</i>. Signor Bovio +delivered the address at unveiling the monument to Bruno at Rome, 9 +June, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Boyer.</b> See <a href="#argens">Argens</a>.</p> +<p>* <b>Bradlaugh</b> (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a +Bill to repeal the Blasphemy Laws.</p> +<p><b>Braga</b> (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. +Educated at Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a <i>History of +<span class="corr" id="xd20e20275" title= +"Source: Portugese">Portuguese</span> Literature</i>. Is one of the +Republican leaders.</p> +<p><b>Branting</b> (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in +’88 to three months’ imprisonment for blasphemy in his +paper <i lang="se">Social Democraten</i>.</p> +<p><b>Braun</b> (Eugen), Dr. See <a href="#ghillany">F. W. +Ghillany</a>.</p> +<p><b>Braun</b> (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He +satirised many of the Bible stories. Died 1860.</p> +<p><b>Brewer</b> (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written +numerous school books, and compiled a <i>Dictionary of Miracles</i>, +1884.</p> +<p><b>Brismee</b> (Desiré), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, +1822. As editor of <i lang="fr">Le Drapeau</i> he underwent eighteen +months’ imprisonment. The principle founder of <i lang="fr">Les +Solidaires</i>, he was the life-long secretary of that society, and his +annual reports are a valuable contribution towards the history of +Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of his Freethought +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20314" href="#xd20e20314" name= +"xd20e20314">345</a>]</span>orations were printed in <i lang="fr">La +Tribune du Peuple</i>. Died at Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.</p> +<p>* <b>Brothier</b> (Léon)<span class="corr" id="xd20e20324" +title="Source: ,">.</span> Died about 1874.</p> +<p>* <b>Brown</b> (G. W.) Dr. Brown’s new work is published at +Rockford, Illinois, and entitled <i>Researches in Jewish History</i>, +including the rise and development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation +of Christianity.</p> +<p>* <b>Bruno</b> (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The <i>Avisso di +Roma</i> of 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that +he died impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister of +Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was +stripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore his +martyrdom with great fortitude.</p> +<p><b>Buen</b> (Odon de), Spanish writer on <i>Las Dominicales</i>, of +Madrid, b. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University +of Barcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition <i>From +Christiania to Treggurt</i>, has translated <i>Memoirs of +Garibaldi</i>. He married civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was +delegate to the Paris Freethought Conference, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Calderon</b> (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. +He edits <i>La Justicia</i>. Has written several books on law.</p> +<p><b>Calderon</b> (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University +of Madrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.</p> +<p><b>Calderon</b> (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. +1846; professor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific +travels in Central America, and written largely on geological +subjects.</p> +<p><b>Calvo</b> (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A +pronounced Republican and Freethinker.</p> +<p>* <b>Canestrini</b> (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.</p> +<p><b>Cassels</b> (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the +author of <i>Supernatural Religion</i>, a critical examination of the +worth of the Gospels (two vols. 1874 and three ’79). Has written +under his own name <i>Eidolon</i> and other poems, 1850, and +<i>Poems</i>, ’56. In ’89 he published <i>A Reply to Dr. +Lightfoot’s Essays</i>. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20397" +href="#xd20e20397" name="xd20e20397">346</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Castro</b> (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was +a priest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and had +a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.</p> +<p><b>Cavia</b> (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, +editor of the <i>Liberal</i> of Madrid.</p> +<p>* <b>Coke</b> (Henry), author of <i>Creeds of the Day</i>, is the +third son of the first Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He +served in the navy during the first China War, 1840–42. Published +accounts of the siege of Vienna, ’48, at which he was present, +also “Ride over Rocky Mountains,” which he accomplished +with great hardships in ’50. Was private secretary to Mr. Horsman +when Chief Secretary for Ireland in ’54–’58. Married +Lady K. Egerton, 1861.</p> +<p><b>Cornette</b> (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish +literature at Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in +<i>L’Avenir</i> of Brussels and the <i>Revue Socialite</i>, he +has published separate works on <i>Freemasonry</i>, 1878; <i>Pessimism +and Socialism</i>, ’80; <i>Freethought Darwinism</i>, etc.</p> +<p><b>Curros</b> (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by +the Bishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems +entitled <i>Airs of my Country</i>, but he was acquitted by the +jury.</p> +<p><b>Czerski</b> (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West +Prussia, 12 May, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in ’44, broke +with the Church, associated himself with Ronge, married, and was +excommunicated. Has written several works against Roman Catholicism, +and is still living at Schneidemükl-Posen.</p> +<p><b>D’Ercole</b> (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in +the University of Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which +he holds that the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated +and at variance both with reality and with themselves.</p> +<p><b>Deschanel</b> (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. +1819. He wrote in the <i lang="fr">Revue Independante</i>, <i lang= +"fr">Revue des Deux Mondes</i> and <i lang="fr">Liberté de +Penser</i>; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived +of his chair. After 2 Dec. he went <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e20465" href="#xd20e20465" name="xd20e20465">347</a>]</span>to +Belgium. He has been Professor of Modern Literature at the College of +France, and written many important works.</p> +<p><b>Desnoiresterres</b> (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters, +b. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of <i lang="fr">Epicurienes et Lettres +XVII. and XVIII. <span class="corr" id="xd20e20473" title= +"Source: Siecles">Siècles</span></i>, 1881, and <i lang= +"fr">Voltaire et la Société Française au XVIII. +<span class="corr" id="xd20e20478" title= +"Source: Siecle">Siècle</span></i>, an important work in eight +vols.</p> +<p>* <b>Desraimes</b> (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.</p> +<p><b>Diogenes</b> (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who +lived in the fifth century <span class="sc">B.C.</span> He is supposed +to have got into trouble at Athens through his philosophical opinions +being considered dangerous to the State. He held that nothing was +produced from nothing or reduced to nothing; that the earth was round +and had received its shape from whirling. He made no distinction +between mind and matter.</p> +<p><b>Donius</b> (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His +work, <i>De Natura Dominis</i>, in two books, 1581, refers the power of +the spirit, to motion. The title of his second book is “Omnes +operationes spiritus esse motum et semum.”</p> +<p><b>Dosamantes</b> (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of +works on <i>Absolute Perfection</i>, Mexico, 1888, and <i>Modern +Pharisees and Sadducees</i> (mystics and materialists), ’89.</p> +<p><b>Druskowitz</b> (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss +Druskowitz is Doctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life +of Shelley, Berlin, ’84; a little book on <i>Freewill</i>, and +<i>The New Doctrines</i>, ’83.</p> +<p><b>Dufay</b> (Henri), author of <i lang="fr">La Legende du +Christ</i>, 1880.</p> +<p><b>Duller</b> (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 +Nov. 1809. He wrote a <i>History of the Jesuits</i> (Leipsic, +’40) and <i>The Men of the People</i> (Frankfort, +’47–’50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.</p> +<p>* <b>Du Marsais</b> (César Chesneau). He edited +Mirabaud’s anonymous work on <i>The World and its Antiquity</i> +and <i>The Soul and its Immortality</i>, Londres, 1751.</p> +<p>* <b>Fellowes</b> (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. +Died 6 Feb. 1847.</p> +<p><b>Figueras-y-Moracas</b> (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator, +b. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican +opinions. In ’51 he was elected to the <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20558" href="#xd20e20558" name= +"xd20e20558">348</a>]</span>Cortes, was exiled in ’66, but +returned in ’68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de +Montpensiér in ’69, and became President of the Spanish +Republic 12 Feb. ’73. Died poor in 1879, and was buried without +religious ceremony, according to his wish.</p> +<p><b>Fitzgerald</b> (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near +Woodbridge, Suffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his +degree in ’30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a +fine translation of Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine +rendering of the <i>Quatrains</i> of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, +1883.</p> +<p><b>Galletti</b> (Baldassare), <i>cavalier</i> Pantheist of Palermo. +Has translated Feuerbach on <i>Death and Immortality</i>, and also +translated from Morin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.</p> +<p><b>Ganeval</b> (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, +author of a work on Egypt and <i>Jesus devant l’histoire +n’a jamais vécu</i>. The first part, published in +’74, was prohibited in France, and the second part was published +at Geneva in ’79.</p> +<p><b>Garrido</b> (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a +Sceptic, Cadiz 1843, a work on <i>Contemporary Spain</i>, published at +Brussels in ’62, <i>The Jesuits</i>, and a large <i>History of +Political and Religious Persecutions</i>, a work rendered into English +in conjunction with C. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.</p> +<p><b>Gerling</b> (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of <i>Letter of a +Materialist to an Idealist</i>, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig +Henrich Wilhelmi contributes a preface.</p> +<p><b>Geroult de Pival</b>, French librarian at Rouen; probably the +author of <i>Doutes sur la Religion</i>, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris +about 1772.</p> +<p><b>Goffin</b> (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of +Liége and President of La Libre Pensée of Brussels, and +one of the General Council of the International Federation of +Freethinkers. Died 23 May, 1884.</p> +<p><b>Goldhawke</b> (J. H.), author of the <i>Solar Allegories</i>, +proving that the greater number of personages mentioned in the Old and +New Testaments are allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.</p> +<p><b>Gorani</b> (<span class="corr" id="xd20e20627" title= +"Source: Guiseppe">Giuseppe</span>), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was +intimate with Beccaria, D’Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a +treatise on <i>Despotism</i>, published anonymously, 1770; defended the +French <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20633" href="#xd20e20633" +name="xd20e20633">349</a>]</span>Revolution and was made a French +citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.</p> +<p><b>Govett</b> (Frank), author of the <i>Pains of Life</i>, 1889, a +pessimistic reply to Sir J. Lubbock’s <i>Pleasures of Life</i>. +Mr. Govett rejects the consolations of religion.</p> +<p><b>Guimet</b> (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, +anthropologist and philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of +the inventor of ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has +visited most parts of the world and formed a collection of objects +illustrating religions. These he formed into a museum in his native +town, where he also founded a library and a school for Oriental +languages. This fine museum which cost several million francs, he +presented to his country, and it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts +as curator. In 1880 he began publishing <i lang="fr">Annales du +Musée Guimet</i>, in which original articles appear on Oriental +Religions. He has also written many works upon his travels. He attended +the banquet in connection with the International Congress of +Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Guynemer</b> (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of +astronomy, 1852, and an anonymous unbelievers’ dictionary, +’69, in which many points of theology are discussed in +alphabetical order.</p> +<p><b>Hamerling</b> (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 +March, 1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus +in Rome ’66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. +He translated Leopardis’ poems ’86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, +1889.</p> +<p><b>Heyse</b> (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. +Berlin, 15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to +Switzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in ’54. Has produced +many popular plays and romances, of <span class="corr" id="xd20e20664" +title="Not in source">which</span> we specially mention <i>The Children +of the World</i>, ’73, a novel describing social and religious +life of Germany at the present day, and <i>In Paradise</i>, 1875.</p> +<p><b>Hicks</b> (L. E.) American geologist, author of <i>A Critique of +Design Arguments</i>. Boston, 1883.</p> +<p><b>Hitchman</b> (William), English physician, b. Northleach, +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20684" href="#xd20e20684" name= +"xd20e20684">350</a>]</span>Gloucestershire, 1819, became M.R.C.S. in +’41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established <i>Freelight</i>, +and wrote a pamphlet, <i>Fifty Years of Freethought</i>. Died 1888.</p> +<p><b>Hoeffding</b> (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the +University of Copenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since +’83. Is absolutely free in his opinion and has published works on +the newer philosophy in Germany, ’72, and in England, ’74. +In the latter work special attention is devoted to the works of Mill +and Spencer. German editions have been published of his works <i lang= +"de">Grundlage der humanen Ethik</i> (Basis of Human Ethics ’80), +<i lang="de">Psychologie im <span class="corr" id="xd20e20701" title= +"Source: Umries">Umriss</span></i> (Outlines of Psychology ’87), +and <i lang="de">Ethik</i> 1888.</p> +<p><b>Holst</b> (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of +the Swedish Society for Religious Liberty.</p> +<p><b>Ignell</b> (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought +up as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated +Renan’s <i>Life of Jesus</i>, and did much to arouse opposition +to orthodox Christianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.</p> +<p><b>Jacobsen</b> (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. +Thistede, 7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in +Scandinavia, translating the <i>Origin of Species</i> and <i>Descent of +Man</i>. Among his novels we may name <i lang="da">Fru Marie +Grubbe</i>, scenes from the XVII. century, and <i>Niels Lyhne</i>, in +which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This able young writer +died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.</p> +<p><b>Kleist</b> (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18 +Oct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795, +quitted it in four years and took to study. Kant’s Philosophy +made him a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian +philosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide +together with a lady, near <span class="corr" id="xd20e20739" title= +"Source: Potsdan">Potsdam</span>, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly known +by his dramas and a collection of tales.</p> +<p><b>Letourneau</b> (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray +(Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in <i lang="fr">La +<span class="corr" id="xd20e20748" title= +"Source: Pensèe">Pensée</span> Nouvelle</i>, and has +published <i>Physiology of the Passions</i>, ’68; <i>Biology</i>, +’75, translated into English by W. Maccall; <i>Science and +Materialism</i><span class="corr" id="xd20e20760" title= +"Not in source">,</span> ’79; <i>Sociology based on +Ethnography</i>, ’80; and the <span class="pagenum">[<a id= +"xd20e20767" href="#xd20e20767" name= +"xd20e20767">351</a>]</span>Evolution of Marriage and the Family, +’85. He has also translated Büchner’s <i>Man According +to Science</i>, <i>Light and Life</i> and <i>Mental Life of +Animals</i>, Haeckel’s <i>History of Creation</i><a id= +"xd20e20781" name="xd20e20781"></a>, <i>Letters of a Traveller in +India</i>, and Herzen’s <i>Physiology of the Will</i>.</p> +<p><b>Lippert</b> (Julius), learned German author of works on <i>Soul +Worship</i>, Berlin, 1881; <i>The Universal History of Priesthoods</i>, +’83; and an important Culture History of Mankind, +’86–7.</p> +<p><b>Lloyd</b> (William Watkiss), author of <i>Christianity in the +Cartoons</i>, London 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New +Testament side by side. He has also written <i>The Age of Pericles</i>, +and several works on Shakespeare.</p> +<p><b>Lucian</b>, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on +the Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and +Commodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He +travelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal +works are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed +against the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer, and +torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance can be +placed. On the ground of the dialogue <i>Philopatris</i>, he has been +supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that piece is +genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving, and an +enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his account +of Alexander, the false prophet.</p> +<p><b>Maglia</b> (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June, +1859, began writing in <i lang="es">La Tronada</i> at Barcelona, and +afterwards published <i lang="es">L’Union Republicana</i>. He +founded the Freethinking group “El Independiente” and edits +<i lang="es">El Clamor Setabense</i> and <i lang="es">El Pueblo +Soberano</i>. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at +Rome in ’85, and in ’89 at Paris. During this year he has +been condemned to six years’ imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 +francs for attacking Leo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.</p> +<p><span class="gap" title= +"Missing one or more lines, for the following reason: missing in source."> +[<i>missing text</i>]</span> disciples, whom he conducted from faith to +scepticism. He was the most eminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or +Averroës. Died Oct.–Nov. 931. His works were publicly burned +at Seville.</p> +<p><b>Mata</b> (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University +<span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20839" href="#xd20e20839" name= +"xd20e20839">352</a>]</span>of Madrid. Author of a poem, <i>Glory and +Martyrdom</i>, 1851; a Treatise on Human Reason, ’58–64; +and on <i>Moral Liberty and Free Will</i>, ’68.</p> +<p><b>Mendizabal</b> (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. +Cadiz, 1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed +to the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious +orders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid, +3 Nov. 1853.</p> +<p>* <b>Meredith</b> (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool +College, he became a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in +the Welsh tongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation +into the claims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his +<i>Prophet of Nazareth</i> he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on +the gospels, but it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, +1889.</p> +<p><b>Miralta</b> (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish +writer, b. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is +one of the writers on <i>Las Dominicales</i>. His most notable works +are <i>Memoirs of a Poor Clerical</i>, <i>The Secrets of +Confession</i>, and <i>The Sacrament Exposed</i>. His work on <a id= +"xd20e20876" name="xd20e20876"></a><i>The Doctrine of Catholicism upon +Matrimony</i> has greatly encouraged civil marriages.</p> +<p><b>Moraita</b> (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is +Professor of History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of +clericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous <i>History +of Spain</i>. In ’84 he made a discourse at the University +against the pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his +excommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students, +against whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the +Spanish Freemasons.</p> +<p><b>Moya</b> (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. +Was deputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the +infallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.</p> +<p><b>Nakens</b> (José), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder +and editor of <i lang="es">El Motin</i>, a Republican and Freethought +paper of <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20899" href="#xd20e20899" +name="xd20e20899">353</a>]</span>Madrid, in connection with which there +is a library, in which he has written <i lang="es">La +Piqueta</i>—the Pick-axe.</p> +<p><b>Nees Von Esenbeck</b> (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist, +b. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was +Professor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, ’31. He was +leader of the free religious movement in Silesia, and in ’48, +took part in the political agitations, and was deprived of his chair. +Wrote several works on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, +1858.</p> +<p><b>Nyblaus</b> (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has +published some anti-Christian pamphlets.</p> +<p><b>Offen</b> (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He +emigrated to America and became lecturer to the Society of Moral +Philanthropists at Tammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the +Free Discussion Society. He wrote <i>A Legacy to the Friends of Free +Discussion</i>, a critical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 +May, 1848.</p> +<p><b>Palmaer</b> (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. +Author of <i>The Last Judgment in the Crow Corner</i>. Died at +Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.</p> +<p><b>Panizza</b><a id="xd20e20929" name="xd20e20929"></a> (Mario). +Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a materialist work on +<i>The Philosophy of the Nervous System</i>, Rome, 1887.</p> +<p><b>Perez Galdos</b> (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. +Canary Islands<span class="corr" id="xd20e20939" title= +"Not in source">,</span> lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels +we mention <i>Gloria</i>, which has been translated into English, and +<i lang="es">La Familia de Leon Roch</i>, 1878, in which he stoutly +attacks clericalism and religious intolerance. He has also written +<i lang="es">Episodes nacionales</i>, and many historical novels.</p> +<p><b>Regenbrecht</b> (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. +Brannsberg, 1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of +the free religious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.</p> +<p><b>Robert</b> (Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817. +Became famous by his mordant style, his most celebrated works being +<i>The Rogues of Antonio</i>, <i>The Times of Mari Casania</i>, <i>The +Skimmer of the Centuries</i>. Died in 1870. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e20968" href="#xd20e20968" name= +"xd20e20968">354</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Rupp</b> (Julius), German reformer, b. Königsberg, 13 Aug. +1809. Studied philosophy and theology, and became in ’42 a +minister. He protested against the creeds, and became leader of the +Free-religious movement in East Prussia.</p> +<p><b>Ryberg</b> (Y. E.)<span class="corr" id="xd20e20977" title= +"Not in source">,</span> Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He +has translated several of Mr. Bradlaugh’s pamphlets and other +secular literature.</p> +<p><b>Sachse</b> (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At +Magdeburg he did much to demolish the remains of theism in the +Free-religious communities. Died 1883.</p> +<p><b>Sales y Ferre</b> (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839. +Professor at the University of Seville. Has published several works on +geology and prehistoric times.</p> +<p><b>Schneider</b> (Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim, +1854. Author of <i>The Human Will from the standpoint of the New +Development Theory</i> (Berlin, 1882), and other works.</p> +<p><b>Schreiner</b> (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in +South Africa. Authoress of “The Story of an African Farm,” +1883.</p> +<p><b>Serre</b> (... de la), author of an <i>Examination of +Religion</i>, attributed to Saint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to +be burnt by the Parliament of Paris.</p> +<p><b>Suner y Capderila.</b> Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. +Became deputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses +against Catholicism.</p> +<p><b>Tocco</b> (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. +Catanzaro, 12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and +Bologna, and became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the +<i lang="it">Rivista Bolognese</i> on Leopardi, and on +“Positivism” in the <i><span class="corr" id="xd20e21019" +title="Source: Rivasta">Rivista</span> Contemporanea</i>. He has +published works on <i>A. Bain’s Theory of Sensation</i>, +’72; <i>Thoughts on the History of Philosophy</i>, ’77; +<i>The Heresy of the Middle Ages</i>, ’84; and <i>Giordano +Bruno</i>, ’86.</p> +<p><b>Tommasi</b> (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work +on <i>Evolution, Science, and Naturalism</i>, Naples 1877, and a little +pamphlet in commemoration of Darwin, ’82. <span class= +"pagenum">[<a id="xd20e21043" href="#xd20e21043" name= +"xd20e21043">355</a>]</span></p> +<p><b>Tubino</b> (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, +1838, took part in Garibaldi’s campaign in Sicily, and has +contributed to the <i>Rivista Europea</i>.</p> +<p><b>Tuthill</b> (Charles A. H.), author of <i>The Origin and +Development of Christian Dogma</i>, London, 1889.</p> +<p><b>Vernial</b> (Paul), French doctor and member of the <span class= +"corr" id="xd20e21062" title= +"Source: Antropological">Anthropological</span> Society of Paris, +author of a work on the <i>Origin of Man</i>, 1881.</p> +<p><b>Wheeler</b> (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 +Jan<span class="corr" id="xd20e21072" title="Not in source">.</span>, +1850. Converted from Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, +Spencer, etc. Has contributed to the <i>National Reformer +Secularist</i>, <i>Secular Chronicle</i>, <i>Liberal</i>, +<i>Progress</i>, and <i>Freethinker</i> which he has sub-edited since +1882, using occasionally the signatures “Laon,” +“Lucianus” and other pseudonyms. Has published <i>Frauds +and Follies of the Fathers</i> ’88, <i>Footsteps of the Past</i>, +a collection of essays in anthropology and comparative religion +’86; and <i>Crimes of Christianity</i>, written in conjunction +with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited <i>Sepher Toldoth +Jeshu</i>. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge in the +cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the service of +Freethought. <span class="pagenum">[<a id="xd20e21103" href= +"#xd20e21103" name="xd20e21103">356</a>]</span></p> +</div> +<div class="div1"> +<h2 class="main">Errata.</h2> +<p class="firstpar transcribernote">The corrections indicated in this +list have been applied to the text.</p> +<div class="table"> +<table> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Preface V. line 30, <i>for</i> Dal Volta <i>read</i> +Dalla Volta.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">Page 8, line 17, <i>for</i> trauslated <i>read</i> +translated.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 16, line 1, <i>for</i> Anaxagorus (some copies) +<i>read</i> Anaxagoras.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 24<span class="corr" id="xd20e21143" title= +"Not in source">,</span> <i>for</i> Rennaisance <i>read</i> +Renaissance.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 30, line 18, <i>for</i> National Science +<i>read</i> Natural Science.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 85, line 15, <i>for</i> Count <i>read</i> +<i>Count</i>.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 101, line 29<span class="corr" id="xd20e21176" +title="Not in source">,</span> <i>read</i> lived near Wiesbaden. Died +19 Feb. ’87.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 102, line 3, <i>for</i> Ouida <i>read</i> +Ramée.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 105, line 12, <i>for</i> 1836 <i>read</i> 15 Aug. +1835.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 107, line 18, <i>for</i> Dyons <i>read</i> +Lyons.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 107, line 26, <i>delete</i> +“before.”</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 112, line 17, <i>for</i> Williams <i>read</i> +William.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 122, line 27, <i>after</i> Toronto <i>insert</i> +1839.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 131, line 18, <i>for</i> 8 May <i>read</i> 3 +May.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 158, line 18, <i>for</i> Honton <i>read</i> +Hontan.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 162, line 16, <i>for</i> surveyor <i>read</i> +surgeon.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 171, line<a id="xd20e21264" name="xd20e21264"></a> +4, <i>for</i> <span class="sc">Hidenin</span> <i>read</i> <span class= +"sc">Hedin</span>.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 172, line 7, <i>for</i> de voilée +<i>read</i> devoilée.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 182, line 24, <i>after</i> Massara <i>insert</i> in +Supplement.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 217, line 28, <i>for</i> Dupins <i>read</i> +Dupuis.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 229, line 26, <i>for</i> Herzogenbusch <i>read</i> +Herzogenbosch.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 230, line 18, <i>for</i> Pelusuin <i>read</i> +Pelusium.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 249, line 6, <i>insert</i> 11 Aug. <i>before</i> +1805.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 255, line 21, <i>for</i> Dijp <i>read</i> +Rijp.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 259, line 17, <i>for</i> National <i>read</i> +Natural.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 282, line 2, <i>for</i> Laland <i>read</i> +Lalande.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 284, line 33, <i>for</i> 1715 <i>read</i> +1745.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 289, line 25, <i>for</i> 1821 <i>read</i> +1851.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 313, line 36, <i>for</i> Guiseppe <i>read</i> +Giuseppe.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 318, line 18, <i>for</i> Monk <i>read</i> +work.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 319, line 35, <i>for</i> 1642 <i>read</i> +1842.</td> +</tr> +<tr valign="top"> +<td valign="top">P. 320, line 7, <i>for</i> Tilia <i>read</i> +Titia.</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> +</div> +<div class="back"> +<div class="transcribernote"> +<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> +<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> +<p class="firstpar">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no +cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give +it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License +included with this eBook or online at <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>.</p> +<p>This eBook is produced by Adam Buchbinder, Jeroen Hellingman, and +the the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at <a class="exlink" +title="External link" href="http://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>.</p> +<p>Scans of this work are available on <a class="exlink" title= +"External link" href= +"http://books.google.com/books?id=0J_WNYvPgYgC">Google Print</a> +(<a class="exlink" title="External link" href= +"http://www.archive.org/details/abiographicaldi00wheegoog">TIA +Copy</a>).</p> +<h3 class="main">Encoding</h3> +<p class="firstpar">The source for this text contained numerous +typographical mistakes. These have been fixed where possible. Factual +errors have not been corrected, unless they were indicated in the +errata of this work or are likely of a typographic nature. At two +places in the source, one or more lines were missing. The location of +those missing lines has been indicated in this edition.</p> +<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> +<ul> +<li>2010-11-21 Started.</li> +</ul> +<h3 class="main">External References</h3> +<p>This Project Gutenberg eBook contains external references. These +links may not work for you.</p> +<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> +<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> +<table width="75%" summary= +"Overview of corrections applied to the text."> +<tr> +<th>Page</th> +<th>Source</th> +<th>Correction</th> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e202">v</a></td> +<td class="width40">Dal Volta</td> +<td class="width40">Dalla Volta</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e207">v</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e257">7</a></td> +<td class="width40">Christianty</td> +<td class="width40">Christianity</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e305">8</a></td> +<td class="width40">trauslated</td> +<td class="width40">translated</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e336">9</a></td> +<td class="width40">1858</td> +<td class="width40">1853</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e494">13</a></td> +<td class="width40">improvents</td> +<td class="width40">improvements</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e540">14</a></td> +<td class="width40">Lichfield</td> +<td class="width40">Litchfield</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e626">16</a></td> +<td class="width40">Anaxagorus</td> +<td class="width40">Anaxagoras</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e918">21</a></td> +<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td> +<td class="width40">Hamburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1023">23</a></td> +<td class="width40">Bentbam</td> +<td class="width40">Bentham</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1065">24</a></td> +<td class="width40">Rennaisance</td> +<td class="width40">Renaissance</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1207">26</a></td> +<td class="width40">LLD</td> +<td class="width40">LL.D</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1225">27</a></td> +<td class="width40">LLD</td> +<td class="width40">LL.D</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1228">27</a></td> +<td class="width40">additon</td> +<td class="width40">addition</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1322">28</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1418">30</a></td> +<td class="width40">National</td> +<td class="width40">Natural</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1496">31</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1696">36</a></td> +<td class="width40">Alleghany</td> +<td class="width40">Allegheny</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1716">36</a></td> +<td class="width40">acceeded</td> +<td class="width40">acceded</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1755">37</a></td> +<td class="width40">Beranger</td> +<td class="width40">Béranger</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1787">37</a></td> +<td class="width40">psuedonyms</td> +<td class="width40">pseudonyms</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e1912">40</a></td> +<td class="width40">Puy-en Velay</td> +<td class="width40">Puy-en-Velay</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2145">44</a></td> +<td class="width40">Bjornson</td> +<td class="width40">Björnson</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2267">47</a></td> +<td class="width40">demonomaina</td> +<td class="width40">demonomania</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2365">48</a></td> +<td class="width40">eigthteenth</td> +<td class="width40">eighteenth</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2433">49</a></td> +<td class="width40">”</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2499">50</a></td> +<td class="width40">contemtemporary</td> +<td class="width40">contemporary</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2568">52</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">?</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2572">52</a></td> +<td class="width40">?</td> +<td class="width40">;</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2688">54</a></td> +<td class="width40">died</td> +<td class="width40">Died</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2691">54</a></td> +<td class="width40">4705</td> +<td class="width40">1705</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e2962">59</a></td> +<td class="width40">pubtished</td> +<td class="width40">published</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3129">62</a></td> +<td class="width40">Indianopolis</td> +<td class="width40">Indianapolis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3171">63</a></td> +<td class="width40">pnblished</td> +<td class="width40">published</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3287">66</a></td> +<td class="width40">year</td> +<td class="width40">years</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3559">71</a></td> +<td class="width40">compatative</td> +<td class="width40">comparative</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3578">71</a></td> +<td class="width40">dynesty</td> +<td class="width40">dynasty</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3652">72</a></td> +<td class="width40">their</td> +<td class="width40">there</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3738">73</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td> +<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3741">73</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3754">73</a></td> +<td class="width40">)</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3813">75</a></td> +<td class="width40">buisness</td> +<td class="width40">business</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3936">77</a></td> +<td class="width40">Andre</td> +<td class="width40">André</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3939">77</a></td> +<td class="width40">etait</td> +<td class="width40">était</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e3980">78</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4184">81</a></td> +<td class="width40">Medeterranean</td> +<td class="width40">Mediterranean</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4187">81</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4488">88</a></td> +<td class="width40">a</td> +<td class="width40">in</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4495">88</a></td> +<td class="width40">Cincinatti</td> +<td class="width40">Cincinnati</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4513">89</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4657">92</a></td> +<td class="width40">Feirburg</td> +<td class="width40">Freiburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4768">94</a></td> +<td class="width40">n’etait</td> +<td class="width40">n’était</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4806">94</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4834">95</a></td> +<td class="width40">Many</td> +<td class="width40">Mary</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4964">97</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e4970">97</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5206">101</a></td> +<td class="width40">Millivenen</td> +<td class="width40">Millioenen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5241">102</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ramee</td> +<td class="width40">Ramée</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5382">104</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5403">104</a></td> +<td class="width40">Francaise</td> +<td class="width40">Française</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5447">105</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5467">105</a></td> +<td class="width40">1836</td> +<td class="width40">15 Aug. 1835</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5494">105</a></td> +<td class="width40">feasts</td> +<td class="width40">feast</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5565">107</a></td> +<td class="width40">Dyons</td> +<td class="width40">Lyons</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5574">107</a></td> +<td class="width40">before</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5618">108</a></td> +<td class="width40">’34</td> +<td class="width40">’54</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5702">110</a></td> +<td class="width40">Schoolmsters</td> +<td class="width40">Schoolmasters</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5713">110</a></td> +<td class="width40">Geissen</td> +<td class="width40">Giessen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5716">110</a></td> +<td class="width40">fly</td> +<td class="width40">flee</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5813">112</a></td> +<td class="width40">Williams</td> +<td class="width40">William</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5855">113</a></td> +<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td> +<td class="width40">Hamburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5863">113</a></td> +<td class="width40">Lieben</td> +<td class="width40">Leben</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e5868">113</a></td> +<td class="width40">Physchology</td> +<td class="width40">Psychology</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6023">115</a></td> +<td class="width40">Menscheit</td> +<td class="width40">Menschheit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6092">117</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6107">117</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pizraro</td> +<td class="width40">Pizarro</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6155">118</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ratiocinato ry</td> +<td class="width40">Rationcinatory</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6211">118</a></td> +<td class="width40">Gottlichkeit</td> +<td class="width40">Göttlichkeit</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6218">118</a></td> +<td class="width40">Hamburgh</td> +<td class="width40">Hamburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6273">119</a></td> +<td class="width40">for for</td> +<td class="width40">for</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6362">121</a></td> +<td class="width40">Prosessor</td> +<td class="width40">Professor</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6429">122</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">, 1839</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6477">123</a></td> +<td class="width40">culminated</td> +<td class="width40">calumniated</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6540">124</a></td> +<td class="width40">Esproceda</td> +<td class="width40">Espronceda</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6559">124</a></td> +<td class="width40">and</td> +<td class="width40">of</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6583">125</a></td> +<td class="width40">Naturlichen</td> +<td class="width40">Natürlichen</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6622">126</a></td> +<td class="width40">obliquy</td> +<td class="width40">obloquy</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6672">126</a></td> +<td class="width40">Coucil</td> +<td class="width40">Council</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6675">126</a></td> +<td class="width40">writen</td> +<td class="width40">written</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6749">127</a></td> +<td class="width40">Vrye</td> +<td class="width40">Vrije</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6814">128</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ferriere</td> +<td class="width40">Ferrière</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e6945">130</a></td> +<td class="width40">Bewusstein</td> +<td class="width40">Bewusstsein</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7074">132</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">”</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7205">134</a></td> +<td class="width40">Barmese</td> +<td class="width40">Burmese</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7210">135</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7255">136</a></td> +<td class="width40">principle</td> +<td class="width40">principal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7366">138</a></td> +<td class="width40">Freret</td> +<td class="width40">Fréret</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7369">138</a></td> +<td class="width40">philososophy</td> +<td class="width40">philosophy</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7380">138</a></td> +<td class="width40">Religous</td> +<td class="width40">Religious</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7388">138</a></td> +<td class="width40">Frèret</td> +<td class="width40">Fréret</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7497">141</a></td> +<td class="width40">whath</td> +<td class="width40">wrath</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7656">145</a></td> +<td class="width40">Petrucelli</td> +<td class="width40">Petruccelli</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7848">148</a></td> +<td class="width40">heterdox</td> +<td class="width40">heterodox</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7879">149</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7891">149</a></td> +<td class="width40">Reign</td> +<td class="width40">Field</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e7902">149</a></td> +<td class="width40">Curiosities von</td> +<td class="width40">Curiositeiten van</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8073">153</a></td> +<td class="width40">bnt</td> +<td class="width40">but</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8227">156</a></td> +<td class="width40">Tanhaüser</td> +<td class="width40">Tanhäuser</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8231">156</a></td> +<td class="width40">Tanhaüser</td> +<td class="width40">Tanhäuser</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8275">156</a></td> +<td class="width40">Biograpical</td> +<td class="width40">Biographical</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8316">157</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guepin</td> +<td class="width40">Guépin</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8367">158</a></td> +<td class="width40">Honton</td> +<td class="width40">Hontan</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8376">158</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8380">158</a></td> +<td class="width40">on</td> +<td class="width40">Of</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8399">158</a></td> +<td class="width40">edittons</td> +<td class="width40">editions</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8430">159</a></td> +<td class="width40">Greely</td> +<td class="width40">Greeley</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8435">159</a></td> +<td class="width40">Gunst</td> +<td class="width40">Günst</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8452">159</a></td> +<td class="width40">Spaanische</td> +<td class="width40">Spaansche</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8638">162</a></td> +<td class="width40">Harwicke</td> +<td class="width40">Hardwicke</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8641">162</a></td> +<td class="width40">surgeon</td> +<td class="width40">surveyor</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8705">163</a></td> +<td class="width40">Van</td> +<td class="width40">van</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8777">164</a></td> +<td class="width40">philanthrophist</td> +<td class="width40">philanthropist</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8937">167</a></td> +<td class="width40">nèe</td> +<td class="width40">née</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e8999">168</a></td> +<td class="width40">principle</td> +<td class="width40">principal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9104">170</a></td> +<td class="width40">imprisoment</td> +<td class="width40">imprisonment</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9129">171</a></td> +<td class="width40">Hidenin</td> +<td class="width40">Hedin</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9135">171</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9236">172</a></td> +<td class="width40">beame</td> +<td class="width40">became</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9392">175</a></td> +<td class="width40">oppulent</td> +<td class="width40">opulent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9520">177</a></td> +<td class="width40">Causalitatgesatz</td> +<td class="width40">Causalitätgesetz</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9657">179</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">a</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9676">179</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9684">180</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9747">181</a></td> +<td class="width40">him him</td> +<td class="width40">him</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9808">182</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">in Supplement</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9848">182</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pier</td> +<td class="width40">Peer</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9938">184</a></td> +<td class="width40">Preseervation</td> +<td class="width40">Preservation</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e9960">184</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ffve</td> +<td class="width40">Five</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10043">185</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10087">186</a></td> +<td class="width40">phanton</td> +<td class="width40">phantom</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10159">188</a></td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10172">188</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10181">188</a></td> +<td class="width40">Schaduwbulden</td> +<td class="width40">Schaduwbeelden</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10205">189</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10264">190</a></td> +<td class="width40">1647</td> +<td class="width40">1747</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10281">190</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10284">190</a></td> +<td class="width40">1871</td> +<td class="width40">1827</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10309">191</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10395">192</a></td> +<td class="width40">Culenborg</td> +<td class="width40">Culemborg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10412">193</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10546">195</a></td> +<td class="width40">appartment</td> +<td class="width40">apartment</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10592">196</a></td> +<td class="width40">Louisana</td> +<td class="width40">Louisiana</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10609">196</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10644">197</a></td> +<td class="width40">Brussells</td> +<td class="width40">Brussels</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10713">198</a></td> +<td class="width40">Muncipal</td> +<td class="width40">Municipal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10831">201</a></td> +<td class="width40">Espanola</td> +<td class="width40">Española</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10850">201</a></td> +<td class="width40">Examnation</td> +<td class="width40">Examination</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e10881">202</a></td> +<td class="width40">supressed</td> +<td class="width40">suppressed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11193">207</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11270">208</a></td> +<td class="width40">Deismé</td> +<td class="width40">Déisme</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11336">209</a></td> +<td class="width40">Muncipal</td> +<td class="width40">Municipal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11763">215</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11768">215</a></td> +<td class="width40">Tragédiaja</td> +<td class="width40">Tragédiája</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e11888">217</a></td> +<td class="width40">Dupins</td> +<td class="width40">Dupuis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12032">220</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12038">220</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12041">220</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12050">220</a></td> +<td class="width40">Liberte</td> +<td class="width40">Liberté</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12210">222</a></td> +<td class="width40">and and</td> +<td class="width40">and</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12213">222</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pìsa</td> +<td class="width40">Pisa</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12291">224</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pensee</td> +<td class="width40">Pensée</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12361">224</a></td> +<td class="width40">parishoners</td> +<td class="width40">parishioners</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12395">225</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12422">225</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12466">226</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12625">228</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12694">229</a></td> +<td class="width40">Herzogenbusch</td> +<td class="width40">’s Hertogenbosch</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12733">230</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pelusuin</td> +<td class="width40">Pelusium</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12754">230</a></td> +<td class="width40">Indianopolis</td> +<td class="width40">Indianapolis</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12776">231</a></td> +<td class="width40">scais je</td> +<td class="width40">sçais-je</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12820">232</a></td> +<td class="width40">Heidelburg</td> +<td class="width40">Heidelberg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12826">232</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12846">232</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e12872">232</a></td> +<td class="width40">Miseltoe</td> +<td class="width40">Mistletoe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13200">237</a></td> +<td class="width40">Portugese</td> +<td class="width40">Portuguese</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13502">242</a></td> +<td class="width40">privat-doceut</td> +<td class="width40">privat-docent</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13610">243</a></td> +<td class="width40">Apostolike</td> +<td class="width40">Apostolic</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13746">246</a></td> +<td class="width40">a an</td> +<td class="width40">an</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13867">248</a></td> +<td class="width40">principle</td> +<td class="width40">principal</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13882">249</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13892">249</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13895">249</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">11 Aug.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13911">249</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13938">249</a></td> +<td class="width40">de voilée</td> +<td class="width40">devoilée</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e13968">250</a></td> +<td class="width40">Evariste</td> +<td class="width40">Évariste</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14008">250</a></td> +<td class="width40">Etienne</td> +<td class="width40">Étienne</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14011">250</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14016">250</a></td> +<td class="width40">Jesuites</td> +<td class="width40">Jésuites</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14117">252</a></td> +<td class="width40">C’etait</td> +<td class="width40">C’était</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14233">253</a></td> +<td class="width40">’83</td> +<td class="width40">’63</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14256">254</a></td> +<td class="width40">Orgin</td> +<td class="width40">Origin</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14334">255</a></td> +<td class="width40">Dijp</td> +<td class="width40">Rijp</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14461">257</a></td> +<td class="width40">. He</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14478">257</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14517">258</a></td> +<td class="width40">1808</td> +<td class="width40">1708</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14571">259</a></td> +<td class="width40">National</td> +<td class="width40">Natural</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14578">259</a></td> +<td class="width40">erruption</td> +<td class="width40">eruption</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14715">262</a></td> +<td class="width40">.)</td> +<td class="width40">).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e14980">266</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pueckler Muskau</td> +<td class="width40">Pückler Muskau</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15066">267</a></td> +<td class="width40">Πυρρον</td> +<td class="width40"><span class="trans" title= +"Pyrrōn"><span class="Greek" lang= +"el">Πύρρων</span></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15091">268</a></td> +<td class="width40">.)</td> +<td class="width40">).</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15235">270</a></td> +<td class="width40">Italia</td> +<td class="width40">Italian</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15286">271</a></td> +<td class="width40">l’abbe</td> +<td class="width40">l’abbé</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15296">271</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15310">271</a></td> +<td class="width40">Martrydom</td> +<td class="width40">Martyrdom</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15317">271</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15428">273</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15441">273</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15459">274</a></td> +<td class="width40">Wolfenbültel</td> +<td class="width40">Wolfenbüttel</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15527">275</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15734">277</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td> +<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15753">277</a></td> +<td class="width40">Eucumenical</td> +<td class="width40">Ecumenical</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15773">278</a></td> +<td class="width40">Leon</td> +<td class="width40">Léon</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15860">279</a></td> +<td class="width40">Malthusiasm</td> +<td class="width40">Malthusianism</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15928">280</a></td> +<td class="width40">Bibliotheque</td> +<td class="width40">Bibliothèque</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e15956">280</a></td> +<td class="width40">Vienese</td> +<td class="width40">Viennese</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16015">282</a></td> +<td class="width40">Laland</td> +<td class="width40">Lalande</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16114">284</a></td> +<td class="width40">orignality</td> +<td class="width40">originality</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16121">284</a></td> +<td class="width40">Commitee</td> +<td class="width40">Committee</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16160">284</a></td> +<td class="width40">1715</td> +<td class="width40">1751</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16166">284</a></td> +<td class="width40">stories</td> +<td class="width40">story</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16248">286</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ruedt</td> +<td class="width40">Rüdt</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16338">287</a></td> +<td class="width40">centnry</td> +<td class="width40">century</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16485">289</a></td> +<td class="width40">1821</td> +<td class="width40">1851</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16488">289</a></td> +<td class="width40">bacame</td> +<td class="width40">became</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16555">290</a></td> +<td class="width40">Chateau</td> +<td class="width40">Château</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16586">291</a></td> +<td class="width40">mathematican</td> +<td class="width40">mathematician</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16716">293</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">(</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16785">294</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16823">294</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16889">296</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e16937">296</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17072">299</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17085">299</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">from</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17097">299</a></td> +<td class="width40">Woolstonecraft</td> +<td class="width40">Wollstonecraft</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17148">300</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17182">300</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17437">303</a></td> +<td class="width40">Worlds</td> +<td class="width40">World’s</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17481">304</a></td> +<td class="width40">Spinosa</td> +<td class="width40">Spinoza</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17487">304</a></td> +<td class="width40">Spinosa</td> +<td class="width40">Spinoza</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e17599">305</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guerini</td> +<td class="width40">Guerrini</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18032">311</a></td> +<td class="width40">Aristotlelian</td> +<td class="width40">Aristotelian</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18043">312</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18128">313</a></td> +<td class="width40">Aristotleian</td> +<td class="width40">Aristotelian</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18148">313</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td> +<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18433">318</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18455">318</a></td> +<td class="width40">Monk</td> +<td class="width40">work</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18542">319</a></td> +<td class="width40">1642</td> +<td class="width40">1842</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18550">319</a></td> +<td class="width40">Turgeuev</td> +<td class="width40">Turgenev</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18572">320</a></td> +<td class="width40">Tilia</td> +<td class="width40">Titia</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18582">320</a></td> +<td class="width40">Krel</td> +<td class="width40">Kiel</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18645">321</a></td> +<td class="width40">Madgeburg</td> +<td class="width40">Magdeburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18885">325</a></td> +<td class="width40">Atheisme</td> +<td class="width40">Athéisme</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18930">325</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">. He</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e18964">325</a></td> +<td class="width40">Ponnerania</td> +<td class="width40">Pomerania</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19005">326</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">’</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19010">326</a></td> +<td class="width40">Freireligioses</td> +<td class="width40">Freireligiöses</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19014">326</a></td> +<td class="width40">Magdenburg</td> +<td class="width40">Magdeburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19108">328</a></td> +<td class="width40">Montreaux</td> +<td class="width40">Montreux</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19199">330</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">to</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19226">330</a></td> +<td class="width40">aftewards</td> +<td class="width40">afterwards</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19640">335</a></td> +<td class="width40">assailad</td> +<td class="width40">assailed</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19895">339</a></td> +<td class="width40">Freethinkers’</td> +<td class="width40">Freethinker’s</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19906">339</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e19998">341</a></td> +<td class="width40">Würmburg</td> +<td class="width40">Würzburg</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20004">341</a></td> +<td class="width40">Meirouw</td> +<td class="width40">Mevrouw</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20160">343</a></td> +<td class="width40">Apil</td> +<td class="width40">April</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20275">344</a></td> +<td class="width40">Portugese</td> +<td class="width40">Portuguese</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20324">345</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20473">347</a></td> +<td class="width40">Siecles</td> +<td class="width40">Siècles</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20478">347</a></td> +<td class="width40">Siecle</td> +<td class="width40">Siècle</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20627">348</a></td> +<td class="width40">Guiseppe</td> +<td class="width40">Giuseppe</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20664">349</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">which</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20701">350</a></td> +<td class="width40">Umries</td> +<td class="width40">Umriss</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20739">350</a></td> +<td class="width40">Potsdan</td> +<td class="width40">Potsdam</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20748">350</a></td> +<td class="width40">Pensèe</td> +<td class="width40">Pensée</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20760">350</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20781">351</a></td> +<td class="width40">and</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20876">352</a></td> +<td class="width40">the</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20929">353</a></td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20939">353</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e20977">354</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21019">354</a></td> +<td class="width40">Rivasta</td> +<td class="width40">Rivista</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21062">355</a></td> +<td class="width40">Antropological</td> +<td class="width40">Anthropological</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21072">355</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21143">356</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21176">356</a></td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Not in source</i>]</td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd20e21264">356</a></td> +<td class="width40">,</td> +<td class="width40">[<i>Deleted</i>]</td> +</tr> +</table> +</div> +</div> + + +<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FREETHINKERS ***</div> +<div style='text-align:left'> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United 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