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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
+Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st editio, by Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st edition)
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34967]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by StevenGibbs, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
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+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN,
+
+AND
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+
+
+BY CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES.—VOL. I.
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+LONDON:
+
+JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
+
+1871.
+
+[_The right of Translation is reserved._]
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+
+  ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION; or, THE
+    PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE; Fifth
+    Edition (_Tenth Thousand_), with Additions and Corrections.
+    1869. MURRAY.
+
+  THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. In two vols.
+    With Illustrations. 1868. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES BY WHICH BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE
+    FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING. With
+    numerous Woodcuts. MURRAY.
+
+  A NATURALIST’S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or, A JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES INTO
+    THE NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRIES visited during the
+    voyage of H.M.S. ‘Beagle,’ under the command of Captain FITZROY, R.N.
+    _Eleventh Thousand_. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. SMITH, ELDER & CO.
+
+  A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illustrations. 2 vols.
+    8vo. HARDWICKE.
+
+  ON THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF CLIMBING PLANTS. With Woodcuts. WILLIAMS
+    & NORGATE.
+
+
+LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING
+CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                  Page 1-5
+
+
+  PART I.
+
+  ON THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man—Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals—Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence—Development—Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.—The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man                                                     9-33
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense—Certain instincts in common—The
+  emotions—Curiosity—Imitation—Attention—Memory—Imagination—
+  Reason—Progressive improvement—Tools and weapons used by
+  animals—Language—Self-consciousness—Sense of beauty—Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions                        34-69
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+    ANIMALS—_continued_.
+
+  The moral sense—Fundamental proposition—The qualities of
+  social animals—Origin of sociability—Struggle between opposed
+  instincts—Man and social animal—The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts—The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages—The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development—The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct—Transmission of moral tendencies—Summary                70-106
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man—Inheritance—Causes of
+  variability—Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals—Direct action of the conditions of life—Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts—Arrested
+  development—Reversion—Correlated variation—Rate of
+  increase—Checks to increase—Natural selection—Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world—Importance of his corporeal
+  structure—The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect—Consequent changes of structure—Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth—Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull—Nakedness—Absence of a tail—Defenceless condition of
+  man                                                            107-157
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES
+    DURING PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection—Importance of imitation—Social and moral
+  faculties—Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe—Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations—Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous    158-184
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+  Position of man in the animal series—The natural system
+  genealogical—Adaptive characters of slight value—Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana—Rank of man in the natural system—Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man—Absence of fossil connecting-links—Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure—Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata—Conclusion                         185-213
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters—Application to the
+  races of man—Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct species—Sub-species—
+  Monogenists and polygenists—Convergence of character—Numerous
+  points of resemblance in body and mind   between the most
+  distinct races of man—The state of man when he first spread
+  over the earth—Each race not descended from a single
+  pair—The extinction of races—The formation of races—
+  The effects of crossing—Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life—Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection—Sexual selection.                            214-250
+
+
+  PART II. SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  Secondary sexual characters—Sexual selection—Manner of
+  action—Excess of males—Polygamy—The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection—Eagerness of the
+  male—Variability of the male—Choice exerted by the
+  female—Sexual compared with natural selection—Inheritance at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex—Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance—Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection—Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom—On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection                                      253-320
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL
+    KINGDOM.
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes—Brilliant
+  colours—Mollusca—Annelids—Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity—Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males—Myriapoda                            321-340
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females—Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood—Difference in size between the
+  sexes—Thysanura—Diptera—Hemiptera—Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone—Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours—Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour—Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours—Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes                          341-385
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  INSECTS, _continued_.—ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+  Courtship of butterflies—Battles—Ticking noise—Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males—Examples—Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life—Colours adapted for protection—Colours of
+  moths—Display—Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera—Variability—Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females—Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males—Bright colours of
+  caterpillars—Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects—Birds and insects compared        386-423
+
+
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN;
+
+AND ON
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The nature of the following work will be best understood by a brief
+account of how it came to be written. During many years I collected
+notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of
+publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to
+publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices
+against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first
+edition of my ‘Origin of Species,’ that by this work “light would be
+thrown on the origin of man and his history;” and this implies that man
+must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion
+respecting his manner of appearance on this earth. Now the case wears a
+wholly different aspect. When a naturalist like Carl Vogt ventures to
+say in his address as President of the National Institution of Geneva
+(1869), “personne, en Europe au moins, n’ose plus soutenir la création
+indépendante et de toutes pièces, des espèces,” it is manifest that at
+least a large number of naturalists must admit that species are the
+modified descendants of other species; and this especially holds good
+with the younger and rising naturalists. The greater number accept the
+agency of natural selection; though some urge, whether with justice the
+future must decide, that I have greatly overrated its importance. Of the
+older and honoured chiefs in natural science, many unfortunately are
+still opposed to evolution in every form.
+
+In consequence of the views now adopted by most naturalists, and which
+will ultimately, as in every other case, be followed by other men, I
+have been led to put together my notes, so as to see how far the general
+conclusions arrived at in my former works were applicable to man. This
+seemed all the more desirable as I had never deliberately applied these
+views to a species taken singly. When we confine our attention to any
+one form, we are deprived of the weighty arguments derived from the
+nature of the affinities which connect together whole groups of
+organisms—their geographical distribution in past and present times,
+and their geological succession. The homological structure,
+embryological development, and rudimentary organs of a species, whether
+it be man or any other animal, to which our attention may be directed,
+remain to be considered; but these great classes of facts afford, as it
+appears to me, ample and conclusive evidence in favour of the principle
+of gradual evolution. The strong support derived from the other
+arguments should, however, always be kept before the mind.
+
+The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like
+every other species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly,
+the manner of his development; and thirdly, the value of the
+differences between the so-called races of man. As I shall confine
+myself to these points, it will not be necessary to describe in detail
+the differences between the several races—an enormous subject which has
+been fully discussed in many valuable works. The high antiquity of man
+has recently been demonstrated by the labours of a host of eminent men,
+beginning with M. Boucher de Perthes; and this is the indispensable
+basis for understanding his origin. I shall, therefore, take this
+conclusion for granted, and may refer my readers to the admirable
+treatises of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, and others. Nor shall
+I have occasion to do more than to allude to the amount of difference
+between man and the anthropomorphous apes; for Prof. Huxley, in the
+opinion of most competent judges, has conclusively shewn that in every
+single visible character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order of Primates.
+
+This work contains hardly any original facts in regard to man; but as
+the conclusions at which I arrived, after drawing up a rough draft,
+appeared to me interesting, I thought that they might interest others.
+It has often and confidently been asserted, that man’s origin can never
+be known: but ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does
+knowledge: it is those who know little, and not those who know much, who
+so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by
+science. The conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other species
+of some ancient, lower, and extinct form, is not in any degree new.
+Lamarck long ago came to this conclusion, which has lately been
+maintained by several eminent naturalists and philosophers; for instance
+by Wallace, Huxley, Lyell, Vogt, Lubbock, Büchner, Rolle, &c.,[1] and
+especially by Häckel. This last naturalist, besides his great work,
+‘Generelle Morphologie’ (1866), has recently (1868, with a second edit.
+in 1870), published his ‘Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,’ in which he
+fully discusses the genealogy of man. If this work had appeared before
+my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it.
+Almost all the conclusions at which I have arrived I find confirmed by
+this naturalist, whose knowledge on many points is much fuller than
+mine. Wherever I have added any fact or view from Prof. Häckel’s
+writings, I give his authority in the text, other statements I leave as
+they originally stood in my manuscript, occasionally giving in the
+foot-notes references to his works, as a confirmation of the more
+doubtful or interesting points.
+
+During many years it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual
+selection has played an important part in differentiating the races of
+man; but in my ‘Origin of Species’ (first edition, p. 199) I contented
+myself by merely alluding to this belief. When I came to apply this view
+to man, I found it indispensable to treat the whole subject in full
+detail.[2] Consequently the second part of the present work, treating of
+sexual selection, has extended to an inordinate length, compared with
+the first part; but this could not be avoided.
+
+I had intended adding to the present volumes an essay on the expression
+of the various emotions by man and the lower animals. My attention was
+called to this subject many years ago by Sir Charles Bell’s admirable
+work. This illustrious anatomist maintains that man is endowed with
+certain muscles solely for the sake of expressing his emotions. As this
+view is obviously opposed to the belief that man is descended from some
+other and lower form, it was necessary for me to consider it. I likewise
+wished to ascertain how far the emotions are expressed in the same
+manner by the different races of man. But owing to the length of the
+present work, I have thought it better to reserve my essay, which is
+partially completed, for separate publication.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+THE DESCENT OR ORIGIN OF MAN.
+
+PART I.—THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man—Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals—Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence—Development—Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.—The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man.
+
+
+He who wishes to decide whether man is the modified descendant of some
+pre-existing form, would probably first enquire whether man varies,
+however slightly, in bodily structure and in mental faculties; and if
+so, whether the variations are transmitted to his offspring in
+accordance with the laws which prevail with the lower animals; such as
+that of the transmission of characters to the same age or sex. Again,
+are the variations the result, as far as our ignorance permits us to
+judge, of the same general causes, and are they governed by the same
+general laws, as in the case of other organisms; for instance by
+correlation, the inherited effects of use and disuse, &c.? Is man
+subject to similar malconformations, the result of arrested development,
+of reduplication of parts, &c., and does he display in any of his
+anomalies reversion to some former and ancient type of structure? It
+might also naturally be enquired whether man, like so many other
+animals, has given rise to varieties and sub-races, differing but
+slightly from each other, or to races differing so much that they must
+be classed as doubtful species? How are such races distributed over the
+world; and how, when crossed, do they react on each other, both in the
+first and succeeding generations? And so with many other points.
+
+The enquirer would next come to the important point, whether man tends
+to increase at so rapid a rate, as to lead to occasional severe
+struggles for existence, and consequently to beneficial variations,
+whether in body or mind, being preserved, and injurious ones eliminated.
+Do the races or species of men, whichever term may be applied, encroach
+on and replace each other, so that some finally become extinct? We shall
+see that all these questions, as indeed is obvious in respect to most of
+them, must be answered in the affirmative, in the same manner as with
+the lower animals. But the several considerations just referred to may
+be conveniently deferred for a time; and we will first see how far the
+bodily structure of man shows traces, more or less plain, of his descent
+from some lower form. In the two succeeding chapters the mental powers
+of man, in comparison with those of the lower animals, will be
+considered.
+
+
+_The Bodily Structure of Man._—It is notorious that man is constructed
+on the same general type or model with other mammals. All the bones in
+his skeleton can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat,
+or seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels and internal
+viscera. The brain, the most important of all the organs, follows the
+same law, as shewn by Huxley and other anatomists. Bischoff,[3] who is a
+hostile witness, admits that every chief fissure and fold in the brain
+of man has its analogy in that of the orang; but he adds that at no
+period of development do their brains perfectly agree; nor could this be
+expected, for otherwise their mental powers would have been the same.
+Vulpian[4] remarks: “Les différences réelles qui existent entre
+l’encéphale de l’homme et celui des singes supérieurs, sont bien
+minimes. Il ne faut pas se faire d’illusions à cet égard. L’homme est
+bien plus près des singes anthropomorphes par les caractères anatomiques
+de son cerveau que ceux-ci ne le sont non-seulement des autres
+mammifères, mais mêmes de certains quadrumanes, des guenons et des
+macaques.” But it would be superfluous here to give further details on
+the correspondence between man and the higher mammals in the structure
+of the brain and all other parts of the body.
+
+It may, however, be worth while to specify a few points, not directly or
+obviously connected with structure, by which this correspondence or
+relationship is well shewn.
+
+Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and to communicate to
+them, certain diseases as hydrophobia, variola, the glanders, &c.; and
+this fact proves the close similarity of their tissues and blood, both
+in minute structure and composition, far more plainly than does their
+comparison under the best microscope, or by the aid of the best chemical
+analysis. Monkeys are liable to many of the same non-contagious diseases
+as we are; thus Rengger,[5] who carefully observed for a long time the
+_Cebus Azaræ_ in its native land, found it liable to catarrh, with the
+usual symptoms, and which when often recurrent led to consumption.
+These monkeys suffered also from apoplexy, inflammation of the bowels,
+and cataract in the eye. The younger ones when shedding their milk-teeth
+often died from fever. Medicines produced the same effect on them as on
+us. Many kinds of monkeys have a strong taste for tea, coffee, and
+spirituous liquors: they will also, as I have myself seen, smoke tobacco
+with pleasure. Brehm asserts that the natives of north-eastern Africa
+catch the wild baboons by exposing vessels with strong beer, by which
+they are made drunk. He has seen some of these animals, which he kept in
+confinement, in this state; and he gives a laughable account of their
+behaviour and strange grimaces. On the following morning they were very
+cross and dismal; they held their aching heads with both hands and wore
+a most pitiable expression: when beer or wine was offered them, they
+turned away with disgust, but relished the juice of lemons.[6] An
+American monkey, an Ateles, after getting drunk on brandy, would never
+touch it again, and thus was wiser than many men. These trifling facts
+prove how similar the nerves of taste must be in monkeys and man, and
+how similarly their whole nervous system is affected.
+
+Man is infested with internal parasites, sometimes causing fatal
+effects, and is plagued by external parasites, all of which belong to
+the same genera or families with those infesting other mammals. Man is
+subject like other mammals, birds, and even insects, to that mysterious
+law, which causes certain normal processes, such as gestation, as well
+as the maturation and duration of various diseases, to follow lunar
+periods.[7] His wounds are repaired by the same process of healing; and
+the stumps left after the amputation of his limbs occasionally possess,
+especially during an early embryonic period, some power of regeneration,
+as in the lowest animals.[8]
+
+The whole process of that most important function, the reproduction of
+the species, is strikingly the same in all mammals, from the first act
+of courtship by the male[9] to the birth and nurturing of the young.
+Monkeys are born in almost as helpless a condition as our own infants;
+and in certain genera the young differ fully as much in appearance from
+the adults, as do our children from their full-grown parents.[10] It has
+been urged by some writers as an important distinction, that with man
+the young arrive at maturity at a much later age than with any other
+animal; but if we look to the races of mankind which inhabit tropical
+countries the difference is not great, for the orang is believed not to
+be adult till the age of from ten to fifteen years.[11] Man differs
+from woman in size, bodily strength, hairyness, &c., as well as in mind,
+in the same manner as do the two sexes of many mammals. It is, in short,
+scarcely possible to exaggerate the close correspondence in general
+structure, in the minute structure of the tissues, in chemical
+composition and in constitution, between man and the higher animals,
+especially the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+
+_Embryonic Development._—Man is developed from an ovule, about the
+125th of an inch in diameter, which differs in no respect from the
+ovules of other animals. The embryo itself at a very early period can
+hardly be distinguished from that of other members of the vertebrate
+kingdom. At this period the arteries run in arch-like branches, as if to
+carry the blood to branchiæ which are not present in the higher
+vertebrata, though the slits on the sides of the neck still remain (_f_,
+_g_, fig. 1), marking their former position. At a somewhat later period,
+when the extremities are developed, “the feet of lizards and mammals,”
+as the illustrious Von Baer remarks, “the wings and feet of birds, no
+less than the hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental
+form.” It is, says Prof. Huxley,[12] “quite in the later stages of
+development that the young human being presents marked differences from
+the young ape, while the latter departs as much from the dog in its
+developments, as the man does. Startling as this last assertion may
+appear to be, it is demonstrably true.”
+
+As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have
+given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of
+development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy.[13]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Upper figure human embryo, from Ecker. Lower
+figure that of a dog, from Bischoff.
+
+  _a._ Fore-brain, cerebral hemispheres, &c.
+  _b._ Mid-brain, corpora quadrigemina.
+  _c._ Hind-brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata.
+  _d._ Eye.
+  _e._ Ear.
+  _f._ First visceral arch.
+  _g._ Second visceral arch.
+   H. Vertebral columns and muscles in process of development.
+  _i._ Anterior ┐
+                │ extremities.
+   K. Posterior ┘
+   L. Tail or os coccyx.]
+
+After the foregoing statements made by such high authorities, it would
+be superfluous on my part to give a number of borrowed details, shewing
+that the embryo of man closely resembles that of other mammals. It may,
+however, be added that the human embryo likewise resembles in various
+points of structure certain low forms when adult. For instance, the
+heart at first exists as a simple pulsating vessel; the excreta are
+voided through a cloacal passage; and the os coccyx projects like a true
+tail, “extending considerably beyond the rudimentary legs.”[14] In the
+embryos of all air-breathing vertebrates, certain glands called the
+corpora Wolffiana, correspond with and act like the kidneys of mature
+fishes.[15] Even at a later embryonic period, some striking resemblances
+between man and the lower animals may be observed. Bischoff says that
+the convolutions of the brain in a human fœtus at the end of the
+seventh month reach about the same stage of development as in a baboon
+when adult.[16] The great toe, as Prof. Owen remarks,[17] “which forms
+the fulcrum when standing or walking, is perhaps the most
+characteristic peculiarity in the human structure;” but in an embryo,
+about an inch in length, Prof. Wyman[18] found “that the great toe was
+shorter than the others, and, instead of being parallel to them,
+projected at an angle from the side of the foot, thus corresponding with
+the permanent condition of this part in the quadrumana.” I will conclude
+with a quotation from Huxley,[19] who after asking, does man originate
+in a different way from a dog, bird, frog or fish? says, “the reply is
+not doubtful for a moment; without question, the mode of origin and the
+early stages of the development of man are identical with those of the
+animals immediately below him in the scale: without a doubt in these
+respects, he is far nearer to apes, than the apes are to the dog.”
+
+
+_Rudiments._—This subject, though not intrinsically more important than
+the two last, will for several reasons be here treated with more
+fullness.[20] Not one of the higher animals can be named which does not
+bear some part in a rudimentary condition; and man forms no exception to
+the rule. Rudimentary organs must be distinguished from those that are
+nascent; though in some cases the distinction is not easy. The former
+are either absolutely useless, such as the mammæ of male quadrupeds, or
+the incisor teeth of ruminants which never cut through the gums; or they
+are of such slight service to their present possessors, that we cannot
+suppose that they were developed under the conditions which now exist.
+Organs in this latter state are not strictly rudimentary, but they are
+tending in this direction. Nascent organs, on the other hand, though not
+fully developed, are of high service to their possessors, and are
+capable of further development. Rudimentary organs are eminently
+variable; and this is partly intelligible, as they are useless or nearly
+useless, and consequently are no longer subjected to natural selection.
+They often become wholly suppressed. When this occurs, they are
+nevertheless liable to occasional reappearance through reversion; and
+this is a circumstance well worthy of attention.
+
+Disuse at that period of life, when an organ is chiefly used, and this
+is generally during maturity, together with inheritance at a
+corresponding period of life, seem to have been the chief agents in
+causing organs to become rudimentary. The term “disuse” does not relate
+merely to the lessened action of muscles, but includes a diminished flow
+of blood to a part or organ, from being subjected to fewer alternations
+of pressure, or from becoming in any way less habitually active.
+Rudiments, however, may occur in one sex of parts normally present in
+the other sex; and such rudiments, as we shall hereafter see, have often
+originated in a distinct manner. In some cases organs have been reduced
+by means of natural selection, from having become injurious to the
+species under changed habits of life. The process of reduction is
+probably often aided through the two principles of compensation and
+economy of growth; but the later stages of reduction, after disuse has
+done all that can fairly be attributed to it, and when the saving to be
+effected by the economy of growth would be very small,[21] are difficult
+to understand. The final and complete suppression of a part, already
+useless and much reduced in size, in which case neither compensation nor
+economy can come into play, is perhaps intelligible by the aid of the
+hypothesis of pangenesis, and apparently in no other way. But as the
+whole subject of rudimentary organs has been fully discussed and
+illustrated in my former works,[22] I need here say no more on this
+head.
+
+Rudiments of various muscles have been observed in many parts of the
+human body;[23] and not a few muscles, which are regularly present in
+some of the lower animals can occasionally be detected in man in a
+greatly reduced condition. Every one must have noticed the power which
+many animals, especially horses, possess of moving or twitching their
+skin; and this is effected by the panniculus carnosus. Remnants of this
+muscle in an efficient state are found in various parts of our bodies;
+for instance, on the forehead, by which the eyebrows are raised. The
+_platysma myoides_, which is well developed on the neck, belongs to this
+system, but cannot be voluntarily brought into action. Prof. Turner, of
+Edinburgh, has occasionally detected, as he informs me, muscular
+fasciculi in five different situations, namely in the axillæ, near the
+scapulæ, &c., all of which must be referred to the system of the
+panniculus. He has also shewn[24] that the _musculus sternalis_ or
+_sternalis brutorum_, which is not an extension of the _rectus
+abdominalis_, but is closely allied to the panniculus, occurred in the
+proportion of about 3 per cent. in upwards of 600 bodies: he adds, that
+this muscle affords “an excellent illustration of the statement that
+occasional and rudimentary structures are especially liable to variation
+in arrangement.”
+
+Some few persons have the power of contracting the superficial muscles
+on their scalps; and these muscles are in a variable and partially
+rudimentary condition. M. A. de Candolle has communicated to me a
+curious instance of the long-continued persistence or inheritance of
+this power, as well as of its unusual development. He knows a family, in
+which one member, the present head of a family, could, when a youth,
+pitch several heavy books from his head by the movement of the scalp
+alone; and he won wagers by performing this feat. His father, uncle,
+grandfather, and all his three children possess the same power to the
+same unusual degree. This family became divided eight generations ago
+into two branches; so that the head of the above-mentioned branch is
+cousin in the seventh degree to the head of the other branch. This
+distant cousin resides in another part of France, and on being asked
+whether he possessed the same faculty, immediately exhibited his power.
+This case offers a good illustration how persistently an absolutely
+useless faculty may be transmitted.
+
+The extrinsic muscles which serve to move the whole external ear, and
+the intrinsic muscles which move the different parts, all of which
+belong to the system of the panniculus, are in a rudimentary condition
+in man; they are also variable in development, or at least in function.
+I have seen one man who could draw his ears forwards, and another who
+could draw them backwards;[25] and from what one of these persons told
+me, it is probable that most of us by often touching our ears and thus
+directing our attention towards them, could by repeated trials recover
+some power of movement. The faculty of erecting the ears and of
+directing them to different points of the compass, is no doubt of the
+highest service to many animals, as they thus perceive the point of
+danger; but I have never heard of a man who possessed the least power of
+erecting his ears,—the one movement which might be of use to him. The
+whole external shell of the ear may be considered a rudiment, together
+with the various folds and prominences (helix and anti-helix, tragus and
+anti-tragus, &c.) which in the lower animals strengthen and support the
+ear when erect, without adding much to its weight. Some authors,
+however, suppose that the cartilage of the shell serves to transmit
+vibrations to the acoustic nerve; but Mr. Toynbee,[26] after collecting
+all the known evidence on this head, concludes that the external shell
+is of no distinct use. The ears of the chimpanzee and orang are
+curiously like those of man, and I am assured by the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens that these animals never move or erect them; so that
+they are in an equally rudimentary condition, as far as function is
+concerned, as in man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors of
+man, should have lost the power of erecting their ears we cannot say. It
+may be, though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing to
+their arboreal habits and great strength they were but little exposed to
+danger, and so during a lengthened period moved their ears but little,
+and thus gradually lost the power of moving them. This would be a
+parallel case with that of those large and heavy birds, which from
+inhabiting oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks of
+beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the power of using their
+wings for flight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Human Ear, modelled and drawn by Mr. Woolner.
+
+_a._ The projecting point.]
+
+The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of one little
+peculiarity in the external ear, which he has often observed both in men
+and women, and of which he perceived the full signification. His
+attention was first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure
+of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was thus led to examine
+the ears of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully those of
+man. The peculiarity consists in a little blunt point, projecting from
+the inwardly folded margin, or helix. Mr. Woolner made an exact model of
+one such case, and has sent me the accompanying drawing. (Fig. 2.) These
+points not only project inwards, but often a little outwards, so that
+they are visible when the head is viewed from directly in front or
+behind. They are variable in size and somewhat in position, standing
+either a little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on one ear and
+not on the other. Now the meaning of these projections is not, I think,
+doubtful; but it may be thought that they offer too trifling a character
+to be worth notice. This thought, however, is as false as it is natural.
+Every character, however slight, must be the result of some definite
+cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves consideration. The
+helix obviously consists of the extreme margin of the ear folded
+inwards; and this folding appears to be in some manner connected with
+the whole external ear being permanently pressed backwards. In many
+monkeys, which do not stand high in the order, as baboons and some
+species of macacus,[27] the upper portion of the ear is slightly
+pointed, and the margin is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
+were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily project inwards
+and probably a little outwards. This could actually be observed in a
+specimen of the _Ateles beelzebuth_ in the Zoological Gardens; and we
+may safely conclude that it is a similar structure—a vestige of
+formerly pointed ears—which occasionally reappears in man.
+
+The nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, with its accessory muscles
+and other structures, is especially well developed in birds, and is of
+much functional importance to them, as it can be rapidly drawn across
+the whole eye-ball. It is found in some reptiles and amphibians, and in
+certain fishes, as in sharks. It is fairly well developed in the two
+lower divisions of the mammalian series, namely, in the monotremata and
+marsupials, and in some few of the higher mammals, as in the walrus. But
+in man, the quadrumana, and most other mammals, it exists, as is
+admitted by all anatomists, as a mere rudiment, called the semilunar
+fold.[28]
+
+The sense of smell is of the highest importance to the greater number of
+mammals—to some, as the ruminants, in warning them of danger; to
+others, as the carnivora, in finding their prey; to others, as the wild
+boar, for both purposes combined. But the sense of smell is of extremely
+slight service, if any, even to savages, in whom it is generally more
+highly developed than in the civilised races. It does not warn them of
+danger, nor guide them to their food; nor does it prevent the Esquimaux
+from sleeping in the most fetid atmosphere, nor many savages from eating
+half-putrid meat. Those who believe in the principle of gradual
+evolution, will not readily admit that this sense in its present state
+was originally acquired by man, as he now exists. No doubt he inherits
+the power in _an_ enfeebled and so far rudimentary condition, from some
+early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable and by whom it was
+continually used. We can thus perhaps understand how it is, as Dr.
+Maudsley has truly remarked,[29] that the sense of smell in man “is
+singularly effective in recalling vividly the ideas and images of
+forgotten scenes and places;” for we see in those animals, which have
+this sense highly developed, such as dogs and horses, that old
+recollections of persons and places are strongly associated with their
+odour.
+
+Man differs conspicuously from all the other Primates in being almost
+naked. But a few short straggling hairs are found over the greater part
+of the body in the male sex, and fine down on that of the female sex, In
+individuals belonging to the same race these hairs are highly variable,
+not only in abundance, but likewise in position: thus the shoulders in
+some Europeans are quite naked, whilst in others they bear thick tufts
+of hair.[30] There can be little doubt that the hairs thus scattered
+over the body are the rudiments of the uniform hairy coat of the lower
+animals. This view is rendered all the more probable, as it is known
+that fine, short, and pale-coloured hairs on the limbs and other parts
+of the body occasionally become developed into “thickset, long, and
+rather coarse dark hairs,” when abnormally nourished near old-standing
+inflamed surfaces.[31]
+
+I am informed by Mr. Paget that persons belonging to the same family
+often have a few hairs in their eyebrows much longer than the others; so
+that this slight peculiarity seems to be inherited. These hairs
+apparently represent the vibrissæ, which are used as organs of touch by
+many of the lower animals. In a young chimpanzee I observed that a few
+upright, rather long, hairs, projected above the eyes, where the true
+eyebrows, if present, would have stood.
+
+The fine wool-like hair, or so-called lanugo, with which the human
+fœtus during the sixth month is thickly covered, offers a more
+curious case. It is first developed, during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially round the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. A moustache of this kind was observed by
+Eschricht[32] on a female fœtus; but this is not so surprising a
+circumstance as it may at first appear, for the two sexes generally
+resemble each other in all external characters during an early period of
+growth. The direction and arrangement of the hairs on all parts of the
+fœtal body are the same as in the adult, but are subject to much
+variability. The whole surface, including even the forehead and ears, is
+thus thickly clothed; but it is a significant fact that the palms of the
+hands and the soles of the feet are quite naked, like the inferior
+surfaces of all four extremities in most of the lower animals. As this
+can hardly be an accidental coincidence, we must consider the woolly
+covering of the fœtus to be the rudimental representative of the
+first permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are born hairy. This
+representation is much more complete, in accordance with the usual law
+of embryological development, than that afforded by the straggling hairs
+on the body of the adult.
+
+It appears as if the posterior molar or wisdom-teeth were tending to
+become rudimentary in the more civilised races of man. These teeth are
+rather smaller than the other molars, as is likewise the case with the
+corresponding teeth in the chimpanzee and orang; and they have only two
+separate fangs. They do not cut through the gums till about the
+seventeenth year, and I am assured by dentists that they are much more
+liable to decay, and are earlier lost, than the other teeth. It is also
+remarkable that they are much more liable to vary both in structure and
+in the period of their development than the other teeth.[33] In the
+Melanian races, on the other hand, the wisdom-teeth are usually
+furnished with three separate fangs, and are generally sound: they also
+differ from the other molars in size less than in the Caucasian
+races.[34] Prof. Schaaffhausen accounts for this difference between the
+races by “the posterior dental portion of the jaw being always
+shortened” in those that are civilised,[35] and this shortening may, I
+presume, be safely attributed to civilised men habitually feeding on
+soft, cooked food, and thus using their jaws less. I am informed by Mr.
+Brace that it is becoming quite a common practice in the United States
+to remove some of the molar teeth of children, as the jaw does not grow
+large enough for the perfect development of the normal number.
+
+With respect to the alimentary canal I have met with an account of only
+a single rudiment, namely the vermiform appendage of the cæcum. The
+cæcum is a branch or diverticulum of the intestine, ending in a
+cul-de-sac, and it is extremely long in many of the lower
+vegetable-feeding mammals. In the marsupial koala it is actually more
+than thrice as long as the whole body.[36] It is sometimes produced into
+a long gradually-tapering point, and is sometimes constricted in parts.
+It appears as if, in consequence of changed diet or habits, the cæcum
+had become much shortened in various animals, the vermiform appendage
+being left as a rudiment of the shortened part. That this appendage is a
+rudiment, we may infer from its small size, and from the evidence which
+Prof. Canestrini[37] has collected of its variability in man. It is
+occasionally quite absent, or again is largely developed. The passage is
+sometimes completely closed for half or two-thirds of its length, with
+the terminal part consisting of a flattened solid expansion. In the
+orang this appendage is long and convoluted: in man it arises from the
+end of the short cæcum, and is commonly from four to five inches in
+length, being only about the third of an inch in diameter. Not only is
+it useless, but it is sometimes the cause of death, of which fact I have
+lately heard two instances: this is due to small hard bodies, such as
+seeds, entering the passage and causing inflammation.[38]
+
+In the Quadrumana and some other orders of mammals, especially in the
+Carnivora, there is a passage near the lower end of the humerus, called
+the supra-condyloid foramen, through which the great nerve of the fore
+limb passes, and often the great artery. Now in the humerus of man, as
+Dr. Struthers[39] and others have shewn, there is generally a trace of
+this passage, and it is sometimes fairly well developed, being formed by
+a depending hook-like process of bone, completed by a band of ligament.
+When present the great nerve invariably passes through it, and this
+clearly indicates that it is the homologue and rudiment of the
+supra-condyloid foramen of the lower animals. Prof. Turner estimates, as
+he informs me, that it occurs in about one per cent. of recent
+skeletons; but during ancient times it appears to have been much more
+common. Mr. Busk[40] has collected the following evidence on this head:
+Prof. Broca “noticed the perforation in four and a half per cent. of the
+arm-bones collected in the ‘Cimetière du Sud’ at Paris; and in the
+Grotto of Orrony, the contents of which are referred to the Bronze
+period, as many as eight humeri out of thirty-two were perforated; but
+this extraordinary proportion, he thinks, might be due to the cavern
+having been a sort of ‘family vault.’ Again, M. Dupont found 30 per
+cent. of perforated bones in the caves of the Valley of the Lesse,
+belonging to the Reindeer period; whilst M. Leguay, in a sort of
+_dolmen_ at Argenteuil, observed twenty-five per cent. to be perforated;
+and M. Pruner-Bey found twenty-six per cent. in the same condition in
+bones from Vauréal. Nor should it be left unnoticed that M. Pruner-Bey
+states that this condition is common in Guanche skeletons.” The fact
+that ancient races, in this and several other cases, more frequently
+present structures which resemble those of the lower animals than do the
+modern races, is interesting. One chief cause seems to be that ancient
+races stand somewhat nearer than modern races in the long line of
+descent to their remote animal-like progenitors.
+
+The os coccyx in man, though functionless as a tail, plainly represents
+this part in other vertebrate animals. At an early embryonic period it
+is free, and, as we have seen, projects beyond the lower extremities. In
+certain rare and anomalous cases it has been known, according to Isidore
+Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and others,[41] to form a small external rudiment
+of a tail. The os coccyx is short, usually including only four vertebræ:
+and these are in a rudimental condition, for they consist, with the
+exception of the basal one, of the centrum alone.[42] They are furnished
+with some small muscles; one of which, as I am informed by Prof. Turner,
+has been expressly described by Theile as a rudimentary repetition of
+the extensor of the tail, which is so largely developed in many mammals.
+
+The spinal cord in man extends only as far downwards as the last dorsal
+or first lumbar vertebra; but a thread-like structure (the _filum
+terminale_) runs down the axis of the sacral part of the spinal canal,
+and even along the back of the coccygeal bones. The upper part of this
+filament, as Prof. Turner informs me, is undoubtedly homologous with the
+spinal cord; but the lower part apparently consists merely of the _pia
+mater_, or vascular investing membrane. Even in this case the os coccyx
+may be said to possess a vestige of so important a structure as the
+spinal cord, though no longer enclosed within a bony canal. The
+following fact, for which I am also indebted to Prof. Turner, shews how
+closely the os coccyx corresponds with the true tail in the lower
+animals: Luschka has recently discovered at the extremity of the
+coccygeal bones a very peculiar convoluted body, which is continuous
+with the middle sacral artery; and this discovery led Krause and Meyer
+to examine the tail of a monkey (Macacus) and of a cat, in both of which
+they found, though not at the extremity, a similarly convoluted body.
+
+The reproductive system offers various rudimentary structures; but these
+differ in one important respect from the foregoing cases. We are not
+here concerned with a vestige of a part which does not belong to the
+species in an efficient state; but with a part which is always present
+and efficient in the one sex, being represented in the other by a mere
+rudiment. Nevertheless, the occurrence of such rudiments is as difficult
+to explain on the belief of the separate creation of each species, as in
+the foregoing cases. Hereafter I shall have to recur to these rudiments,
+and shall shew that their presence generally depends merely on
+inheritance; namely, on parts acquired by one sex having been partially
+transmitted to the other. Here I will only give some instances of such
+rudiments. It is well known that in the males of all mammals, including
+man, rudimentary mammæ exist. These in several instances have become
+well developed, and have yielded a copious supply of milk. Their
+essential identity in the two sexes is likewise shewn by their
+occasional sympathetic enlargement in both during an attack of the
+measles. The _vesicula prostatica_, which has been observed in many
+male mammals, is now universally acknowledged to be the homologue of the
+female uterus, together with the connected passage. It is impossible to
+read Leuckart’s able description of this organ, and his reasoning,
+without admitting the justness of his conclusion. This is especially
+clear in the case of those mammals in which the true female uterus
+bifurcates, for in the males of these the vesicula likewise
+bifurcates.[43] Some additional rudimentary structures belonging to the
+reproductive system might here have been adduced.[44]
+
+
+The bearing of the three great classes of facts now given is
+unmistakeable. But it would be superfluous here fully to recapitulate
+the line of argument given in detail in my ‘Origin of Species.’ The
+homological construction of the whole frame in the members of the same
+class is intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common
+progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to diversified
+conditions. On any other view the similarity of pattern between the hand
+of a man or monkey, the foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing
+of a bat, &c., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific explanation
+to assert that they have all been formed on the same ideal plan. With
+respect to development, we can clearly understand, on the principle of
+variations supervening at a rather late embryonic period, and being
+inherited at a corresponding period, how it is that the embryos of
+wonderfully different forms should still retain, more or less perfectly,
+the structure of their common progenitor. No other explanation has ever
+been given of the marvellous fact that the embryo of a man, dog, seal,
+bat, reptile, &c., can at first hardly be distinguished from each other.
+In order to understand the existence of rudimentary organs, we have only
+to suppose that a former progenitor possessed the parts in question in a
+perfect state, and that under changed habits of life they became greatly
+reduced, either from simple disuse, or through the natural selection of
+those individuals which were least encumbered with a superfluous part,
+aided by the other means previously indicated.
+
+Thus we can understand how it has come to pass that man and all other
+vertebrate animals have been constructed on the same general model, why
+they pass through the same early stages of development, and why they
+retain certain rudiments in common. Consequently we ought frankly to
+admit their community of descent: to take any other view, is to admit
+that our own structure and that of all the animals around us, is a mere
+snare laid to entrap our judgment. This conclusion is greatly
+strengthened, if we look to the members of the whole animal series, and
+consider the evidence derived from their affinities or classification,
+their geographical distribution and geological succession. It is only
+our natural prejudice, and that arrogance which made our forefathers
+declare that they were descended from demi-gods, which leads us to demur
+to this conclusion. But the time will before long come when it will be
+thought wonderful, that naturalists, who were well acquainted with the
+comparative structure and development of man and other mammals, should
+have believed that each was the work of a separate act of creation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense—Certain instincts in common—The
+  emotions—Curiosity—Imitation—Attention—Memory—Imagination
+  —Reason—Progressive improvement—Tools and weapons used by
+  animals—Language—Self-consciousness—Sense of beauty—Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions.
+
+
+We have seen in the last chapter that man bears in his bodily structure
+clear traces of his descent from some lower form; but it may be urged
+that, as man differs so greatly in his mental power from all other
+animals, there must be some error in this conclusion. No doubt the
+difference in this respect is enormous, even if we compare the mind of
+one of the lowest savages, who has no words to express any number higher
+than four, and who uses no abstract terms for the commonest objects or
+affections,[45] with that of the most highly organised ape. The
+difference would, no doubt, still remain immense, even if one of the
+higher apes had been improved or civilised as much as a dog has been in
+comparison with its parent-form, the wolf or jackal. The Fuegians rank
+amongst the lowest barbarians; but I was continually struck with
+surprise how closely the three natives on board H.M.S. “Beagle,” who had
+lived some years in England and could talk a little English, resembled
+us in disposition and in most of our mental faculties. If no organic
+being excepting man had possessed any mental power, or if his powers had
+been of a wholly different nature from those of the lower animals, then
+we should never have been able to convince ourselves that our high
+faculties had been gradually developed. But it can be clearly shewn that
+there is no fundamental difference of this kind. We must also admit that
+there is a much wider interval in mental power between one of the lowest
+fishes, as a lamprey or lancelet, and one of the higher apes, than
+between an ape and man; yet this immense interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations.
+
+Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition between a barbarian,
+such as the man described by the old navigator Byron, who dashed his
+child on the rocks for dropping a basket of sea-urchins, and a Howard or
+Clarkson; and in intellect, between a savage who does not use any
+abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakspeare. Differences of this kind
+between the highest men of the highest races and the lowest savages, are
+connected by the finest gradations. Therefore it is possible that they
+might pass and be developed into each other.
+
+My object in this chapter is solely to shew that there is no fundamental
+difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties.
+Each division of the subject might have been extended into a separate
+essay, but must here be treated briefly. As no classification of the
+mental powers has been universally accepted, I shall arrange my remarks
+in the order most convenient for my purpose; and will select those facts
+which have most struck me, with the hope that they may produce some
+effect on the reader.
+
+With respect to animals very low in the scale, I shall have to give some
+additional facts under Sexual Selection, shewing that their mental
+powers are higher than might have been expected. The variability of the
+faculties in the individuals of the same species is an important point
+for us, and some few illustrations will here be given. But it would be
+superfluous to enter into many details on this head, for I have found on
+frequent enquiry, that it is the unanimous opinion of all those who have
+long attended to animals of many kinds, including birds, that the
+individuals differ greatly in every mental characteristic. In what
+manner the mental powers were first developed in the lowest organisms,
+is as hopeless an enquiry as how life first originated. These are
+problems for the distant future, if they are ever to be solved by man.
+
+As man possesses the same senses with the lower animals, his fundamental
+intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common,
+as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for
+her new-born offspring, the power possessed by the latter of sucking,
+and so forth. But man, perhaps, has somewhat fewer instincts than those
+possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series. The orang
+in the Eastern islands, and the chimpanzee in Africa, build platforms on
+which they sleep; and, as both species follow the same habit, it might
+be argued that this was due to instinct, but we cannot feel sure that it
+is not the result of both animals having similar wants and possessing
+similar powers of reasoning. These apes, as we may assume, avoid the
+many poisonous fruits of the tropics, and man has no such knowledge; but
+as our domestic animals, when taken to foreign lands and when first
+turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs, which they
+afterwards avoid, we cannot feel sure that the apes do not learn from
+their own experience or from that of their parents what fruits to
+select. It is however certain, as we shall presently see, that apes
+have an instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous
+animals.
+
+The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the instincts in the
+higher animals are remarkable in contrast with those of the lower
+animals. Cuvier maintained that instinct and intelligence stand in an
+inverse ratio to each other; and some have thought that the intellectual
+faculties of the higher animals have been gradually developed from their
+instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting essay,[46] has shewn that no
+such inverse ratio really exists. Those insects which possess the most
+wonderful instincts are certainly the most intelligent. In the
+vertebrate series, the least intelligent members, namely fishes and
+amphibians, do not possess complex instincts; and amongst mammals the
+animal most remarkable for its instincts, namely the beaver, is highly
+intelligent, as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Morgan’s
+excellent account of this animal.[47]
+
+Although the first dawnings of intelligence, according to Mr. Herbert
+Spencer,[48] have been developed through the multiplication and
+co-ordination of reflex actions, and although many of the simpler
+instincts graduate into actions of this kind and can hardly be
+distinguished from them, as in the case of young animals sucking, yet
+the more complex instincts seem to have originated independently of
+intelligence. I am, however, far from wishing to deny that instinctive
+actions may lose their fixed and untaught character, and be replaced by
+others performed by the aid of the free will. On the other hand, some
+intelligent actions—as when, birds on oceanic islands first learn to
+avoid man—after being performed during many generations, become
+converted into instincts and are inherited. They may then be said to be
+degraded in character, for they are no longer performed through reason
+or from experience. But the greater number of the more complex instincts
+appear to have been gained in a wholly different manner, through the
+natural selection of variations of simpler instinctive actions. Such
+variations appear to arise from the same unknown causes acting on the
+cerebral organisation, which induce slight variations or individual
+differences in other parts of the body; and these variations, owing to
+our ignorance, are often said to arise spontaneously. We can, I think,
+come to no other conclusion with respect to the origin of the more
+complex instincts, when we reflect on the marvellous instincts of
+sterile worker-ants and bees, which leave no offspring to inherit the
+effects of experience and of modified habits.
+
+Although a high degree of intelligence is certainly compatible with the
+existence of complex instincts, as we see in the insects just named and
+in the beaver, it is not improbable that they may to a certain extent
+interfere with each other’s development. Little is known about the
+functions of the brain, but we can perceive that as the intellectual
+powers become highly developed, the various parts of the brain must be
+connected by the most intricate channels of intercommunication; and as a
+consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to become less well
+fitted to answer in a definite and uniform, that is instinctive, manner
+to particular sensations or associations.
+
+I have thought this digression worth giving, because we may easily
+underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of
+man, when we compare their actions founded on the memory of past events,
+on foresight, reason, and imagination, with exactly similar actions
+instinctively performed by the lower animals; in this latter case the
+capacity of performing such actions having been gained, step by step,
+through the variability of the mental organs and natural selection,
+without any conscious intelligence on the part of the animal during each
+successive generation. No doubt, as Mr. Wallace has argued,[49] much of
+the intelligent work done by man is due to imitation and not to reason;
+but there is this great difference between his actions and many of those
+performed by the lower animals, namely, that man cannot, on his first
+trial, make, for instance, a stone hatchet or a canoe, through his power
+of imitation. He has to learn his work by practice; a beaver, on the
+other hand, can make its dam or canal, and a bird its nest, as well, or
+nearly as well, the first time it tries, as when old and experienced.
+
+To return to our immediate subject: the lower animals, like man,
+manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. Happiness is
+never better exhibited than by young animals, such as puppies, kittens,
+lambs, &c., when playing together, like our own children. Even insects
+play together, as has been described by that excellent observer, P.
+Huber,[50] who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite each other, like
+so many puppies.
+
+The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions as
+ourselves is so well established, that it will not be necessary to weary
+the reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on
+us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the
+sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the
+offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild animals.
+Courage and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the
+individuals of the same species, as is plainly seen in our dogs. Some
+dogs and horses are ill-tempered and easily turn sulky; others are
+good-tempered; and these qualities are certainly inherited. Every one
+knows how liable animals are to furious rage, and how plainly they show
+it. Many anecdotes, probably true, have been published on the
+long-delayed and artful revenge of various animals. The accurate Rengger
+and Brehm[51] state that the American and African monkeys which they
+kept tame, certainly revenged themselves. The love of a dog for his
+master is notorious; in the agony of death he has been known to caress
+his master, and every one has heard of the dog suffering under
+vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; this man, unless he
+had a heart of stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his
+life. As Whewell[52] has remarked, “who that reads the touching
+instances of maternal affection, related so often of the women of all
+nations, and of the females of all animals, can doubt that the principle
+of action is the same in the two cases?”
+
+We see maternal affection exhibited in the most trifling details; thus
+Rengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the
+flies which plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates washing the
+faces of her young ones in a stream. So intense is the grief of female
+monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariably caused the death
+of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in N. Africa.
+Orphan-monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by the other
+monkeys, both males and females. One female baboon had so capacious a
+heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of other species, but
+stole young dogs and cats, which she continually carried about. Her
+kindness, however, did not go so far as to share her food with her
+adopted offspring, at which Brehm was surprised, as his monkeys always
+divided everything quite fairly with their own young ones. An adopted
+kitten scratched the above-mentioned affectionate baboon, who certainly
+had a fine intellect, for she was much astonished at being scratched,
+and immediately examined the kitten’s feet, and without more ado bit off
+the claws. In the Zoological Gardens, I heard from the keeper that an
+old baboon (_C. chacma_) had adopted a Rhesus monkey; but when a young
+drill and mandrill were placed in the cage, she seemed to perceive that
+these monkeys, though distinct species, were her nearer relatives, for
+she at once rejected the Rhesus and adopted both of them. The young
+Rhesus, as I saw, was greatly discontented at being thus rejected, and
+it would, like a naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and
+mandrill whenever it could do so with safety; this conduct exciting
+great indignation in the old baboon. Monkeys will also, according to
+Brehm, defend their master when attacked by any one, as well as dogs to
+whom they are attached, from the attacks of other dogs. But we here
+trench on the subject of sympathy, to which I shall recur. Some of
+Brehm’s monkeys took much delight in teasing, in various ingenious ways,
+a certain old dog whom they disliked, as well as other animals.
+
+Most of the more complex emotions are common to the higher animals and
+ourselves. Every one has seen how jealous a dog is of his master’s
+affection, if lavished on any other creature; and I have observed the
+same fact with monkeys. This shews that animals not only love, but have
+the desire to be loved. Animals manifestly feel emulation. They love
+approbation or praise; and a dog carrying a basket for his master
+exhibits in a high degree self-complacency or pride. There can, I think,
+be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct from fear, and something
+very like modesty when begging too often for food. A great dog scorns
+the snarling of a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity.
+Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike being
+laughed at; and they sometimes invent imaginary offences. In the
+Zoological Gardens I saw a baboon who always got into a furious rage
+when his keeper took out a letter or book and read it aloud to him; and
+his rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on one occasion, he bit his
+own leg till the blood flowed.
+
+We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions and faculties, which
+are very important, as forming the basis for the development of the
+higher mental powers. Animals manifestly enjoy excitement and suffer
+from ennui, as may be seen with dogs, and, according to Rengger, with
+monkeys. All animals feel Wonder, and many exhibit Curiosity. They
+sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when the hunter plays
+antics and thus attracts them; I have witnessed this with deer, and so
+it is with the wary chamois, and with some kinds of wild-ducks. Brehm
+gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited towards snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they
+could not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most
+human fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were
+kept. I was so much surprised at his account, that I took a stuffed and
+coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens, and the
+excitement thus caused was one of the most curious spectacles which I
+ever beheld. Three species of Cercopithecus were the most alarmed; they
+dashed about their cages and uttered sharp signal-cries of danger, which
+were understood by the other monkeys. A few young monkeys and one old
+Anubis baboon alone took no notice of the snake. I then placed the
+stuffed specimen on the ground in one of the larger compartments. After
+a time all the monkeys collected round it in a large circle, and staring
+intently, presented a most ludicrous appearance. They became extremely
+nervous; so that when a wooden ball, with which they were familiar as a
+plaything, was accidently moved in the straw, under which it was partly
+hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys behaved very
+differently when a dead fish, a mouse, and some other new objects were
+placed in their cages; for though at first frightened, they soon
+approached, handled and examined them. I then placed a live snake in a
+paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger
+compartments. One of the monkeys immediately approached, cautiously
+opened the bag a little, peeped in, and instantly dashed away. Then I
+witnessed what Brehm has described, for monkey after monkey, with head
+raised high and turned on one side, could not resist taking momentary
+peeps into the upright bag, at the dreadful object lying quiet at the
+bottom. It would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of
+zoological affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited a strange,
+though mistaken, instinctive dread of innocent lizards and frogs. An
+orang, also, has been known to be much alarmed at the first sight of a
+turtle.[53]
+
+The principle of _Imitation_ is strong in man, and especially in man in
+a barbarous state. Desor[54] has remarked that no animal voluntarily
+imitates an action performed by man, until in the ascending scale we
+come to monkeys, which are well-known to be ridiculous mockers. Animals,
+however, sometimes imitate each others’ actions: thus two species of
+wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does
+sometimes the jackal,[55] but whether this can be called voluntary
+imitation is another question. From one account which I have read, there
+is reason to believe that puppies nursed by cats sometimes learn to lick
+their feet and thus to clean their faces: it is at least certain, as I
+hear from a perfectly trustworthy friend, that some dogs behave in this
+manner. Birds imitate the songs of their parents, and sometimes those of
+other birds; and parrots are notorious imitators of any sound which they
+often hear.
+
+Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual progress of
+man than the power of _Attention_. Animals clearly manifest this power,
+as when a cat watches by a hole and prepares to spring on its prey. Wild
+animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus engaged, that they may be
+easily approached. Mr. Bartlett has given me a curious proof how
+variable this faculty is in monkeys. A man who trains monkeys to act
+used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the price
+of five pounds for each; but he offered to give double the price, if he
+might keep three or four of them for a few days, in order to select one.
+When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether a particular
+monkey would turn out a good actor, he answered that it all depended on
+their power of attention. If when he was talking and explaining anything
+to a monkey, its attention was easily distracted, as by a fly on the
+wall or other trifling object, the case was hopeless. If he tried by
+punishment to make an inattentive monkey act, it turned sulky. On the
+other hand, a monkey which carefully attended to him could always be
+trained.
+
+It is almost superfluous to state that animals have excellent _Memories_
+for persons and places. A baboon at the Cape of Good Hope, as I have
+been informed by Sir Andrew Smith, recognised him with joy after an
+absence of nine months. I had a dog who was savage and averse to all
+strangers, and I purposely tried his memory after an absence of five
+years and two days. I went near the stable where he lived, and shouted
+to him in my old manner; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out
+walking and obeyed me, exactly as if I had parted with him only
+half-an-hour before. A train of old associations, dormant during five
+years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in his mind. Even ants, as
+P. Huber[56] has clearly shewn, recognised their fellow-ants belonging
+to the same community after a separation of four months. Animals can
+certainly by some means judge of the intervals of time between recurrent
+events.
+
+The _Imagination_ is one of the highest prerogatives of man. By this
+faculty he unites, independently of the will, former images and ideas,
+and thus creates brilliant and novel results. A poet, as Jean Paul
+Richter remarks,[57] “who must reflect whether he shall make a
+character say yes or no—to the devil with him; he is only a stupid
+corpse.” Dreaming gives us the best notion of this power; as Jean Paul
+again says, “The dream is an involuntary art of poetry.” The value of
+the products of our imagination depends of course on the number,
+accuracy, and clearness of our impressions; on our judgment and taste in
+selecting or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a certain
+extent on our power of voluntarily combining them. As dogs, cats,
+horses, and probably all the higher animals, even birds, as is stated on
+good authority,[58] have vivid dreams, and this is shewn by their
+movements and voice, we must admit that they possess some power of
+imagination.
+
+Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I presume, be admitted
+that _Reason_ stands at the summit. Few persons any longer dispute that
+animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be seen
+to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant fact, that the
+more the habits of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist,
+the more he attributes to reason and the less to unlearnt instincts.[59]
+In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in the
+scale apparently display a certain amount of reason. No doubt it is
+often difficult to distinguish between the power of reason and that of
+instinct. Thus Dr. Hayes, in his work on ‘The Open Polar Sea,’
+repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of continuing to draw the
+sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated when they came to thin
+ice, so that their weight might be more evenly distributed. This was
+often the first warning and notice which the travellers received that
+the ice was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, did the dogs act thus from
+the experience of each individual, or from the example of the older and
+wiser dogs, or from an inherited habit, that is from an instinct? This
+instinct might possibly have arisen since the time, long ago, when dogs
+were first employed by the natives in drawing their sledges; or the
+Arctic wolves, the parent-stock of the Esquimaux dog, may have acquired
+this instinct, impelling them not to attack their prey in a close pack
+when on thin ice. Questions of this kind are most difficult to answer.
+
+So many facts have been recorded in various works shewing that animals
+possess some degree of reason, that I will here give only two or three
+instances, authenticated by Rengger, and relating to American monkeys,
+which stand low in their order. He states that when he first gave eggs
+to his monkeys, they smashed them and thus lost much of their contents;
+afterwards they gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked
+off the bits of shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves only
+once with any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle
+it with the greatest care. Lumps of sugar were often given them wrapped
+up in paper; and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that
+in hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had once happened,
+they always first held the packet to their ears to detect any movement
+within. Any one who is not convinced by such facts as these, and by what
+he may observe with his own dogs, that animals can reason, would not be
+convinced by anything that I could add. Nevertheless I will give one
+case with respect to dogs, as it rests on two distinct observers, and
+can hardly depend on the modification of any instinct.
+
+Mr. Colquhoun[60] winged two wild-ducks, which fell on the opposite side
+of a stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could
+not succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Col. Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once, one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who on her return came across the dead bird;
+“she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterwards brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game.” Here we have reason, though not quite perfect, for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first and then returned for the dead
+one, as in the case of the two wild-ducks.
+
+The muleteers in S. America say, “I will not give you the mule whose
+step is easiest, but _la mas rational_,—the one that reasons best;” and
+Humboldt[61] adds, “this popular expression, dictated by long
+experience, combats the system of animated machines, better perhaps than
+all the arguments of speculative philosophy.”
+
+
+It has, I think, now been shewn that man and the higher animals,
+especially the Primates, have some few instincts in common. All have the
+same senses, intuitions and sensations—similar passions, affections,
+and emotions, even the more complex ones; they feel wonder and
+curiosity; they possess the same faculties of imitation, attention,
+memory, imagination, and reason, though in very different degrees.
+Nevertheless many authors have insisted that man is separated through
+his mental faculties by an impassable barrier from all the lower
+animals. I formerly made a collection of above a score of such
+aphorisms, but they are not worth giving, as their wide difference and
+number prove the difficulty, if not the impossibility, of the attempt.
+It has been asserted that man alone is capable of progressive
+improvement; that he alone makes use of tools or fire, domesticates
+other animals, possesses property, or employs language; that no other
+animal is self-conscious, comprehends itself, has the power of
+abstraction, or possesses general ideas; that man alone has a sense of
+beauty, is liable to caprice, has the feeling of gratitude, mystery,
+&c.; believes in God, or is endowed with a conscience. I will hazard a
+few remarks on the more important and interesting of these points.
+
+Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained[62] that man alone is capable of
+progressive improvement. With animals, looking first to the individual,
+every one who has had any experience in setting traps knows that young
+animals can be caught much more easily than old ones; and they can be
+much more easily approached by an enemy. Even with respect to old
+animals, it is impossible to catch many in the same place and in the
+same kind of trap, or to destroy them by the same kind of poison; yet it
+is improbable that all should have partaken of the poison, and
+impossible that all should have been caught in the trap. They must learn
+caution by seeing their brethren caught or poisoned. In North America,
+where the fur-bearing animals have long been pursued, they exhibit,
+according to the unanimous testimony of all observers, an almost
+incredible amount of sagacity, caution, and cunning; but trapping has
+been there so long carried on that inheritance may have come into play.
+
+If we look to successive generations, or to the race, there is no doubt
+that birds and other animals gradually both acquire and lose caution in
+relation to man or other enemies;[63] and this caution is certainly in
+chief part an inherited habit or instinct, but in part the result of
+individual experience. A good observer, Leroy,[64] states that in
+districts where foxes are much hunted, the young when they first leave
+their burrows are incontestably much more wary than the old ones in
+districts where they are not much disturbed.
+
+Our domestic dogs are descended from wolves and jackals,[65] and though
+they may not have gained in cunning, and may have lost in waryness and
+suspicion, yet they have progressed in certain moral qualities, such as
+in affection, trust-worthiness, temper, and probably in general
+intelligence. The common rat has conquered and beaten several other
+species throughout Europe, in parts of North America, New Zealand, and
+recently in Formosa, as well as on the mainland of China. Mr.
+Swinhoe,[66] who describes these latter cases, attributes the victory of
+the common rat over the large _Mus coninga_ to its superior cunning; and
+this latter quality may be attributed to the habitual exercise of all
+its faculties in avoiding extirpation by man, as well as to nearly all
+the less cunning or weak-minded rats having been successively destroyed
+by him. To maintain, independently of any direct evidence, that no
+animal during the course of ages has progressed in intellect or other
+mental faculties, is to beg the question of the evolution of species.
+Hereafter we shall see that, according to Lartet, existing mammals
+belonging to several orders have larger brains than their ancient
+tertiary prototypes.
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool; but the chimpanzee
+in a state of nature cracks a native fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with
+a stone.[67] Rengger[68] easily taught an American monkey thus to break
+open hard palm-nuts, and afterwards of its own accord it used stones to
+open other kinds of nuts, as well as boxes. It thus also removed the
+soft rind of fruit that had a disagreeable flavour. Another monkey was
+taught to open the lid of a large box with a stick, and afterwards it
+used the stick as a lever to move heavy bodies; and I have myself seen a
+young orang put a stick into a crevice, slip his hand to the other end,
+and use it in the proper manner as a lever. In the cases just mentioned
+stones and sticks were employed as implements; but they are likewise
+used as weapons. Brehm[69] states, on the authority of the well-known
+traveller Schimper, that in Abyssinia when the baboons belonging to one
+species (_C. gelada_) descend in troops from the mountains to plunder
+the fields, they sometimes encounter troops of another species (_C.
+hamadryas_), and then a fight ensues. The Geladas roll down great
+stones, which the Hamadryas try to avoid, and then, both species,
+making a great uproar, rush furiously against each other. Brehm, when
+accompanying the Duke of Coburg-Gotha, aided in an attack with fire-arms
+on a troop of baboons in the pass of Mensa in Abyssinia. The baboons in
+return rolled so many stones down the mountain, some as large as a man’s
+head, that the attackers had to beat a hasty retreat; and the pass was
+actually for a time closed against the caravan. It deserves notice that
+these baboons thus acted in concert. Mr. Wallace[70] on three occasions
+saw female orangs, accompanied by their young, “breaking off branches
+and the great spiny fruit of the Durian tree, with every appearance of
+rage; causing such a shower of missiles as effectually kept us from
+approaching too near the tree.”
+
+In the Zoological Gardens a monkey which had weak teeth used to break
+open nuts with a stone; and I was assured by the keepers that this
+animal, after using the stone, hid it in the straw, and would not let
+any other monkey touch it. Here, then, we have the idea of property; but
+this idea is common to every dog with a bone, and to most or all birds
+with their nests.
+
+The Duke of Argyll[71] remarks, that the fashioning of an implement for
+a special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers that
+this forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. It is no
+doubt a very important distinction, but there appears to me much truth
+in Sir J. Lubbock’s suggestion,[72] that when primeval man first used
+flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally splintered
+them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this step it
+would be a small one to intentionally break the flints, and not a very
+wide step to rudely fashion them. This latter advance, however, may have
+taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time which
+elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding and
+polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J. Lubbock
+likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in grinding them
+heat would have been evolved: “thus the two usual methods of obtaining
+fire may have originated.” The nature of fire would have been known in
+the many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows through forests.
+The anthropomorphous apes, guided probably by instinct, build for
+themselves temporary platforms; but as many instincts are largely
+controlled by reason, the simpler ones, such as this of building a
+platform, might readily pass into a voluntary and conscious act. The
+orang is known to cover itself at night with the leaves of the Pandanus;
+and Brehm states that one of his baboons used to protect itself from the
+heat of the sun by throwing a straw-mat over its head. In these latter
+habits, we probably see the first steps towards some of the simpler
+arts; namely rude architecture and dress, as they arose amongst the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Language._—This faculty has justly been considered as one of the chief
+distinctions between man and the lower animals. But man, as a highly
+competent judge, Archbishop Whately remarks, “is not the only animal
+that can make use of language to express what is passing in his mind,
+and can understand, more or less, what is so expressed by another.”[73]
+In Paraguay the _Cebus Azaræ_ when excited utters at least six distinct
+sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar emotions.[74] The
+movements of the features and gestures of monkeys are understood by us,
+and they partly understand ours, as Rengger and others declare. It is a
+more remarkable fact that the dog, since being domesticated, has learnt
+to bark[75] in at least four or five distinct tones. Although barking is
+a new art, no doubt the wild species, the parents of the dog, expressed
+their feelings by cries of various kinds. With the domesticated dog we
+have the bark of eagerness, as in the chase; that of anger; the yelping
+or howling bark of despair, as when shut up; that of joy, as when
+starting on a walk with his master; and the very distinct one of demand
+or supplication, as when wishing for a door or window to be opened.
+
+Articulate language is, however, peculiar to man; but he uses in common
+with the lower animals inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided
+by gestures and the movements of the muscles of the face.[76] This
+especially holds good with the more simple and vivid feelings, which are
+but little connected with our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain,
+fear, surprise, anger, together with their appropriate actions, and the
+murmur of a mother to her beloved child, are more expressive than any
+words. It is not the mere power of articulation that distinguishes man
+from other animals, for as every one knows, parrots can talk; but it is
+his large power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas; and
+this obviously depends on the development of the mental faculties.
+
+As Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble science of philology,
+observes, language is an art, like brewing or baking; but writing would
+have been a much more appropriate simile. It certainly is not a true
+instinct, as every language has to be learnt. It differs, however,
+widely from all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency to
+speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; whilst no child
+has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write. Moreover, no
+philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately
+invented; each has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many
+steps. The sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest
+analogy to language, for all the members of the same species utter the
+same instinctive cries expressive of their emotions; and all the kinds
+that have the power of singing exert this power instinctively; but the
+actual song, and even the call-notes, are learnt from their parents or
+foster-parents. These sounds, as Daines Barrington[77] has proved, “are
+no more innate than language is in man.” The first attempts to sing “may
+be compared to the imperfect endeavour in a child to babble.” The young
+males continue practising, or, as the bird-catchers say, recording, for
+ten or eleven months. Their first essays show hardly a rudiment of the
+future song; but as they grow older we can perceive what they are aiming
+at; and at last they are said “to sing their song round.” Nestlings
+which have learnt the song of a distinct species, as with the
+canary-birds educated in the Tyrol, teach and transmit their new song to
+their offspring. The slight natural differences of song in the same
+species inhabiting different districts may be appositely compared, as
+Barrington remarks, “to provincial dialects;” and the songs of allied,
+though distinct species may be compared with the languages of distinct
+races of man. I have given the foregoing details to shew that an
+instinctive tendency to acquire an art is not a peculiarity confined to
+man.
+
+With respect to the origin of articulate language, after having read on
+the one side the highly interesting works of Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, the
+Rev. F. Farrar, and Prof. Schleicher,[78] and the celebrated lectures of
+Prof. Max Müller on the other side, I cannot doubt that language owes
+its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and
+gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and
+man’s own instinctive cries. When we treat of sexual selection we shall
+see that primeval man, or rather some early progenitor of man, probably
+used his voice largely, as does one of the gibbon-apes at the present
+day, in producing true musical cadences, that is in singing; we may
+conclude from a widely-spread analogy that this power would have been
+especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes, serving to express
+various emotions, as love, jealousy, triumph, and serving as a challenge
+to their rivals. The imitation by articulate sounds of musical cries
+might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.
+As bearing on the subject of imitation, the strong tendency in our
+nearest allies, the monkeys, in microcephalous idiots,[79] and in the
+barbarous races of mankind, to imitate whatever they hear deserves
+notice. As monkeys certainly understand much that is said to them by
+man, and as in a state of nature they utter signal-cries of danger to
+their fellows,[80] it does not appear altogether incredible, that some
+unusually wise ape-like animal should have thought of imitating the
+growl of a beast of prey, so as to indicate to his fellow monkeys the
+nature of the expected danger. And this would have been a first step in
+the formation of a language.
+
+As the voice was used more and more, the vocal organs would have been
+strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited
+effects of use; and this would have reacted on the power of speech. But
+the relation between the continued use of language and the development
+of the brain has no doubt been far more important. The mental powers in
+some early progenitor of man must have been more highly developed than
+in any existing ape, before even the most imperfect form of speech could
+have come into use; but we may confidently believe that the continued
+use and advancement of this power would have reacted on the mind by
+enabling and encouraging it to carry on long trains of thought. A long
+and complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid
+of words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the
+use of figures or algebra. It appears, also, that even ordinary trains
+of thought almost require some form of language, for the dumb, deaf, and
+blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was observed to use her fingers whilst
+dreaming.[81] Nevertheless a long succession of vivid and connected
+ideas, may pass through the mind without the aid of any form of
+language, as we may infer from the prolonged dreams of dogs. We have,
+also, seen that retriever-dogs are able to reason to a certain extent;
+and this they manifestly do without the aid of language. The intimate
+connection between the brain, as it is now developed in us, and the
+faculty of speech, is well shewn by those curious cases of
+brain-disease, in which speech is specially affected, as when the power
+to remember substantives is lost, whilst other words can be correctly
+used.[82] There is no more improbability in the effects of the continued
+use of the vocal and mental organs being inherited, than in the case of
+handwriting, which depends partly on the structure of the hand and
+partly on the disposition of the mind; and handwriting is certainly
+inherited.[83]
+
+Why the organs now used for speech should have been originally perfected
+for this purpose, rather than any other organs, it is not difficult to
+see. Ants have considerable powers of intercommunication by means of
+their antennæ, as shewn by Huber, who devotes a whole chapter to their
+language. We might have used our fingers as efficient instruments, for a
+person with practice can report to a deaf man every word of a speech
+rapidly delivered at a public meeting; but the loss of our hands, whilst
+thus employed, would have been a serious inconvenience. As all the
+higher mammals possess vocal organs constructed on the same general
+plan with ours, and which are used as a means of communication, it was
+obviously probable, if the power of communication had to be improved,
+that these same organs would have been still further developed; and this
+has been effected by the aid of adjoining and well-adapted parts, namely
+the tongue and lips.[84] The fact of the higher apes not using their
+vocal organs for speech, no doubt depends on their intelligence not
+having been sufficiently advanced. The possession by them of organs,
+which with long-continued practice might have been used for speech,
+although not thus used, is paralleled by the case of many birds which
+possess organs fitted for singing, though they never sing. Thus, the
+nightingale and crow have vocal organs similarly constructed, these
+being used by the former for diversified song, and by the latter merely
+for croaking.[85]
+
+The formation of different languages and of distinct species, and the
+proofs that both have been developed through a gradual process, are
+curiously the same.[86] But we can trace the origin of many words
+further back than in the case of species, for we can perceive that they
+have arisen from the imitation of various sounds, as in alliterative
+poetry. We find in distinct languages striking homologies due to
+community of descent, and analogies due to a similar process of
+formation. The manner in which certain letters or sounds change when
+others change is very like correlated growth. We have in both cases the
+reduplication of parts, the effects of long-continued use, and so forth.
+The frequent presence of rudiments, both in languages and in species, is
+still more remarkable. The letter _m_ in the word _am_, means _I_; so
+that in the expression _I am_, a superfluous and useless rudiment has
+been retained. In the spelling also of words, letters often remain as
+the rudiments of ancient forms of pronunciation. Languages, like organic
+beings, can be classed in groups under groups; and they can be classed
+either naturally according to descent, or artificially by other
+characters. Dominant languages and dialects spread widely and lead to
+the gradual extinction of other tongues. A language, like a species,
+when once extinct, never, as Sir C. Lyell remarks, reappears. The same
+language never has two birthplaces. Distinct languages may be crossed
+or blended together.[87] We see variability in every tongue, and new
+words are continually cropping up; but as there is a limit to the powers
+of the memory, single words, like whole languages, gradually become
+extinct. As Max Müller[88] has well remarked:—“A struggle for life is
+constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical forms in each
+language. The better, the shorter, the easier forms are constantly
+gaining the upper hand, and they owe their success to their own inherent
+virtue.” To these more important causes of the survival of certain
+words, mere novelty may, I think, be added; for there is in the mind of
+man a strong love for slight changes in all things. The survival or
+preservation of certain favoured words in the struggle for existence is
+natural selection.
+
+The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction of the
+languages of many barbarous nations has often been advanced as a proof,
+either of the divine origin of these languages, or of the high art and
+former civilisation of their founders. Thus F. von Schlegel writes: “In
+those languages which appear to be at the lowest grade of intellectual
+culture, we frequently observe a very high and elaborate degree of art
+in their grammatical structure. This is especially the case with the
+Basque and the Lapponian, and many of the American languages.”[89] But
+it is assuredly an error to speak of any language as an art in the sense
+of its having been elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists now
+admit that conjugations, declensions, &c., originally existed as
+distinct words, since joined together; and as such words express the
+most obvious relations between objects and persons, it is not surprising
+that they should have been used by the men of most races during the
+earliest ages. With respect to perfection, the following illustration
+will best shew how easily we may err: a Crinoid sometimes consists of no
+less than 150,000 pieces of shell,[90] all arranged with perfect
+symmetry in radiating lines; but a naturalist does not consider an
+animal of this kind as more perfect than a bilateral one with
+comparatively few parts, and with none of these alike, excepting on the
+opposite sides of the body. He justly considers the differentiation and
+specialisation of organs as the test of perfection. So with languages,
+the most symmetrical and complex ought not to be ranked above irregular,
+abbreviated, and bastardised languages, which have borrowed expressive
+words and useful forms of construction from various conquering, or
+conquered, or immigrant races.
+
+From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude that the extremely
+complex and regular construction of many barbarous languages, is no
+proof that they owe their origin to a special act of creation.[91] Nor,
+as we have seen, does the faculty of articulate speech in itself offer
+any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed from
+some lower form.
+
+
+_Self-consciousness, Individuality, Abstraction, General Ideas, &c._—It
+would be useless to attempt discussing these high faculties, which,
+according to several recent writers, make the sole and complete
+distinction between man and the brutes, for hardly two authors agree in
+their definitions. Such faculties could not have been fully developed in
+man until his mental powers had advanced to a high standard, and this
+implies the use of a perfect language. No one supposes that one of the
+lower animals reflects whence he comes or whither he goes,—what is
+death or what is life, and so forth. But can we feel sure that an old
+dog with an excellent memory and some power of imagination, as shewn by
+his dreams, never reflects on his past pleasures in the chase? and this
+would be a form of self-consciousness. On the other hand, as Büchner[92]
+has remarked, how little can the hard-worked wife of a degraded
+Australian savage, who uses hardly any abstract words and cannot count
+above four, exert her self-consciousness, or reflect on the nature of
+her own existence.
+
+That animals retain their mental individuality is unquestionable. When
+my voice awakened a train of old associations in the mind of the
+above-mentioned dog, he must have retained his mental individuality,
+although every atom of his brain had probably undergone change more than
+once during the interval of five years. This dog might have brought
+forward the argument lately advanced to crush all evolutionists, and
+said, “I abide amid all mental moods and all material changes.... The
+teaching that atoms leave their impressions as legacies to other atoms
+falling into the places they have vacated is contradictory of the
+utterance of consciousness, and is therefore false; but it is the
+teaching necessitated by evolutionism, consequently the hypothesis is a
+false one.”[93]
+
+
+_Sense of Beauty._—This sense has been declared to be peculiar to man.
+But when we behold male birds elaborately displaying their plumes and
+splendid colours before the females, whilst other birds not thus
+decorated make no such display, it is impossible to doubt that the
+females admire the beauty of their male partners. As women everywhere
+deck themselves with these plumes, the beauty of such ornaments cannot
+be disputed. The Bower-birds by tastefully ornamenting their
+playing-passages with gaily-coloured objects, as do certain
+humming-birds their nests, offer additional evidence that they possess a
+sense of beauty. So with the song of birds, the sweet strains poured
+forth by the males during the season of love are certainly admired by
+the females, of which fact evidence will hereafter be given. If female
+birds had been incapable of appreciating the beautiful colours, the
+ornaments, and voices of their male partners, all the labour and
+anxiety exhibited by them in displaying their charms before the females
+would have been thrown away; and this it is impossible to admit. Why
+certain bright colours and certain sounds should excite pleasure, when
+in harmony, cannot, I presume, be explained any more than why certain
+flavours and scents are agreeable; but assuredly the same colours and
+the same sounds are admired by us and by many of the lower animals.
+
+The taste for the beautiful, at least as far as female beauty is
+concerned, is not of a special nature in the human mind; for it differs
+widely in the different races of man, as will hereafter be shewn, and is
+not quite the same even in the different nations of the same race.
+Judging from the hideous ornaments and the equally hideous music admired
+by most savages, it might be urged that their æsthetic faculty was not
+so highly developed as in certain animals, for instance, in birds.
+Obviously no animal would be capable of admiring such scenes as the
+heavens at night, a beautiful landscape, or refined music; but such high
+tastes, depending as they do on culture and complex associations, are
+not enjoyed by barbarians or by uneducated persons.
+
+Many of the faculties, which have been of inestimable service to man for
+his progressive advancement, such as the powers of the imagination,
+wonder, curiosity, an undefined sense of beauty, a tendency to
+imitation, and the love of excitement or novelty, could not fail to have
+led to the most capricious changes of customs and fashions. I have
+alluded to this point, because a recent writer[94] has oddly fixed on
+Caprice “as one of the most remarkable and typical differences between
+savages and brutes.” But not only can we perceive how it is that roan is
+capricious, but the lower animals are, as we shall hereafter see,
+capricious in their affections, aversions, and sense of beauty. There is
+also good reason to suspect that they love novelty, for its own sake.
+
+
+_Belief in God—Religion._—There is no evidence that man was
+aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an
+Omnipotent God. On the contrary there is ample evidence, derived not
+from hasty travellers, but from men who have long resided with savages,
+that numerous races have existed and still exist, who have no idea of
+one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express
+such an idea.[95] The question is of course wholly distinct from that
+higher one, whether there exists a Creator and Ruler of the universe;
+and this has been answered in the affirmative by the highest intellects
+that have ever lived.
+
+If, however, we include under the term “religion” the belief in unseen
+or spiritual agencies, the case is wholly different; for this belief
+seems to be almost universal with the less civilised races. Nor is it
+difficult to comprehend how it arose. As soon as the important faculties
+of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity, together with some power of
+reasoning, had become partially developed, man would naturally have
+craved to understand what was passing around him, and have vaguely
+speculated on his own existence. As Mr. M’Lennan[96] has remarked,
+“Some explanation of the phenomena of life, a man must feign for
+himself; and to judge from the universality of it, the simplest
+hypothesis, and the first to occur to men, seems to have been that
+natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals, plants, and
+things, and in the forces of nature, of such spirits prompting to action
+as men are conscious they themselves possess.” It is probable, as Mr.
+Tylor has clearly shewn, that dreams may have first given rise to the
+notion of spirits; for savages do not readily distinguish between
+subjective and objective impressions. When a savage dreams, the figures
+which appear before him are believed to have come from a distance and to
+stand over him; or “the soul of the dreamer goes out on its travels, and
+comes home with a remembrance of what it has seen.”[97] But until the
+above-named faculties of imagination, curiosity, reason, &c., had been
+fairly well developed in the mind of man, his dreams would not have led
+him to believe in spirits, any more than in the case of a dog.
+
+The tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects and agencies
+are animated by spiritual or living essences, is perhaps illustrated by
+a little fact which I once noticed: my dog, a full-grown and very
+sensible animal, was lying on the lawn during a hot and still day; but
+at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally moved an open parasol,
+which would have been wholly disregarded by the dog, had any one stood
+near it. As it was, every time that the parasol slightly moved, the dog
+growled fiercely and barked. He must, I think, have reasoned to himself
+in a rapid and unconscious manner, that movement without any apparent
+cause indicated the presence of some strange living agent, and no
+stranger had a right to be on his territory.
+
+The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into the belief in
+the existence of one or more gods. For savages would naturally attribute
+to spirits the same passions, the same love of vengeance or simplest
+form of justice, and the same affections which they themselves
+experienced. The Fuegians appear to be in this respect in an
+intermediate condition, for when the surgeon on board the “Beagle” shot
+some young ducklings as specimens, York Minster declared in the most
+solemn manner, “Oh! Mr. Bynoe, much rain, much snow, blow much;” and
+this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food. So
+again he related how, when his brother killed a “wild man,” storms long
+raged, much rain and snow fell. Yet we could never discover that the
+Fuegians believed in what we should call a God, or practised any
+religious rites; and Jemmy Button, with justifiable pride, stoutly
+maintained that there was no devil in his land. This latter assertion is
+the more remarkable, as with savages the belief in bad spirits is far
+more common than the belief in good spirits.
+
+The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex one, consisting of
+love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior, a
+strong sense of dependence,[98] fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the
+future, and perhaps other elements. No being could experience so complex
+an emotion until advanced in his intellectual and moral faculties to at
+least a moderately high level. Nevertheless we see some distant approach
+to this state of mind, in the deep love of a dog for his master,
+associated with complete submission, some fear, and perhaps other
+feelings. The behaviour of a dog when returning to his master after an
+absence, and, as I may add, of a monkey to his beloved keeper, is widely
+different from that towards their fellows. In the latter case the
+transports of joy appear to be somewhat less, and the sense of equality
+is shewn in every action. Professor Braubach[99] goes so far as to
+maintain that a dog looks on his master as on a god.
+
+The same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to various strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of—such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god; the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison or fire; witchcraft, &c.—yet it is well occasionally
+to reflect on these superstitions, for they shew us what an infinite
+debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to science,
+and our accumulated knowledge.[100] As Sir J. Lubbock has well
+observed, “it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of unknown
+evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters every
+pleasure.” These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+ANIMALS—_continued_.
+
+
+  The moral sense—Fundamental proposition—The qualities of
+  social animals—Origin of sociability—Struggle between opposed
+  instincts—Man a social animal—The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts—The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages—The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development—The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct—Transmission of moral tendencies—Summary.
+
+
+I fully subscribe to the judgment of those writers[101] who maintain
+that of all the differences between man and the lower animals, the moral
+sense or conscience is by far the most important. This sense, as
+Mackintosh[102] remarks, “has a rightful supremacy over every other
+principle of human action;” it is summed up in that short but imperious
+word _ought_, so full of high significance. It is the most noble of all
+the attributes of man, leading him without a moment’s hesitation to risk
+his life for that of a fellow-creature; or after due deliberation,
+impelled simply by the deep feeling of right or duty, to sacrifice it in
+some great cause. Immanuel Kant exclaims, “Duty! Wondrous thought, that
+workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor by any threat, but
+merely by holding up thy naked law in the soul, and so extorting for
+thyself always reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all
+appetites are dumb, however secretly they rebel; whence thy
+original?”[103]
+
+This great question has been discussed by many writers[104] of
+consummate ability; and my sole excuse for touching on it is the
+impossibility of here passing it over, and because, as far as I know, no
+one has approached it exclusively from the side of natural history. The
+investigation possesses, also, some independent interest, as an attempt
+to see how far the study of the lower animals can throw light on one of
+the highest psychical faculties of man.
+
+The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable—namely,
+that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social
+instincts,[105] would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as
+soon as its intellectual powers had become as well developed, or nearly
+as well developed, as in man. For, _firstly_, the social instincts lead
+an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a
+certain amount of sympathy with them, and to perform various services
+for them. The services may be of a definite and evidently instinctive
+nature; or there may be only a wish and readiness, as with most of the
+higher social animals, to aid their fellows in certain general ways. But
+these feelings and services are by no means extended to all the
+individuals of the same species, only to those of the same association.
+_Secondly_, as soon as the mental faculties had become highly developed,
+images of all past actions and motives would be incessantly passing
+through the brain of each individual; and that feeling of
+dissatisfaction which invariably results, as we shall hereafter see,
+from any unsatisfied instinct, would arise, as often as it was perceived
+that the enduring and always present social instinct had yielded to some
+other instinct, at the time stronger, but neither enduring in its
+nature, nor leaving behind it a very vivid impression. It is clear that
+many instinctive desires, such as that of hunger, are in their nature of
+short duration; and after being satisfied are not readily or vividly
+recalled. _Thirdly_, after the power of language had been acquired and
+the wishes of the members of the same community could be distinctly
+expressed, the common opinion how each member ought to act for the
+public good, would naturally become to a large extent the guide to
+action. But the social instincts would still give the impulse to act for
+the good of the community, this impulse being strengthened, directed,
+and sometimes even deflected by public opinion, the power of which
+rests, as we shall presently see, on instinctive sympathy. _Lastly_,
+habit in the individual would ultimately play a very important part in
+guiding the conduct of each member; for the social instincts and
+impulses, like all other instincts, would be greatly strengthened by
+habit, as would obedience to the wishes and judgment of the community.
+These several subordinate propositions must now be discussed; and some
+of them at considerable length.
+
+It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to maintain that any
+strictly social animal, if its intellectual faculties were to become as
+active and as highly developed as in man, would acquire exactly the same
+moral sense as ours. In the same manner as various animals have some
+sense of beauty, though they admire widely different objects, so they
+might have a sense of right and wrong, though led by it to follow widely
+different lines of conduct. If, for instance, to take an extreme case,
+men were reared under precisely the same conditions as hive-bees, there
+can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females would, like the
+worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and mothers
+would strive to kill their fertile daughters; and no one would think of
+interfering. Nevertheless the bee, or any other social animal, would in
+our supposed case gain, as it appears to me, some feeling of right and
+wrong, or a conscience. For each individual would have an inward sense
+of possessing certain stronger or more enduring instincts, and others
+less strong or enduring; so that there would often be a struggle which
+impulse should be followed; and satisfaction or dissatisfaction would be
+felt, as past impressions were compared during their incessant passage
+through the mind. In this case an inward monitor would tell the animal
+that it would have been better to have followed the one impulse rather
+than the other. The one course ought to have been followed: the one
+would have been right and the other wrong; but to these terms I shall
+have to recur.
+
+
+_Sociability._—Animals of many kinds are social; we find even distinct
+species living together, as with some American monkeys, and with the
+united flocks of rooks, jackdaws, and starlings. Man shows the same
+feeling in his strong love for the dog, which the dog returns with
+interest. Every one must have noticed how miserable horses, dogs, sheep,
+&c. are when separated from their companions; and what affection at
+least the two former kinds show on their reunion. It is curious to
+speculate on the feelings of a dog, who will rest peacefully for hours
+in a room with his master or any of the family, without the least notice
+being taken of him; but if left for a short time by himself, barks or
+howls dismally. We will confine our attention to the higher social
+animals, excluding insects, although these aid each other in many
+important ways. The most common service which the higher animals perform
+for each other, is the warning each other of danger by means of the
+united senses of all. Every sportsman knows, as Dr. Jaeger remarks,[106]
+how difficult it is to approach animals in a herd or troop. Wild horses
+and cattle do not, I believe, make any danger-signal; but the attitude
+of any one who first discovers an enemy, warns the others. Rabbits stamp
+loudly on the ground with their hind-feet as a signal: sheep and chamois
+do the same, but with their fore-feet, uttering likewise a whistle. Many
+birds and some mammals post sentinels, which in the case of seals are
+said[107] generally to be the females. The leader of a troop of monkeys
+acts as the sentinel, and utters cries expressive both of danger and of
+safety.[108] Social animals perform many little services for each
+other: horses nibble, and cows lick each other, on any spot which
+itches: monkeys search for each other’s external parasites; and Brehm
+states that after a troop of the _Cercopithecus griseo-viridis_ has
+rushed through a thorny brake, each monkey stretches itself on a branch,
+and another monkey sitting by “conscientiously” examines its fur and
+extracts every thorn or burr.
+
+Animals also render more important services to each other: thus wolves
+and some other beasts of prey hunt in packs, and aid each other in
+attacking their victims. Pelicans fish in concert. The Hamadryas baboons
+turn over stones to find insects, &c.; and when they come to a large
+one, as many as can stand round, turn it over together and share the
+booty. Social animals mutually defend each other. The males of some
+ruminants come to the front when there is danger and defend the herd
+with their horns. I shall also in a future chapter give cases of two
+young wild bulls attacking an old one in concert, and of two stallions
+together trying to drive away a third stallion from a troop of mares.
+Brehm encountered in Abyssinia a great troop of baboons which were
+crossing a valley: some had already ascended the opposite mountain, and
+some were still in the valley: the latter were attacked by the dogs, but
+the old males immediately hurried down from the rocks, and with mouths
+widely opened roared so fearfully, that the dogs precipitately
+retreated. They were again encouraged to the attack; but by this time
+all the baboons had reascended the heights, excepting a young one, about
+six months old, who, loudly calling for aid, climbed on a block of rock
+and was surrounded. Now one of the largest males, a true hero, came down
+again from the mountain, slowly went to the young one, coaxed him, and
+triumphantly led him away—the dogs being too much astonished to make an
+attack. I cannot resist giving another scene which was witnessed by this
+same naturalist; an eagle seized a young Cercopithecus, which, by
+clinging to a branch, was not at once carried off; it cried loudly for
+assistance, upon which the other members of the troop with much uproar
+rushed to the rescue, surrounded the eagle, and pulled out so many
+feathers, that he no longer thought of his prey, but only how to escape.
+This eagle, as Brehm remarks, assuredly would never again attack a
+monkey in a troop.
+
+It is certain that associated animals have a feeling of love for each
+other which is not felt by adult and non-social animals. How far in most
+cases they actually sympathise with each other’s pains and pleasures is
+more doubtful, especially with respect to the latter. Mr. Buxton,
+however, who had excellent means of observation,[109] states that his
+macaws, which lived free in Norfolk, took “an extravagant interest” in a
+pair with a nest, and whenever the female left it, she was surrounded by
+a troop “screaming horrible acclamations in her honour.” It is often
+difficult to judge whether animals have any feeling for each other’s
+sufferings. Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and stare
+intently on a dying or dead companion? That animals sometimes are far
+from feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel a wounded
+animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to death. This is almost the
+blackest fact in natural history, unless indeed the explanation which
+has been suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to
+expel an injured companion, lest beasts of prey, including man, should
+be tempted to follow the troop. In this case their conduct is not much
+worse than that of the North American Indians who leave their feeble
+comrades to perish on the plains, or the Feegeans, who, when their
+parents get old or fall ill, bury them alive.[110]
+
+Many animals, however, certainly sympathise with each other’s distress
+or danger. This is the case even with birds; Capt. Stansbury[111] found
+on a salt lake in Utah an old and completely blind pelican, which was
+very fat, and must have been long and well fed by his companions. Mr.
+Blyth, as he informs me, saw Indian crows feeding two or three of their
+companions which were blind; and I have heard of an analogous case with
+the domestic cock. We may, if we choose, call these actions instinctive;
+but such cases are much too rare for the development of any special
+instinct.[112] I have myself seen a dog, who never passed a great friend
+of his, a cat which lay sick in a basket, without giving her a few licks
+with his tongue, the surest sign of kind feeling in a dog.
+
+It must be called sympathy that leads a courageous dog to fly at any one
+who strikes his master, as he certainly will. I saw a person pretending
+to beat a lady who had a very timid little dog on her lap, and the trial
+had never before been made. The little creature instantly jumped away,
+but after the pretended beating was over, it was really pathetic to see
+how perseveringly he tried to lick his mistress’s face and comfort her.
+Brehm[113] states that when a baboon in confinement was pursued to be
+punished, the others tried to protect him. It must have been sympathy in
+the cases above given which led the baboons and Cercopitheci to defend
+their young comrades from the dogs and the eagle. I will give only one
+other instance of sympathetic and heroic conduct in a little American
+monkey. Several years ago a keeper at the Zoological Gardens, showed me
+some deep and scarcely healed wounds on the nape of his neck, inflicted
+on him whilst kneeling on the floor by a fierce baboon. The little
+American monkey, who was a warm friend of this keeper, lived in the same
+large compartment, and was dreadfully afraid of the great baboon.
+Nevertheless, as soon as he saw his friend the keeper in peril, he
+rushed to the rescue, and by screams and bites so distracted the baboon
+that the man was able to escape, after running great risk, as the
+surgeon who attended him thought, of his life.
+
+Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other qualities which in us
+would be called moral; and I agree with Agassiz[114] that dogs possess
+something very like a conscience. They certainly possess some power of
+self-command, and this does not appear to be wholly the result of fear.
+As Braubach[115] remarks, a dog will refrain from stealing food in the
+absence of his master. Dogs have long been accepted as the very type of
+fidelity and obedience. All animals living in a body which defend each
+other or attack their enemies in concert, must be in some degree
+faithful to each other; and those that follow a leader must be in some
+degree obedient. When the baboons in Abyssinia[116] plunder a garden,
+they silently follow their leader; and if an imprudent young animal
+makes a noise, he receives a slap from the others to teach him silence
+and obedience; but as soon as they are sure that there is no danger, all
+show their joy by much clamour.
+
+With respect to the impulse which leads certain animals to associate
+together, and to aid each other in many ways, we may infer that in most
+cases they are impelled by the same sense of satisfaction or pleasure
+which they experience in performing other instinctive actions; or by the
+same sense of dissatisfaction, as in other cases of prevented
+instinctive actions. We see this in innumerable instances, and it is
+illustrated in a striking manner by the acquired instincts of our
+domesticated animals; thus a young shepherd-dog delights in driving and
+running round a flock of sheep, but not in worrying them; a young
+foxhound delights in hunting a fox, whilst some other kinds of dogs as I
+have witnessed, utterly disregard foxes. What a strong feeling of inward
+satisfaction must impel a bird, so full of activity, to brood day after
+day over her eggs. Migratory birds are miserable if prevented from
+migrating, and perhaps they enjoy starting on their long flight. Some
+few instincts are determined solely by painful feelings, as by fear,
+which leads to self-preservation, or is specially directed against
+certain enemies. No one, I presume, can analyse the sensations of
+pleasure or pain. In many cases, however, it is probable that instincts
+are persistently followed from the mere force of inheritance, without
+the stimulus of either pleasure or pain. A young pointer, when it first
+scents game, apparently cannot help pointing. A squirrel in a cage who
+pats the nuts which it cannot eat, as if to bury them in the ground, can
+hardly be thought to act thus either from pleasure or pain. Hence the
+common assumption that men must be impelled to every action by
+experiencing some pleasure or pain may be erroneous. Although a habit
+may be blindly and implicitly followed, independently of any pleasure or
+pain felt at the moment, yet if it be forcibly and abruptly checked, a
+vague sense of dissatisfaction is generally experienced; and this is
+especially true in regard to persons of feeble intellect.
+
+It has often been assumed that animals were in the first place rendered
+social, and that they feel as a consequence uncomfortable when separated
+from each other, and comfortable whilst together; but it is a more
+probable view that these sensations were first developed, in order that
+those animals which would profit by living in society, should be induced
+to live together. In the same manner as the sense of hunger and the
+pleasure of eating were, no doubt, first acquired in order to induce
+animals to eat. The feeling of pleasure from society is probably an
+extension of the parental or filial affections; and this extension may
+be in chief part attributed to natural selection, but perhaps in part to
+mere habit. For with those animals which were benefited by living in
+close association, the individuals which took the greatest pleasure in
+society would best escape various dangers; whilst those that cared least
+for their comrades and lived solitary would perish in greater numbers.
+With respect to the origin of the parental and filial affections, which
+apparently lie at the basis of the social affections, it is hopeless to
+speculate; but we may infer that they have been to a large extent
+gained through natural selection. So it has almost certainly been with
+the unusual and opposite feeling of hatred between the nearest
+relations, as with the worker-bees which kill their brother-drones, and
+with the queen-bees which kill their daughter-queens; the desire to
+destroy, instead of loving, their nearest relations having been here of
+service to the community.
+
+The all-important emotion of sympathy is distinct from that of love. A
+mother may passionately love her sleeping and passive infant, but she
+can then hardly be said to feel sympathy for it. The love of a man for
+his dog is distinct from sympathy, and so is that of a dog for his
+master. Adam Smith formerly argued, as has Mr. Bain recently, that the
+basis of sympathy lies in our strong retentiveness of former states of
+pain or pleasure. Hence, “the sight of another person enduring hunger,
+cold, fatigue, revives in us some recollection of these states, which
+are painful even in idea.” We are thus impelled to relieve the
+sufferings of another, in order that our own painful feelings may be at
+the same time relieved. In like manner we are led to participate in the
+pleasures of others.[117] But I cannot see how this view explains the
+fact that sympathy is excited in an immeasurably stronger degree by a
+beloved than by an indifferent person. The mere sight of suffering,
+independently of love, would suffice to call up in us vivid
+recollections and associations. Sympathy may at first have originated in
+the manner above suggested; but it seems now to have become an instinct,
+which is especially directed towards beloved objects, in the same manner
+as fear with animals is especially directed against certain enemies. As
+sympathy is thus directed, the mutual love of the members of the same
+community will extend its limits. No doubt a tiger or lion feels
+sympathy for the sufferings of its own young, but not for any other
+animal. With strictly social animals the feeling will be more or less
+extended to all the associated members, as we know to be the case. With
+mankind selfishness, experience, and imitation probably add, as Mr. Bain
+has shewn, to the power of sympathy; for we are led by the hope of
+receiving good in return to perform acts of sympathetic kindness to
+others; and there can be no doubt that the feeling of sympathy is much
+strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner this feeling may have
+originated, as it is one of high importance to all those animals which
+aid and defend each other, it will have been increased, through natural
+selection; for those communities, which included the greatest number of
+the most sympathetic members, would flourish best and rear the greatest
+number of offspring.
+
+In many cases it is impossible to decide whether certain social
+instincts have been acquired through natural selection, or are the
+indirect result of other instincts and faculties, such as sympathy,
+reason, experience, and a tendency to imitation; or again, whether they
+are simply the result of long-continued habit. So remarkable an instinct
+as the placing sentinels to warn the community of danger, can hardly
+have been the indirect result of any other faculty; it must therefore
+have been directly acquired. On the other hand, the habit followed by
+the males of some social animals, of defending the community and of
+attacking their enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps have
+originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and in most cases
+strength, must have been previously acquired, probably through natural
+selection.
+
+Of the various instincts and habits, some are much stronger than others,
+that is, some either give more pleasure in their performance and more
+distress in their prevention than others; or, which is probably quite as
+important, they are more persistently followed through inheritance
+without exciting any special feeling of pleasure or pain. We are
+ourselves conscious that some habits are much more difficult to cure or
+change than others. Hence a struggle may often be observed in animals
+between different instincts, or between an instinct and some habitual
+disposition; as when a dog rushes after a hare, is rebuked, pauses,
+hesitates, pursues again or returns ashamed to his master; or as between
+the love of a female dog for her young puppies and for her master, for
+she may be seen to slink away to them, as if half ashamed of not
+accompanying her master. But the most curious instance known to me of
+one instinct conquering another, is the migratory instinct conquering
+the maternal instinct. The former is wonderfully strong; a confined bird
+will at the proper season beat her breast against the wires of her cage,
+until it is bare and bloody. It causes young salmon to leap out of the
+fresh water, where they could still continue to live, and thus
+unintentionally to commit suicide. Every one knows how strong the
+maternal instinct is, leading even timid birds to face great danger,
+though with hesitation and in opposition to the instinct of
+self-preservation. Nevertheless the migratory instinct is so powerful
+that late in the autumn swallows and house-martins frequently desert
+their tender young, leaving them to perish miserably in their
+nests.[118]
+
+We can perceive that an instinctive impulse, if it be in any way more
+beneficial to a species than some other or opposed instinct, would be
+rendered the more potent of the two through natural selection; for the
+individuals which had it most strongly developed would survive in larger
+numbers. Whether this is the case with the migratory in comparison with
+the maternal instinct, may well be doubted. The great persistence or
+steady action of the former at certain seasons of the year during the
+whole day, may give it for a time paramount force.
+
+
+_Man a social animal._—Most persons admit that man is a social being.
+We see this in his dislike of solitude, and in his wish for society
+beyond that of his own family. Solitary confinement is one of the
+severest punishments which can be inflicted. Some authors suppose that
+man primevally lived in single families; but at the present day, though
+single families, or only two or three together, roam the solitudes of
+some savage lands, they are always, as far as I can discover, friendly
+with other families inhabiting the same district. Such families
+occasionally meet in council, and they unite for their common defence.
+It is no argument against savage man being a social animal, that the
+tribes inhabiting adjacent districts are almost always at war with each
+other; for the social instincts never extend to all the individuals of
+the same species. Judging from the analogy of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, it is probable that the early ape-like progenitors of man
+were likewise social; but this is not of much importance for us.
+Although man, as he now exists, has few special instincts, having lost
+any which his early progenitors may have possessed, this is no reason
+why he should not have retained from an extremely remote period some
+degree of instinctive love and sympathy for his fellows. We are indeed
+all conscious that we do possess such sympathetic feelings;[119] but our
+consciousness does not tell us whether they are instinctive, having
+originated long ago in the same manner as with the lower animals, or
+whether they have been acquired by each of us during our early years. As
+man is a social animal, it is also probable that he would inherit a
+tendency to be faithful to his comrades, for this quality is common to
+most social animals. He would in like manner possess some capacity for
+self-command, and perhaps of obedience to the leader of the community.
+He would from an inherited tendency still be willing to defend, in
+concert with others, his fellow-men, and would be ready to aid them in
+any way which did not too greatly interfere with his own welfare or his
+own strong desires.
+
+The social animals which stand at the bottom of the scale are guided
+almost exclusively, and those which stand higher in the scale are
+largely guided, in the aid which they give to the members of the same
+community, by special instincts; but they are likewise in part impelled
+by mutual love and sympathy, assisted apparently by some amount of
+reason. Although man, as just remarked, has no special instincts to tell
+him how to aid his fellow-men, he still has the impulse, and with his
+improved intellectual faculties would naturally be much guided in this
+respect by reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would, also,
+cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellow-men; for, as Mr.
+Bain has clearly shewn,[120] the love of praise and the strong feeling
+of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn and infamy, “are due to
+the workings of sympathy.” Consequently man would be greatly influenced
+by the wishes, approbation, and blame of his fellow-men, as expressed by
+their gestures and language. Thus the social instincts, which must have
+been acquired by man in a very rude state, and probably even by his
+early ape-like progenitors, still give the impulse to many of his best
+actions; but his actions are largely determined by the expressed wishes
+and judgment of his fellow-men, and unfortunately still oftener by his
+own strong, selfish desires. But as the feelings of love and sympathy
+and the power of self-command become strengthened by habit, and as the
+power of reasoning becomes clearer so that man can appreciate the
+justice of the judgments of his fellow-men, he will feel himself
+impelled, independently of any pleasure or pain felt at the moment, to
+certain lines of conduct. He may then say, I am the supreme judge of my
+own conduct, and in the words of Kant, I will not in my own person
+violate the dignity of humanity.
+
+
+_The more enduring Social Instincts conquer the less Persistent
+Instincts._—We have, however, not as yet considered the main point, on
+which the whole question of the moral sense hinges. Why should a man
+feel that he ought to obey one instinctive desire rather than another?
+Why does he bitterly regret if he has yielded to the strong sense of
+self-preservation, and has not risked his life to save that of a
+fellow-creature; or why does he regret having stolen food from severe
+hunger?
+
+It is evident in the first place, that with mankind the instinctive
+impulses have different degrees of strength; a young and timid mother
+urged by the maternal instinct will, without a moment’s hesitation, run
+the greatest danger for her infant, but not for a mere fellow-creature.
+Many a man, or even boy, who never before risked his life for another,
+but in whom courage and sympathy were well developed, has, disregarding
+the instinct of self-preservation, instantaneously plunged into a
+torrent to save a drowning fellow-creature. In this case man is impelled
+by the same instinctive motive, which caused the heroic little American
+monkey, formerly described, to attack the great and dreaded baboon, to
+save his keeper. Such actions as the above appear to be the simple
+result of the greater strength of the social or maternal instincts than
+of any other instinct or motive; for they are performed too
+instantaneously for reflection, or for the sensation of pleasure or
+pain; though if prevented distress would be caused.
+
+I am aware that some persons maintain that actions performed
+impulsively, as in the above cases, do not come under the dominion of
+the moral sense, and cannot be called moral. They confine this term to
+actions done deliberately, after a victory over opposing desires, or to
+actions prompted by some lofty motive. But it appears scarcely possible
+to draw any clear line of distinction of this kind; though the
+distinction may be real. As far as exalted motives are concerned, many
+instances have been recorded of barbarians, destitute of any feeling of
+general benevolence towards mankind, and not guided by any religious
+motive, who have deliberately as prisoners sacrificed their lives,[121]
+rather than betray their comrades; and surely their conduct ought to be
+considered as moral. As far as deliberation and the victory over
+opposing motives are concerned, animals may be seen doubting between
+opposed instincts, as in rescuing their offspring or comrades from
+danger; yet their actions, though done for the good of others, are not
+called moral. Moreover, an action repeatedly performed by us, will at
+last be done without deliberation or hesitation, and can then hardly be
+distinguished from an instinct; yet surely no one will pretend that an
+action thus done ceases to be moral. On the contrary, we all feel that
+an act cannot be considered as perfect, or as performed in the most
+noble manner, unless it be done impulsively, without deliberation or
+effort, in the same manner as by a man in whom the requisite qualities
+are innate. He who is forced to overcome his fear or want of sympathy
+before he acts, deserves, however, in one way higher credit than the man
+whose innate disposition leads him to a good act without effort. As we
+cannot distinguish between motives, we rank all actions of a certain
+class as moral, when they are performed by a moral being. A moral being
+is one who is capable of comparing his past and future actions or
+motives, and of approving or disapproving of them. We have no reason to
+suppose that any of the lower animals have this capacity; therefore
+when a monkey faces danger to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an
+orphan-monkey, we do not call its conduct moral. But in the case of man,
+who alone can with certainty be ranked as a moral being, actions of a
+certain class are called moral, whether performed deliberately after a
+struggle with opposing motives, or from the effects of slowly-gained
+habit, or impulsively through instinct.
+
+But to return to our more immediate subject; although some instincts are
+more powerful than others, thus leading to corresponding actions, yet it
+cannot be maintained that the social instincts are ordinarily stronger
+in man, or have become stronger through long-continued habit, than the
+instincts, for instance, of self-preservation, hunger, lust, vengeance,
+&c. Why then does man regret, even though he may endeavour to banish any
+such regret, that he has followed the one natural impulse, rather than
+the other; and why does he further feel that he ought to regret his
+conduct? Man in this respect differs profoundly from the lower animals.
+Nevertheless we can, I think, see with some degree of clearness the
+reason of this difference.
+
+Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, cannot avoid reflection:
+past impressions and images are incessantly passing through his mind
+with distinctness. Now with those animals which live permanently in a
+body, the social instincts are ever present and persistent. Such animals
+are always ready to utter the danger-signal, to defend the community,
+and to give aid to their fellows in accordance with their habits; they
+feel at all times, without the stimulus of any special passion or
+desire, some degree of love and sympathy for them; they are unhappy if
+long separated from them, and always happy to be in their company. So it
+is with ourselves. A man who possessed no trace of such feelings would
+be an unnatural monster. On the other hand, the desire to satisfy
+hunger, or any passion, such as vengeance, is in its nature temporary,
+and can for a time be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy, perhaps hardly
+possible, to call up with complete vividness the feeling, for instance,
+of hunger; nor indeed, as has often been remarked, of any suffering. The
+instinct of self-preservation is not felt except in the presence of
+danger; and many a coward has thought himself brave until he has met his
+enemy face to face. The wish for another man’s property is perhaps as
+persistent a desire as any that can be named; but even in this case the
+satisfaction of actual possession is generally a weaker feeling than the
+desire: many a thief, if not an habitual one, after success has wondered
+why he stole some article.
+
+Thus, as man cannot prevent old impressions continually repassing
+through his mind, he will be compelled to compare the weaker impressions
+of, for instance, past hunger, or of vengeance satisfied or danger
+avoided at the cost of other men, with the instinct of sympathy and
+good-will to his fellows, which is still present and ever in some degree
+active in his mind. He will then feel in his imagination that a stronger
+instinct has yielded to one which now seems comparatively weak; and then
+that sense of dissatisfaction will inevitably be felt with which man is
+endowed, like every other animal, in order that his instincts may be
+obeyed. The case before given, of the swallow, affords an illustration,
+though of a reversed nature, of a temporary though for the time strongly
+persistent instinct conquering another instinct which is usually
+dominant over all others. At the proper season these birds seem all day
+long to be impressed with the desire to migrate; their habits change;
+they become restless, are noisy, and congregate in flocks. Whilst the
+mother-bird is feeding or brooding over her nestlings, the maternal
+instinct is probably stronger than the migratory; but the instinct which
+is more persistent gains the victory, and at last, at a moment when her
+young ones are not in sight, she takes flight and deserts them. When
+arrived at the end of her long journey, and the migratory instinct
+ceases to act, what an agony of remorse each bird would feel, if, from
+being endowed with great mental activity, she could not prevent the
+image continually passing before her mind of her young ones perishing in
+the bleak north from cold and hunger.
+
+At the moment of action, man will no doubt be apt to follow the stronger
+impulse; and though this may occasionally prompt him to the noblest
+deeds, it will far more commonly lead him to gratify his own desires at
+the expense of other men. But after their gratification, when past and
+weaker impressions are contrasted with the ever-enduring social
+instincts, retribution will surely come. Man will then feel dissatisfied
+with himself, and will resolve with more or less force to act
+differently for the future. This is conscience; for conscience looks
+backwards and judges past actions, inducing that kind of
+dissatisfaction, which if weak we call regret, and if severe remorse.
+
+These sensations are, no doubt, different from those experienced when
+other instincts or desires are left unsatisfied; but every unsatisfied
+instinct has its own proper prompting sensation, as we recognise with
+hunger, thirst, &c. Man thus prompted, will through long habit acquire
+such perfect self-command, that his desires and passions will at last
+instantly yield to his social sympathies, and there will no longer be a
+struggle between them. The still hungry, or the still revengeful man
+will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his vengeance. It is
+possible, or, as we shall hereafter see, even probable, that the habit
+of self-command may, like other habits, be inherited. Thus at last man
+comes to feel, through acquired and perhaps inherited habit, that it is
+best for him to obey his more persistent instincts. The imperious word
+_ought_ seems merely to imply the consciousness of the existence of a
+persistent instinct, either innate or partly acquired, serving him as a
+guide, though liable to be disobeyed. We hardly use the word _ought_ in
+a metaphorical sense, when we say hounds ought to hunt, pointers to
+point, and retrievers to retrieve their game. If they fail thus to act,
+they fail in their duty and act wrongly.
+
+If any desire or instinct, leading to an action opposed to the good of
+others, still appears to a man, when recalled to mind, as strong as, or
+stronger than, his social instinct, he will feel no keen regret at
+having followed it; but he will be conscious that if his conduct were
+known to his fellows, it would meet with their disapprobation; and few
+are so destitute of sympathy as not to feel discomfort when this is
+realised. If he has no such sympathy, and if his desires leading to bad
+actions are at the time strong, and when recalled are not overmastered
+by the persistent social instincts, then he is essentially a bad
+man;[122] and the sole restraining motive left is the fear of
+punishment, and the conviction that in the long run it would be best for
+his own selfish interests to regard the good of others rather than his
+own.
+
+It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience gratify his own
+desires, if they do not interfere with his social instincts, that is
+with the good of others; but in order to be quite free from
+self-reproach, or at least of anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to
+avoid the disapprobation, whether reasonable or not, of his fellow men.
+Nor must he break through the fixed habits of his life, especially if
+these are supported by reason; for if he does, he will assuredly feel
+dissatisfaction. He must likewise avoid the reprobation of the one God
+or gods, in whom according to his knowledge or superstition he may
+believe; but in this case the additional fear of divine punishment often
+supervenes.
+
+
+_The strictly Social Virtues at first alone regarded._—The above view
+of the first origin and nature of the moral sense, which tells us what
+we ought to do, and of the conscience which reproves us if we disobey
+it, accords well with what we see of the early and undeveloped condition
+of this faculty in mankind. The virtues which must be practised, at
+least generally, by rude men, so that they may associate in a body, are
+those which are still recognised as the most important. But they are
+practised almost exclusively in relation to the men of the same tribe;
+and their opposites are not regarded as crimes in relation to the men of
+other tribes. No tribe could hold together if murder, robbery,
+treachery, &c., were common; consequently such crimes within the limits
+of the same tribe “are branded with everlasting infamy;”[123] but excite
+no such sentiment beyond these limits. A North-American Indian is well
+pleased with himself, and is honoured by others, when he scalps a man of
+another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending person
+and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on the
+largest scale throughout the world,[124] and has met with no reproach;
+but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be good for
+the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former times was
+not generally considered as a crime,[125] but rather from the courage
+displayed as an honourable act; and it is still largely practised by
+some semi-civilised nations without reproach, for the loss to a nation
+of a single individual is not felt: whatever the explanation may be,
+suicide, as I hear from Sir J. Lubbock, is rarely practised by the
+lowest barbarians. It has been recorded that an Indian Thug
+conscientiously regretted that he had not strangled and robbed as many
+travellers as did his father before him. In a rude state of civilisation
+the robbery of strangers is, indeed, generally considered as honourable.
+
+The great sin of Slavery has been almost universal, and slaves have
+often been treated in an infamous manner. As barbarians do not regard
+the opinion of their women, wives are commonly treated like slaves. Most
+savages are utterly indifferent to the sufferings of strangers, or even
+delight in witnessing them. It is well known that the women and children
+of the North-American Indians aided in torturing their enemies. Some
+savages take a horrid pleasure in cruelty to animals,[126] and humanity
+with them is an unknown virtue. Nevertheless, feelings of sympathy and
+kindness are common, especially during sickness, between the members of
+the same tribe, and are sometimes extended beyond the limits of the
+tribe. Mungo Park’s touching account of the kindness of the negro women
+of the interior to him is well known. Many instances could be given of
+the noble fidelity of savages towards each other, but not to strangers;
+common experience justifies the maxim of the Spaniard, “Never, never
+trust an Indian.” There cannot be fidelity without truth; and this
+fundamental virtue is not rare between the members of the same tribe:
+thus Mungo Park heard the negro women teaching their young children to
+love the truth. This, again, is one of the virtues which becomes so
+deeply rooted in the mind that it is sometimes practised by savages even
+at a high cost, towards strangers; but to lie to your enemy has rarely
+been thought a sin, as the history of modern diplomacy too plainly
+shews. As soon as a tribe has a recognised leader, disobedience becomes
+a crime, and even abject submission is looked at as a sacred virtue.
+
+As during rude times no man can be useful or faithful to his tribe
+without courage, this quality has universally been placed in the highest
+rank; and although, in civilised countries, a good, yet timid, man may
+be far more useful to the community than a brave one, we cannot help
+instinctively honouring the latter above a coward, however benevolent.
+Prudence, on the other hand, which does not concern the welfare of
+others, though a very useful virtue, has never been highly esteemed. As
+no man can practise the virtues necessary for the welfare of his tribe
+without self-sacrifice, self-command, and the power of endurance, these
+qualities have been at all times highly and most justly valued. The
+American savage voluntarily submits without a groan to the most horrid
+tortures to prove and strengthen his fortitude and courage; and we
+cannot help admiring him, or even an Indian Fakir, who, from a foolish
+religious motive, swings suspended by a hook buried in his flesh.
+
+The other self-regarding virtues, which do not obviously, though they
+may really, affect the welfare of the tribe, have never been esteemed by
+savages, though now highly appreciated by civilised nations. The
+greatest intemperance with savages is no reproach. Their utter
+licentiousness, not to mention unnatural crimes, is something
+astounding.[127] As soon, however, as marriage, whether polygamous or
+monogamous, becomes common, jealousy will lead to the inculcation of
+female virtue; and this being honoured will tend to spread to the
+unmarried females. How slowly it spreads to the male sex we see at the
+present day. Chastity eminently requires self-command; therefore it has
+been honoured from a very early period in the moral history of civilised
+man. As a consequence of this, the senseless practice of celibacy has
+been ranked from a remote period as a virtue.[128] The hatred of
+indecency, which appears to us so natural as to be thought innate, and
+which is so valuable an aid to chastity, is a modern virtue,
+appertaining exclusively, as Sir G. Staunton remarks,[129] to civilised
+life. This is shewn by the ancient religious rites of various nations,
+by the drawings on the walls of Pompeii, and by the practices of many
+savages.
+
+We have now seen that actions are regarded by savages, and were probably
+so regarded by primeval man, as good or bad, solely as they affect in an
+obvious manner the welfare of the tribe,—not that of the species, nor
+that of man as an individual member of the tribe. This conclusion
+agrees well with the belief that the so-called moral sense is
+aboriginally derived from the social instincts, for both relate at first
+exclusively to the community. The chief causes of the low morality of
+savages, as judged by our standard, are, firstly, the confinement of
+sympathy to the same tribe. Secondly, insufficient powers of reasoning,
+so that the bearing of many virtues, especially of the self-regarding
+virtues, on the general welfare of the tribe is not recognised. Savages,
+for instance, fail to trace the multiplied evils consequent on a want of
+temperance, chastity, &c. And, thirdly, weak power of self-command; for
+this power has not been strengthened through long-continued, perhaps
+inherited, habit, instruction and religion.
+
+I have entered into the above details on the immorality of savages,[130]
+because some authors have recently taken a high view of their moral
+nature, or have attributed most of their crimes to mistaken
+benevolence.[131] These authors appear to rest their conclusion on
+savages possessing, as they undoubtedly do possess, and often in a high
+degree, those virtues which are serviceable, or even necessary, for the
+existence of a tribal community.
+
+
+_Concluding Remarks._—Philosophers of the derivative[132] school of
+morals formerly assumed that the foundation of morality lay in a form of
+Selfishness; but more recently in the “Greatest Happiness principle.”
+According to the view given above, the moral sense is fundamentally
+identical with the social instincts; and in the case of the lower
+animals it would be absurd to speak of these instincts as having been
+developed from selfishness, or for the happiness of the community. They
+have, however, certainly been developed for the general good of the
+community. The term, general good, may be defined as the means by which
+the greatest possible number of individuals can be reared in full vigour
+and health, with all their faculties perfect, under the conditions to
+which they are exposed. As the social instincts both of man and the
+lower animals have no doubt been developed by the same steps, it would
+be advisable, if found practicable, to use the same definition in both
+cases, and to take as the test of morality, the general good or welfare
+of the community, rather than the general happiness; but this definition
+would perhaps require some limitation on account of political ethics.
+
+When a man risks his life to save that of a fellow-creature, it seems
+more appropriate to say that he acts for the general good or welfare,
+rather than for the general happiness of mankind. No doubt the welfare
+and the happiness of the individual usually coincide; and a contented,
+happy tribe will flourish better than one that is discontented and
+unhappy. We have seen that at an early period in the history of man, the
+expressed wishes of the community will have naturally influenced to a
+large extent the conduct of each member; and as all wish for happiness,
+the “greatest happiness principle” will have become a most important
+secondary guide and object; the social instincts, including sympathy,
+always serving as the primary impulse and guide. Thus the reproach of
+laying the foundation of the most noble part of our nature in the base
+principle of selfishness is removed; unless indeed the satisfaction
+which every animal feels when it follows its proper instincts, and the
+dissatisfaction felt when prevented, be called selfish.
+
+The expression of the wishes and judgment of the members of the same
+community, at first by oral and afterwards by written language, serves,
+as just remarked, as a most important secondary guide of conduct, in aid
+of the social instincts, but sometimes in opposition to them. This
+latter fact is well exemplified by the _Law of Honour_, that is the law
+of the opinion of our equals, and not of all our countrymen. The breach
+of this law, even when the breach is known to be strictly accordant with
+true morality, has caused many a man more agony than a real crime. We
+recognise the same influence in the burning sense of shame which most of
+us have felt even after the interval of years, when calling to mind some
+accidental breach of a trifling though fixed rule of etiquette. The
+judgment of the community will generally be guided by some rude
+experience of what is best in the long run for all the members; but this
+judgment will not rarely err from ignorance and from weak powers of
+reasoning. Hence the strangest customs and superstitions, in complete
+opposition to the true welfare and happiness of mankind, have become
+all-powerful throughout the world. We see this in the horror felt by a
+Hindoo who breaks his caste, in the shame of a Mahometan woman who
+exposes her face, and in innumerable other instances. It would be
+difficult to distinguish between the remorse felt by a Hindoo who has
+eaten unclean food, from that felt after committing a theft; but the
+former would probably be the more severe.
+
+How so many absurd rules of conduct, as well as so many absurd religious
+beliefs, have originated we do not know; nor how it is that they have
+become, in all quarters of the world, so deeply impressed on the mind
+of men; but it is worthy of remark that a belief constantly inculcated
+during the early years of life, whilst the brain is impressible, appears
+to acquire almost the nature of an instinct; and the very essence of an
+instinct is that it is followed independently of reason. Neither can we
+say why certain admirable virtues, such as the love of truth, are much
+more highly appreciated by some savage tribes than by others;[133] nor,
+again, why similar differences prevail even amongst civilised nations.
+Knowing how firmly fixed many strange customs and superstitions have
+become, we need feel no surprise that the self-regarding virtues should
+now appear to us so natural, supported as they are by reason, as to be
+thought innate, although they were not valued by man in his early
+condition.
+
+Notwithstanding many sources of doubt, man can generally and readily
+distinguish between the higher and lower moral rules. The higher are
+founded on the social instincts, and relate to the welfare of others.
+They are supported by the approbation of our fellow-men and by reason.
+The lower rules, though some of them when implying self-sacrifice hardly
+deserve to be called lower, relate chiefly to self, and owe their origin
+to public opinion, when matured by experience and cultivated; for they
+are not practised by rude tribes.
+
+As man advances in civilisation, and small tribes are united into larger
+communities, the simplest reason would tell each individual that he
+ought to extend his social instincts and sympathies to all the members
+of the same nation, though personally unknown to him. This point being
+once reached, there is only an artificial barrier to prevent his
+sympathies extending to the men of all nations and races. If, indeed,
+such men are separated from him by great differences in appearance or
+habits, experience unfortunately shews us how long it is before we look
+at them as our fellow-creatures. Sympathy beyond the confines of man,
+that is humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest
+moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages, except towards
+their pets. How little the old Romans knew of it is shewn by their
+abhorrent gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as
+I could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos of the Pampas. This
+virtue, one of the noblest with which man is endowed, seems to arise
+incidentally from our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely
+diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings. As soon as
+this virtue is honoured and practised by some few men, it spreads
+through instruction and example to the young, and eventually through
+public opinion.
+
+The highest stage in moral culture at which we can arrive, is when we
+recognise that we ought to control our thoughts, and “not even in inmost
+thought to think again the sins that made the past so pleasant to
+us.”[134] Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind, renders
+its performance by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago said,
+“Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will be the character of
+thy mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts.”[135]
+
+Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently explained his views
+on the moral sense. He says,[136] “I believe that the experiences of
+utility organised and consolidated through all past generations of the
+human race, have been producing corresponding modifications, which, by
+continued transmission and accumulation, have become in us certain
+faculties of moral intuition—certain emotions responding to right and
+wrong conduct, which have no apparent basis in the individual
+experiences of utility.” There is not the least inherent improbability,
+as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies being more or less strongly
+inherited; for, not to mention the various dispositions and habits
+transmitted by many of our domestic animals, I have heard of cases in
+which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie appeared to run in
+families of the upper ranks; and as stealing is so rare a crime in the
+wealthy classes, we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the
+tendency occurring in two or three members of the same family. If bad
+tendencies are transmitted, it is probable that good ones are likewise
+transmitted. Excepting through the principle of the transmission of
+moral tendencies, we cannot understand the differences believed to exist
+in this respect between the various races of mankind. We have, however,
+as yet, hardly sufficient evidence on this head.
+
+Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies would be an immense
+assistance to the primary impulse derived directly from the social
+instincts, and indirectly from the approbation of our fellow-men.
+Admitting for the moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited, it
+appears probable, at least in such cases as chastity, temperance,
+humanity to animals, &c., that they become first impressed on the mental
+organisation through habit, instruction, and example, continued during
+several generations in the same family, and in a quite subordinate
+degree, or not at all, by the individuals possessing such virtues,
+having succeeded best in the struggle for life. My chief source of doubt
+with respect to any such inheritance, is that senseless customs,
+superstitions, and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for unclean
+food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted. Although this in
+itself is perhaps not less probable than that animals should acquire
+inherited tastes for certain kinds of food or fear of certain foes, I
+have not met with any evidence in support of the transmission of
+superstitious customs or senseless habits.
+
+
+Finally, the social instincts which no doubt were acquired by man, as by
+the lower animals, for the good of the community, will from the first
+have given to him some wish to aid his fellows, and some feeling of
+sympathy. Such impulses will have served him at a very early period as a
+rude rule of right and wrong. But as man gradually advanced in
+intellectual power and was enabled to trace the more remote consequences
+of his actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to reject baneful
+customs and superstitions; as he regarded more and more not only the
+welfare but the happiness of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on
+beneficial experience, instruction, and example, his sympathies became
+more tender and widely diffused, so as to extend to the men of all
+races, to the imbecile, the maimed, and other useless members of
+society, and finally to the lower animals,—so would the standard of his
+morality rise higher and higher. And it is admitted by moralists of the
+derivative school and by some intuitionists, that the standard of
+morality has risen since an early period in the history of man.[137]
+
+As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on between the various
+instincts of the lower animals, it is not surprising that there should
+be a struggle in man between his social instincts, with their derived
+virtues, and his lower, though at the moment, stronger impulses or
+desires. This, as Mr. Galton[138] has remarked, is all the less
+surprising, as man has emerged from a state of barbarism within a
+comparatively recent period. After having yielded to some temptation we
+feel a sense of dissatisfaction, analogous to that felt from other
+unsatisfied instincts, called in this case conscience; for we cannot
+prevent past images and impressions continually passing through our
+minds, and these in their weakened state we compare with the
+ever-present social instincts, or with habits gained in early youth and
+strengthened during our whole lives, perhaps inherited, so that they are
+at last rendered almost as strong as instincts. Looking to future
+generations, there is no cause to fear that the social instincts will
+grow weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow stronger,
+becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle between
+our higher and lower impulses will be less severe, and virtue will be
+triumphant.
+
+
+_Summary of the two last Chapters._—There can be no doubt that the
+difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest
+animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a
+dispassionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could
+form an artful plan to plunder a garden—though he could use stones for
+fighting or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning
+a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would
+admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a
+mathematical problem, or reflect on God, or admire a grand natural
+scene. Some apes, however, would probably declare that they could and
+did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of their partners in
+marriage. They would admit, that though they could make other apes
+understand by cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the
+notion of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had never crossed
+their minds. They might insist that they were ready to aid their
+fellow-apes of the same troop in many ways, to risk their lives for
+them, and to take charge of their orphans; but they would be forced to
+acknowledge that disinterested love for all living creatures, the most
+noble attribute of man, was quite beyond their comprehension.
+
+Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals,
+great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind. We have seen
+that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such
+as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, &c., of which
+man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a
+well-developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of
+some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic dog compared with
+the wolf or jackal. If it be maintained that certain powers, such as
+self-consciousness, abstraction, &c., are peculiar to man, it may well
+be that these are the incidental results of other highly-advanced
+intellectual faculties; and these again are mainly the result of the
+continued use of a highly developed language. At what age does the
+new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become
+self-conscious and reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor
+can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale. The half-art and
+half-instinct of language still bears the stamp of its gradual
+evolution. The ennobling belief in God is not universal with man; and
+the belief in active spiritual agencies naturally follows from his other
+mental powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and highest
+distinction between man and the lower animals; but I need not say
+anything on this head, as I have so lately endeavoured to shew
+that the social instincts,—the prime principle of man’s moral
+constitution[139]—with the aid of active intellectual powers and the
+effects of habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, “As ye would that
+men should do to you, do ye to them likewise;” and this lies at the
+foundation of morality.
+
+In a future chapter I shall make some few remarks on the probable steps
+and means by which the several mental and moral faculties of man have
+been gradually evolved. That this at least is possible ought not to be
+denied, when we daily see their development in every infant; and when we
+may trace a perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower
+than that of the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man—Inheritance—Causes of
+  variability—Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals—Direct action of the conditions of life—Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts—Arrested
+  development—Reversion—Correlated variation—Rate of
+  increase—Checks to increase—Natural selection—Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world—Importance of his corporeal
+  structure—The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect—Consequent changes of structure—Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth—Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull—Nakedness—Absence of a tail—Defenceless condition of
+  man.
+
+
+We have seen in the first chapter that the homological structure of man,
+his embryological development and the rudiments which he still retains,
+all declare in the plainest manner that he is descended from some lower
+form. The possession of exalted mental powers is no insuperable
+objection to this conclusion. In order that an ape-like creature should
+have been transformed into man, it is necessary that this early form, as
+well as many successive links, should all have varied in mind and body.
+It is impossible to obtain direct evidence on this head; but if it can
+be shewn that man now varies—that his variations are induced by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws, as in the case of
+the lower animals—there can be little doubt that the preceding
+intermediate links varied in a like manner. The variations at each
+successive stage of descent must, also, have been in some manner
+accumulated and fixed.
+
+The facts and conclusions to be given in this chapter relate almost
+exclusively to the probable means by which the transformation of man has
+been effected, as far as his bodily structure is concerned. The
+following chapter will be devoted to the development of his intellectual
+and moral faculties. But the present discussion likewise bears on the
+origin of the different races or species of mankind, whichever term may
+be preferred.
+
+It is manifest that man is now subject to much variability. No two
+individuals of the same race are quite alike. We may compare millions of
+faces, and each will be distinct. There is an equally great amount of
+diversity in the proportions and dimensions of the various parts of the
+body; the length of the legs being one of the most variable points.[140]
+Although in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in other
+quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great diversity of shape
+even within the limits of the same race, as with the aborigines of
+America and South Australia,—the latter a race “probably as pure and
+homogeneous in blood, customs, and language as any in existence”—and
+even with the inhabitants of so confined an area as the Sandwich
+Islands.[141] An eminent dentist assures me that there is nearly as much
+diversity in the teeth, as in the features. The chief arteries so
+frequently run in abnormal courses, that it has been found useful for
+surgical purposes to calculate from 12,000 corpses how often each
+course prevails.[142] The muscles are eminently variable: thus those of
+the foot were found by Prof. Turner[143] not to be strictly alike in any
+two out of fifty bodies; and in some the deviations were considerable.
+Prof. Turner adds that the power of performing the appropriate movements
+must have been modified in accordance with the several deviations. Mr.
+J. Wood has recorded[144] the occurrence of 295 muscular variations in
+thirty-six subjects, and in another set of the same number no less than
+558 variations, reckoning both sides of the body as one. In the last
+set, not one body out of the thirty-six was “found totally wanting in
+departures from the standard descriptions of the muscular system given
+in anatomical text-books.” A single body presented the extraordinary
+number of twenty-five distinct abnormalities. The same muscle sometimes
+varies in many ways: thus Prof. Macalister describes[145] no less than
+twenty distinct variations in the _palmaris accessorius_.
+
+The famous old anatomist, Wolff,[146] insists that the internal viscera
+are more variable than the external parts: _Nulla particula est quæ non
+aliter et aliter in aliis se habeat hominibus._ He has even written a
+treatise on the choice of typical examples of the viscera for
+representation. A discussion on the beau-ideal of the liver, lungs,
+kidneys, &c., as of the human face divine, sounds strange in our ears.
+
+The variability or diversity of the mental faculties in men of the same
+race, not to mention the greater differences between the men of
+distinct races, is so notorious that not a word need here be said. So it
+is with the lower animals, as has been illustrated by a few examples in
+the last chapter. All who have had charge of menageries admit this fact,
+and we see it plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Brehm
+especially insists that each individual monkey of those which he kept
+under confinement in Africa had its own peculiar disposition and temper:
+he mentions one baboon remarkable for its high intelligence; and the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey, belonging
+to the New World division, equally remarkable for intelligence. Rengger,
+also, insists on the diversity in the various mental characters of the
+monkeys of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and this
+diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly the result of the
+manner in which they have been treated or educated.[147]
+
+I have elsewhere[148] so fully discussed the subject of Inheritance that
+I need here add hardly anything. A greater number of facts have been
+collected with respect to the transmission of the most trifling, as well
+as of the most important characters in man than in any of the lower
+animals; though the facts are copious enough with respect to the latter.
+So in regard to mental qualities, their transmission is manifest in our
+dogs, horses, and other domestic animals. Besides special tastes and
+habits, general intelligence, courage, bad and good temper, &c., are
+certainly transmitted. With man we see similar facts in almost every
+family; and we now know through the admirable labours of Mr. Galton[149]
+that genius, which implies a wonderfully complex combination of high
+faculties, tends to be inherited; and, on the other hand, it is too
+certain that insanity and deteriorated mental powers likewise run in the
+same families.
+
+With respect to the causes of variability we are in all cases very
+ignorant; but we can see that in man as in the lower animals, they stand
+in some relation with the conditions to which each species has been
+exposed during several generations. Domesticated animals vary more than
+those in a state of nature; and this is apparently due to the
+diversified and changing nature of their conditions. The different races
+of man resemble in this respect domesticated animals, and so do the
+individuals of the same race when inhabiting a very wide area, like that
+of America. We see the influence of diversified conditions in the more
+civilised nations, the members of which belong to different grades of
+rank and follow different occupations, presenting a greater range of
+character than the members of barbarous nations. But the uniformity of
+savages has often been exaggerated, and in some cases can hardly be said
+to exist.[150] It is nevertheless an error to speak of man, even if we
+look only to the conditions to which he has been subjected, as “far more
+domesticated”[151] than any other animal. Some savage races, such as
+the Australians, are not exposed to more diversified conditions than are
+many species which have very wide ranges. In another and much more
+important respect, man differs widely from any strictly domesticated
+animal; for his breeding has not been controlled, either through
+methodical or unconscious selection. No race or body of men has been so
+completely subjugated by other men, that certain individuals have been
+preserved and thus unconsciously selected, from being in some way more
+useful to their masters. Nor have certain male and female individuals
+been intentionally picked out and matched, except in the well-known case
+of the Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man obeyed, as might have
+been expected, the law of methodical selection; for it is asserted that
+many tall men were reared in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers
+with their tall wives.
+
+If we consider all the races of man, as forming a single species, his
+range is enormous; but some separate races, as the Americans and
+Polynesians, have very wide ranges. It is a well-known law that
+widely-ranging species are much more variable than species with
+restricted ranges; and the variability of man may with more truth be
+compared with that of widely-ranging species, than with that of
+domesticated animals.
+
+Not only does variability appear to be induced in man and the lower
+animals by the same general causes, but in both the same characters are
+affected in a closely analogous manner. This has been proved in such
+full detail by Godron and Quatrefages, that I need here only refer to
+their works.[152] Monstrosities, which graduate into slight variations,
+are likewise so similar in man and the lower animals, that the same
+classification and the same terms can be used for both, as may be seen
+in Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire’s great work.[153] This is a necessary
+consequence of the same laws of change prevailing throughout the animal
+kingdom. In my work on the variation of domestic animals, I have
+attempted to arrange in a rude fashion the laws of variation under the
+following heads:—The direct and definite action of changed conditions,
+as shewn by all or nearly all the individuals of the same species
+varying in the same manner under the same circumstances. The effects of
+the long-continued use or disuse of parts. The cohesion of homologous
+parts. The variability of multiple parts. Compensation of growth; but of
+this law I have found no good instances in the case of man. The effects
+of the mechanical pressure of one part on another; as of the pelvis on
+the cranium of the infant in the womb. Arrests of development, leading
+to the diminution or suppression of parts. The reappearance of long-lost
+characters through reversion. And lastly, correlated variation. All
+these so-called laws apply equally to man and the lower animals; and
+most of them even to plants. It would be superfluous here to discuss all
+of them;[154] but several are so important for us, that they must be
+treated at considerable length.
+
+
+_The direct and definite action of changed conditions._—This is a most
+perplexing subject. It cannot be denied that changed conditions produce
+some effect, and occasionally a considerable effect, on organisms of all
+kinds; and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time were
+allowed this would be the invariable result. But I have failed to obtain
+clear evidence in favour of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be
+urged on the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures
+are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. There can, however,
+be no doubt that changed conditions induce an almost indefinite amount
+of fluctuating variability, by which the whole organisation is rendered
+in some degree plastic.
+
+In the United States, above 1,000,000 soldiers, who served in the late
+war, were measured, and the States in which they were born and reared
+recorded.[155] From this astonishing number of observations it is proved
+that local influences of some kind act directly on stature; and we
+further learn that “the State where the physical growth has in great
+measure taken place, and the State of birth, which indicates the
+ancestry, seem to exert a marked influence on the stature.” For instance
+it is established, “that residence in the Western States, during the
+years of growth, tends to produce increase of stature.” On the other
+hand, it is certain that with sailors, their manner of life delays
+growth, as shewn “by the great difference between the statures of
+soldiers and sailors at the ages of 17 and 18 years.” Mr. B. A. Gould
+endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the influences which thus act on
+stature; but he arrived only at negative results, namely, that they did
+not relate to climate, the elevation of the land, soil, nor even “in any
+controlling degree” to the abundance or need of the comforts of life.
+This latter conclusion is directly opposed to that arrived at by
+Villermé from the statistics of the height of the conscripts in
+different parts of France. When we compare the differences in stature
+between the Polynesian chiefs and the lower orders within the same
+islands, or between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic and low
+barren coral islands of the same ocean,[156] or again between the
+Fuegians on the eastern and western shores of their country, where the
+means of subsistence are very different, it is scarcely possible to
+avoid the conclusion that better food and greater comfort do influence
+stature. But the preceding statements shew how difficult it is to arrive
+at any precise result. Dr. Beddoe has lately proved that, with the
+inhabitants of Britain, residence in towns and certain occupations have
+a deteriorating influence on height; and he infers that the result is to
+a certain extent inherited, as is likewise the case in the United
+States. Dr. Beddoe further believes that wherever a “race attains its
+maximum of physical development, it rises highest in energy and moral
+vigour.”[157]
+
+Whether external conditions produce any other direct effect on man is
+not known. It might have been expected that differences of climate would
+have had a marked influence, as the lungs and kidneys are brought into
+fuller activity under a low temperature, and the liver and skin under a
+high one.[158] It was formerly thought that the colour of the skin and
+the character of the hair were determined by light or heat; and
+although it can hardly be denied that some effect is thus produced,
+almost all observers now agree that the effect has been very small, even
+after exposure during many ages. But this subject will be more properly
+discussed when we treat of the different races of mankind. With our
+domestic animals there are grounds for believing that cold and damp
+directly affect the growth of the hair; but I have not met with any
+evidence on this head in the case of man.
+
+
+_Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts._—It is well known
+that use strengthens the muscles in the individual, and complete disuse,
+or the destruction of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye is
+destroyed the optic nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is
+tied, the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in the
+thickness and strength of their coats. When one kidney ceases acting
+from disease, the other increases in size and does double work. Bones
+increase not only in thickness, but in length, from carrying a greater
+weight.[159] Different occupations habitually followed lead to changed
+proportions in various parts of the body. Thus it was clearly
+ascertained by the United States Commission[160] that the legs of the
+sailors employed in the late war were longer by 0.217 of an inch than
+those of the soldiers, though the sailors were on an average shorter
+men; whilst their arms were shorter by 1.09 of an inch, and therefore
+out of proportion shorter in relation to their lesser height. This
+shortness of the arms is apparently due to their greater use, and is an
+unexpected result; but sailors chiefly use their arms in pulling and not
+in supporting weights. The girth of the neck and the depth of the instep
+are greater, whilst the circumference of the chest, waist, and hips is
+less in sailors than in soldiers.
+
+Whether the several foregoing modifications would become hereditary, if
+the same habits of life were followed during many generations, is not
+known, but is probable. Rengger[161] attributes the thin legs and thick
+arms of the Payaguas Indians to successive generations having passed
+nearly their whole lives in canoes, with their lower extremities
+motionless. Other writers have come to a similar conclusion in other
+analogous cases. According to Cranz,[162] who lived for a long time with
+the Esquimaux, “the natives believe that ingenuity and dexterity in
+seal-catching (their highest art and virtue) is hereditary; there is
+really something in it, for the son of a celebrated seal-catcher will
+distinguish himself though he lost his father in childhood.” But in this
+case it is mental aptitude, quite as much as bodily structure, which
+appears to be inherited. It is asserted that the hands of English
+labourers are at birth larger than those of the gentry.[163] From the
+correlation which exists, at least in some cases,[164] between the
+development of the extremities and of the jaws, it is possible that in
+those classes which do not labour much with their hands and feet, the
+jaws would be reduced in size from this cause. That they are generally
+smaller in refined and civilised men than in hard-working men or
+savages, is certain. But with savages, as Mr. Herbert Spencer[165] has
+remarked, the greater use of the jaws in chewing coarse, uncooked food,
+would act in a direct manner on the masticatory muscles and on the bones
+to which they are attached. In infants long before birth, the skin on
+the soles of the feet is thicker than on any other part of the
+body;[166] and it can hardly be doubted that this is due to the
+inherited effects of pressure during a long series of generations.
+
+It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and engravers are liable to
+become short-sighted, whilst sailors and especially savages are
+generally long-sighted. Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend to be
+inherited.[167] The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison with
+savages, in eyesight and in the other senses, is no doubt the
+accumulated and transmitted effect of lessened use during many
+generations; for Rengger[168] states that he has repeatedly observed
+Europeans, who had been brought up and spent their whole lives with the
+wild Indians, who nevertheless did not equal them in the sharpness of
+their senses. The same naturalist observes that the cavities in the
+skull for the reception of the several sense-organs are larger in the
+American aborigines than in Europeans; and this no doubt indicates a
+corresponding difference in the dimensions of the organs themselves.
+Blumenbach has also remarked on the large size of the nasal cavities in
+the skulls of the American aborigines, and connects this fact with their
+remarkably acute power of smell. The Mongolians of the plains of
+Northern Asia, according to Pallas, have wonderfully perfect senses; and
+Prichard believes that the great breadth of their skulls across the
+zygomas follows from their highly-developed sense-organs.[169]
+
+The Quechua Indians inhabit the lofty plateaux of Peru, and Alcide
+d’Orbigny states[170] that from continually breathing a highly rarefied
+atmosphere they have acquired chests and lungs of extraordinary
+dimensions. The cells, also, of the lungs are larger and more numerous
+than in Europeans. These observations have been doubted; but Mr. D.
+Forbes carefully measured many Aymaras, an allied race, living at the
+height of between ten and fifteen thousand feet; and he informs me[171]
+that they differ conspicuously from the men of all other races seen by
+him, in the circumference and length of their bodies. In his table of
+measurements, the stature of each man is taken at 1000, and the other
+measurements are reduced to this standard. It is here seen that the
+extended arms of the Aymaras are shorter than those of Europeans, and
+much shorter than those of Negroes. The legs are likewise shorter, and
+they present this remarkable peculiarity, that in every Aymara measured
+the femur is actually shorter than the tibia. On an average the length
+of the femur to that of the tibia is as 211 to 252; whilst in two
+Europeans measured at the same time, the femora to the tibiæ were as
+244 to 230; and in three Negroes as 258 to 241. The humerus is likewise
+shorter relatively to the fore-arm. This shortening of that part of the
+limb which is nearest to the body, appears to be, as suggested to me by
+Mr. Forbes, a case of compensation in relation with the greatly
+increased length of the trunk. The Aymaras present some other singular
+points of structure, for instance, the very small projection of the
+heel.
+
+These men are so thoroughly acclimatised to their cold and lofty abode,
+that when formerly carried down by the Spaniards to the low Eastern
+plains, and when now tempted down by high wages to the gold-washings,
+they suffer a frightful rate of mortality. Nevertheless Mr. Forbes found
+a few pure families which had survived during two generations; and he
+observed that they still inherited their characteristic peculiarities.
+But it was manifest, even without measurement, that these peculiarities
+had all decreased; and on measurement their bodies were found not to be
+so much elongated as those of the men on the high plateau; whilst their
+femora had become somewhat lengthened, as had their tibiæ but in a less
+degree. The actual measurements may be seen by consulting Mr. Forbes’
+memoir. From these valuable observations, there can, I think, be no
+doubt that residence during many generations at a great elevation tends,
+both directly and indirectly, to induce inherited modifications in the
+proportions of the body.[172]
+
+Although man may not have been much modified during the latter stages of
+his existence through the increased or decreased use of parts, the
+facts now given shew that his liability in this respect has not been
+lost; and we positively know that the same law holds good with the lower
+animals. Consequently we may infer, that when at a remote epoch the
+progenitors of man were in a transitional state, and were changing from
+quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would probably have been
+greatly aided by the inherited effects of the increased or diminished
+use of the different parts of the body.
+
+
+_Arrests of Development._—Arrested development differs from arrested
+growth, as parts in the former state continue to grow whilst still
+retaining their early condition. Various monstrosities come under this
+head, and some are known to be occasionally inherited, as a
+cleft-palate. It will suffice for our purpose to refer to the arrested
+brain-development of microcephalous idiots, as described in Vogt’s great
+memoir.[173] Their skulls are smaller, and the convolutions of the brain
+are less complex than in normal men. The frontal sinus, or the
+projection over the eyebrows, is largely developed, and the jaws are
+prognathous to an “_effrayant_” degree; so that these idiots somewhat
+resemble the lower types of mankind. Their intelligence and most of
+their mental faculties are extremely feeble. They cannot acquire the
+power of speech, and are wholly incapable of prolonged attention, but
+are much given to imitation. They are strong and remarkably active,
+continually gamboling and jumping about, and making grimaces. They often
+ascend stairs on all-fours; and are curiously fond of climbing up
+furniture or trees. We are thus reminded of the delight shewn by almost
+all boys in climbing trees; and this again reminds us how lambs and
+kids, originally alpine animals, delight to frisk on any hillock,
+however small.
+
+
+_Reversion._—Many of the cases to be here given might have been
+introduced under the last heading. Whenever a structure is arrested in
+its development, but still continues growing until it closely resembles
+a corresponding structure in some lower and adult member of the same
+group, we may in one sense consider it as a case of reversion. The lower
+members in a group give us some idea how the common progenitor of the
+group was probably constructed; and it is hardly credible that a part
+arrested at an early phase of embryonic development should be enabled to
+continue growing so as ultimately to perform its proper function, unless
+it had acquired this power of continued growth during some earlier state
+of existence, when the present exceptional or arrested structure was
+normal. The simple brain of a microcephalous idiot, in as far as it
+resembles that of an ape, may in this sense be said to offer a case of
+reversion. There are other cases which come more strictly under our
+present heading of reversion. Certain structures, regularly occurring in
+the lower members of the group to which man belongs, occasionally make
+their appearance in him, though not found in the normal human embryo;
+or, if present in the normal human embryo, they become developed in an
+abnormal manner, though this manner of development is proper to the
+lower members of the same group. These remarks will be rendered clearer
+by the following illustrations.
+
+In various mammals the uterus graduates from a double organ with two
+distinct orifices and two passages, as in the marsupials, into a single
+organ, showing no signs of doubleness except a slight internal fold, as
+in the higher apes and man. The rodents exhibit a perfect series of
+gradations between these two extreme states. In all mammals the uterus
+is developed from two simple primitive tubes, the inferior portions of
+which form the cornua; and it is in the words of Dr. Farre “by the
+coalescence of the two cornua at their lower extremities that the body
+of the uterus is formed in man; while in those animals in which no
+middle portion or body exists, the cornua remain ununited. As the
+development of the uterus proceeds, the two cornua become gradually
+shorter, until at length they are lost, or, as it were, absorbed into
+the body of the uterus.” The angles of the uterus are still produced
+into cornua, even so high in the scale as in the lower apes, and their
+allies the lemurs.
+
+Now in women anomalous cases are not very infrequent, in which the
+mature uterus is furnished with cornua, or is partially divided into two
+organs; and such cases, according to Owen, repeat “the grade of
+concentrative development,” attained by certain rodents. Here perhaps we
+have an instance of a simple arrest of embryonic development, with
+subsequent growth and perfect functional development, for either side of
+the partially double uterus is capable of performing the proper office
+of gestation. In other and rarer cases, two distinct uterine cavities
+are formed, each having its proper orifice and passage.[174] No such
+stage is passed through during the ordinary development of the embryo,
+and it is difficult to believe, though perhaps not impossible, that the
+two simple, minute, primitive tubes could know how (if such an
+expression may be used) to grow into two distinct uteri, each with a
+well-constructed orifice and passage, and each furnished with numerous
+muscles, nerves, glands and vessels, if they had not formerly passed
+through a similar course of development, as in the case of existing
+marsupials. No one will pretend that so perfect a structure as the
+abnormal double uterus in woman could be the result of mere chance. But
+the principle of reversion, by which long-lost dormant structures are
+called back into existence, might serve as the guide for the full
+development of the organ, even after the lapse of an enormous interval
+of time.
+
+Professor Canestrini,[175] after discussing the foregoing and various
+analogous cases, arrives at the same conclusion as that just given. He
+adduces, as another instance, the malar bone, which, in some of the
+Quadrumana and other mammals, normally consists of two portions. This is
+its condition in the two-months-old human fœtus; and thus it
+sometimes remains, through arrested development, in man when adult, more
+especially in the lower prognathous races. Hence Canestrini concludes
+that some ancient progenitor of man must have possessed this bone
+normally divided into two portions, which subsequently became fused
+together. In man the frontal bone consists of a single piece, but in the
+embryo and in children, and in almost all the lower mammals, it consists
+of two pieces separated by a distinct suture. This suture occasionally
+persists, more or less distinctly, in man after maturity, and more
+frequently in ancient than in recent crania, especially as Canestrini
+has observed in those exhumed from the Drift and belonging to the
+brachycephalic type. Here again he comes to the same conclusion as in
+the analogous case of the malar bones. In this and other instances
+presently to be given, the cause of ancient races approaching the lower
+animals in certain characters more frequently than do the modern races,
+appears to be that the latter stand at a somewhat greater distance in
+the long line of descent from their early semi-human progenitors.
+
+Various other anomalies in man, more or less analogous with the
+foregoing, have been advanced by different authors[176] as cases of
+reversion; but these seem not a little doubtful, for we have to descend
+extremely low in the mammalian series before we find such structures
+normally present.[177]
+
+In man the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for
+mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen[178] remarks, “is
+indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates in an
+obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the
+base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is
+best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The
+canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the
+incisors.” Nevertheless this tooth no longer serves man as a special
+weapon for tearing his enemies or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its
+proper function is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every
+large collection of human skulls some may be found, as Häckel[179]
+observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably beyond the
+others in the same manner, but in a less degree, as in the
+anthropomorphous apes. In these cases, open spaces between the teeth in
+the one jaw are left for the reception of the canines belonging to the
+opposite jaw. An interspace of this kind in a Kaffir skull, figured by
+Wagner, is surprisingly wide.[180] Considering how few ancient skulls
+have been examined in comparison with recent skulls, it is an
+interesting fact that in at least three cases the canines project
+largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as enormous.[181]
+
+The males alone of the anthropomorphous apes have their canines fully
+developed; but in the female gorilla, and in a less degree in the female
+orang, these teeth project considerably beyond the others; therefore the
+fact that women sometimes have, as I have been assured, considerably
+projecting canines, is no serious objection to the belief that their
+occasional great development in man is a case of reversion to an
+ape-like progenitor. He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape
+of his own canines, and their occasional great development in other men,
+are due to our early progenitors having been provided with these
+formidable weapons, will probably reveal by sneering the line of his
+descent. For though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use
+these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his “snarling
+muscles” (thus named by Sir C. Bell)[182] so as to expose them ready for
+action, like a dog prepared to fight.
+
+Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, which are proper to the
+Quadrumana or other mammals. Professor Vlacovich[183] examined forty
+male subjects, and found a muscle, called by him the ischiopubic, in
+nineteen of them; in three others there was a ligament which represented
+this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen no trace of it. Out of thirty
+female subjects this muscle was developed on both sides in only two, but
+in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. This muscle,
+therefore, appears to be much more common in the male than in the female
+sex; and on the principle of the descent of man from some lower form,
+its presence can be understood; for it has been detected in several of
+the lower animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the
+male in the act of reproduction.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, in his valuable series of papers,[184] has minutely
+described a vast number of muscular variations in man, which resemble
+normal structures in the lower animals. Looking only to the muscles
+which closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest allies,
+the Quadrumana, they are too numerous to be here even specified. In a
+single male subject, having a strong bodily frame and well-formed skull,
+no less than seven muscular variations were observed, all of which
+plainly represented muscles proper to various kinds of apes. This man,
+for instance, had on both sides of his neck a true and powerful
+“_levator claviculæ_,” such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which
+is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects.[185] Again,
+this man had “a special abductor of the metatarsal bone of the fifth
+digit, such as Professor Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn to exist
+uniformly in the higher and lower apes.” The hands and arms of man are
+eminently characteristic structures, but their muscles are extremely
+liable to vary, so as to resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower
+animals.[186] Such resemblances are either complete and perfect or
+imperfect, yet in this latter case manifestly of a transitional nature.
+Certain variations are more common in man, and others in woman, without
+our being able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing numerous
+cases, makes the following pregnant remark: “Notable departures from the
+ordinary type of the muscular structures run in grooves or directions,
+which must be taken to indicate some unknown factor, of much importance
+to a comprehensive knowledge of general and scientific anatomy.”[187]
+
+That this unknown factor is reversion to a former state of existence may
+be admitted as in the highest degree probable. It is quite incredible
+that a man should through mere accident abnormally resemble, in no less
+than seven of his muscles, certain apes, if there had been no genetic
+connection between them. On the other hand, if man is descended from
+some ape-like creature, no valid reason can be assigned why certain
+muscles should not suddenly reappear after an interval of many thousand
+generations, in the same manner as with horses, asses, and mules,
+dark-coloured stripes suddenly reappear on the legs and shoulders, after
+an interval of hundreds, or more probably thousands, of generations.
+
+These various cases of reversion are so closely related to those of
+rudimentary organs given in the first chapter, that many of them might
+have been indifferently introduced in either chapter. Thus a human
+uterus furnished with cornua may be said to represent in a rudimentary
+condition the same organ in its normal state in certain mammals. Some
+parts which are rudimental in man, as the os coccyx in both sexes and
+the mammæ in the male sex, are always present; whilst others, such as
+the supra-condyloid foramen, only occasionally appear, and therefore
+might have been introduced under the head of reversion. These several
+reversionary, as well as the strictly rudimentary, structures reveal the
+descent of man from some lower form in an unmistakeable manner.
+
+
+_Correlated Variation._—In man, as in the lower animals, many
+structures are so intimately related, that when one part varies so does
+another, without our being able, in most cases, to assign any reason. We
+cannot say whether the one part governs the other, or whether both are
+governed by some earlier developed part. Various monstrosities, as I.
+Geoffroy repeatedly insists, are thus intimately connected. Homologous
+structures are particularly liable to change together, as we see on the
+opposite sides of the body, and in the upper and lower extremities.
+Meckel long ago remarked that when the muscles of the arm depart from
+their proper type, they almost always imitate those of the leg; and so
+conversely with the muscles of the legs. The organs of sight and
+hearing, the teeth and hair, the colour of the skin and hair, colour and
+constitution, are more or less correlated.[188] Professor Schaaffhausen
+first drew attention to the relation apparently existing between a
+muscular frame and strongly-pronounced supra-orbital ridges, which are
+so characteristic of the lower races of man.
+
+Besides the variations which can be grouped with more or less
+probability under the foregoing heads, there is a large class of
+variations which may be provisionally called spontaneous, for they
+appear, owing to our ignorance, to arise without any exciting cause. It
+can, however, be shewn that such variations, whether consisting of
+slight individual differences, or of strongly-marked and abrupt
+deviations of structure, depend much more on the constitution of the
+organism than on the nature of the conditions to which it has been
+subjected.[189]
+
+
+_Rate of Increase._—Civilised populations have been known under
+favourable conditions, as in the United States, to double their number
+in twenty-five years; and according to a calculation by Euler, this
+might occur in a little over twelve years.[190] At the former rate the
+present population of the United States, namely, thirty millions, would
+in 657 years cover the whole terraqueous globe so thickly, that four men
+would have to stand on each square yard of surface. The primary or
+fundamental check to the continued increase of man is the difficulty of
+gaining subsistence and of living in comfort. We may infer that this is
+the case from what we see, for instance, in the United States, where
+subsistence is easy and there is plenty of room. If such means were
+suddenly doubled in Great Britain, our number would be quickly doubled.
+With civilised nations the above primary check acts chiefly by
+restraining marriages. The greater death-rate of infants in the poorest
+classes is also very important; as well as the greater mortality at all
+ages, and from various diseases, of the inhabitants of crowded and
+miserable houses. The effects of severe epidemics and wars are soon
+counterbalanced, and more than counterbalanced, in nations placed under
+favourable conditions. Emigration also comes in aid as a temporary
+check, but not to any great extent with the extremely poor classes.
+
+There is reason to suspect, as Malthus has remarked, that the
+reproductive power is actually less in barbarous than in civilised
+races. We know nothing positively on this head, for with savages no
+census has been taken; but from the concurrent testimony of
+missionaries, and of others who have long resided with such people, it
+appears that their families are usually small, and large ones rare. This
+may be partly accounted for, as it is believed, by the women suckling
+their infants for a prolonged period; but it is highly probable that
+savages, who often suffer much hardship, and who do not obtain so much
+nutritious food as civilised men, would be actually less prolific. I
+have shewn in a former work,[191] that all our domesticated quadrupeds
+and birds, and all our cultivated plants, are more fertile than the
+corresponding species in a state of nature. It is no valid objection to
+this conclusion that animals suddenly supplied with an excess of food,
+or when rendered very fat, and that most plants when suddenly removed
+from very poor to very rich soil, are rendered more or less sterile. We
+might, therefore, expect that civilised men, who in one sense are highly
+domesticated, would be more prolific than wild men. It is also probable
+that the increased fertility of civilised nations would become, as with
+our domestic animals, an inherited character: it is at least known that
+with mankind a tendency to produce twins runs in families.[192]
+
+Notwithstanding that savages appear to be less prolific than civilised
+people, they would no doubt rapidly increase if their numbers were not
+by some means rigidly kept down. The Santali, or hill-tribes of India,
+have recently afforded a good illustration of this fact; for they have
+increased, as shewn by Mr. Hunter,[193] at an extraordinary rate since
+vaccination has been introduced, other pestilences mitigated, and war
+sternly repressed. This increase, however, would not have been possible
+had not these rude people spread into the adjoining districts and worked
+for hire. Savages almost always marry; yet there is some prudential
+restraint, for they do not commonly marry at the earliest possible age.
+The young men are often required to show that they can support a wife,
+and they generally have first to earn the price with which to purchase
+her from her parents. With savages the difficulty of obtaining
+subsistence occasionally limits their number in a much more direct
+manner than with civilised people, for all tribes periodically suffer
+from severe famines. At such times savages are forced to devour much bad
+food, and their health can hardly fail to be injured. Many accounts have
+been published of their protruding stomachs and emaciated limbs after
+and during famines. They are then, also, compelled to wander much about,
+and their infants, as I was assured in Australia, perish in large
+numbers. As famines are periodical, depending chiefly on extreme
+seasons, all tribes must fluctuate in number. They cannot steadily and
+regularly increase, as there is no artificial increase in the supply of
+food. Savages when hardly pressed encroach on each other’s territories,
+and war is the result; but they are indeed almost always at war with
+their neighbours. They are liable to many accidents on land and water in
+their search for food; and in some countries they must suffer much from
+the larger beasts of prey. Even in India, districts have been
+depopulated by the ravages of tigers.
+
+Malthus has discussed these several checks, but he does not lay stress
+enough on what is probably the most important of all, namely
+infanticide, especially of female infants, and the habit of procuring
+abortion. These practices now prevail in many quarters of the world, and
+infanticide seems formerly to have prevailed, as Mr. M’Lennan[194] has
+shewn, on a still more extensive scale. These practices appear to have
+originated in savages recognising the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility of supporting all the infants that are born.
+Licentiousness may also be added to the foregoing checks; but this does
+not follow from failing means of subsistence; though there is reason to
+believe that in some cases (as in Japan) it has been intentionally
+encouraged as a means of keeping down the population.
+
+If we look back to an extremely remote epoch, before man had arrived at
+the dignity of manhood, he would have been guided more by instinct and
+less by reason than are savages at the present time. Our early
+semi-human progenitors would not have practised infanticide, for the
+instincts of the lower animals are never so perverted as to lead them
+regularly to destroy their own offspring. There would have been no
+prudential restraint from marriage, and the sexes would have freely
+united at an early age. Hence the progenitors of man would have tended
+to increase rapidly, but checks of some kind, either periodical or
+constant, must have kept down their numbers, even more severely than
+with existing savages. What the precise nature of these checks may have
+been, we cannot say, any more than with most other animals. We know that
+horses and cattle, which are not highly prolific animals, when first
+turned loose in South America, increased at an enormous rate. The
+slowest breeder of all known animals, namely the elephant, would in a
+few thousand years stock the whole world. The increase of every species
+of monkey must be checked by some means; but not, as Brehm remarks, by
+the attacks of beasts of prey. No one will assume that the actual power
+of reproduction in the wild horses and cattle of America, was at first
+in any sensible degree increased; or that, as each district became fully
+stocked, this same power was diminished. No doubt in this case and in
+all others, many checks concur, and different checks under different
+circumstances; periodical dearths, depending on unfavourable seasons,
+being probably the most important of all. So it will have been with the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Natural Selection._—We have now seen that man is variable in body and
+mind; and that the variations are induced, either directly or
+indirectly, by the same general causes, and obey the same general laws,
+as with the lower animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the
+earth, and must have been exposed, during his incessant migrations,[195]
+to the most diversified conditions. The inhabitants of Tierra del
+Fuego, the Cape of Good Hope, and Tasmania in the one hemisphere, and of
+the Arctic regions in the other, must have passed through many climates
+and changed their habits many times, before they reached their present
+homes.[196] The early progenitors of man must also have tended, like all
+other animals, to have increased beyond their means of subsistence; they
+must therefore occasionally have been exposed to a struggle for
+existence, and consequently to the rigid law of natural selection.
+Beneficial variations of all kinds will thus, either occasionally or
+habitually, have been preserved, and injurious ones eliminated. I do not
+refer to strongly-marked deviations of structure, which occur only at
+long intervals of time, but to mere individual differences. We know, for
+instance, that the muscles of our hands and feet, which determine our
+powers of movement, are liable, like those of the lower animals,[197] to
+incessant variability. If then the ape-like progenitors of man which
+inhabited any district, especially one undergoing some change in its
+conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the one half which
+included all the individuals best adapted by their powers of movement
+for gaining subsistence or for defending themselves, would on an average
+survive in greater number and procreate more offspring than the other
+and less well endowed half.
+
+Man in the rudest state in which he now exists is the most dominant
+animal that has ever appeared on the earth. He has spread more widely
+than any other highly organised form; and all others have yielded
+before him. He manifestly owes this immense superiority to his
+intellectual faculties, his social habits, which lead him to aid and
+defend his fellows, and to his corporeal structure. The supreme
+importance of these characters has been proved by the final arbitrament
+of the battle for life. Through his powers of intellect, articulate
+language has been evolved; and on this his wonderful advancement has
+mainly depended. He has invented and is able to use various weapons,
+tools, traps, &c., with which he defends himself, kills or catches prey,
+and otherwise obtains food. He has made rafts or canoes on which to fish
+or cross over to neighbouring fertile islands. He has discovered the art
+of making fire, by which hard and stringy roots can be rendered
+digestible, and poisonous roots or herbs innocuous. This last discovery,
+probably the greatest, excepting language, ever made by man, dates from
+before the dawn of history. These several inventions, by which man in
+the rudest state has become so preeminent, are the direct result of the
+development of his powers of observation, memory, curiosity,
+imagination, and reason. I cannot, therefore, understand how it is that
+Mr. Wallace[198] maintains, that “natural selection could only have
+endowed the savage with a brain a little superior to that of an ape.”
+
+Although the intellectual powers and social habits of man are of
+paramount importance to him, we must not underrate the importance of his
+bodily structure, to which subject the remainder of this chapter will be
+devoted. The development of the intellectual and social or moral
+faculties will be discussed in the following chapter.
+
+Even to hammer with precision is no easy matter, as every one who has
+tried to learn carpentry will admit. To throw a stone with as true an
+aim as can a Fuegian in defending himself, or in killing birds, requires
+the most consummate perfection in the correlated action of the muscles
+of the hand, arm, and shoulder, not to mention a fine sense of touch. In
+throwing a stone or spear, and in many other actions, a man must stand
+firmly on his feet; and this again demands the perfect coadaptation of
+numerous muscles. To chip a flint into the rudest tool, or to form a
+barbed spear or hook from a bone, demands the use of a perfect hand;
+for, as a most capable judge, Mr. Schoolcraft,[199] remarks, the shaping
+fragments of stone into knives, lances, or arrow-heads, shews
+“extraordinary ability and long practice.” We have evidence of this in
+primeval men having practised a division of labour; each man did not
+manufacture his own flint tools or rude pottery; but certain individuals
+appear to have devoted themselves to such work, no doubt receiving in
+exchange the produce of the chase. Archæologists are convinced that an
+enormous interval of time elapsed before our ancestors thought of
+grinding chipped flints into smooth tools. A man-like animal who
+possessed a hand and arm sufficiently perfect to throw a stone with
+precision or to form a flint into a rude tool, could, it can hardly be
+doubted, with sufficient practice make almost anything, as far as
+mechanical skill alone is concerned, which a civilised man can make. The
+structure of the hand in this respect may be compared with that of the
+vocal organs, which in the apes are used for uttering various
+signal-cries, or, as in one species, musical cadences; but in man
+closely similar vocal organs have become adapted through the inherited
+effects of use for the utterance of articulate language.
+
+Turning now to the nearest allies of man, and therefore to the best
+representatives of our early progenitors, we find that the hands in the
+Quadrumana are constructed on the same general pattern as in us, but are
+far less perfectly adapted for diversified uses. Their hands do not
+serve so well as the feet of a dog for locomotion; as may be seen in
+those monkeys which walk on the outer margins of the palms, or on the
+backs of their bent fingers, as in the chimpanzee and orang.[200] Their
+hands, however, are admirably adapted for climbing trees. Monkeys seize
+thin branches or ropes, with the thumb on one side and the fingers and
+palm on the other side, in the same manner as we do. They can thus also
+carry rather large objects, such as the neck of a bottle, to their
+mouths. Baboons turn over stones and scratch up roots with their hands.
+They seize nuts, insects, or other small objects with the thumb in
+opposition to the fingers, and no doubt they thus extract eggs and the
+young from the nests of birds. American monkeys beat the wild oranges on
+the branches until the rind is cracked, and then tear it off with the
+fingers of the two hands. Other monkeys open mussel-shells with the two
+thumbs. With their fingers they pull out thorns and burrs, and hunt for
+each other’s parasites. In a state of nature they break open hard fruits
+with the aid of stones. They roll down stones or throw them at their
+enemies; nevertheless, they perform these various actions clumsily, and
+they are quite unable, as I have myself seen, to throw a stone with
+precision.
+
+It seems to me far from true that because “objects are grasped clumsily”
+by monkeys, “a much less specialised organ of prehension” would have
+served them[201] as well as their present hands. On the contrary, I see
+no reason to doubt that a more perfectly constructed hand would have
+been an advantage to them, provided, and it is important to note this,
+that their hands had not thus been rendered less well adapted for
+climbing trees. We may suspect that a perfect hand would have been
+disadvantageous for climbing; as the most arboreal monkeys in the world,
+namely Ateles in America and Hylobates in Asia, either have their thumbs
+much reduced in size and even rudimentary, or their fingers
+partially coherent, so that their hands are converted into mere
+grasping-hooks.[202]
+
+As soon as some ancient member in the great series of the Primates came,
+owing to a change in its manner of procuring subsistence, or to a change
+in the conditions of its native country, to live somewhat less on trees
+and more on the ground, its manner of progression would have been
+modified; and in this case it would have had to become either more
+strictly quadrupedal or bipedal. Baboons frequent hilly and rocky
+districts, and only from necessity climb up high trees;[203] and they
+have acquired almost the gait of a dog. Man alone has become a biped;
+and we can, I think, partly see how he has come to assume his erect
+attitude, which forms one of the most conspicuous differences between
+him and his nearest allies. Man could not have attained his present
+dominant position in the world without the use of his hands which are so
+admirably adapted to act in obedience to his will. As Sir C. Bell[204]
+insists “the hand supplies all instruments, and by its correspondence
+with the intellect gives him universal dominion.” But the hands and arms
+could hardly have become perfect enough to have manufactured weapons, or
+to have hurled stones and spears with a true aim, as long as they were
+habitually used for locomotion and for supporting the whole weight of
+the body, or as long as they were especially well adapted, as previously
+remarked, for climbing trees. Such rough treatment would also have
+blunted the sense of touch, on which their delicate use largely depends.
+From these causes alone it would have been an advantage to man to have
+become a biped; but for many actions it is almost necessary that both
+arms and the whole upper part of the body should be free; and he must
+for this end stand firmly on his feet. To gain this great advantage, the
+feet have been rendered flat, and the great toe peculiarly modified,
+though this has entailed the loss of the power of prehension. It accords
+with the principle of the division of physiological labour, which
+prevails throughout the animal kingdom, that as the hands became
+perfected for prehension, the feet should have become perfected for
+support and locomotion. With some savages, however, the foot has not
+altogether lost its prehensile power, as shewn by their manner of
+climbing trees and of using them in other ways.[205]
+
+If it be an advantage to man to have his hands and arms free and to
+stand firmly on his feet, of which there can be no doubt from his
+preeminent success in the battle of life, then I can see no reason why
+it should not have been advantageous to the progenitors of man to have
+become more and more erect or bipedal. They would thus have been better
+able to have defended themselves with stones or clubs, or to have
+attacked their prey, or otherwise obtained food. The best constructed
+individuals would in the long run have succeeded best, and have survived
+in larger numbers. If the gorilla and a few allied forms had become
+extinct, it might have been argued with great force and apparent truth,
+that an animal could not have been gradually converted from a quadruped
+into a biped; as all the individuals in an intermediate condition would
+have been miserably ill-fitted for progression. But we know (and this is
+well worthy of reflection) that several kinds of apes are now actually
+in this intermediate condition; and no one doubts that they are on the
+whole well adapted for their conditions of life. Thus the gorilla runs
+with a sidelong shambling gait, but more commonly progresses by resting
+on its bent hands. The long-armed apes occasionally use their arms like
+crutches, swinging their bodies forward between them, and some kinds of
+Hylobates, without having been taught, can walk or run upright with
+tolerable quickness; yet they move awkwardly, and much less securely
+than man. We see, in short, with existing monkeys various gradations
+between a form of progression strictly like that of a quadruped and that
+of a biped or man.
+
+As the progenitors of man became more and more erect, with their hands
+and arms more and more modified for prehension and other purposes, with
+their feet and legs at the same time modified for firm support and
+progression, endless other changes of structure would have been
+necessary. The pelvis would have had to be made broader, the spine
+peculiarly curved and the head fixed in an altered position, and all
+these changes have been attained by man. Prof. Schaaffhausen[206]
+maintains that “the powerful mastoid processes of the human skull are
+the result of his erect position;” and these processes are absent in the
+orang, chimpanzee, &c., and are smaller in the gorilla than in man.
+Various other structures might here have been specified, which appear
+connected with man’s erect position. It is very difficult to decide how
+far all these correlated modifications are the result of natural
+selection, and how far of the inherited effects of the increased use of
+certain parts, or of the action of one part on another. No doubt these
+means of change act and react on each other: thus when certain muscles,
+and the crests of bone to which they are attached, become enlarged by
+habitual use, this shews that certain fictions are habitually performed
+and must be serviceable. Hence the individuals which performed them
+best, would tend to survive in greater numbers.
+
+The free use of the arms and hands, partly the cause and partly the
+result of man’s erect position, appears to have led in an indirect
+manner to other modifications of structure. The early male progenitors
+of man were, as previously stated, probably furnished with great canine
+teeth; but as they gradually acquired the habit of using stones, clubs,
+or other weapons, for fighting with their enemies, they would have used
+their jaws and teeth less and less. In this case, the jaws, together
+with the teeth, would have become reduced in size, as we may feel sure
+from innumerable analogous cases. In a future chapter we shall meet with
+a closely-parallel case, in the reduction or complete disappearance of
+the canine teeth in male ruminants, apparently in relation with the
+development of their horns; and in horses, in relation with their habit
+of fighting with their incisor teeth and hoofs.
+
+In the adult male anthropomorphous apes, as Rütimeyer,[207] and others
+have insisted, it is precisely the effect which the jaw-muscles by their
+great development have produced on the skull, that causes it to differ
+so greatly in many respects from that of man, and has given to it “a
+truly frightful physiognomy.” Therefore as the jaws and teeth in the
+progenitors of man gradually become reduced in size, the adult skull
+would have presented nearly the same characters which it offers in the
+young of the anthropomorphous apes, and would thus have come to resemble
+more nearly that of existing man. A great reduction of the canine teeth
+in the males would almost certainly, as we shall hereafter see, have
+affected through inheritance the teeth of the females.
+
+As the various mental faculties were gradually developed, the brain
+would almost certainly have become larger. No one, I presume, doubts
+that the large size of the brain in man, relatively to his body, in
+comparison with that of the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with
+his higher mental powers. We meet with closely analogous facts with
+insects, in which the cerebral ganglia are of extraordinary dimensions
+in ants; these ganglia in all the Hymenoptera being many times larger
+than in the less intelligent orders, such as beetles.[208] On the other
+hand, no one supposes that the intellect of any two animals or of any
+two men can be accurately gauged by the cubic contents of their skulls.
+It is certain that there may be extraordinary mental activity with an
+extremely small absolute mass of nervous matter: thus the wonderfully
+diversified instincts, mental powers, and affections of ants are
+generally known, yet their cerebral ganglia are not so large as the
+quarter of a small pin’s head. Under this latter point of view, the
+brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms of matter in the
+world, perhaps more marvellous than the brain of man.
+
+The belief that there exists in man some close relation between the size
+of the brain and the development of the intellectual faculties is
+supported by the comparison of the skulls of savage and civilised races,
+of ancient and modern people, and by the analogy of the whole
+vertebrate series. Dr. J. Barnard Davis has proved[209] by many careful
+measurements, that the mean internal capacity of the skull in Europeans
+is 92·3 cubic inches; in Americans 87·5; in Asiatics 87·1; and in
+Australians only 81·9 inches. Professor Broca[210] found that skulls
+from graves in Paris of the nineteenth century, were larger than those
+from vaults of the twelfth century, in the proportion of 1484 to 1426;
+and Prichard is persuaded that the present inhabitants of Britain have
+“much more capacious brain-cases” than the ancient inhabitants.
+Nevertheless it must be admitted that some skulls of very high
+antiquity, such as the famous one of Neanderthal, are well developed and
+capacious. With respect to the lower animals, M. E. Lartet,[211] by
+comparing the crania of tertiary and recent mammals, belonging to the
+same groups, has come to the remarkable conclusion that the brain is
+generally larger and the convolutions more complex in the more recent
+form. On the other hand I have shewn[212] that the brains of domestic
+rabbits are considerably reduced in bulk, in comparison with those of
+the wild rabbit or hare; and this may be attributed to their having been
+closely confined during many generations, so that they have exerted but
+little their intellect, instincts, senses, and voluntary movements.
+
+The gradually increasing weight of the brain and skull in man must have
+influenced the development of the supporting spinal column, more
+especially whilst he was becoming erect. As this change of position was
+being brought about, the internal pressure of the brain, will, also,
+have influenced the form of the skull; for many facts shew how easily
+the skull is thus affected. Ethnologists believe that it is modified by
+the kind of cradle in which infants sleep. Habitual spasms of the
+muscles and a cicatrix from a severe burn have permanently modified the
+facial bones. In young persons whose heads from disease have become
+fixed either sideways or backwards, one of the eyes has changed its
+position, and the bones of the skull have been modified; and this
+apparently results from the brain pressing in a new direction.[213] I
+have shewn that with long-eared rabbits, even so trifling a cause as the
+lopping forward of one ear drags forward on that side almost every bone
+of the skull; so that the bones on the opposite sides no longer strictly
+correspond. Lastly, if any animal were to increase or diminish much in
+general size, without any change in its mental powers; or if the mental
+powers were to be much increased or diminished without any great change
+in the size of the body; the shape of the skull would almost certainly
+be altered. I infer this from my observations on domestic rabbits, some
+kinds of which have become very much larger than the wild animal, whilst
+others have retained nearly the same size, but in both cases the brain
+has been much reduced relatively to the size of the body. Now I was at
+first much surprised by finding that in all these rabbits the skull had
+become elongated or dolichocephalic; for instance, of two skulls of
+nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild rabbit and the other from a
+large domestic kind, the former was only 3·15 and the latter 4·3 inches
+in length.[214] One of the most marked distinctions in different races
+of man is that the skull in some is elongated, and in others rounded;
+and here the explanation suggested by the case of the rabbits may
+partially hold good; for Welcker finds that short “men incline more to
+brachycephaly, and tall men to dolichocephaly;”[215] and tall men may be
+compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have
+elongated skulls, or are dolichocephalic.
+
+From these several facts we can to a certain extent understand the means
+through which the great size and more or less rounded form of the skull
+has been acquired by man; and these are characters eminently distinctive
+of him in comparison with the lower animals.
+
+Another most conspicuous difference between man and the lower animals is
+the nakedness of his skin. Whales and dolphins (Cetacea), dugongs
+(Sirenia) and the hippopotamus are naked; and this may be advantageous
+to them for gliding through the water; nor would it be injurious to them
+from the loss of warmth, as the species which inhabit the colder regions
+are protected by a thick layer of blubber, serving the same purpose as
+the fur of seals and otters. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost
+hairless; and as certain extinct species which formerly lived under an
+arctic climate were covered with long wool or hair, it would almost
+appear as if the existing species of both genera had lost their hairy
+covering from exposure to heat. This appears the more probable, as the
+elephants in India which live on elevated and cool districts are more
+hairy[216] than those on the lowlands. May we then infer that man became
+divested of hair from having aboriginally inhabited some tropical land?
+The fact of the hair being chiefly retained in the male sex on the chest
+and face, and in both sexes at the junction of all four limbs with the
+trunk, favours this inference, assuming that the hair was lost before
+man became erect; for the parts which now retain most hair would then
+have been most protected from the heat of the sun. The crown of the
+head, however, offers a curious exception, for at all times it must have
+been one of the most exposed parts, yet it is thickly clothed with hair.
+In this respect man agrees with the great majority of quadrupeds, which
+generally have their upper and exposed surfaces more thickly clothed
+than the lower surface. Nevertheless, the fact that the other members of
+the order of Primates, to which man belongs, although inhabiting various
+hot regions, are well clothed with hair, generally thickest on the upper
+surface,[217] is strongly opposed to the supposition that man became
+naked through the action of the sun. I am inclined to believe, as we
+shall see under sexual selection, that man, or rather primarily woman,
+became divested of hair for ornamental purposes; and according to this
+belief it is not surprising that man should differ so greatly in
+hairiness from all his lower brethren, for characters gained through
+sexual selection often differ in closely-related forms to an
+extraordinary degree.
+
+According to a popular impression, the absence of a tail is eminently
+distinctive of man; but as those apes which come nearest to man are
+destitute of this organ, its disappearance does not especially concern
+us. Nevertheless it may be well to own that no explanation, as far as I
+am aware, has ever been given of the loss of the tail by certain apes
+and man. Its loss, however, is not surprising, for it sometimes differs
+remarkably in length in species of the same genera: thus in some species
+of Macacus the tail is longer than the whole body, consisting of
+twenty-four vertebræ; in others it consists of a scarcely visible stump,
+containing only three or four vertebræ. In some kinds of baboons there
+are twenty-five, whilst in the mandrill there are ten very small stunted
+caudal vertebræ, or, according to Cuvier,[218] sometimes only five. This
+great diversity in the structure and length of the tail in animals
+belonging to the same genera, and following nearly the same habits of
+life, renders it probable that the tail is not of much importance to
+them; and if so, we might have expected that it would sometimes have
+become more or less rudimentary, in accordance with what we incessantly
+see with other structures. The tail almost always tapers towards the end
+whether it be long or short; and this, I presume, results from the
+atrophy, through disuse, of the terminal muscles together with their
+arteries and nerves, leading to the atrophy of the terminal bones. With
+respect to the os coccyx, which in man and the higher apes manifestly
+consists of the few basal and tapering segments of an ordinary tail, I
+have heard it asked how could these have become completely embedded
+within the body; but there is no difficulty in this respect, for in many
+monkeys the basal segments of the true tail are thus embedded. For
+instance, Mr. Murie informs me that in the skeleton of a not full-grown
+_Macacus inornatus_, he counted nine or ten caudal vertebræ, which
+altogether were only 1·8 inch in length. Of these the three basal ones
+appeared to have been embedded; the remainder forming the free part of
+the tail, which was only one inch in length, and half an inch in
+diameter. Here, then, the three embedded caudal vertebræ plainly
+correspond with the four coalesced vertebræ of the human os coccyx.
+
+
+I have now endeavoured to shew that some of the most distinctive
+characters of man have in all probability been acquired, either
+directly, or more commonly indirectly, through natural selection. We
+should bear in mind that modifications in structure or constitution,
+which are of no service to an organism in adapting it to its habits of
+life, to the food which it consumes, or passively to the surrounding
+conditions, cannot have been thus acquired. We must not, however, be too
+confident in deciding what modifications are of service to each being:
+we should remember how little we know about the use of many parts, or
+what changes in the blood or tissues may serve to fit an organism for a
+new climate or some new kind of food. Nor must we forget the principle
+of correlation, by which, as Isidore Geoffroy has shewn in the case of
+man, many fit-range deviations of structure are tied together.
+Independently of correlation, a change in one part often leads through
+the increased or decreased use of other parts, to other changes of a
+quite unexpected nature. It is also well to reflect on such facts, as
+the wonderful growth of galls on plants caused by the poison of an
+insect, and on the remarkable changes of colour in the plumage of
+parrots when fed on certain fishes, or inoculated with the poison of
+toads;[219] for we can thus see that the fluids of the system, if
+altered for some special purpose, might induce other strange changes. We
+should especially bear in mind that modifications acquired and
+continually used during past ages for some useful purpose would probably
+become firmly fixed and might be long inherited.
+
+Thus a very large yet undefined extension may safely be given to the
+direct and indirect results of natural selection; but I now admit, after
+reading the essay by Nägeli on plants, and the remarks by various
+authors with respect to animals, more especially those recently made by
+Professor Broca, that in the earlier editions of my ‘Origin of Species’
+I probably attributed too much to the action of natural selection or the
+survival of the fittest. I have altered the fifth edition of the Origin
+so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of structure. I had not
+formerly sufficiently considered the existence of many structures which
+appear to be, as far as we can judge, neither beneficial nor injurious;
+and this I believe to be one of the greatest oversights as yet detected
+in my work. I may be permitted to say as some excuse, that I had two
+distinct objects in view, firstly, to shew that species had not been
+separately created, and secondly, that natural selection had been the
+chief agent of change, though largely aided by the inherited effects of
+habit, and slightly by the direct action of the surrounding conditions.
+Nevertheless I was not able to annul the influence of my former belief,
+then widely prevalent, that each species had been purposely created; and
+this led to my tacitly assuming that every detail of structure,
+excepting rudiments, was of some special, though unrecognised, service.
+Any one with this assumption in his mind would naturally extend the
+action of natural selection, either during past or present times, too
+far. Some of those who admit the principle of evolution, but reject
+natural selection, seem to forget, when criticising my book, that I had
+the above two objects in view; hence if I have erred in giving to
+natural selection great power, which I am far from admitting, or in
+having exaggerated its power, which is in itself probable, I have at
+least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of
+separate creations.
+
+That all organic beings, including man, present many modifications of
+structure which are of no service to them at present, nor have been
+formerly, is, as I can now see, probable. We know not what produces the
+numberless slight differences between the individuals of each species,
+for reversion only carries the problem a few steps backwards; but each
+peculiarity must have had its own efficient cause. If these causes,
+whatever they may be, were to act more uniformly and energetically
+during a lengthened period (and no reason can be assigned why this
+should not sometimes occur), the result would probably be not mere
+slight individual differences, but well-marked, constant modifications.
+Modifications which are in no way beneficial cannot have been kept
+uniform through natural selection, though any which were injurious would
+have been thus eliminated. Uniformity of character would, however,
+naturally follow from, the assumed uniformity of the exciting causes,
+and likewise from the free intercrossing of many individuals. The same
+organism might acquire in this manner during successive periods
+successive modifications, and these would be transmitted in a nearly
+uniform state as long as the exciting causes remained the same and there
+was free intercrossing. With respect to the exciting causes we can only
+say, as when speaking of so-called spontaneous variations, that they
+relate much more closely to the constitution of the varying organism,
+than to the nature of the conditions to which it has been subjected.
+
+
+_Conclusion._—In this chapter we have seen that as man at the present
+day is liable, like every other animal, to multiform individual
+differences or slight variations, so no doubt were the early progenitors
+of man; the variations being then as now induced by the same general
+causes, and governed by the same general and complex laws. As all
+animals tend to multiply beyond their means of subsistence, so it must
+have been with the progenitors of man; and this will inevitably have led
+to a struggle for existence and to natural selection. This latter
+process will have been greatly aided by the inherited effects of the
+increased use of parts; these two processes incessantly reacting on each
+other. It appears, also, as we shall hereafter see, that various
+unimportant characters have been acquired by man through sexual
+selection. An unexplained residuum of change, perhaps a large one, must
+be left to the assumed uniform action of those unknown agencies, which
+occasionally induce strongly-marked and abrupt deviations of structure
+in our domestic productions.
+
+Judging from the habits of savages and of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, primeval men, and even the ape-like progenitors of man,
+probably lived in society. With strictly social animals, natural
+selection sometimes acts indirectly on the individual, through the
+preservation of variations which are beneficial only to the community. A
+community including a large number of well-endowed individuals increases
+in number and is victorious over other and less well-endowed
+communities; although each separate member may gain no advantage over
+the other members of the same community. With associated insects many
+remarkable structures, which are of little or no service to the
+individual or its own offspring, such as the pollen-collecting
+apparatus, or the sting of the worker-bee, or the great jaws of
+soldier-ants, have been thus acquired. With the higher social animals, I
+am not aware that any structure has been modified solely for the good of
+the community, though some are of secondary service to it. For instance,
+the horns of ruminants and the great canine teeth of baboons appear to
+have been acquired by the males as weapons for sexual strife, but they
+are used in defence of the herd or troop. In regard to certain mental
+faculties the case, as we shall see in the following chapter, is wholly
+different; for these faculties have been chiefly, or even exclusively,
+gained for the benefit of the community; the individuals composing the
+community being at the same time indirectly benefited.
+
+It has often been objected to such views as the foregoing, that man is
+one of the most helpless and defenceless creatures in the world; and
+that during his early and less well-developed condition he would have
+been still more helpless. The Duke of Argyll, for instance, insists[220]
+that “the human frame has diverged from the structure of brutes, in the
+direction of greater physical helplessness and weakness. That is to say,
+it is a divergence which of all others it is most impossible to ascribe
+to mere natural selection.” He adduces the naked and unprotected state
+of the body, the absence of great teeth or claws for defence, the little
+strength of man, his small speed in running, and his slight power of
+smell, by which to discover food or to avoid danger. To these
+deficiencies there might have been added the still more serious loss of
+the power of quickly climbing trees, so as to escape from enemies.
+Seeing that the unclothed Fuegians can exist under their wretched
+climate, the loss of hair would not have been a great injury to primeval
+man, if he inhabited a warm country. When we compare defenceless man
+with the apes, many of which are provided with formidable canine teeth,
+we must remember that these in their fully-developed condition are
+possessed by the males alone, being chiefly used by them for fighting
+with their rivals; yet the females which are not thus provided, are able
+to survive.
+
+In regard to bodily size or strength, we do not know whether man is
+descended from some comparatively small species, like the chimpanzee, or
+from one as powerful as the gorilla; and, therefore, we cannot say
+whether man has become larger and stronger, or smaller and weaker, in
+comparison with his progenitors. We should, however, bear in mind that
+an animal possessing great size, strength, and ferocity, and which, like
+the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies, would probably,
+though not necessarily, have failed to become social; and this would
+most effectually have checked the acquirement by man of his higher
+mental qualities, such as sympathy and the love of his fellow-creatures.
+Hence it might have been an immense advantage to man to have sprung
+from some comparatively weak creature.
+
+The slight corporeal strength of man, his little speed, his want of
+natural weapons, &c., are more than counterbalanced, firstly by his
+intellectual powers, through which he has, whilst still remaining in a
+barbarous state, formed for himself weapons, tools, &c., and secondly by
+his social qualities which lead him to give aid to his fellow-men and to
+receive it in return. No country in the world abounds in a greater
+degree with dangerous beasts than Southern Africa; no country presents
+more fearful physical hardships than the Arctic regions; yet one of the
+puniest races, namely, the Bushmen, maintain themselves in Southern
+Africa, as do the dwarfed Esquimaux in the Arctic regions. The early
+progenitors of man were, no doubt, inferior in intellect, and probably
+in social disposition, to the lowest existing savages; but it is quite
+conceivable that they might have existed, or even flourished, if, whilst
+they gradually lost their brute-like powers, such as climbing trees,
+&c., they at the same time advanced in intellect. But granting that the
+progenitors of man were far more helpless and defenceless than any
+existing savages, if they had inhabited some warm continent or large
+island, such as Australia or New Guinea, or Borneo (the latter island
+being now tenanted by the orang), they would not have been exposed to
+any special danger. In an area as large as one of these islands, the
+competition between tribe and tribe would have been sufficient, under
+favourable conditions, to have raised man, through the survival of the
+fittest, combined with the inherited effects of habit, to his present
+high position in the organic scale.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES DURING
+PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection—Importance of imitation—Social and moral
+  faculties—Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe—Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations—Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous.
+
+
+The subjects to be discussed in this chapter are of the highest
+interest, but are treated by me in a most imperfect and fragmentary
+manner. Mr. Wallace, in an admirable paper before referred to,[221]
+argues that man after he had partially acquired those intellectual and
+moral faculties which distinguish him from the lower animals, would have
+been but little liable to have had his bodily structure modified through
+natural selection or any other means. For man is enabled through his
+mental faculties “to keep with an unchanged body in harmony with the
+changing universe.” He has great power of adapting his habits to new
+conditions of life. He invents weapons, tools and various stratagems, by
+which he procures food and defends himself. When he migrates into a
+colder climate he uses clothes, builds sheds, and makes fires; and, by
+the aid of fire, cooks food otherwise indigestible. He aids his
+fellow-men in many ways, and anticipates future events. Even at a remote
+period he practised some subdivision of labour.
+
+The lower animals, on the other hand, must have their bodily structure
+modified in order to survive under greatly changed conditions. They must
+be rendered stronger, or acquire more effective teeth or claws, in order
+to defend themselves from new enemies; or they must be reduced in size
+so as to escape detection and danger. When they migrate into a colder
+climate they must become clothed with thicker fur, or have their
+constitutions altered. If they fail to be thus modified, they will cease
+to exist.
+
+The case, however, is widely different, as Mr. Wallace has with justice
+insisted, in relation to the intellectual and moral faculties of man.
+These faculties are variable; and we have every reason to believe that
+the variations tend to be inherited. Therefore, if they were formerly of
+high importance to primeval man and to his ape-like progenitors, they
+would have been perfected or advanced through natural selection. Of the
+high importance of the intellectual faculties there can be no doubt, for
+man mainly owes to them his preeminent position in the world. We can
+see that, in the rudest state of society, the individuals who were the
+most sagacious, who invented and used the best weapons or traps, and who
+were best able to defend themselves, would rear the greatest number of
+offspring. The tribes which included the largest number of men thus
+endowed would increase in number and supplant other tribes. Numbers
+depend primarily on the means of subsistence, and this, partly on the
+physical nature of the country, but in a much higher degree on the arts
+which are there practised. As a tribe increases and is victorious, it is
+often still further increased by the absorption of other tribes.[222]
+The stature and strength of the men of a tribe are likewise of some
+importance for its success, and these depend in part on the nature and
+amount of the food which can be obtained. In Europe the men of the
+Bronze period were supplanted by a more powerful and, judging from their
+sword-handles, larger-handed race;[223] but their success was probably
+due in a much higher degree to their superiority in the arts.
+
+All that we know about savages, or may infer from their traditions and
+from old monuments, the history of which is quite forgotten by the
+present inhabitants, shew that from the remotest times successful tribes
+have supplanted other tribes. Relics of extinct or forgotten tribes have
+been discovered throughout the civilised regions of the earth, on the
+wild plains of America, and on the isolated islands in the Pacific
+Ocean. At the present day civilised nations are everywhere supplanting
+barbarous nations, excepting where the climate opposes a deadly barrier;
+and they succeed mainly, though not exclusively, through their arts,
+which are the products of the intellect. It is, therefore, highly
+probable that with mankind the intellectual faculties have been
+gradually perfected through natural selection; and this conclusion is
+sufficient for our purpose. Undoubtedly it would have been very
+interesting to have traced the development of each separate faculty from
+the state in which it exists in the lower animals to that in which it
+exists in man; but neither my ability nor knowledge permit the attempt.
+
+It deserves notice that as soon as the progenitors of man became social
+(and this probably occurred at a very early period), the advancement of
+the intellectual faculties will have been aided and modified in an
+important manner, of which we see only traces in the lower animals,
+namely, through the principle of imitation, together with reason and
+experience. Apes are much given to imitation, as are the lowest savages;
+and the simple fact previously referred to, that after a time no animal
+can be caught in the same place by the same sort of trap, shews that
+animals learn by experience, and imitate each others’ caution. Now, if
+some one man in a tribe, more sagacious than the others, invented a new
+snare or weapon, or other means of attack or defence, the plainest
+self-interest, without the assistance of much reasoning power, would
+prompt the other members to imitate him; and all would thus profit. The
+habitual practice of each new art must likewise in some slight degree
+strengthen the intellect. If the new invention were an important one,
+the tribe would increase in number, spread, and supplant other tribes.
+In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there would always be a rather
+better chance of the birth of other superior and inventive members. If
+such men left children to inherit their mental superiority, the chance
+of the birth of still more ingenious members would be somewhat better,
+and in a very small tribe decidedly better. Even if they left no
+children, the tribe would still include their blood-relations; and it
+has been ascertained by agriculturists[224] that by preserving and
+breeding from the family of an animal, which when slaughtered was found
+to be valuable, the desired character has been obtained.
+
+
+Turning now to the social and moral faculties. In order that primeval
+men, or the ape-like progenitors of man, should have become social, they
+must have acquired the same instinctive feelings which impel other
+animals to live in a body; and they no doubt exhibited the same general
+disposition. They would have felt uneasy when separated from their
+comrades, for whom they would have felt some degree of love; they would
+have warned each other of danger, and have given mutual aid in attack or
+defence. All this implies some degree of sympathy, fidelity, and
+courage. Such social qualities, the paramount importance of which to the
+lower animals is disputed by no one, were no doubt acquired by the
+progenitors of man in a similar manner, namely, through natural
+selection, aided by inherited habit. When two tribes of primeval man,
+living in the same country, came into competition, if the one tribe
+included (other circumstances being equal) a greater number of
+courageous, sympathetic, and faithful members, who were always ready to
+warn each other of danger, to aid and defend each other, this tribe
+would without doubt succeed best and conquer the other. Let it be borne
+in mind how all-important, in the never-ceasing wars of savages,
+fidelity and courage must be. The advantage which disciplined soldiers
+have over undisciplined hordes follows chiefly from the confidence which
+each man feels in his comrades. Obedience, as Mr. Bagehot has well
+shewn,[225] is of the highest value, for any form of government is
+better than none. Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and
+without coherence nothing can be effected. A tribe possessing the above
+qualities in a high degree would spread and be victorious over other
+tribes; but in the course of time it would, judging from all past
+history, be in its turn overcome by some other and still more highly
+endowed tribe. Thus the social and moral qualities would tend slowly to
+advance and be diffused throughout the world.
+
+But it may be asked, how within the limits of the same tribe did a large
+number of members first become endowed with these social and moral
+qualities, and how was the standard of excellence raised? It is
+extremely doubtful whether the offspring of the more sympathetic and
+benevolent parents, or of those which were the most faithful to their
+comrades, would be reared in greater number than the children of selfish
+and treacherous parents of the same tribe. He who was ready to sacrifice
+his life, as many a savage has been, rather than betray his comrades,
+would often leave no offspring to inherit his noble nature. The bravest
+men, who were always willing to come to the front in war, and who freely
+risked their lives for others, would on an average perish in larger
+number than other men. Therefore it seems scarcely possible (bearing in
+mind that we are not here speaking of one tribe being victorious over
+another) that the number of men gifted with such virtues, or that the
+standard of their excellence, could be increased through natural
+selection, that is, by the survival of the fittest.
+
+Although the circumstances which lead to an increase in the number of
+men thus endowed within the same tribe are too complex to be clearly
+followed out, we can trace some of the probable steps. In the first
+place, as the reasoning powers and foresight of the members became
+improved, each man would soon learn from experience that if he aided his
+fellow-men, he would commonly receive aid in return. From this low
+motive he might acquire the habit of aiding his fellows; and the habit
+of performing benevolent actions certainly strengthens the feeling of
+sympathy, which gives the first impulse to benevolent actions. Habits,
+moreover, followed during many generations probably tend to be
+inherited.
+
+But there is another and much more powerful stimulus to the development
+of the social virtues, namely, the praise and the blame of our
+fellow-men. The love of approbation and the dread of infamy, as well as
+the bestowal of praise or blame, are primarily due, as we have seen in
+the third chapter, to the instinct of sympathy; and this instinct no
+doubt was originally acquired, like all the other social instincts,
+through natural selection. At how early a period the progenitors of man,
+in the course of their development, became capable of feeling and being
+impelled by the praise or blame of their fellow-creatures, we cannot, of
+course, say. But it appears that even dogs appreciate encouragement,
+praise, and blame. The rudest savages feel the sentiment of glory, as
+they clearly show by preserving the trophies of their prowess, by their
+habit of excessive boasting, and even by the extreme care which they
+take of their personal appearance and decorations; for unless they
+regarded the opinion of their comrades, such habits would be senseless.
+
+They certainly feel shame at the breach of some of their lesser rules;
+but how far they experience remorse is doubtful. I was at first
+surprised that I could not recollect any recorded instances of this
+feeling in savages; and Sir J. Lubbock[226] states that he knows of
+none. But if we banish from our minds all cases given in novels and
+plays and in death-bed confessions made to priests, I doubt whether many
+of us have actually witnessed remorse; though we may have often seen
+shame and contrition for smaller offences. Remorse is a deeply hidden
+feeling. It is incredible that a savage, who will sacrifice his life
+rather than betray his tribe, or one who will deliver himself up as a
+prisoner rather than break his parole,[227] would not feel remorse in
+his inmost soul, though he might conceal it, if he had failed in a duty
+which he held sacred.
+
+We may therefore conclude that primeval man, at a very remote period,
+would have been influenced by the praise and blame of his fellows. It is
+obvious, that the members of the same tribe would approve of conduct
+which appeared to them to be for the general good, and would reprobate
+that which appeared evil. To do good unto others—to do unto others as
+ye would they should do unto you,—is the foundation-stone of morality.
+It is, therefore, hardly possible to exaggerate the importance during
+rude times of the love of praise and the dread of blame. A man who was
+not impelled by any deep, instinctive feeling, to sacrifice his life for
+the good of others, yet was roused to such actions by a sense of glory,
+would by his example excite the same wish for glory in other men, and
+would strengthen by exercise the noble feeling of admiration. He might
+thus do far more good to his tribe than by begetting offspring with a
+tendency to inherit his own high character.
+
+With increased experience and reason, man perceives the more remote
+consequences of his actions, and the self-regarding virtues, such as
+temperance, chastity, &c., which during early times are, as we have
+before seen, utterly disregarded, come to be highly esteemed or even
+held sacred. I need not, however, repeat what I have said on this head
+in the third chapter. Ultimately a highly complex sentiment, having its
+first origin in the social instincts, largely guided by the approbation
+of our fellow-men, ruled by reason, self-interest, and in later times by
+deep religious feelings, confirmed by instruction and habit, all
+combined, constitute our moral sense or conscience.
+
+It must not be forgotten that although a high standard of morality gives
+but a slight or no advantage to each individual man and his children
+over the other men of the same tribe, yet that an advancement in the
+standard of morality and an increase in the number of well-endowed men
+will certainly give an immense advantage to one tribe over another.
+There can be no doubt that a tribe including many members who, from
+possessing in a high degree the spirit of patriotism, fidelity,
+obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always ready to give aid to each
+other and to sacrifice themselves for the common good, would be
+victorious over most other tribes; and this would be natural selection.
+At all times throughout the world tribes have supplanted other tribes;
+and as morality is one element in their success, the standard of
+morality and the number of well-endowed men will thus everywhere tend to
+rise and increase.
+
+It is, however, very difficult to form any judgment why one particular
+tribe and not another has been successful and has risen in the scale of
+civilisation. Many savages are in the same condition as when first
+discovered several centuries ago. As Mr. Bagehot has remarked, we are
+apt to look at progress as the normal rule in human society; but history
+refutes this. The ancients did not even entertain the idea; nor do the
+oriental nations at the present day. According to another high
+authority, Mr. Maine,[228] “the greatest part of mankind has never
+shewn a particle of desire that its civil institutions should be
+improved.” Progress seems to depend on many concurrent favourable
+conditions, far too complex to be followed out. But it has often been
+remarked, that a cool climate from leading to industry and the various
+arts has been highly favourable, or even indispensable for this end. The
+Esquimaux, pressed by hard necessity, have succeeded in many ingenious
+inventions, but their climate has been too severe for continued
+progress. Nomadic habits, whether over wide plains, or through the dense
+forests of the tropics, or along the shores of the sea, have in every
+case been highly detrimental. Whilst observing the barbarous inhabitants
+of Tierra del Fuego, it struck me that the possession of some property,
+a fixed abode, and the union of many families under a chief, were the
+indispensable requisites for civilisation. Such habits almost
+necessitate the cultivation of the ground; and the first steps in
+cultivation would probably result, as I have elsewhere shewn,[229] from
+some such accident as the seeds of a fruit-tree falling on a heap of
+refuse and producing an unusually fine variety. The problem, however, of
+the first advance of savages towards civilisation is at present much too
+difficult to be solved.
+
+
+_Natural Selection as affecting Civilised Nations._—In the last and
+present chapters I have considered the advancement of man from a former
+semi-human condition to his present state as a barbarian. But some
+remarks on the agency of natural selection on civilised nations may be
+here worth adding. This subject has been ably discussed by Mr. W. R.
+Greg,[230] and previously by Mr. Wallace and Mr. Galton.[231] Most of
+my remarks are taken from these three authors. With savages, the weak in
+body or mind are soon eliminated; and those that survive commonly
+exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilised men, on the other hand,
+do our utmost to check the process of elimination; we build asylums for
+the imbecile, the maimed, and the sick; we institute poor-laws; and our
+medical men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to
+the last moment. There is reason to believe that vaccination has
+preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution would formerly have
+succumbed to small-pox. Thus the weak members of civilised societies
+propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of
+domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the
+race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care, or care wrongly
+directed, leads to the degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in
+the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his
+worst animals to breed.
+
+The aid which we feel impelled to give to the helpless is mainly an
+incidental result of the instinct of sympathy, which was originally
+acquired as part of the social instincts, but subsequently rendered, in
+the manner previously indicated, more tender and more widely diffused.
+Nor could we check our sympathy, if so urged by hard reason, without
+deterioration in the noblest part of our nature. The surgeon may harden
+himself whilst performing an operation, for he knows that he is acting
+for the good of his patient; but if we were intentionally to neglect the
+weak and helpless, it could only be for a contingent benefit, with a
+certain and great present evil. Hence we must bear without complaining
+the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their
+kind; but there appears to be at least one check in steady action,
+namely the weaker and inferior members of society not marrying so freely
+as the sound; and this check might be indefinitely increased, though
+this is more to be hoped for than expected, by the weak in body or mind
+refraining from marriage.
+
+In all civilised countries man accumulates property and bequeaths it to
+his children. So that the children in the same country do not by any
+means start fair in the race for success. But this is far from an
+unmixed evil; for without the accumulation of capital the arts could not
+progress; and it is chiefly through their power that the civilised races
+have extended, and are now everywhere extending, their range, so as to
+take the place of the lower races. Nor does the moderate accumulation of
+wealth interfere with the process of selection. When a poor man becomes
+rich, his children enter trades or professions in which there is
+struggle enough, so that the able in body and mind succeed best. The
+presence of a body of well-instructed men, who have not to labour for
+their daily bread, is important to a degree which cannot be
+over-estimated; as all high intellectual work is carried on by them, and
+on such work material progress of all kinds mainly depends, not to
+mention other and higher advantages. No doubt wealth when very great
+tends to convert men into useless drones, but their number is never
+large; and some degree of elimination here occurs, as we daily see rich
+men, who happen to be fools or profligate, squandering away all their
+wealth.
+
+Primogeniture with entailed estates is a more direct evil, though it may
+formerly have been a great advantage by the creation of a dominant
+class, and any government is better than anarchy. The eldest sons,
+though they may be weak in body or mind, generally marry, whilst the
+younger sons, however superior in these respects, do not so generally
+marry. Nor can worthless eldest sons with entailed estates squander
+their wealth. But here, as elsewhere, the relations of civilised life
+are so complex that some compensatory checks intervene. The men who are
+rich through primogeniture are able to select generation after
+generation the more beautiful and charming women; and these must
+generally be healthy in body and active in mind. The evil consequences,
+such as they may be, of the continued preservation of the same line of
+descent, without any selection, are checked by men of rank always
+wishing to increase their wealth and power; and this they effect by
+marrying heiresses. But the daughters of parents who have produced
+single children, are themselves, as Mr. Galton has shewn,[232] apt to be
+sterile; and thus noble families are continually cut off in the direct
+line, and their wealth flows into some side channel; but unfortunately
+this channel is not determined by superiority of any kind.
+
+Although civilisation thus checks in many ways the action of natural
+selection, it apparently favours, by means of improved food and the
+freedom from occasional hardships, the better development of the body.
+This may be inferred from civilised men having been found, wherever
+compared, to be physically stronger than savages. They appear also to
+have equal powers of endurance, as has been proved in many adventurous
+expeditions. Even the great luxury of the rich can be but little
+detrimental; for the expectation of life of our aristocracy, at all ages
+and of both sexes, is very little inferior to that of healthy English
+lives in the lower classes.[233]
+
+We will now look to the intellectual faculties alone. If in each grade
+of society the members were divided into two equal bodies, the one
+including the intellectually superior and the other the inferior, there
+can be little doubt that the former would succeed best in all
+occupations and rear a greater number of children. Even in the lowest
+walks of life, skill and ability must be of some advantage, though in
+many occupations, owing to the great division of labour, a very small
+one. Hence in civilised nations there will be some tendency to an
+increase both in the number and in the standard of the intellectually
+able. But I do not wish to assert that this tendency may not be more
+than counterbalanced in other ways, as by the multiplication of the
+reckless and improvident; but even to such as these, ability must be
+some advantage.
+
+It has often been objected to views like the foregoing, that the most
+eminent men who have ever lived have left no offspring to inherit their
+great intellect. Mr. Galton says,[234] “I regret I am unable to solve
+the simple question whether, and how far, men and women who are
+prodigies of genius are infertile. I have, however, shewn that men of
+eminence are by no means so.”
+
+Great lawgivers, the founders of beneficent religions, great
+philosophers and discoverers in science, aid the progress of mankind in
+a far higher degree by their works than by leaving a numerous progeny.
+In the case of corporeal structures, it is the selection of the slightly
+better-endowed and the elimination of the slightly less well-endowed
+individuals, and not the preservation of strongly-marked and rare
+anomalies, that leads to the advancement of a species.[235] So it will
+be with the intellectual faculties, namely from the somewhat more able
+men in each grade of society succeeding rather better than the less
+able, and consequently increasing in number, if not otherwise prevented.
+When in any nation the standard of intellect and the number of
+intellectual men have increased, we may expect from the law of the
+deviation from an average, as shewn by Mr. Galton, that prodigies of
+genius will appear somewhat more frequently than before.
+
+In regard to the moral qualities, some elimination of the worst
+dispositions is always in progress even in the most civilised nations.
+Malefactors are executed, or imprisoned for long periods, so that they
+cannot freely transmit their bad qualities. Melancholic and insane
+persons are confined, or commit suicide. Violent and quarrelsome men
+often come to a bloody end. Restless men who will not follow any steady
+occupation—and this relic of barbarism is a great check to
+civilisation[236]—emigrate to newly-settled countries, where they prove
+useful pioneers. Intemperance is so highly destructive, that the
+expectation of life of the intemperate, at the age, for instance, of
+thirty, is only 13.8 years; whilst for the rural labourers of England at
+the same age it is 40·59 years.[237] Profligate women bear few children,
+and profligate men rarely marry; both suffer from disease. In the
+breeding of domestic animals, the elimination of those individuals,
+though few in number, which are in any marked manner inferior, is by no
+means an unimportant element towards success. This especially holds good
+with injurious characters which tend to reappear through reversion, such
+as blackness in sheep; and with mankind some of the worst dispositions,
+which occasionally without any assignable cause make their appearance in
+families, may perhaps be reversions to a savage state, from which we are
+not removed by very many generations. This view seems indeed recognised
+in the common expression that such men are the black sheep of the
+family.
+
+With civilised nations, as far as an advanced standard of morality, and
+an increased number of fairly well-endowed men are concerned, natural
+selection apparently effects but little; though the fundamental social
+instincts were originally thus gained. But I have already said enough,
+whilst treating of the lower races, on the causes which lead to the
+advance of morality, namely, the approbation of our fellow-men—the
+strengthening of our sympathies by habit—example and imitation—
+reason—experience and even self-interest—instruction during
+youth, and religious feelings.
+
+A most important obstacle in civilised countries to an increase in the
+number of men of a superior class has been strongly urged by Mr. Greg
+and Mr. Galton,[238] namely, the fact that the very poor and reckless,
+who are often degraded by vice, almost invariably marry early, whilst
+the careful and frugal, who are generally otherwise virtuous, marry late
+in life, so that they may be able to support themselves and their
+children in comfort. Those who marry early produce within a given period
+not only a greater number of generations, but, as shewn by Dr.
+Duncan,[239] they produce many more children. The children, moreover,
+that are born by mothers during the prime of life are heavier and
+larger, and therefore probably more vigorous, than those born at other
+periods. Thus the reckless, degraded, and often vicious members of
+society, tend to increase at a quicker rate than the provident and
+generally virtuous members. Or as Mr. Greg puts the case: “The careless,
+squalid, unaspiring Irishman multiplies like rabbits: the frugal,
+foreseeing, self-respecting, ambitious Scot, stern in his morality,
+spiritual in his faith, sagacious and disciplined in his intelligence,
+passes his best years in struggle and in celibacy, marries late, and
+leaves few behind him. Given a land originally peopled by a thousand
+Saxons and a thousand Celts—and in a dozen generations five-sixths of
+the population would be Celts, but five-sixths of the property, of the
+power, of the intellect, would belong to the one-sixth of Saxons that
+remained. In the eternal ‘struggle for existence,’ it would be the
+inferior and _less_ favoured race that had prevailed—and prevailed by
+virtue not of its good qualities but of its faults.”
+
+There are, however, some checks to this downward tendency. We have seen
+that the intemperate suffer from a high rate of mortality, and the
+extremely profligate leave few offspring. The poorest classes crowd into
+towns, and it has been proved by Dr. Stark from the statistics of ten
+years in Scotland,[240] that at all ages the death-rate is higher in
+towns than in rural districts, “and during the first five years of life
+the town death-rate is almost exactly double that of the rural
+districts.” As these returns include both the rich and the poor, no
+doubt more than double the number of births would be requisite to keep
+up the number of the very poor inhabitants in the towns, relatively to
+those in the country. With women, marriage at too early an age is highly
+injurious; for it has been found in France that, “twice as many wives
+under twenty die in the year, as died out of the same number of the
+unmarried.” The mortality, also, of husbands under twenty is
+“excessively high,”[241] but what the cause of this may be seems
+doubtful. Lastly, if the men who prudently delay marrying until they can
+bring up their families in comfort, were to select, as they often do,
+women in the prime of life, the rate of increase in the better class
+would be only slightly lessened.
+
+It was established from an enormous body of statistics, taken during
+1853, that the unmarried men throughout France, between the ages of
+twenty and eighty, die in a much larger proportion than the married: for
+instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the ages of twenty
+and thirty, 11·3 annually died, whilst of the married only 6·5
+died.[242] A similar law was proved to hold good, during the years 1863
+and 1864, with the entire population above the age of twenty in
+Scotland: for instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the
+ages of twenty and thirty, 14·97 annually died, whilst of the married
+only 7·24 died, that is less than half.[243] Dr. Stark remarks on this,
+“Bachelorhood is more destructive to life than the most unwholesome
+trades, or than residence in an unwholesome house or district where
+there has never been the most distant attempt at sanitary improvement.”
+He considers that the lessened mortality is the direct result of
+“marriage, and the more regular domestic habits which attend that
+state.” He admits, however, that the intemperate, profligate, and
+criminal classes, whose duration of life is low, do not commonly marry;
+and it must likewise be admitted that men with a weak constitution,
+ill health, or any great infirmity in body or mind, will often not wish
+to marry, or will be rejected. Dr. Stark seems to have come to the
+conclusion that marriage in itself is a main cause of prolonged life,
+from finding that aged married men still have a considerable advantage
+in this respect over the unmarried of the same advanced age; but every
+one must have known instances of men, who with weak health during youth
+did not marry, and yet have survived to old age, though remaining weak
+and therefore always with a lessened chance of life. There is another
+remarkable circumstance which seems to support Dr. Stark’s conclusion,
+namely, that widows and widowers in France suffer in comparison with the
+married a very heavy rate of mortality; but Dr. Farr attributes this to
+the poverty and evil habits consequent on the disruption of the family,
+and to grief. On the whole we may conclude with Dr. Farr that the lesser
+mortality of married than of unmarried men, which seems to be a general
+law, “is mainly due to the constant elimination of imperfect types, and
+to the skilful selection of the finest individuals out of each
+successive generation;” the selection relating only to the marriage
+state, and acting on all corporeal, intellectual, and moral qualities.
+We may, therefore, infer that sound and good men who out of prudence
+remain for a time unmarried do not suffer a high rate of mortality.
+
+If the various checks specified in the two last paragraphs, and perhaps
+others as yet unknown, do not prevent the reckless, the vicious and
+otherwise inferior members of society from increasing at a quicker rate
+than the better class of men, the nation will retrograde, as has
+occurred too often in the history of the world. We must remember that
+progress is no invariable rule. It is most difficult to say why one
+civilised nation rises, becomes more powerful, and spreads more widely,
+than another; or why the same nation progresses more at one time than at
+another. We can only say that it depends on an increase in the actual
+number of the population, on the number of the men endowed with high
+intellectual and moral faculties, as well as on their standard of
+excellence. Corporeal structure, except so far as vigour of body leads
+to vigour of mind, appears to have little influence.
+
+It has been urged by several writers that as high intellectual powers
+are advantageous to a nation, the old Greeks, who stood some grades
+higher in intellect than any race that has ever existed,[244] ought to
+have risen, if the power of natural selection were real, still higher
+in the scale, increased in number, and stocked the whole of Europe. Here
+we have the tacit assumption, so often made with respect to corporeal
+structures, that there is some innate tendency towards continued
+development in mind and body. But development of all kinds depends on
+many concurrent favourable circumstances. Natural selection acts only in
+a tentative manner. Individuals and races may have acquired certain
+indisputable advantages, and yet have perished from failing in other
+characters. The Greeks may have retrograded from a want of coherence
+between the many small states, from the small size of their whole
+country, from the practice of slavery, or from extreme sensuality; for
+they did not succumb until “they were enervated and corrupt to the very
+core.”[245] The western nations of Europe, who now so immeasurably
+surpass their former savage progenitors and stand at the summit of
+civilisation, owe little or none of their superiority to direct
+inheritance from the old Greeks; though they owe much to the written
+works of this wonderful people.
+
+Who can positively say why the Spanish nation, so dominant at one time,
+has been distanced in the race. The awakening of the nations of Europe
+from the dark ages is a still more perplexing problem. At this early
+period, as Mr. Galton[246] has remarked, almost all the men of a gentle
+nature, those given to meditation or culture of the mind, had no refuge
+except in the bosom of the Church which demanded celibacy; and this
+could hardly fail to have had a deteriorating influence on each
+successive generation. During this same period the Holy Inquisition
+selected with extreme care the freest and boldest men in order to burn
+or imprison them. In Spain alone some of the best men—those who doubted
+and questioned, and without doubting there can be no progress—were
+eliminated during three centuries at the rate of a thousand a year. The
+evil which the Catholic Church has thus effected, though no doubt
+counterbalanced to a certain, perhaps large extent in other ways, is
+incalculable; nevertheless, Europe has progressed at an unparalleled
+rate.
+
+The remarkable success of the English as colonists over other European
+nations, which is well illustrated by comparing the progress of the
+Canadians of English and French extraction, has been ascribed to their
+“daring and persistent energy;” but who can say how the English gained
+their energy. There is apparently much truth in the belief that the
+wonderful progress of the United States, as well as the character of the
+people, are the results of natural selection; the more energetic,
+restless, and courageous men from all parts of Europe having emigrated
+during the last ten or twelve generations to that great country, and
+having there succeeded best.[247] Looking to the distant future, I do
+not think that the Rev. Mr. Zincke takes an exaggerated view when he
+says:[248] “All other series of events—as that which resulted in the
+culture of mind in Greece, and that which resulted in the empire of
+Rome—only appear to have purpose and value when viewed in connection
+with, or rather as subsidiary to ... the great stream of Anglo-Saxon
+emigration to the west.”
+
+Obscure as is the problem of the advance of civilisation, we can at
+least see that a nation which produced during a lengthened period the
+greatest number of highly intellectual, energetic, brave, patriotic, and
+benevolent men, would generally prevail over less favoured nations.
+
+Natural selection follows from the struggle for existence; and this from
+a rapid rate of increase. It is impossible not bitterly to regret, but
+whether wisely is another question, the rate at which man tends to
+increase; for this leads in barbarous tribes to infanticide and many
+other evils, and in civilised nations to abject poverty, celibacy, and
+to the late marriages of the prudent. But as man suffers from the same
+physical evils with the lower animals, he has no right to expect an
+immunity from the evils consequent on the struggle for existence. Had he
+not been subjected to natural selection, assuredly he would never have
+attained to the rank of manhood. When we see in many parts of the world
+enormous areas of the most fertile land peopled by a few wandering
+savages, but which are capable of supporting numerous happy homes, it
+might be argued that the struggle for existence had not been
+sufficiently severe to force man upwards to his highest standard.
+Judging from all that we know of man and the lower animals, there has
+always been sufficient variability in the intellectual and moral
+faculties, for their steady advancement through natural selection. No
+doubt such advancement demands many favourable concurrent circumstances;
+but it may well be doubted whether the most favourable would have
+sufficed, had not the rate of increase been rapid, and the consequent
+struggle for existence severe to an extreme degree.
+
+
+_On the evidence that all civilised nations were once barbarous._—As we
+have had to consider the steps by which some semi-human creature has
+been gradually raised to the rank of man in his most perfect state, the
+present subject cannot be quite passed over. But it has been treated in
+so full and admirable a manner by Sir J. Lubbock,[249] Mr. Tylor, Mr.
+M’Lennan, and others, that I need here give only the briefest summary of
+their results. The arguments recently advanced by the Duke of
+Argyll[250] and formerly by Archbishop Whately, in favour of the belief
+that man came into the world as a civilised being and that all savages
+have since undergone degradation, seem to me weak in comparison with
+those advanced on the other side. Many nations, no doubt, have fallen
+away in civilisation, and some may have lapsed into utter barbarism,
+though on this latter head I have not met with any evidence. The
+Fuegians were probably compelled by other conquering hordes to settle in
+their inhospitable country, and they may have become in consequence
+somewhat more degraded; but it would be difficult to prove that they
+have fallen much below the Botocudos who inhabit the finest parts of
+Brazil.
+
+The evidence that all civilised nations are the descendants of
+barbarians, consists, on the one side, of clear traces of their former
+low condition in still-existing customs, beliefs, language, &c.; and on
+the other side, of proofs that savages are independently able to raise
+themselves a few steps in the scale of civilisation, and have actually
+thus risen. The evidence on the first head is extremely curious, but
+cannot be here given: I refer to such cases as that, for instance, of
+the art of enumeration, which, as Mr. Tylor clearly shews by the words
+still used in some places, originated in counting the fingers, first of
+one hand and then of the other, and lastly of the toes. We have traces
+of this in our own decimal system, and in the Roman numerals, which
+after reaching to the number V., change into VI., &c., when the other
+hand no doubt was used. So again, “when we speak of three-score and ten,
+we are counting by the vigesimal system, each score thus ideally made,
+standing for 20—for ‘one man’ as a Mexican or Carib would put it.”[251]
+According to a large and increasing school of philologists, every
+language bears the marks of its slow and gradual evolution. So it is
+with the art of writing, as letters are rudiments of pictorial
+representations. It is hardly possible to read Mr. M’Lennan’s work[252]
+and not admit that almost all civilised nations still retain some traces
+of such rude habits as the forcible capture of wives. What ancient
+nation, as the same author asks, can be named that was originally
+monogamous? The primitive idea of justice, as shewn by the law of battle
+and other customs of which traces still remain, was likewise most rude.
+Many existing superstitions are the remnants of former false religious
+beliefs. The highest form of religion—the grand idea of God hating sin
+and loving righteousness—was unknown during primeval times.
+
+Turning to the other kind of evidence: Sir J. Lubbock has shewn that
+some savages have recently improved a little in some of their simpler
+arts. From the extremely curious account which he gives of the weapons,
+tools, and arts, used or practised by savages in various parts of the
+world, it cannot be doubted that these have nearly all been independent
+discoveries, excepting perhaps the art of making fire.[253] The
+Australian boomerang is a good instance of one such independent
+discovery. The Tahitians when first visited had advanced in many
+respects beyond the inhabitants of most of the other Polynesian islands.
+There are no just grounds for the belief that the high culture of the
+native Peruvians and Mexicans was derived from any foreign source;[254]
+many native plants were there cultivated, and a few native animals
+domesticated. We should bear in mind that a wandering crew from some
+semi-civilised land, if washed to the shores of America, would not,
+judging from the small influence of most missionaries, have produced any
+marked effect on the natives, unless they had already become somewhat
+advanced. Looking to a very remote period in the history of the world,
+we find, to use Sir J. Lubbock’s well-known terms, a paleolithic and
+neolithic period; and no one will pretend that the art of grinding rough
+flint tools was a borrowed one. In all parts of Europe, as far east as
+Greece, in Palestine, India, Japan, New Zealand, and Africa, including
+Egypt, flint tools have been discovered in abundance; and of their use
+the existing inhabitants retain no tradition. There is also indirect
+evidence of their former use by the Chinese and ancient Jews. Hence
+there can hardly be a doubt that the inhabitants of these many
+countries, which include nearly the whole civilised world, were once in
+a barbarous condition. To believe that man was aboriginally civilised
+and then suffered utter degradation in so many regions, is to take a
+pitiably low view of human nature. It is apparently a truer and more
+cheerful view that progress has been much more general than
+retrogression; that man has risen, though by slow and interrupted steps,
+from a lowly condition to the highest standard as yet attained by him in
+knowledge, morals, and religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+
+  Position of man in the animal series—The natural system
+  genealogical—Adaptive characters of slight value—Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana—Rank of man in the natural system—Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man—Absence of fossil connecting-links—Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure—Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata—Conclusion.
+
+
+Even if it be granted that the difference between man and his nearest
+allies is as great in corporeal structure as some naturalists maintain,
+and although we must grant that the difference between them is immense
+in mental power, yet the facts given in the previous chapters declare,
+as it appears to me, in the plainest manner, that man is descended from
+some lower form, notwithstanding that connecting-links have not hitherto
+been discovered.
+
+Man is liable to numerous, slight, and diversified variations, which are
+induced by the same general causes, are governed and transmitted in
+accordance with the same general laws, as in the lower animals. Man
+tends to multiply at so rapid a rate that his offspring are necessarily
+exposed to a struggle for existence, and consequently to natural
+selection. He has given rise to many races, some of which are so
+different that they have often been ranked by naturalists as distinct
+species. His body is constructed on the same homological plan as that of
+other mammals, independently of the uses to which the several parts may
+be put. He passes through the same phases of embryological development.
+He retains many rudimentary and useless structures, which no doubt were
+once serviceable. Characters occasionally make their reappearance in
+him, which we have every reason to believe were possessed by his early
+progenitors. If the origin of man had been wholly different from that of
+all other animals, these various appearances would be mere empty
+deceptions; but such an admission is incredible. These appearances, on
+the other hand, are intelligible, at least to a large extent, if man is
+the co-descendant with other mammals of some unknown and lower form.
+
+Some naturalists, from being deeply impressed with the mental and
+spiritual powers of man, have divided the whole organic world into three
+kingdoms, the Human, the Animal, and the Vegetable, thus giving to man a
+separate kingdom.[255] Spiritual powers cannot be compared or classed by
+the naturalist; but he may endeavour to shew, as I have done, that the
+mental faculties of man and the lower animals do not differ in kind,
+although immensely in degree. A difference in degree, however great,
+does not justify us in placing man in a distinct kingdom, as will
+perhaps be best illustrated by comparing the mental powers of two
+insects, namely, a coccus or scale-insect and an ant, which undoubtedly
+belong to the same class. The difference is here greater, though of a
+somewhat different kind, than that between man and the highest mammal.
+The female coccus, whilst young, attaches itself by its proboscis to a
+plant; sucks the sap but never moves again; is fertilised and lays eggs;
+and this is its whole history. On the other hand, to describe the habits
+and mental powers of a female ant, would require, as Pierre Huber has
+shewn, a large volume; I may, however, briefly specify a few points.
+Ants communicate information to each other, and several unite for the
+same work, or games of play. They recognise their fellow-ants after
+months of absence. They build great edifices, keep them clean, close the
+doors in the evening, and post sentries. They make roads, and even
+tunnels under rivers. They collect food for the community, and when an
+object, too large for entrance, is brought to the nest, they enlarge the
+door, and afterwards build it up again.[256] They go out to battle in
+regular bands, and freely sacrifice their lives for the common weal.
+They emigrate in accordance with a preconcerted plan. They capture
+slaves. They keep Aphides as milch-cows. They move the eggs of their
+aphides, as well as their own eggs and cocoons, into warm parts of the
+nest, in order that they may be quickly hatched; and endless similar
+facts could be given. On the whole, the difference in mental power
+between an ant and a coccus is immense; yet no one has ever dreamed of
+placing them in distinct classes, much less in distinct kingdoms. No
+doubt this interval is bridged over by the intermediate mental powers of
+many other insects; and this is not the case with man and the higher
+apes. But we have every reason to believe that breaks in the series are
+simply the result of many forms having become extinct.
+
+Professor Owen, relying chiefly on the structure of the brain, has
+divided the mammalian series into four sub-classes. One of these he
+devotes to man; in another he places both the marsupials and the
+monotremata; so that he makes man as distinct from all other mammals as
+are these two latter groups conjoined. This view has not been accepted,
+as far as I am aware, by any naturalist capable of forming an
+independent judgment, and therefore need not here be further considered.
+
+We can understand why a classification founded on any single character
+or organ—even an organ so wonderfully complex and important as the
+brain—or on the high development of the mental faculties, is almost
+sure to prove unsatisfactory. This principle has indeed been tried with
+hymenopterous insects; but when thus classed by their habits or
+instincts, the arrangement proved thoroughly artificial.[257]
+Classifications may, of course, be based on any character whatever, as
+on size, colour, or the element inhabited; but naturalists have long
+felt a profound conviction that there is a natural system. This system,
+it is now generally admitted, must be, as far as possible, genealogical
+in arrangement,—that is, the co-descendants of the same form must be
+kept together in one group, separate from the co-descendants of any
+other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will be their
+descendants, and the two groups together will form a larger group. The
+amount of difference between the several groups—that is the amount of
+modification which each has undergone—will be expressed by such terms
+as genera, families, orders, and classes. As we have no record of the
+lines of descent, these lines can be discovered only by observing the
+degrees of resemblance between the beings which are to be classed. For
+this object numerous points of resemblance are of much more importance
+than the amount of similarity or dissimilarity in a few points. If two
+languages were found to resemble each other in a multitude of words and
+points of construction, they would be universally recognised as having
+sprung from a common source, notwithstanding that they differed greatly
+in some few words or points of construction. But with organic beings the
+points of resemblance must not consist of adaptations to similar habits
+of life: two animals may, for instance, have had their whole frames
+modified for living in the water, and yet they will not be brought any
+nearer to each other in the natural system. Hence we can see how it is
+that resemblances in unimportant structures, in useless and rudimentary
+organs, and in parts not as yet fully developed or functionally active,
+are by far the most serviceable for classification; for they can hardly
+be due to adaptations within a late period; and thus they reveal the old
+lines of descent or of true affinity.
+
+We can further see why a great amount of modification in some one
+character ought not to lead us to separate widely any two organisms. A
+part which already differs much from the same part in other allied forms
+has already, according to the theory of evolution, varied much;
+consequently it would (as long as the organism remained exposed to the
+same exciting conditions) be liable to further variations of the same
+kind; and these, if beneficial, would be preserved, and thus continually
+augmented. In many cases the continued development of a part, for
+instance, of the beak of a bird, or of the teeth of a mammal, would not
+be advantageous to the species for gaining its food, or for any other
+object; but with man we can see no definite limit, as far as advantage
+is concerned, to the continued development of the brain and mental
+faculties. Therefore in determining the position of man in the natural
+or genealogical system, the extreme development of his brain ought not
+to outweigh a multitude of resemblances in other less important or
+quite unimportant points.
+
+The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the
+whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed
+Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under
+the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the Orders of
+the Quadrumana, Carnivora, &c. Recently many of our best naturalists
+have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnæus, so remarkable for
+his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana,
+under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be
+admitted if, in the first place, we bear in mind the remarks just made
+on the comparatively small importance for classification of the great
+development of the brain in man; bearing, also, in mind that the
+strongly-marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana
+(lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others) apparently follow
+from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must
+remember that nearly all the other and more important differences
+between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature,
+and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure
+of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the
+position of his head. The family of seals offers a good illustration of
+the small importance of adaptive characters for classification. These
+animals differ from all other Carnivora in the form of their bodies and
+in the structure of their limbs, far more than does man from the higher
+apes; yet in every system, from that of Cuvier to the most recent one by
+Mr. Flower,[258] seals are ranked as a mere family in the Order of the
+Carnivora. If man had not been his own classifier, he would never have
+thought of founding a separate order for his own reception.
+
+It would be beyond my limits, and quite beyond my knowledge, even to
+name the innumerable points of structure in which man agrees with the
+other Primates. Our great anatomist and philosopher, Prof. Huxley, has
+fully discussed this subject,[259] and has come to the conclusion that
+man in all parts of his organisation differs less from the higher apes,
+than these do from the lower members of the same group. Consequently
+there “is no justification for placing man in a distinct order.”
+
+In an early part of this volume I brought forward various facts, shewing
+how closely man agrees in constitution with the higher mammals; and this
+agreement, no doubt, depends on our close similarity in minute structure
+and chemical composition. I gave, as instances, our liability to the
+same diseases, and to the attacks of allied parasites; our tastes in
+common for the same stimulants, and the similar effects thus produced,
+as well as by various drugs; and other such facts.
+
+As small unimportant points of resemblance between man and the higher
+apes are not commonly noticed in systematic works, and as, when
+numerous, they clearly reveal our relationship, I will specify a few
+such points. The relative position of the features are manifestly the
+same in man and the Quadrumana; and the various emotions are displayed
+by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the
+eyebrows and round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed, almost
+the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of monkeys, and in the
+laughing noise made by others, during which the corners of the mouth are
+drawn backwards, and the lower eyelids wrinkled. The external ears are
+curiously alike. In man the nose is much more prominent than in most
+monkeys; but we may trace the commencement of an aquiline curvature in
+the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon; and this in the _Semnopithecus nasica_
+is carried to a ridiculous extreme.
+
+The faces of many monkeys are ornamented with beards, whiskers, or
+moustaches. The hair on the head grows to a great length in some species
+of Semnopithecus;[260] and in the Bonnet monkey (_Macacus radiatus_) it
+radiates from a point on the crown, with a parting down the middle, as
+in man. It is commonly said that the forehead gives to man his noble and
+intellectual appearance; but the thick hair on the head of the Bonnet
+monkey terminates abruptly downwards, and is succeeded by such short and
+fine hair, or down, that at a little distance the forehead, with the
+exception of the eyebrows, appears quite naked. It has been erroneously
+asserted that eyebrows are not present in any monkey. In the species
+just named the degree of nakedness of the forehead differs in different
+individuals; and Eschricht states[261] that in our children the limit
+between the hairy scalp and the naked forehead is sometimes not well
+defined; so that here we seem to have a trifling case of reversion to a
+progenitor, in whom the forehead had not as yet become quite naked.
+
+It is well known that the hair on our arms tends to converge from above
+and below to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, so unlike
+that in most of the lower mammals, is common to the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some few American monkeys.
+But in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the fore-arm is directed
+downwards or towards the wrist in the ordinary manner; and in _H. lar_
+it is nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclination; so that
+in this latter species it is in a transitional state. It can hardly be
+doubted that with most mammals the thickness of the hair and its
+direction on the back is adapted to throw off the rain; even the
+transverse hairs on the fore-legs of a dog may serve for this end when
+he is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the
+hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang (whose habits he has so
+carefully studied) serves to throw off the rain, when, as is the custom
+of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped round a branch
+or over its own head. We should, however, bear in mind that the attitude
+of an animal may perhaps be in part determined by the direction of the
+hair; and not the direction of the hair by the attitude. If the above
+explanation is correct in the case of the orang, the hair on our
+fore-arms offers a curious record of our former state; for no one
+supposes that it is now of any use in throwing off the rain, nor in our
+present erect condition is it properly directed for this purpose.
+
+It would, however, be rash to trust too much to the principle of
+adaptation in regard to the direction of the hair in man or his early
+progenitors; for it is impossible to study the figures given by
+Eschricht of the arrangement of the hair on the human fœtus (this
+being the same as in the adult) and not agree with this excellent
+observer that other and more complex causes have intervened. The points
+of convergence seem to stand in some relation to those points in the
+embryo which are last closed in during development. There appears, also,
+to exist some relation between the arrangement of the hair on the
+limbs, and the course of the medullary arteries.[262]
+
+It must not be supposed that the resemblances between man and certain
+apes in the above and many other points—such as in having a naked
+forehead, long tresses on the head, &c.—are all necessarily the result
+of unbroken inheritance from a common progenitor thus characterised, or
+of subsequent reversion. Many of these resemblances are more probably
+due to analogous variation, which follows, as I have elsewhere attempted
+to shew,[263] from co-descended organisms having a similar constitution
+and having been acted on by similar causes inducing variability. With
+respect to the similar direction of the hair on the fore-arms of man and
+certain monkeys, as this character is common to almost all the
+anthropomorphous apes, it may probably be attributed to inheritance; but
+not certainly so, as some very distinct American monkeys are thus
+characterised. The same remark is applicable to the tailless condition
+of man; for the tail is absent in all the anthropomorphous apes.
+Nevertheless this character cannot with certainty be attributed to
+inheritance, as the tail, though not absent, is rudimentary in several
+other Old World and in some New World species, and is quite absent in
+several species belonging to the allied group of Lemurs.
+
+Although, as we have now seen, man has no just right to form a separate
+Order for his own reception, he may perhaps claim a distinct Sub-order
+or Family. Prof. Huxley, in his last work,[264] divides the Primates
+into three Sub-orders; namely, the Anthropidæ with man alone, the
+Simiadæ including monkeys of all kinds, and the Lemuridæ with the
+diversified genera of lemurs. As far as differences in certain important
+points of structure are concerned, man may no doubt rightly claim the
+rank of a Sub-order; and this rank is too low, if we look chiefly to his
+mental faculties. Nevertheless, under a genealogical point of view it
+appears that this rank is too high, and that man ought to form merely a
+Family, or possibly even only a Sub-family. If we imagine three lines of
+descent proceeding from a common source, it is quite conceivable that
+two of them might after the lapse of ages be so slightly changed as
+still to remain as species of the same genus; whilst the third line
+might become so greatly modified as to deserve to rank as a distinct
+Sub-family, Family, or even Order. But in this case it is almost certain
+that the third line would still retain through inheritance numerous
+small points of resemblance with the other two lines. Here then would
+occur the difficulty, at present insoluble, how much weight we ought to
+assign in our classifications to strongly-marked differences in some few
+points,—that is to the amount of modification undergone; and how much
+to close resemblance in numerous unimportant points, as indicating the
+lines of descent or genealogy. The former alternative is the most
+obvious, and perhaps the safest, though the latter appears the most
+correct as giving a truly natural classification.
+
+To form a judgment on this head, with reference to man we must glance at
+the classification of the Simiadæ. This family is divided by almost all
+naturalists into the Catarhine group, or Old World monkeys, all of which
+are characterised (as their name expresses) by the peculiar structure of
+their nostrils and by having four premolars in each jaw; and into the
+Platyrhine group or New World monkeys (including two very distinct
+sub-groups), all of which are characterised by differently-constructed
+nostrils and by having six premolars in each jaw. Some other small
+differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably belongs in his
+dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and some other respects, to
+the Catarhine or Old World division; nor does he resemble the
+Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any characters,
+excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently of an adaptive
+nature. Therefore it would be against all probability to suppose that
+some ancient New World species had varied, and had thus produced a
+man-like creature with all the distinctive characters proper to the Old
+World division; losing at the same time all its own distinctive
+characters. There can consequently hardly be a doubt that man is an
+offshoot from the Old World Simian stem; and that under a genealogical
+point of view, he must be classed with the Catarhine division.[265]
+
+The anthropomorphous apes, namely the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and
+hylobates, are separated as a distinct sub-group from the other Old
+World monkeys by most naturalists. I am aware that Gratiolet, relying on
+the structure of the brain, does not admit the existence of this
+sub-group, and no doubt it is a broken one; thus the orang, as Mr. St.
+G. Mivart remarks,[266] “is one of the most peculiar and aberrant forms
+to be found in the Order.” The remaining, non-anthropomorphous, Old
+World monkeys, are again divided by some naturalists into two or three
+smaller sub-groups; the genus Semnopithecus, with its peculiar
+sacculated stomach, being the type of one such sub-group. But it appears
+from M. Gaudry’s wonderful discoveries in Attica, that during the
+Miocene period a form existed there, which connected Semnopithecus and
+Macacus; and this probably illustrates the manner in which the other and
+higher groups were once blended together.
+
+If the anthropomorphous apes be admitted to form a natural sub-group,
+then as man agrees with them, not only in all those characters which he
+possesses in common with the whole Catarhine group, but in other
+peculiar characters, such as the absence of a tail and of callosities
+and in general appearance, we may infer that some ancient member of the
+anthropomorphous sub-group gave birth to man. It is not probable that a
+member of one of the other lower sub-groups should, through the law of
+analogous variation, have given rise to a man-like creature, resembling
+the higher anthropomorphous apes in so many respects. No doubt man, in
+comparison with most of his allies, has undergone an extraordinary
+amount of modification, chiefly in consequence of his greatly developed
+brain and erect position; nevertheless we should bear in mind that he
+“is but one of several exceptional forms of Primates.”[267]
+
+Every naturalist, who believes in the principle of evolution, will
+grant that the two main divisions of the Simiadæ, namely the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine monkeys, with their sub-groups, have all proceeded from
+some one extremely ancient progenitor. The early descendants of this
+progenitor, before they had diverged to any considerable extent from
+each other, would still have formed a single natural group; but some of
+the species or incipient genera would have already begun to indicate by
+their diverging characters the future distinctive marks of the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine divisions. Hence the members of this supposed ancient
+group would not have been so uniform in their dentition or in the
+structure of their nostrils, as are the existing Catarhine monkeys in
+one way and the Platyrhines in another way, but would have resembled in
+this respect the allied Lemuridæ which differ greatly from each other in
+the form of their muzzles,[268] and to an extraordinary degree in their
+dentition.
+
+The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of characters,
+as is shewn by their unquestionably belonging to one and the same Order.
+The many characters which they possess in common can hardly have been
+independently acquired by so many distinct species; so that these
+characters must have been inherited. But an ancient form which possessed
+many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys, and
+others in an intermediate condition, and some few perhaps distinct from
+those now present in either group, would undoubtedly have been ranked,
+if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or monkey. And as man under a
+genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or Old World stock,
+we must conclude, however much the conclusion may revolt our pride,
+that our early progenitors would have been properly thus
+designated.[269] But we must not fall into the error of supposing that
+the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man, was
+identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or monkey.
+
+
+_On the Birthplace and Antiquity of Man._—We are naturally led to
+enquire where was the birthplace of man at that stage of descent when
+our progenitors diverged from the Catarhine stock. The fact that they
+belonged to this stock clearly shews that they inhabited the Old World;
+but not Australia nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws
+of geographical distribution. In each great region of the world the
+living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same
+region. It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by
+extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these
+two species are now man’s nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable
+that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than
+elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape
+nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was
+closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe
+during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth
+has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample
+time for migration on the largest scale.
+
+At the period and place, whenever and wherever it may have been, when
+man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a hot country;
+and this would have been favourable for a frugiferous diet, on which,
+judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago
+it was when man first diverged from the Catarhine stock; but this may
+have occurred at an epoch as remote as the Eocene period; for the higher
+apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene
+period, as shewn by the existence of the Dryopithecus. We are also quite
+ignorant at how rapid a rate organisms, whether high or low in the
+scale, may under favourable circumstances be modified: we know, however,
+that some have retained the same form during an enormous lapse of time.
+From what we see going on under domestication, we learn that within the
+same period some of the co-descendants of the same species may be not at
+all changed, some a little, and some greatly changed. Thus it may have
+been with man, who has undergone a great amount of modification in
+certain characters in comparison with the higher apes.
+
+The great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies,
+which cannot be bridged over by any extinct or living species, has often
+been advanced as a grave objection to the belief that man is descended
+from some lower form; but this objection will not appear of much weight
+to those who, convinced by general reasons, believe in the general
+principle of evolution. Breaks incessantly occur in all parts of the
+series, some being wide, sharp and defined, others less so in various
+degrees; as between the orang and its nearest allies—between the
+Tarsius and the other Lemuridæ—between the elephant and in a more
+striking manner between the Ornithorhynchus or Echidna, and other
+mammals. But all these breaks depend merely on the number of related
+forms which have become extinct. At some future period, not very distant
+as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost
+certainly exterminate and replace throughout the world the savage races.
+At the same time the anthropomorphous apes, as Professor Schaaffhausen
+has remarked,[270] will no doubt be exterminated. The break will then be
+rendered wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilised
+state, as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a
+baboon, instead of as at present between the negro or Australian and the
+gorilla.
+
+With respect to the absence of fossil remains, serving to connect man
+with his ape-like progenitors, no one will lay much stress on this fact,
+who will read Sir C. Lyell’s discussion,[271] in which he shews that in
+all the vertebrate classes the discovery of fossil remains has been an
+extremely slow and fortuitous process. Nor should it be forgotten that
+those regions which are the most likely to afford remains connecting man
+with some extinct ape-like creature, have not as yet been searched by
+geologists.
+
+
+_Lower Stages in the Genealogy of Man._—We have seen that man appears
+to have diverged from the Catarhine or Old World division of the
+Simiadæ, after these had diverged from the New World division. We will
+now endeavour to follow the more remote traces of his genealogy,
+trusting in the first place to the mutual affinities between the various
+classes and orders, with some slight aid from the periods, as far as
+ascertained, of their successive appearance on the earth. The Lemuridæ
+stand below and close to the Simiadæ, constituting a very distinct
+family of the Primates, or, according to Häckel, a distinct Order. This
+group is diversified and broken to an extraordinary degree, and includes
+many aberrant forms. It has, therefore, probably suffered much
+extinction. Most of the remnants survive on islands, namely in
+Madagascar and in the islands of the Malayan archipelago, where they
+have not been exposed to such severe competition as they would have been
+on well-stocked continents. This group likewise presents many
+gradations, leading, as Huxley remarks,[272] “insensibly from the crown
+and summit of the animal creation down to creatures from which there is
+but a step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent
+of the placental mammalia.” From these various considerations it is
+probable that the Simiadæ were originally developed from the progenitors
+of the existing Lemuridæ; and these in their turn from forms standing
+very low in the mammalian series.
+
+The Marsupials stand in many important characters below the placental
+mammals. They appeared at an earlier geological period, and their range
+was formerly much more extensive than what it now is. Hence the
+Placentata are generally supposed to have been derived from the
+Implacentata or Marsupials; not, however, from forms closely like the
+existing Marsupials, but from their early progenitors. The Monotremata
+are plainly allied to the Marsupials; forming a third and still lower
+division in the great mammalian series. They are represented at the
+present day solely by the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna; and these two
+forms may be safely considered as relics of a much larger group which
+have been preserved in Australia through some favourable concurrence of
+circumstances. The Monotremata are eminently interesting, as in several
+important points of structure they lead towards the class of reptiles.
+
+In attempting to trace the genealogy of the Mammalia, and therefore of
+man, lower down in the series, we become involved in greater and greater
+obscurity. He who wishes to see what ingenuity and knowledge can effect,
+may consult Prof. Häckel’s works.[273] I will content myself with a few
+general remarks. Every evolutionist will admit that the five great
+vertebrate classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and
+fishes, are all descended from some one prototype; for they have much in
+common, especially during their embryonic state. As the class of fishes
+is the most lowly organised and appeared before the others, we may
+conclude that all the members of the vertebrate kingdom are derived from
+some fish-like animal, less highly organised than any as yet found in
+the lowest known formations. The belief that animals so distinct as a
+monkey or elephant and a humming-bird, a snake, frog, and fish, &c.,
+could all have sprung from the same parents, will appear monstrous to
+those who have not attended to the recent progress of natural history.
+For this belief implies the former existence of links closely binding
+together all these forms, now so utterly unlike.
+
+Nevertheless it is certain that groups of animals have existed, or do
+now exist, which serve to connect more or less closely the several great
+vertebrate classes. We have seen that the Ornithorhynchus graduates
+towards reptiles; and Prof. Huxley has made the remarkable discovery,
+confirmed by Mr. Cope and others, that the old Dinosaurians are
+intermediate in many important respects between certain reptiles and
+certain birds—the latter consisting of the ostrich-tribe (itself
+evidently a widely-diffused remnant of a larger group) and of the
+Archeopteryx, that strange Secondary bird having a long tail like that
+of the lizard. Again, according to Prof. Owen,[274] the
+Ichthyosaurians—great sea-lizards furnished with paddles—present many
+affinities with fishes, or rather, according to Huxley, with amphibians.
+This latter class (including in its highest division frogs and toads) is
+plainly allied to the Ganoid fishes. These latter fishes swarmed during
+the earlier geological periods, and were constructed on what is called a
+highly generalised type, that is they presented diversified affinities
+with other groups of organisms. The amphibians and fishes are also so
+closely united by the Lepidosiren, that naturalists long disputed in
+which of these two classes it ought to be placed. The Lepidosiren and
+some few Ganoid fishes have been preserved from utter extinction by
+inhabiting our rivers, which are harbours of refuge, bearing the same
+relation to the great waters of the ocean that islands bear to
+continents.
+
+Lastly, one single member of the immense and diversified class of
+fishes, namely the lancelet or amphioxus, is so different from all other
+fishes, that Häckel maintains that it ought to form a distinct class in
+the vertebrate kingdom. This fish is remarkable for its negative
+characters; it can hardly be said to possess a brain, vertebral column,
+or heart, &c.; so that it was classed by the older naturalists amongst
+the worms. Many years ago Prof. Goodsir perceived that the lancelet
+presented some affinities with the Ascidians, which are invertebrate,
+hermaphrodite, marine creatures permanently attached to a support. They
+hardly appear like animals, and consist of a simple, tough, leathery
+sack, with two small projecting orifices. They belong to the Molluscoida
+of Huxley—a lower division of the great kingdom of the Mollusca; but
+they have recently been placed by some naturalists amongst the Vermes or
+worms. Their larvæ somewhat resemble tadpoles in shape,[275] and have
+the power of swimming freely about. Some observations lately made by M.
+Kowalevsky,[276] since confirmed by Prof. Kuppfer, will form a discovery
+of extraordinary interest, if still further extended, as I hear from M.
+Kowalevsky in Naples he has now effected. The discovery is that the
+larvæ of Ascidians are related to the Vertebrata, in their manner of
+development, in the relative position of the nervous system, and in
+possessing a structure closely like the _chorda dorsalis_ of vertebrate
+animals. It thus appears, if we may rely on embryology, which has always
+proved the safest guide in classification, that we have at last gained a
+clue to the source whence the Vertebrata have been derived. We should
+thus be justified in believing that at an extremely remote period a
+group of animals existed, resembling in many respects the larvæ of our
+present Ascidians, which diverged into two great branches—the one
+retrograding in development and producing the present class of
+Ascidians, the other rising to the crown and summit of the animal
+kingdom by giving birth to the Vertebrata.
+
+
+We have thus far endeavoured rudely to trace the genealogy of the
+Vertebrata by the aid of their mutual affinities. We will now look to
+man as he exists; and we shall, I think, be able partially to restore
+during successive periods, but not in due order of time, the structure
+of our early progenitors. This can be effected by means of the rudiments
+which man still retains, by the characters which occasionally make their
+appearance in him through reversion, and by the aid of the principles of
+morphology and embryology. The various facts, to which I shall here
+allude, have been given in the previous chapters. The early progenitors
+of man were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes having beards;
+their ears were pointed and capable of movement; and their bodies were
+provided with a tail, having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies
+were also acted on by many muscles which now only occasionally reappear,
+but are normally present in the Quadrumana. The great artery and nerve
+of the humerus ran through a supra-condyloid foramen. At this or some
+earlier period, the intestine gave forth a much larger diverticulum or
+cæcum than that now existing. The foot, judging from the condition of
+the great toe in the fœtus, was then prehensile; and our progenitors,
+no doubt, were arboreal in their habits, frequenting some warm,
+forest-clad land. The males were provided with great canine teeth,
+which served them as formidable weapons.
+
+At a much earlier period the uterus was double; the excreta were voided
+through a cloaca; and the eye was protected by a third eyelid or
+nictitating membrane. At a still earlier period the progenitors of man
+must have been aquatic in their habits; for morphology plainly tells us
+that our lungs consist of a modified swim-bladder, which once served as
+a float. The clefts on the neck in the embryo of man show where the
+branchiæ once existed. At about this period the true kidneys were
+replaced by the corpora Wolffiana. The heart existed as a simple
+pulsating vessel; and the chorda dorsalis took the place of a vertebral
+column. These early predecessors of man, thus seen in the dim recesses
+of time, must have been as lowly organised as the lancelet or amphioxus,
+or even still more lowly organised.
+
+There is one other point deserving a fuller notice. It has long been
+known that in the vertebrate kingdom one sex bears rudiments of various
+accessory parts, appertaining to the reproductive system, which properly
+belong to the opposite sex; and it has now been ascertained that at a
+very early embryonic period both sexes possess true male and female
+glands. Hence some extremely remote progenitor of the whole vertebrate
+kingdom appears to have been hermaphrodite or androgynous.[277] But here
+we encounter a singular difficulty. In the mammalian class the males
+possess in their vesiculæ prostaticæ rudiments of a uterus with the
+adjacent passage; they bear also rudiments of mammæ, and some male
+marsupials have rudiments of a marsupial sack.[278] Other analogous
+facts could be added. Are we, then, to suppose that some extremely
+ancient mammal possessed organs proper to both sexes, that is, continued
+androgynous after it had acquired the chief distinctions of its proper
+class, and therefore after it had diverged from the lower classes of the
+vertebrate kingdom? This seems improbable in the highest degree; for had
+this been the case, we might have expected that some few members of the
+two lower classes, namely fishes[279] and amphibians, would still have
+remained androgynous. We must, on the contrary, believe that when the
+five vertebrate classes diverged from their common progenitor the sexes
+had already become separated. To account, however, for male mammals
+possessing rudiments of the accessory female organs, and for female
+mammals possessing rudiments of the masculine organs, we need not
+suppose that their early progenitors were still androgynous after they
+had assumed their chief mammalian characters. It is quite possible that
+as the one sex gradually acquired the accessory organs proper to it,
+some of the successive steps or modifications were transmitted to the
+opposite sex. When we treat of sexual selection, we shall meet with
+innumerable instances of this form of transmission,—as in the case of
+the spurs, plumes, and brilliant colours, acquired by male birds for
+battle or ornament, and transferred to the females in an imperfect or
+rudimentary condition.
+
+The possession by male mammals of functionally imperfect mammary organs
+is, in some respects, especially curious. The Monotremata have the
+proper milk-secreting glands with orifices, but no nipples; and as these
+animals stand at the very base of the mammalian series, it is probable
+that the progenitors of the class possessed, in like manner, the
+milk-secreting glands, but no nipples. This conclusion is supported by
+what is known of their manner of development; for Professor Turner
+informs me, on the authority of Kölliker and Lauger, that in the embryo
+the mammary glands can be distinctly traced before the nipples are in
+the least visible; and it should be borne in mind that the development
+of successive parts in the individual generally seems to represent and
+accord with the development of successive beings in the same line of
+descent. The Marsupials differ from the Monotremata by possessing
+nipples; so that these organs were probably first acquired by the
+Marsupials after they had diverged from, and risen above, the
+Monotremata, and were then transmitted to the placental mammals. No one
+will suppose that after the Marsupials had approximately acquired their
+present structure, and therefore at a rather late period in the
+development of the mammalian series, any of its members still remained
+androgynous. We seem, therefore, compelled to recur to the foregoing
+view, and to conclude that the nipples were first developed in the
+females of some very early marsupial form, and were then, in accordance
+with a common law of inheritance, transferred in a functionally
+imperfect condition to the males.
+
+Nevertheless a suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that long after
+the progenitors of the whole mammalian class had ceased to be
+androgynous, both sexes might have yielded milk and thus nourished their
+young; and in the case of the Marsupials, that both sexes might have
+carried their young in marsupial sacks. This will not appear utterly
+incredible, if we reflect that the males of syngnathous fishes receive
+the eggs of the females in their abdominal pouches, hatch them, and
+afterwards, as some believe, nourish the young;[280]—that certain other
+male fishes hatch the eggs within their mouths or branchial
+cavities;—that certain male toads take the chaplets of eggs from the
+females and wind them round their own thighs, keeping them there until
+the tadpoles are born;—that certain male birds undertake the whole duty
+of incubation, and that male pigeons, as well as the females, feed their
+nestlings with a secretion from their crops. But the above suspicion
+first occurred to me from the mammary glands in male mammals being
+developed so much more perfectly than the rudiments of those other
+accessory reproductive parts, which are found in the one sex though
+proper to the other. The mammary glands and nipples, as they exist in
+male mammals, can indeed hardly be called rudimentary; they are simply
+not fully developed and not functionally active. They are
+sympathetically affected under the influence of certain diseases, like
+the same organs in the female. At birth they often secrete a few drops
+of milk; and they have been known occasionally in man and other mammals
+to become well developed, and to yield a fair supply of milk. Now if we
+suppose that during a former prolonged period male mammals aided the
+females in nursing their offspring, and that afterwards from some cause,
+as from a smaller number of young being produced, the males ceased
+giving this aid, disuse of the organs during maturity would lead to
+their becoming inactive; and from two well-known principles of
+inheritance this state of inactivity would probably be transmitted to
+the males at the corresponding age of maturity. But at all earlier ages
+these organs would be left unaffected, so that they would be equally
+well developed in the young of both sexes.
+
+
+_Conclusion._—The best definition of advancement or progress in the
+organic scale ever given, is that by Von Baer; and this rests on the
+amount of differentiation and specialisation of the several parts of the
+same being, when arrived, as I should be inclined to add, at maturity.
+Now as organisms have become slowly adapted by means of natural
+selection for diversified lines of life, their parts will have become,
+from the advantage gained by the division of physiological labour, more
+and more differentiated and specialised for various functions. The same
+part appears often to have been modified first for one purpose, and then
+long afterwards for some other and quite distinct purpose; and thus all
+the parts are rendered more and more complex. But each organism will
+still retain the general type of structure of the progenitor from which
+it was aboriginally derived. In accordance with this view it seems, if
+we turn to geological evidence, that organisation on the whole has
+advanced throughout the world by slow and interrupted steps. In the
+great kingdom of the Vertebrata it has culminated in man. It must not,
+however, be supposed that groups of organic beings are always supplanted
+and disappear as soon as they have given birth to other and more perfect
+groups. The latter, though victorious over their predecessors, may not
+have become better adapted for all places in the economy of nature. Some
+old forms appear to have survived from inhabiting protected sites, where
+they have not been exposed to very severe competition; and these often
+aid us in constructing our genealogies, by giving us a fair idea of
+former and lost populations. But we must not fall into the error of
+looking at the existing members of any lowly-organised group as perfect
+representatives of their ancient predecessors.
+
+The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata, at which
+we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a group
+of marine animals,[281] resembling the larvæ of existing Ascidians.
+These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes, as lowly
+organised as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes
+like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very
+small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
+birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the
+Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But
+no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and
+related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from
+either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely amphibians and
+fishes. In the class of mammals the steps are not difficult to conceive
+which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials; and
+from these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals. We may
+thus ascend to the Lemuridæ; and the interval is not wide from these to
+the Simiadæ. The Simiadæ then branched off into two great stems, the New
+World and Old World monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
+Man, the wonder and glory of the Universe, proceeded.
+
+Thus we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it
+may be said, of noble quality. The world, it has often been remarked,
+appears as if it had long been preparing for the advent of man; and
+this, in one sense is strictly true, for he owes his birth to a long
+line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain had never existed,
+man would not have been exactly what he now is. Unless we wilfully close
+our eyes, we may, with our present knowledge, approximately recognise
+our parentage; nor need we feel ashamed of it. The most humble organism
+is something much higher than the inorganic dust under our feet; and no
+one with an unbiassed mind can study any living creature, however
+humble, without being struck with enthusiasm at its marvellous structure
+and properties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters—Application to the
+  races of man—Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct
+  species—Sub-species—Monogenists and polygenists—Convergence
+  of character—Numerous points of resemblance in body and mind
+  between the most distinct races of man—The state of man when
+  he first spread over the earth—Each race not descended from a
+  single pair—The extinction of races—The formation of
+  races—The effects of crossing—Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life—Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection—Sexual selection.
+
+
+It is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of
+men; but to inquire what is the value of the differences between them
+under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated. In
+determining whether two or more allied forms ought to be ranked as
+species or varieties, naturalists are practically guided by the
+following considerations; namely, the amount of difference between them,
+and whether such differences relate to few or many points of structure,
+and whether they are of physiological importance; but more especially
+whether they are constant. Constancy of character is what is chiefly
+valued and sought for by naturalists. Whenever it can be shewn, or
+rendered probable, that the forms in question have remained distinct for
+a long period, this becomes an argument of much weight in favour of
+treating them as species. Even a slight degree of sterility between any
+two forms when first crossed, or in their offspring, is generally
+considered as a decisive test of their specific distinctness; and their
+continued persistence without blending within the same area, is usually
+accepted as sufficient evidence, either of some degree of mutual
+sterility, or in the case of animals of some repugnance to mutual
+pairing.
+
+Independently of blending from intercrossing, the complete absence, in a
+well-investigated region, of varieties linking together any two
+closely-allied forms, is probably the most important of all the
+criterions of their specific distinctness; and this is a somewhat
+different consideration from mere constancy of character, for two forms
+may be highly variable and yet not yield intermediate varieties.
+Geographical distribution is often unconsciously and sometimes
+consciously brought into play; so that forms living in two widely
+separated areas, in which most of the other inhabitants are specifically
+distinct, are themselves usually looked at as distinct; but in truth
+this affords no aid in distinguishing geographical races from so-called
+good or true species.
+
+Now let us apply these generally-admitted principles to the races of
+man, viewing him in the same spirit as a naturalist would any other
+animal. In regard to the amount of difference between the races, we must
+make some allowance for our nice powers of discrimination gained by the
+long habit of observing ourselves. In India, as Elphinstone
+remarks,[282] although a newly-arrived European cannot at first
+distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him
+extremely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any
+difference between the several European nations. Even the most distinct
+races of man, with the exception of certain negro tribes, are much more
+like each other in form than would at first be supposed. This is well
+shewn by the French photographs in the Collection Anthropologique du
+Muséum of the men belonging to various races, the greater number of
+which, as many persons to whom I have shown them have remarked, might
+pass for Europeans. Nevertheless, these men if seen alive would
+undoubtedly appear very distinct, so that we are clearly much influenced
+in our judgment by the mere colour of the skin and hair, by slight
+differences in the features, and by expression.
+
+There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully
+compared and measured, differ much from each other,—as in the texture
+of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body,[283] the
+capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in
+the convolutions of the brain.[284] But it would be an endless task to
+specify the numerous points of structural difference. The races differ
+also in constitution, in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain
+diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct;
+chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their
+intellectual, faculties. Every one who has had the opportunity of
+comparison, must have been struck with the contrast between the
+taciturn, even morose, aborigines of S. America and the light-hearted,
+talkative negroes. There is a nearly similar contrast between the Malays
+and the Papuans,[285] who live under the same physical conditions, and
+are separated from each other only by a narrow space of sea.
+
+We will first consider the arguments which may be advanced in favour of
+classing the races of man as distinct species, and then those on the
+other side. If a naturalist, who had never before seen such beings, were
+to compare a Negro, Hottentot, Australian, or Mongolian, he would at
+once perceive that they differed in a multitude of characters, some of
+slight and some of considerable importance. On inquiry he would find
+that they were adapted to live under widely different climates, and that
+they differed somewhat in bodily constitution and mental disposition. If
+he were then told that hundreds of similar specimens could be brought
+from the same countries, he would assuredly declare that they were as
+good species as many to which he had been in the habit of affixing
+specific names. This conclusion would be greatly strengthened as soon as
+he had ascertained that these forms had all retained the same character
+for many centuries; and that negroes, apparently identical with existing
+negroes, had lived at least 4000 years ago.[286] He would also hear from
+an excellent observer, Dr. Lund,[287] that the human skulls found in
+the caves of Brazil, entombed with many extinct mammals, belonged to the
+same type as that now prevailing throughout the American Continent.
+
+Our naturalist would then perhaps turn to geographical distribution, and
+he would probably declare that forms differing not only in appearance,
+but fitted for the hottest and dampest or driest countries, as well as
+for the arctic regions, must be distinct species. He might appeal to the
+fact that no one species in the group next to man, namely the
+Quadrumana, can resist a low temperature or any considerable change of
+climate; and that those species which come nearest to man have never
+been reared to maturity, even under the temperate climate of Europe. He
+would be deeply impressed with the fact, first noticed by Agassiz,[288]
+that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the
+same zoological provinces, as those inhabited by undoubtedly distinct
+species and genera of mammals. This is manifestly the case with the
+Australian, Mongolian, and Negro races of man; in a less well-marked
+manner with the Hottentots; but plainly with the Papuans and Malays, who
+are separated, as Mr. Wallace has shewn, by nearly the same line which
+divides the great Malayan and Australian zoological provinces. The
+aborigines of America range throughout the Continent; and this at first
+appears opposed to the above rule, for most of the productions of the
+Southern and Northern halves differ widely; yet some few living forms,
+as the opossum, range from the one into the other, as did formerly some
+of the gigantic Edentata. The Esquimaux, like other Arctic animals,
+extend round the whole polar regions. It should be observed that the
+mammalian forms which inhabit the several zoological provinces, do not
+differ from each other in the same degree; so that it can hardly be
+considered as an anomaly that the Negro differs more, and the American
+much less, from the other races of man than do the mammals of the same
+continents from those of the other provinces. Man, it may be added, does
+not appear to have aboriginally inhabited any oceanic island; and in
+this respect he resembles the other members of his class.
+
+In determining whether the varieties of the same kind of domestic animal
+should be ranked as specifically distinct, that is, whether any of them
+are descended from distinct wild species, every naturalist would lay
+much stress on the fact, if established, of their external parasites
+being specifically distinct. All the more stress would be laid on this
+fact, as it would be an exceptional one, for I am informed by Mr. Denny
+that the most different kinds of dogs, fowls, and pigeons, in England,
+are infested by the same species of Pediculi or lice. Now Mr. A. Murray
+has carefully examined the Pediculi collected in different countries
+from the different races of man;[289] and he finds that they differ, not
+only in colour, but in the structure of their claws and limbs. In every
+case in which numerous specimens were obtained the differences were
+constant. The surgeon of a whaling ship in the Pacific assured me that
+when the Pediculi, with which some Sandwich Islanders on board swarmed,
+strayed on to the bodies of the English sailors, they died in the course
+of three or four days. These Pediculi were darker coloured and appeared
+different from those proper to the natives of Chiloe in South America,
+of which he gave me specimens. These, again, appeared larger and much
+softer than European lice. Mr. Murray procured four kinds from Africa,
+namely from the Negroes of the Eastern and Western coasts, from the
+Hottentots and Caffres; two kinds from the natives of Australia; two
+from North, and two from South America. In these latter cases it may be
+presumed that the Pediculi came from natives inhabiting different
+districts. With insects slight structural differences, if constant, are
+generally esteemed of specific value: and the fact of the races of man
+being infested by parasites, which appear to be specifically distinct,
+might fairly be urged as an argument that the races themselves ought to
+be classed as distinct species.
+
+Our supposed naturalist having proceeded thus far in his investigation,
+would next inquire whether the races of men, when crossed, were in any
+degree sterile. He might consult the work[290] of a cautious and
+philosophical observer, Professor Broca; and in this he would find good,
+evidence that some races were quite fertile together; but evidence of an
+opposite nature in regard to other races. Thus it has been asserted that
+the native women of Australia and Tasmania rarely produce children to
+European men; the evidence, however, on this head has now been shewn to
+be almost valueless. The half-castes are killed by the pure blacks; and
+an account has lately been published of eleven half-caste youths
+murdered and burnt at the same time, whose remains were found by the
+police.[291] Again, it has often been said that when mulattoes
+intermarry they produce few children; on the other hand, Dr. Bachman of
+Charlestown[292] positively asserts that he has known mulatto families
+which have intermarried for several generations, and have continued on
+an average as fertile as either pure whites or pure blacks. Inquiries
+formerly made by Sir C. Lyell on this subject led him, as he informs me,
+to the same conclusion. In the United States the census for the year
+1854 included, according to Dr. Bachman, 405,751 mulattoes; and this
+number, considering all the circumstances of the case, seems small; but
+it may partly be accounted for by the degraded and anomalous position of
+the class, and by the profligacy of the women. A certain amount of
+absorption of mulattoes into negroes must always be in progress; and
+this would lead to an apparent diminution of the former. The inferior
+vitality of mulattoes is spoken of in a trustworthy work[293] as a
+well-known phenomenon; but this is a different consideration from their
+lessened fertility; and can hardly be advanced as a proof of the
+specific distinctness of the parent races. No doubt both animal and
+vegetable hybrids, when produced from extremely distinct species, are
+liable to premature death; but the parents of mulattoes cannot be put
+under the category of extremely distinct species. The common Mule, so
+notorious for long life and vigour, and yet so sterile, shews how little
+necessary connection there is in hybrids between lessened fertility and
+vitality: other analogous cases could be added.
+
+Even if it should hereafter be proved that all the races of men were
+perfectly fertile together, he who was inclined from other reasons to
+rank them as distinct species, might with justice argue that fertility
+and sterility are not safe criterions of specific distinctness. We know
+that these qualities are easily affected by changed conditions of life
+or by close inter-breeding, and that they are governed by highly complex
+laws, for instance that of the unequal fertility of reciprocal crosses
+between the same two species. With forms which must be ranked as
+undoubted species, a perfect series exists from those which are
+absolutely sterile when crossed, to those which are almost or quite
+fertile. The degrees of sterility do not coincide strictly with the
+degrees of difference in external structure or habits of life. Man in
+many respects may be compared with those animals which have long been
+domesticated, and a large body of evidence can be advanced in favour of
+the Pallasian doctrine[294] that domestication tends to eliminate the
+sterility which is so general a result of the crossing of species in a
+state of nature. From these several considerations, it may be justly
+urged that the perfect fertility of the intercrossed races of man, if
+established, would not absolutely preclude us from ranking them as
+distinct species.
+
+Independently of fertility, the character of the offspring from a cross
+has sometimes been thought to afford evidence whether the parent-forms
+ought to be ranked as species or varieties; but after carefully studying
+the evidence, I have come to the conclusion that no general rules of
+this kind can be trusted. Thus with mankind the offspring of distinct
+races resemble in all respects the offspring of true species and of
+varieties. This is shewn, for instance, by the manner in which the
+characters of both parents are blended, and by one form absorbing
+another through repeated crosses. In this latter case the progeny both
+of crossed species and varieties retain for a long period a tendency to
+revert to their ancestors, especially to that one which is prepotent in
+transmission. When any character has suddenly appeared in a race or
+species as the result of a single act of variation, as is general with
+monstrosities,[295] and this race is crossed with another not thus
+characterised, the characters in question do not commonly appear in a
+blended condition in the young, but are transmitted to them either
+perfectly developed or not at all. As with the crossed races of man
+cases of this kind rarely or never occur, this may be used as an
+argument against the view suggested by some ethnologists, namely that
+certain characters, for instance the blackness of the negro, first
+appeared as a sudden variation or sport. Had this occurred, it is
+probable that mulattoes would often have been born, either completely
+black or completely white.
+
+We have now seen that a naturalist might feel himself fully justified in
+ranking the races of man as distinct species; for he has found that they
+are distinguished by many differences in structure and constitution,
+some being of importance. These differences have, also, remained nearly
+constant for very long periods of time. He will have been in some degree
+influenced by the enormous range of man, which is a great anomaly in the
+class of mammals, if mankind be viewed as a single species. He will have
+been struck with the distribution of the several so-called races, in
+accordance with that of other undoubtedly distinct species of mammals.
+Finally he might urge that the mutual fertility of all the races has not
+as yet been fully proved; and even if proved would not be an absolute
+proof of their specific identity.
+
+
+On the other side of the question, if our supposed naturalist were to
+enquire whether the forms of man kept distinct like ordinary species,
+when mingled together in large numbers in the same country, he would
+immediately discover that this was by no means the case. In Brazil he
+would behold an immense mongrel population of Negroes and Portuguese; in
+Chiloe and other parts of South America, he would behold the whole
+population consisting of Indians and Spaniards blended in various
+degrees.[296] In many parts of the same continent he would meet with the
+most complex crosses between Negroes, Indians, and Europeans; and such
+triple crosses afford the severest test, judging from the vegetable
+kingdom, of the mutual fertility of the parent-forms. In one island of
+the Pacific he would find a small population of mingled Polynesian and
+English blood; and in the Viti Archipelago a population of Polynesians
+and Negritos crossed in all degrees. Many analogous cases could be
+added, for instance, in South Africa. Hence the races of man are not
+sufficiently distinct to co-exist without fusion; and this it is, which
+in all ordinary cases affords the usual test of specific distinctness.
+
+Our naturalist would likewise be much disturbed as soon as he perceived
+that the distinctive characters of every race of man were highly
+variable. This strikes every one when he first beholds the negro-slaves
+in Brazil, who have been imported from all parts of Africa. The same
+remark holds good with the Polynesians, and with many other races. It
+may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive
+of a race and is constant. Savages, even within the limits of the same
+tribe, are not nearly so uniform in character, as has often been said.
+Hottentot women offer certain peculiarities, more strongly marked than
+those occurring in any other race, but these are known not to be of
+constant occurrence. In the several American tribes, colour and
+hairyness differ considerably; as does colour to a certain degree, and
+the shape of the features greatly, in the Negroes of Africa. The shape
+of the skull varies much in some races;[297] and so it is with every
+other character. Now all naturalists have learnt by dearly-bought
+experience, how rash it is to attempt to define species by the aid of
+inconstant characters.
+
+But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of
+man as distinct species, is that they graduate into each other,
+independently in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having
+intercrossed. Man has been studied more carefully than any other organic
+being, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity amongst capable
+judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as
+two (Virey), as three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach),
+six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering),
+fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two (Morton),
+sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according to Burke.[298] This
+diversity of judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be
+ranked as species, but it shews that they graduate into each other, and
+that it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters
+between them.
+
+Every naturalist who has had the misfortune to undertake the
+description of a group of highly varying organisms, has encountered
+cases (I speak after experience) precisely like that of man; and if of a
+cautious disposition, he will end by uniting all the forms which
+graduate into each other as a single species; for he will say to himself
+that he has no right to give names to objects which he cannot define.
+Cases of this kind occur in the Order which includes man, namely in
+certain genera of monkeys; whilst in other genera, as in Cercopithecus,
+most of the species can be determined with certainty. In the American
+genus Cebus, the various forms are ranked by some naturalists as
+species, by others as mere geographical races. Now if numerous specimens
+of Cebus were collected from all parts of South America, and those forms
+which at present appear to be specifically distinct, were found to
+graduate into each other by close steps, they would be ranked by most
+naturalists as mere varieties or races; and thus the greater number of
+naturalists have acted with respect to the races of man. Nevertheless it
+must be confessed that there are forms, at least in the vegetable
+kingdom,[299] which we cannot avoid naming as species, but which are
+connected together, independently of intercrossing, by numberless
+gradations.
+
+Some naturalists have lately employed the term “sub-species” to
+designate forms which possess many of the characteristics of true
+species, but which hardly deserve so high a rank. Now if we reflect on
+the weighty arguments, above given, for raising the races of man to the
+dignity of species, and the insuperable difficulties on the other side
+in defining them, the term “sub-species” might here be used with much
+propriety. But from long habit the term “race” will perhaps always be
+employed. The choice of terms is only so far important as it is highly
+desirable to use, as far as that may be possible, the same terms for the
+same degrees of difference. Unfortunately this is rarely possible; for
+within the same family the larger genera generally include
+closely-allied forms, which can be distinguished only with much
+difficulty, whilst the smaller genera include forms that are perfectly
+distinct; yet all must equally be ranked as species. So again the
+species within the same large genus by no means resemble each other to
+the same degree: on the contrary, in most cases some of them can be
+arranged in little groups round other species, like satellites round
+planets.[300]
+
+
+The question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of
+late years been much agitated by anthropologists, who are divided into
+two schools of monogenists and polygenists. Those who do not admit the
+principle of evolution, must look at species either as separate
+creations or as in some manner distinct entities; and they must decide
+what forms to rank as species by the analogy of other organic beings
+which are commonly thus received. But it is a hopeless endeavour to
+decide this point on sound grounds, until some definition of the term
+“species” is generally accepted; and the definition must not include an
+element which cannot possibly be ascertained, such as an act of
+creation. We might as well attempt without any definition to decide
+whether a certain number of houses should be called a village, or town,
+or city. We have a practical illustration of the difficulty in the
+never-ending doubts whether many closely-allied mammals, birds,
+insects, and plants, which represent each other in North America and
+Europe, should be ranked species or geographical races; and so it is
+with the productions of many islands situated at some little distance
+from the nearest continent.
+
+Those naturalists, on the other hand, who admit the principle of
+evolution, and this is now admitted by the greater number of rising men,
+will feel no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single
+primitive stock; whether or not they think fit to designate them as
+distinct species, for the sake of expressing their amount of
+difference.[301] With our domestic animals the question whether the
+various races have arisen from one or more species is different.
+Although all such races, as well as all the natural species within the
+same genus, have undoubtedly sprung from the same primitive stock, yet
+it is a fit subject for discussion, whether, for instance, all the
+domestic races of the dog have acquired their present differences since
+some one species was first domesticated and bred by man; or whether they
+owe some of their characters to inheritance from distinct species, which
+had already been modified in a state of nature. With mankind no such
+question can arise, for he cannot be said to have been domesticated at
+any particular period.
+
+When the races of man diverged at an extremely remote epoch from their
+common progenitor, they will have differed but little from each other,
+and been few in number; consequently they will then, as far as their
+distinguishing characters are concerned, have had less claim to rank as
+distinct species, than the existing so-called races. Nevertheless such
+early races would perhaps have been ranked by some naturalists as
+distinct species, so arbitrary is the term, if their differences,
+although extremely slight, had been more constant than at present, and
+had not graduated into each other.
+
+It is, however, possible, though far from probable, that the early
+progenitors of man might at first have diverged much in character, until
+they became more unlike each other than are any existing races; but that
+subsequently, as suggested by Vogt,[302] they converged in character.
+When man selects for the same object the offspring of two distinct
+species, he sometimes induces, as far as general appearance is
+concerned, a considerable amount of convergence. This is the case, as
+shewn by Von Nathusius,[303] with the improved breeds of pigs, which are
+descended from two distinct species; and in a less well-marked manner
+with the improved breeds of cattle. A great anatomist, Gratiolet,
+maintains that the anthropomorphous apes do not form a natural
+sub-group; but that the orang is a highly developed gibbon or
+semnopithecus; the chimpanzee a highly developed macacus; and the
+gorilla a highly developed mandrill. If this conclusion, which rests
+almost exclusively on brain-characters, be admitted, we should have a
+case of convergence at least in external characters, for the
+anthropomorphous apes are certainly more like each other in many points
+than they are to other apes. All analogical resemblances, as of a whale
+to a fish, may indeed be said to be cases of convergence; but this term
+has never been applied to superficial and adaptive resemblances. It
+would be extremely rash in most cases to attribute to convergence close
+similarity in many points of structure in beings which had once been
+widely different. The form of a crystal is determined solely by the
+molecular forces, and it is not surprising that dissimilar substances
+should sometimes assume the same form; but with organic beings we should
+bear in mind that the form of each depends on an infinitude of complex
+relations, namely on the variations which have arisen, these being due
+to causes far too intricate to be followed out,—on the nature of the
+variations which have been preserved, and this depends on the
+surrounding physical conditions, and in a still higher degree on the
+surrounding organisms with which each has come into competition,—and
+lastly, on inheritance (in itself a fluctuating element) from
+innumerable progenitors, all of which have had their forms determined
+through equally complex relations. It appears utterly incredible that
+two organisms, if differing in a marked manner, should ever afterwards
+converge so closely as to lead to a near approach to identity throughout
+their whole organisation. In the case of the convergent pigs above
+referred to, evidence of their descent from two primitive stocks is
+still plainly retained, according to Von Nathusius, in certain bones of
+their skulls. If the races of man were descended, as supposed by some
+naturalists, from two or more distinct species, which had differed as
+much, or nearly as much, from each other, as the orang differs from the
+gorilla, it can hardly be doubted that marked differences in the
+structure of certain bones would still have been discoverable in man as
+he now exists.
+
+
+Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in
+colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if their
+whole organisation be taken into consideration they are found to
+resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these
+points are of so unimportant or of so singular a nature, that it is
+extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired
+by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark holds good
+with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous points of
+mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American
+aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind
+as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck,
+whilst living with the Fuegians on board the “Beagle,” with the many
+little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to
+ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once
+to be intimate.
+
+He who will carefully read Mr. Tylor’s and Sir J. Lubbock’s interesting
+works[304] can hardly fail to be deeply impressed with the close
+similarity between the men of all races in tastes, dispositions and
+habits. This is shewn by the pleasure which they all take in dancing,
+rude music, acting, painting, tattooing, and otherwise decorating
+themselves,—in their mutual comprehension of gesture-language—and, as
+I shall be able to shew in a future essay, by the same expression in
+their features, and by the same inarticulate cries, when they are
+excited by various emotions. This similarity, or rather identity, is
+striking, when contrasted with the different expressions which may be
+observed in distinct species of monkeys. There is good evidence that the
+art of shooting with bows and arrows has not been handed down from any
+common progenitor of mankind, yet the stone arrow-heads, brought from
+the most distant parts of the world and manufactured at the most remote
+periods, are, as Nilsson has shewn,[305] almost identical; and this fact
+can only be accounted for by the various races having similar inventive
+or mental powers. The same observation has been made by
+archæologists[306] with respect to certain widely-prevalent ornaments,
+such as zigzags, &c.; and with respect to various simple beliefs and
+customs, such as the burying of the dead under megalithic structures. I
+remember observing in South America,[307] that there, as in so many
+other parts of the world, man has generally chosen the summits of lofty
+hills, on which to throw up piles of stones, either for the sake of
+recording some remarkable event, or for burying his dead.
+
+Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous small details
+of habits, tastes and dispositions between two or more domestic races,
+or between nearly-allied natural forms, they use this fact as an
+argument that all are descended from a common progenitor who was thus
+endowed; and consequently that all should be classed under the same
+species. The same argument may be applied with much force to the races
+of man.
+
+As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of
+resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and
+mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all
+have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from
+progenitors who were thus characterised. We thus gain some insight into
+the early state of man, before he had spread step by step over the face
+of the earth. The spreading of man to regions widely separated by the
+sea, no doubt, preceded any considerable amount of divergence of
+character in the several races; for otherwise we should sometimes meet
+with the same race in distinct continents; and this is never the case.
+Sir J. Lubbock, after comparing the arts now practised by savages in all
+parts of the world, specifies those which man could not have known, when
+he first wandered from his original birthplace; for if once learnt they
+would never have been forgotten.[308] He thus shews that “the spear,
+which is but a development of the knife-point, and the club, which is
+but a long hammer, are the only things left.” He admits, however, that
+the art of making fire probably had already been discovered, for it is
+common to all the races now existing, and was known to the ancient
+cave-inhabitants of Europe. Perhaps the art of making rude canoes or
+rafts was likewise known; but as man existed at a remote epoch, when the
+land in many places stood at a very different level, he would have been
+able, without the aid of canoes, to have spread widely. Sir J. Lubbock
+further remarks how improbable it is that our earliest ancestors could
+have “counted as high as ten, considering that so many races now in
+existence cannot get beyond four.” Nevertheless, at this early period,
+the intellectual and social faculties of man could hardly have been
+inferior in any extreme degree to those now possessed by the lowest
+savages; otherwise primeval man could not have been so eminently
+successful in the struggle for life, as proved by his early and wide
+diffusion.
+
+From the fundamental differences between certain languages, some
+philologists have inferred that when man first became widely diffused he
+was not a speaking animal; but it may be suspected that languages, far
+less perfect than any now spoken, aided by gestures, might have been
+used, and yet have left no traces on subsequent and more
+highly-developed tongues. Without the use of some language, however
+imperfect, it appears doubtful whether man’s intellect could have risen
+to the standard implied by his dominant position at an early period.
+
+Whether primeval man, when he possessed very few arts of the rudest
+kind, and when his power of language was extremely imperfect, would have
+deserved to be called man, must depend on the definition which we
+employ. In a series of forms graduating insensibly from some ape-like
+creature to man as he now exists, it would be impossible to fix on any
+definite point when the term “man” ought to be used. But this is a
+matter of very little importance. So again it is almost a matter of
+indifference whether the so-called races of man are thus designated, or
+are ranked as species or sub-species; but the latter term appears the
+most appropriate. Finally, we may conclude that when the principles of
+evolution are generally accepted, as they surely will be before long,
+the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a
+silent and unobserved death.
+
+
+One other question ought not to be passed over without notice, namely,
+whether, as is sometimes assumed, each sub-species or race of man has
+sprung from a single pair of progenitors. With our domestic animals a
+new race can readily be formed from a single pair possessing some new
+character, or even from a single individual thus characterised, by
+carefully matching the varying offspring; but most of our races have
+been formed, not intentionally from a selected pair, but unconsciously
+by the preservation of many individuals which have varied, however
+slightly, in some useful or desired manner. If in one country stronger
+and heavier horses, and in another country lighter and fleeter horses,
+were habitually preferred, we may feel sure that two distinct sub-breeds
+would, in the course of time, be produced, without any particular pairs
+or individuals having been separated and bred from in either country.
+Many races have been thus formed, and their manner of formation is
+closely analogous with that of natural species. We know, also, that the
+horses which have been brought to the Falkland Islands have become,
+during successive generations, smaller and weaker, whilst those which
+have run wild on the Pampas have acquired larger and coarser heads; and
+such changes are manifestly due, not to any one pair, but to all the
+individuals having been subjected to the same conditions, aided,
+perhaps, by the principle of reversion. The new sub-breeds in none of
+these cases are descended from any single pair, but from many
+individuals which have varied in different degrees, but in the same
+general manner; and we may conclude that the races of man have been
+similarly produced, the modifications being either the direct result of
+exposure to different conditions, or the indirect result of some form of
+selection. But to this latter subject we shall presently return.
+
+
+_On the Extinction of the Races of Man._—The partial and complete
+extinction of many races and sub-races of man are historically known
+events. Humboldt saw in South America a parrot which was the sole living
+creature that could speak the language of a lost tribe. Ancient
+monuments and stone implements found in all parts of the world, of which
+no tradition is preserved by the present inhabitants, indicate much
+extinction. Some small and broken tribes, remnants of former races,
+still survive in isolated and generally mountainous districts. In Europe
+the ancient races were all, according to Schaaffhausen,[309] “lower in
+the scale than the rudest living savages;” they must therefore have
+differed, to a certain extent, from any existing race. The remains
+described by Professor Broca[310] from Les Eyzies, though they
+unfortunately appear to have belonged to a single family, indicate a
+race with a most singular combination of low or simious and high
+characteristics, and is “entirely different from any other race, ancient
+or modern, that we have ever heard of.” It differed, therefore, from the
+quaternary race of the caverns of Belgium.
+
+Unfavourable physical conditions appear to have had but little effect in
+the extinction of races.[311] Man has long lived in the extreme regions
+of the North, with no wood wherewith to make his canoes or other
+implements, and with blubber alone for burning and giving him warmth,
+but more especially for melting the snow. In the Southern extremity of
+America the Fuegians survive without the protection of clothes, or of
+any building worthy to be called a hovel. In South Africa the aborigines
+wander over the most arid plains, where dangerous beasts abound. Man can
+withstand the deadly influence of the Terai at the foot of the Himalaya,
+and the pestilential shores of tropical Africa.
+
+Extinction follows chiefly from the competition of tribe with tribe,
+and race with race. Various checks are always in action, as specified in
+a former chapter, which serve to keep down the numbers of each savage
+tribe,—such as periodical famines, the wandering of the parents and the
+consequent deaths of infants, prolonged suckling, the stealing of women,
+wars, accidents, sickness, licentiousness, especially infanticide, and,
+perhaps, lessened fertility from less nutritious food, and many
+hardships. If from any cause any one of these checks is lessened, even
+in a slight degree, the tribe thus favoured will tend to increase; and
+when one of two adjoining tribes becomes more numerous and powerful than
+the other, the contest is soon settled by war, slaughter, cannibalism,
+slavery, and absorption. Even when a weaker tribe is not thus abruptly
+swept away, if it once begins to decrease, it generally goes on
+decreasing until it is extinct.[312]
+
+When civilised nations come into contact with barbarians the struggle is
+short, except where a deadly climate gives its aid to the native race.
+Of the causes which lead to the victory of civilised nations, some are
+plain and some very obscure. We can see that the cultivation of the land
+will be fatal in many ways to savages, for they cannot, or will not,
+change their habits. New diseases and vices are highly destructive; and
+it appears that in every nation a new disease causes much death, until
+those who are most susceptible to its destructive influence are
+gradually weeded out;[313] and so it may be with the evil effects from
+spirituous liquors, as well as with the unconquerably strong taste for
+them shewn by so many savages. It further appears, mysterious as is the
+fact, that the first meeting of distinct and separated people generates
+disease.[314] Mr. Sproat, who in Vancouver Island closely attended to
+the subject of extinction, believes that changed habits of life, which
+always follow from the advent of Europeans, induces much ill-health. He
+lays, also, great stress on so trifling a cause as that the natives
+become “bewildered and dull by the new life around them; they lose the
+motives for exertion, and get no new ones in their place.”[315]
+
+The grade of civilisation seems a most important element in the success
+of nations which come in competition. A few centuries ago Europe feared
+the inroads of Eastern barbarians; now, any such fear would be
+ridiculous. It is a more curious fact, that savages did not formerly
+waste away, as Mr. Bagehot has remarked, before the classical nations,
+as they now do before modern civilised nations; had they done so, the
+old moralists would have mused over the event; but there is no lament in
+any writer of that period over the perishing barbarians.[316]
+
+Although the gradual decrease and final extinction of the races of man
+is an obscure problem, we can see that it depends on many causes,
+differing in different places and at different times. It is the same
+difficult problem as that presented by the extinction of one of the
+higher animals—of the fossil horse, for instance, which disappeared
+from South America, soon afterwards to be replaced, within the same
+districts, by countless troops of the Spanish horse. The New Zealander
+seems conscious of this parallelism, for he compares his future fate
+with that of the native rat almost exterminated by the European rat. The
+difficulty, though great to our imagination, and really great if we wish
+to ascertain the precise causes, ought not to be so to our reason, as
+long as we keep steadily in mind that the increase of each species and
+each race is constantly hindered by various checks; so that if any new
+check, or cause of destruction, even a slight one, be superadded, the
+race will surely decrease in number; and as it has everywhere been
+observed that savages are much opposed to any change of habits, by which
+means injurious checks could be counterbalanced, decreasing numbers will
+sooner or later lead to extinction; the end, in most cases, being
+promptly determined by the inroads of increasing and conquering tribes.
+
+
+_On the Formation of the Races of Man._—It may be premised that when we
+find the same race, though broken up into distinct tribes, ranging over
+a great area, as over America, we may attribute their general
+resemblance to descent from a common stock. In some cases the crossing
+of races already, distinct has led to the formation of new races. The
+singular fact that Europeans and Hindoos, who belong to the same Aryan
+stock and speak a language fundamentally the same, differ widely in
+appearance, whilst Europeans differ but little from Jews, who belong to
+the Semitic stock and speak quite another language, has been accounted
+for by Broca[317] through the Aryan branches having been largely crossed
+during their wide diffusion by various indigenous tribes. When two races
+in close contact cross, the first result is a heterogeneous mixture:
+thus Mr. Hunter, in describing the Santali or hill-tribes of India, says
+that hundreds of imperceptible gradations may be traced “from the black,
+squat tribes of the mountains to the tall olive-coloured Brahman, with
+his intellectual brow, calm eyes, and high but narrow head;” so that it
+is necessary in courts of justice to ask the witnesses whether they are
+Santalis or Hindoos.[318] Whether a heterogeneous people, such as the
+inhabitants of some of the Polynesian islands, formed by the crossing of
+two distinct races, with few or no pure members left, would ever become
+homogeneous, is not known from direct evidence. But as with our
+domesticated animals, a crossed breed can certainly, in the course of a
+few generations, be fixed and made uniform by careful selection,[319] we
+may infer that the free and prolonged intercrossing during many
+generations of a heterogeneous mixture would supply the place of
+selection, and overcome any tendency to reversion, so that a crossed
+race would ultimately become homogeneous, though it might not partake in
+an equal degree of the characters of the two parent-races.
+
+Of all the differences between the races of man, the colour of the skin
+is the most conspicuous and one of the best marked. Differences of this
+kind, it was formerly thought, could be accounted for by long exposure
+under different climates; but Pallas first shewed that this view is not
+tenable, and he has been followed by almost all anthropologists.[320]
+The view has been rejected chiefly because the distribution of the
+variously coloured races, most of whom must have long inhabited their
+present homes, does not coincide with corresponding differences of
+climate. Weight must also be given to such cases as that of the Dutch
+families, who, as we hear on excellent authority,[321] have not
+undergone the least change of colour, after residing for three centuries
+in South Africa. The uniform appearance in various parts of the world of
+gypsies and Jews, though the uniformity of the latter has been somewhat
+exaggerated,[322] is likewise an argument on the same side. A very damp
+or a very dry atmosphere has been supposed to be more influential in
+modifying the colour of the skin than mere heat; but as D’Orbigny in
+South America, and Livingstone in Africa, arrived at diametrically
+opposite conclusions with respect to dampness and dryness, any
+conclusion on this head must be considered as very doubtful.[323]
+
+Various facts, which I have elsewhere given, prove that the colour of
+the skin and hair is sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a
+complete immunity from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from
+the attacks of certain parasites. Hence it occurred to me, that negroes
+and other dark races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker
+individuals escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly
+influence of the miasmas of their native countries.
+
+I afterwards found that the same idea had long ago occurred to Dr.
+Wells.[324] That negroes, and even mulattoes, are almost completely
+exempt from the yellow-fever, which is so destructive in tropical
+America, has long been known.[325] They likewise escape to a large
+extent the fatal intermittent fevers that prevail along, at least, 2600
+miles of the shores of Africa, and which annually cause one-fifth of the
+white settlers to die, and another fifth to return home invalided.[326]
+This immunity in the negro seems to be partly inherent, depending on
+some unknown peculiarity of constitution, and partly the result of
+acclimatisation. Pouchet[327] states that the negro regiments, borrowed
+from the Viceroy of Egypt for the Mexican war, which had been recruited
+near the Soudan, escaped the yellow-fever almost equally well with the
+negroes originally brought from various parts of Africa, and accustomed
+to the climate of the West Indies. That acclimatisation plays a part is
+shewn by the many cases in which negroes, after having resided for some
+time in a colder climate, have become to a certain extent liable to
+tropical fevers.[328] The nature of the climate under which the white
+races have long resided, likewise has some influence on them; for during
+the fearful epidemic of yellow-fever in Demerara during 1837, Dr. Blair
+found that the death-rate of the immigrants was proportional to the
+latitude of the country whence they had come. With the negro the
+immunity, as far as it is the result of acclimatisation, implies
+exposure during a prodigious length of time; for the aborigines of
+tropical America, who have resided there from time immemorial, are not
+exempt from yellow-fever; and the Rev. B. Tristram states, that there
+are districts in Northern Africa which the native inhabitants are
+compelled annually to leave, though the negroes can remain with safety.
+
+That the immunity of the negro is in any degree correlated with the
+colour of his skin is a mere conjecture: it may be correlated with some
+difference in his blood, nervous system, or other tissues. Nevertheless,
+from the facts above alluded to, and from some connection apparently
+existing between complexion and a tendency to consumption, the
+conjecture seemed to me not improbable. Consequently I endeavoured, with
+but little success,[329] to ascertain how far it held good. The late
+Dr. Daniell, who had long lived on the West Coast of Africa, told me
+that he did not believe in any such relation. He was himself unusually
+fair, and had withstood the climate in a wonderful manner. When he first
+arrived as a boy on the coast, an old and experienced negro chief
+predicted from his appearance that this would prove the case. Dr.
+Nicholson, of Antigua, after having attended to this subject, wrote to
+me that he did not think that dark-coloured Europeans escaped the
+yellow-fever better than those that were light-coloured. Mr. J. M.
+Harris altogether denies[330] that Europeans with dark hair withstand a
+hot climate better than other men; on the contrary, experience has
+taught him in making a selection of men for service on the coast of
+Africa, to choose those with red hair. As far, therefore, as these
+slight indications serve, there seems no foundation for the hypothesis,
+which has been accepted by several writers, that the colour of the black
+races may have resulted from darker and darker individuals having
+survived in greater numbers, during their exposure to the
+fever-generating miasmas of their native countries.
+
+Although with our present knowledge we cannot account for the
+strongly-marked differences in colour between the races of man, either
+through correlation with constitutional peculiarities, or through the
+direct action of climate; yet we must not quite ignore the latter
+agency, for there is good reason to believe that some inherited effect
+is thus produced.[331]
+
+We have seen in our third chapter that the conditions of life, such as
+abundant food and general comfort, affect in a direct manner the
+development of the bodily frame, the effects being transmitted. Through
+the combined influences of climate and changed habits of life, European
+settlers, in the United States undergo, as is generally admitted, a
+slight but extraordinarily rapid change of appearance. There is, also, a
+considerable body of evidence shewing that in the Southern States the
+house-slaves of the third generation present a markedly different
+appearance from the field-slaves.[332]
+
+If, however, we look to the races of man, as distributed over the world,
+we must infer that their characteristic differences cannot be accounted
+for by the direct action of different conditions of life, even after
+exposure to them for an enormous period of time. The Esquimaux live
+exclusively on animal food; they are clothed in thick fur, and are
+exposed to intense cold and to prolonged darkness; yet they do not
+differ in any extreme degree from the inhabitants of Southern China, who
+live entirely on vegetable food and are exposed almost naked to a hot,
+glaring climate. The unclothed Fuegians live on the marine productions
+of their inhospitable shores; the Botocudos of Brazil wander about the
+hot forests of the interior and live chiefly on vegetable productions;
+yet these tribes resemble each other so closely that the Fuegians on
+board the “Beagle” were mistaken by some Brazilians for Botocudos. The
+Botocudos again, as well as the other inhabitants of tropical America,
+are wholly different from the Negroes who inhabit the opposite shores of
+the Atlantic, are exposed to a nearly similar climate, and follow nearly
+the same habits of life.
+
+Nor can the differences between the races of man be accounted for,
+except to a quite insignificant degree, by the inherited effects of the
+increased or decreased use of parts. Men who habitually live in canoes,
+may have their legs somewhat stunted; those who inhabit lofty regions
+have their chests enlarged; and those who constantly use certain
+sense-organs have the cavities in which they are lodged somewhat
+increased in size, and their features consequently a little modified.
+With civilised nations, the reduced size of the jaws from lessened use,
+the habitual play of different muscles serving to express different
+emotions, and the increased size of the brain from greater intellectual
+activity, have together produced a considerable effect on their general
+appearance in comparison with savages.[333] It is also possible that
+increased bodily stature, with no corresponding increase in the size of
+the brain, may have given to some races (judging from the previously
+adduced cases of the rabbits) an elongated skull of the dolichocephalic
+type.
+
+Lastly, the little-understood principle of correlation will almost
+certainly have come into action, as in the case of great muscular
+development and strongly projecting supra-orbital ridges. It is not
+improbable that the texture of the hair, which differs much in the
+different races, may stand in some kind of correlation with the
+structure of the skin; for the colour of the hair and skin are certainly
+correlated, as is its colour and texture with the Mandans.[334] The
+colour of the skin and the odour emitted by it are likewise in some
+manner connected. With the breeds of sheep the number of hairs within a
+given space and the number of the excretory pores stand in some relation
+to each other.[335] If we may judge from the analogy of our domesticated
+animals, many modifications of structure in man probably come under this
+principle of correlated growth.
+
+
+We have now seen that the characteristic differences between the races
+of man cannot be accounted for in a satisfactory manner by the direct
+action of the conditions of life, nor by the effects of the continued
+use of parts, nor through the principle of correlation. We are therefore
+led to inquire whether slight individual differences, to which man is
+eminently liable, may not have been preserved and augmented during a
+long series of generations through natural selection. But here we are at
+once met by the objection that beneficial variations alone can be thus
+preserved; and as far as we are enabled to judge (although always liable
+to error on this head) not one of the external differences between the
+races of man are of any direct or special service to him. The
+intellectual and moral or social faculties must of course be excepted
+from this remark; but differences in these faculties can have had little
+or no influence on external characters. The variability of all the
+characteristic differences between the races, before referred to,
+likewise indicates that these differences cannot be of much importance;
+for, had they been important, they would long ago have been either fixed
+and preserved, or eliminated. In this respect man resembles those forms,
+called by naturalists protean or polymorphic, which have remained
+extremely variable, owing, as it seems, to their variations being of an
+indifferent nature, and consequently to their having escaped the action
+of natural selection.
+
+We have thus far been baffled in all our attempts to account for the
+differences between the races of man; but there remains one important
+agency, namely Sexual Selection, which appears to have acted as
+powerfully on man, as on many other animals. I do not intend to assert
+that sexual selection will account for all the differences between the
+races. An unexplained residuum is left, about which we can in our
+ignorance only say, that as individuals are continually born with, for
+instance, heads a little rounder or narrower, and with noses a little
+longer or shorter, such slight differences might become fixed and
+uniform, if the unknown agencies which induced them were to act in a
+more constant manner, aided by long-continued intercrossing. Such
+modifications come under the provisional class, alluded to in our fourth
+chapter, which for the want of a better term have been called
+spontaneous variations. Nor do I pretend that the effects of sexual
+selection can be indicated with scientific precision; but it can be
+shewn that it would be an inexplicable fact if man had not been modified
+by this agency, which has acted so powerfully on innumerable animals,
+both high and low in the scale. It can further be shewn that the
+differences between the races of man, as in colour, hairyness, form of
+features, &c., are of the nature which it might have been expected would
+have been acted on by sexual selection. But in order to treat this
+subject in a fitting manner, I have found it necessary to pass the whole
+animal kingdom in review; I have therefore devoted to it the Second Part
+of this work. At the close I shall return to man, and, after attempting
+to shew how far he has been modified through sexual selection, will give
+a brief summary of the chapters in this First Part.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.—SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+  Secondary sexual characters—Sexual selection—Manner of
+  action—Excess of males—Polygamy—The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection—Eagerness of the
+  male—Variability of the male—Choice exerted by the
+  female—Sexual compared with natural selection—Inheritance, at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex—Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance—Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection—Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom—On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection.
+
+
+With animals which have their sexes separated, the males necessarily
+differ from the females in their organs of reproduction; and these
+afford the primary sexual characters. But the sexes often differ in what
+Hunter has called secondary sexual characters, which are not directly
+connected with the act of reproduction; for instance, in the male
+possessing certain organs of sense or locomotion, of which the female is
+quite destitute, or in having them more highly-developed, in order that
+he may readily find or reach her; or again, in the male having special
+organs of prehension so as to hold her securely. These latter organs of
+infinitely diversified kinds graduate into, and in some cases can hardly
+be distinguished from, those which are commonly ranked as primary, such
+as the complex appendages at the apex of the abdomen in male insects.
+Unless indeed we confine the term “primary” to the reproductive glands,
+it is scarcely possible to decide, as far as the organs of prehension
+are concerned, which ought to be called primary and which secondary.
+
+The female often differs from the male in having organs for the
+nourishment or protection of her young, as the mammary glands of
+mammals, and the abdominal sacks of the marsupials. The male, also, in
+some few cases differs from the female in possessing analogous organs,
+as the receptacles for the ova possessed by the males of certain fishes,
+and those temporarily developed in certain male frogs. Female bees have
+a special apparatus for collecting and carrying pollen, and their
+ovipositor is modified into a sting for the defence of their larvæ and
+the community. In the females of many insects the ovipositor is modified
+in the most complex manner for the safe placing of the eggs. Numerous
+similar cases could be given, but they do not here concern us. There
+are, however, other sexual differences quite disconnected with the
+primary organs with which we are more especially concerned—such as the
+greater size, strength, and pugnacity of the male, his weapons of
+offence or means of defence against rivals, his gaudy colouring and
+various ornaments, his power of song, and other such characters.
+
+Besides the foregoing primary and secondary sexual differences, the male
+and female sometimes differ in structures connected with different
+habits of life, and not at all, or only indirectly, related to the
+reproductive functions. Thus the females of certain flies (Culicidæ and
+Tabanidæ) are blood-suckers, whilst the males live on flowers and have
+their mouths destitute of mandibles.[336] The males alone of certain
+moths and of some crustaceans (_e.g._ Tanais) have imperfect, closed
+mouths, and cannot feed. The Complemental males of certain cirripedes
+live like epiphytic plants either on the female or hermaphrodite form,
+and are destitute of a mouth and prehensile limbs. In these cases it is
+the male which has been modified and has lost certain important organs,
+which the other members of the same group possess. In other cases it is
+the female which has lost such parts; for instance, the female glow-worm
+is destitute of wings, as are many female moths, some of which never
+leave their cocoons. Many female parasitic crustaceans have lost their
+natatory legs. In some weevil-beetles (Curculionidæ) there is a great
+difference between the male and female in the length of the rostrum or
+snout;[337] but the meaning of this and of many analogous differences,
+is not at all understood. Differences of structure between the two sexes
+in relation to different habits of life are generally confined to the
+lower animals; but with some few birds the beak of the male differs from
+that of the female. No doubt in most, but apparently not in all these
+cases, the differences are indirectly connected with the propagation of
+the species: thus a female which has to nourish a multitude of ova will
+require more food than the male, and consequently will require special
+means for procuring it. A male animal which lived for a very short time
+might without detriment lose through disuse its organs for procuring
+food; but he would retain his locomotive organs in a perfect state, so
+that he might reach the female. The female, on the other hand, might
+safely lose her organs for flying, swimming, or walking, if she
+gradually acquired habits which rendered such powers useless.
+
+We are, however, here concerned only with that kind of selection, which
+I have called sexual selection. This depends on the advantage which
+certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and
+species, in exclusive relation to reproduction. When the two sexes
+differ in structure in relation to different habits of life, as in the
+cases above mentioned, they have no doubt been modified through natural
+selection, accompanied by inheritance limited to one and the same sex.
+So again the primary sexual organs, and those for nourishing or
+protecting the young, come under this same head; for those individuals
+which generated or nourished their offspring best, would leave, _cæteris
+paribus_, the greatest number to inherit their superiority; whilst those
+which generated or nourished their offspring badly, would leave but few
+to inherit their weaker powers. As the male has to search for the
+female, he requires for this purpose organs of sense and locomotion, but
+if these organs are necessary for the other purposes of life, as is
+generally the case, they will have been developed through natural
+selection. When the male has found the female he sometimes absolutely
+requires prehensile organs to hold her; thus Dr. Wallace informs me that
+the males of certain moths cannot unite with the females if their tarsi
+or feet are broken. The males of many oceanic crustaceans have their
+legs and antennæ modified in an extraordinary manner for the prehension
+of the female; hence we may suspect that owing to these animals being
+washed about by the waves of the open sea, they absolutely require these
+organs in order to propagate their kind, and if so their development
+will have been the result of ordinary or natural selection.
+
+When the two sexes follow exactly the same habits of life, and the male
+has more highly developed sense or locomotive organs than the female, it
+may be that these in their perfected state are indispensable to the male
+for finding the female; but in the vast majority of cases, they serve
+only to give one male an advantage over another, for the less
+well-endowed males, if time were allowed them, would succeed in pairing
+with the females; and they would in all other respects, judging from the
+structure of the female, be equally well adapted for their ordinary
+habits of life. In such cases sexual selection must have come into
+action, for the males have acquired their present structure, not from
+being better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, but from
+having gained an advantage over other males, and from having transmitted
+this advantage to their male offspring alone. It was the importance of
+this distinction which led me to designate this form of selection as
+sexual selection. So again, if the chief service rendered to the male by
+his prehensile organs is to prevent the escape of the female before the
+arrival of other males, or when assaulted by them, these organs will
+have been perfected through sexual selection, that is by the advantage
+acquired by certain males over their rivals. But in most cases it is
+scarcely possible to distinguish between the effects of natural and
+sexual selection. Whole chapters could easily be filled with details on
+the differences between the sexes in their sensory, locomotive, and
+prehensile organs. As, however, these structures are not more
+interesting than others adapted for the ordinary purposes of life, I
+shall almost pass them over, giving only a few instances under each
+class.
+
+There are many other structures and instincts which must have been
+developed through sexual selection—such as the weapons of offence and
+the means of defence possessed by the males for fighting with and
+driving away their rivals—their courage and pugnacity—their ornaments
+of many kinds—their organs for producing vocal or instrumental
+music—and their glands for emitting odours; most of these latter
+structures serving only to allure or excite the female. That these
+characters are the result of sexual and not of ordinary selection is
+clear, as unarmed, unornamented, or unattractive males would succeed
+equally well in the battle for life and in leaving a numerous progeny,
+if better endowed males were not present. We may infer that this would
+be the case, for the females, which are unarmed and unornamented, are
+able to survive and procreate their kind. Secondary sexual characters of
+the kind just referred to, will be fully discussed in the following
+chapters, as they are in many respects interesting, but more especially
+as they depend on the will, choice, and rivalry of the individuals of
+either sex. When we behold two males fighting for the possession of the
+female, or several male birds displaying their gorgeous plumage, and
+performing the strangest antics before an assembled body of females, we
+cannot doubt that, though led by instinct, they know what they are
+about, and consciously exert their mental and bodily powers.
+
+In the same manner as man can improve the breed of his game-cocks by the
+selection of those birds which are victorious in the cockpit, so it
+appears that the strongest and most vigorous males, or those provided
+with the best weapons, have prevailed under nature, and have led to the
+improvement of the natural breed or species. Through repeated deadly
+contests, a slight degree of variability, if it led to some advantage,
+however slight, would suffice for the work of sexual selection; and it
+is certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently variable. In
+the same manner as man can give beauty, according to his standard of
+taste, to his male poultry—can give to the Sebright bantam a new and
+elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar carriage—so it appears that in a
+state of nature female birds, by having long selected the more
+attractive males, have added to their beauty. No doubt this implies
+powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female which will
+at first appear extremely improbable; but I hope hereafter to shew that
+this is not the case.
+
+From our ignorance on several points, the precise manner in which sexual
+selection acts is to a certain extent uncertain. Nevertheless if those
+naturalists who already believe in the mutability of species, will read
+the following chapters, they will, I think, agree with me that sexual
+selection has played an important part in the history of the organic
+world. It is certain that with almost all animals there is a struggle
+between the males for the possession of the female. This fact is so
+notorious that it would be superfluous to give instances. Hence the
+females, supposing that their mental capacity sufficed for the exertion
+of a choice, could select one out of several males. But in numerous
+cases it appears as if it had been specially arranged that there should
+be a struggle between many males. Thus with migratory birds, the males
+generally arrive before the females at their place of breeding, so that
+many males are ready to contend for each female. The bird-catchers
+assert that this is invariably the case with the nightingale and
+blackcap, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, who confirms the
+statement with respect to the latter species.
+
+Mr. Swaysland of Brighton, who has been in the habit, during the last
+forty years, of catching our migratory birds on their first arrival,
+writes to me that he has never known the females of any species to
+arrive before their males. During one spring he shot thirty-nine males
+of Ray’s wagtail (_Budytes Raii_) before he saw a single female. Mr.
+Gould has ascertained by dissection, as he informs me, that male snipes
+arrive in this country before the females. In the case of fish, at the
+period when the salmon ascend our rivers, the males in large numbers are
+ready to breed before the females. So it apparently is with frogs and
+toads. Throughout the great class of insects the males almost always
+emerge from the pupal state before the other sex, so that they generally
+swarm for a time before any females can be seen.[338] The cause of this
+difference between the males and females in their periods of arrival and
+maturity is sufficiently obvious. Those males which annually first
+migrated into any country, or which in the spring were first ready to
+breed, or were the most eager, would leave the largest number of
+offspring; and these would tend to inherit similar instincts and
+constitutions. On the whole there can be no doubt that with almost all
+animals, in which the sexes are separate, there is a constantly
+recurrent struggle between the males for the possession of the females.
+
+Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding how
+it is that the males which conquer other males, or those which prove the
+most attractive to the females, leave a greater number of offspring to
+inherit their superiority than the beaten and less attractive males.
+Unless this result followed, the characters which gave to certain males
+an advantage over others, could not be perfected and augmented through
+sexual selection. When the sexes exist in exactly equal numbers, the
+worst-endowed males will ultimately find females (excepting where
+polygamy prevails), and leave as many offspring, equally well fitted for
+their general habits of life, as the best-endowed males. From various
+facts and considerations, I formerly inferred that with most animals, in
+which secondary sexual characters were well developed, the males
+considerably exceeded the females in number; and this does hold good in
+some few cases. If the males were to the females as two to one, or as
+three to two, or even in a somewhat lower ratio, the whole affair would
+be simple; for the better-armed or more attractive males would leave the
+largest number of offspring. But after investigating, as far as
+possible, the numerical proportions of the sexes, I do not believe that
+any great inequality in number commonly exists. In most cases sexual
+selection appears to have been effective in the following manner.
+
+Let us take any species, a bird for instance, and divide the females
+inhabiting a district into two equal bodies: the one consisting of the
+more vigorous and better-nourished individuals, and the other of the
+less vigorous and healthy. The former, there can be little doubt, would
+be ready to breed in the spring before the others; and this is the
+opinion of Mr. Jenner Weir, who has during many years carefully attended
+to the habits of birds. There can also be no doubt that the most
+vigorous, healthy, and best-nourished females would on an average
+succeed in rearing the largest number of offspring. The males, as we
+have seen, are generally ready to breed before the females; of the males
+the strongest, and with some species the best armed, drive away the
+weaker males; and the former would then unite with the more vigorous and
+best-nourished females, as these are the first to breed. Such vigorous
+pairs would surely rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded
+females, which would be compelled, supposing the sexes to be numerically
+equal, to unite with the conquered and less powerful males; and this is
+all that is wanted to add, in the course of successive generations, to
+the size, strength and courage of the males, or to improve their
+weapons.
+
+But in a multitude of cases the males which conquer other males, do not
+obtain possession of the females, independently of choice on the part of
+the latter. The courtship of animals is by no means so simple and short
+an affair as might be thought. The females are most excited by, or
+prefer pairing with, the more ornamented males, or those which are the
+best songsters, or play the best antics; but it is obviously probable,
+as has been actually observed in some cases, that they would at the same
+time prefer the more vigorous and lively males.[339] Thus the more
+vigorous females, which are the first to breed, will have the choice of
+many males; and though they may not always select the strongest or best
+armed, they will select those which are vigorous and well armed, and in
+other respects the most attractive. Such early pairs would have the same
+advantage in rearing offspring on the female side as above explained,
+and nearly the same advantage on the male side. And this apparently has
+sufficed during a long course of generations to add not only to the
+strength and fighting-powers of the males, but likewise to their
+various ornaments or other attractions.
+
+In the converse and much rarer case of the males selecting particular
+females, it is plain that those which were the most vigorous and had
+conquered others, would have the freest choice; and it is almost certain
+that they would select vigorous as well as attractive females. Such
+pairs would have an advantage in rearing offspring, more especially if
+the male had the power to defend the female during the pairing-season,
+as occurs with some of the higher animals, or aided in providing for the
+young. The same principles would apply if both sexes mutually preferred
+and selected certain individuals of the opposite sex; supposing that
+they selected not only the more attractive, but likewise the more
+vigorous individuals.
+
+
+_Numerical Proportion of the Two Sexes._—I have remarked that sexual
+selection would be a simple affair if the males considerably exceeded in
+number the females. Hence I was led to investigate, as far as I could,
+the proportions between the two sexes of as many animals as possible;
+but the materials are scanty. I will here give only a brief abstract of
+the results, retaining the details for a supplementary discussion, so as
+not to interfere with the course of my argument. Domesticated animals
+alone afford the opportunity of ascertaining the proportional numbers at
+birth; but no records have been specially kept for this purpose. By
+indirect means, however, I have collected a considerable body of
+statistical data, from which it appears that with most of our domestic
+animals the sexes are nearly equal at birth. Thus with race-horses,
+25,560 births have been recorded during twenty-one years, and the male
+births have been to the female births as 99·7 to 100. With greyhounds
+the inequality is greater than with any other animal, for during twelve
+years, out of 6878 births, the male births have been as 110·1 to 100
+female births. It is, however, in some degree doubtful whether it is
+safe to infer that the same proportional numbers would hold good under
+natural conditions as under domestication; for slight and unknown
+differences in the conditions affect to a certain extent the proportion
+of the sexes. Thus with mankind, the male births in England are as
+104·5, in Russia as 108·9, and with the Jews of Livornia as 120 _to_ 100
+females. The proportion is also mysteriously affected by the
+circumstance of the births being legitimate or illegitimate.
+
+For our present purpose we are concerned with the proportion of the
+sexes, not at birth, but at maturity, and this adds another element of
+doubt; for it is a well ascertained fact that with man a considerably
+larger proportion of males than of females die before or during birth,
+and during the first few years of infancy. So it almost certainly is
+with male lambs, and so it may be with the males of other animals. The
+males of some animals kill each other by fighting; or they drive each
+other about until they become greatly emaciated. They must, also, whilst
+wandering about in eager search for the females, be often exposed to
+various dangers. With many kinds of fish the males are much smaller than
+the females, and they are believed often to be devoured by the latter or
+by other fishes. With some birds the females appear to die in larger
+proportion than the males: they are also liable to be destroyed on their
+nests, or whilst in charge of their young. With insects the female larvæ
+are often larger than those of the males, and would consequently be more
+likely to be devoured: in some cases the mature females are less active
+and less rapid in their movements than the males, and would not be so
+well able to escape from danger. Hence, with animals in a state of
+nature, in order to judge of the proportions of the sexes at maturity,
+we must rely on mere estimation; and this, except perhaps when the
+inequality is strongly marked, is but little trustworthy. Nevertheless,
+as far as a judgment can be formed, we may conclude from the facts given
+in the supplement, that the males of some few mammals, of many birds, of
+some fish and insects, considerably exceed in number the females.
+
+The proportion between the sexes fluctuates slightly during successive
+years: thus with race-horses, for every 100 females born, the males
+varied from 107.1 in one year to 92.6 in another year, and with
+greyhounds from 116.3 to 95.3. But had larger numbers been tabulated
+throughout a more extensive area than England, these fluctuations would
+probably have disappeared; and such as they are, they would hardly
+suffice to lead under a state of nature to the effective action of
+sexual selection. Nevertheless with some few wild animals, the
+proportions seem, as shewn in the supplement, to fluctuate either during
+different seasons or in different localities in a sufficient degree to
+lead to such action. For it should be observed that any advantage gained
+during certain years or in certain localities by those males which were
+able to conquer other males, or were the most attractive to the females,
+would probably be transmitted to the offspring and would not
+subsequently be eliminated. During the succeeding seasons, when from the
+equality of the sexes every male was everywhere able to procure a
+female, the stronger or more attractive males previously produced would
+still have at least as good a chance of leaving offspring as the less
+strong or less attractive.
+
+
+_Polygamy._—The practice of polygamy leads to the same results as
+would follow from an actual inequality in the number of the sexes; for
+if each male secures two or more females, many males will not be able to
+pair; and the latter assuredly will be the weaker or less attractive
+individuals. Many mammals and some few birds are polygamous, but with
+animals belonging to the lower classes I have found no evidence of this
+habit. The intellectual powers of such animals are, perhaps, not
+sufficient to lead them to collect and guard a harem of females. That
+some relation exists between polygamy and the development of secondary
+sexual characters, appears nearly certain; and this supports the view
+that a numerical preponderance of males would be eminently favourable to
+the action of sexual selection. Nevertheless many animals, especially
+birds, which are strictly monogamous, display strongly-marked secondary
+sexual characters; whilst some few animals, which are polygamous, are
+not thus characterised.
+
+We will first briefly run through the class of mammals, and then turn to
+birds. The gorilla seems to be a polygamist, and the male differs
+considerably from the female; so it is with some baboons which live in
+herds containing twice as many adult females as males. In South America
+the _Mycetes caraya_ presents well-marked sexual differences in colour,
+beard, and vocal organs, and the male generally lives with two or three
+wives: the male of the _Cebus capucinus_ differs somewhat from the
+female, and appears to be polygamous.[340] Little is known on this head
+with respect to most other monkeys, but some species are strictly
+monogamous. The ruminants are eminently polygamous, and they more
+frequently present sexual differences than almost any other group of
+mammals, especially in their weapons, but likewise in other characters.
+Most deer, cattle, and sheep are polygamous; as are most antelopes,
+though some of the latter are monogamous. Sir Andrew Smith, in speaking
+of the antelopes of South Africa, says that in herds of about a dozen
+there was rarely more than one mature male. The Asiatic _Antilope saiga_
+appears to be the most inordinate polygamist in the world; for
+Pallas[341] states that the male drives away all rivals, and collects a
+herd of about a hundred, consisting of females and kids: the female is
+hornless and has softer hair, but does not otherwise differ much from
+the male. The horse is polygamous, but, except in his greater size and
+in the proportions of his body, differs but little from the mare. The
+wild boar, in his great tusks and some other characters, presents
+well-marked sexual characters; in Europe and in India he leads a
+solitary life, except during the breeding-season; but at this season he
+consorts in India with several females, as Sir W. Elliot, who has had
+large experience in observing this animal, believes: whether this holds
+good in Europe is doubtful, but is supported by some statements. The
+adult male Indian elephant, like the boar, passes much of his time in
+solitude; but when associating with others, “it is rare to find,” as Dr.
+Campbell states, “more than one male with a whole herd of females.” The
+larger males expel or kill the smaller and weaker ones. The male differs
+from the female by his immense tusks and greater size, strength, and
+endurance; so great is the difference in these latter respects, that
+the males when caught are valued at twenty per cent. above the
+females.[342] With other pachydermatous animals the sexes differ very
+little or not at all, and they are not, as far as known, polygamists.
+Hardly a single species amongst the Cheiroptera and Edentata, or in the
+great Orders of the Rodents and Insectivora, presents well-developed
+secondary sexual differences; and I can find no account of any species
+being polygamous, excepting, perhaps, the common rat, the males of
+which, as some rat-catchers affirm, live with several females.
+
+The lion in South Africa, as I hear from Sir Andrew Smith, sometimes
+lives with a single female, but generally with more than one, and, in
+one case, was found with as many as five females, so that he is
+polygamous. He is, as far as I can discover, the sole polygamist in the
+whole group of the terrestrial Carnivora, and he alone presents
+well-marked sexual characters. If, however, we turn to the marine
+Carnivora, the case is widely different; for many species of seals
+offer, as we shall hereafter see, extraordinary sexual differences, and
+they are eminently polygamous. Thus the male sea-elephant of the
+Southern Ocean, always possesses, according to Péron, several females,
+and the sea-lion of Forster is said to be surrounded by from twenty to
+thirty females. In the North, the male sea-bear of Steller is
+accompanied by even a greater number of females.
+
+With respect to birds, many species, the sexes of which differ greatly
+from each other, are certainly monogamous. In Great Britain we see
+well-marked sexual differences in, for instance, the wild-duck which
+pairs with a single female, with the common blackbird, and with the
+bullfinch which is said to pair for life. So it is, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, with the Chatterers or Cotingidæ of South America, and
+numerous other birds. In several groups I have not been able to discover
+whether the species are polygamous or monogamous. Lesson says that birds
+of paradise, so remarkable for their sexual differences, are polygamous,
+but Mr. Wallace doubts whether he had sufficient evidence. Mr. Salvin
+informs me that he has been led to believe that humming-birds are
+polygamous. The male widow-bird; remarkable for his caudal plumes,
+certainly seems to be a polygamist.[343] I have been assured by Mr.
+Jenner Weir and by others, that three starlings not rarely frequent the
+same nest; but whether this is a case of polygamy or polyandry has not
+been ascertained.
+
+The Gallinaceæ present almost as strongly marked sexual differences as
+birds of paradise or humming-birds, and many of the species are, as is
+well known, polygamous; others being strictly monogamous. What a
+contrast is presented between the sexes by the polygamous peacock or
+pheasant, and the monogamous guinea-fowl or partridge! Many similar
+cases could be given, as in the grouse tribe, in which the males of the
+polygamous capercailzie and black-cock differ greatly from the females;
+whilst the sexes of the monogamous red grouse and ptarmigan differ very
+little. Amongst the Cursores, no great number of species offer
+strongly-marked sexual differences, except the bustards, and the great
+bustard (_Otis tarda_), is said to be polygamous. With the Grallatores,
+extremely few species differ sexually, but the ruff (_Machetes pugnax_)
+affords a strong exception, and this species is believed by Montagu to
+be a polygamist. Hence it appears that with birds there often exists a
+close relation between polygamy and the development of strongly-marked
+sexual differences. On asking Mr. Bartlett, at the Zoological Gardens,
+who has had such large experience with birds, whether the male tragopan
+(one of the Gallinaceæ) was polygamous, I was struck by his answering,
+“I do not know, but should think so from his splendid colours.”
+
+It deserves notice that the instinct of pairing with a single female is
+easily lost under domestication. The wild-duck is strictly monogamous,
+the domestic-duck highly polygamous. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+with some half-tamed wild-ducks, kept on a large pond in his
+neighbourhood, so many mallards were shot by the gamekeeper that only
+one was left for every seven or eight females; yet unusually large
+broods were reared. The guinea-fowl is strictly monogamous; but Mr. Fox
+finds that his birds succeed best when he keeps one cock to two or three
+hens.[344] Canary-birds pair in a state of nature, but the breeders in
+England successfully put one male to four or five females; nevertheless
+the first female, as Mr. Fox has been assured, is alone treated as the
+wife, she and her young ones being fed by him; the others are treated as
+concubines. I have noticed these cases, as it renders it in some degree
+probable that monogamous species, in a state of nature, might readily
+become either temporarily or permanently polygamous.
+
+With respect to reptiles and fishes, too little is known of their habits
+to enable us to speak of their marriage arrangements. The stickle-back
+Gasterosteus, however, is said to be a polygamist;[345] and the male
+during the breeding-season differs conspicuously from the female.
+
+To sum up on the means through which, as far as we can judge, sexual
+selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters. It
+has been shewn that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be
+reared from the pairing of the strongest and best-armed males, which
+have conquered other males, with the most vigorous and best-nourished
+females, which are the first to breed in the spring. Such females, if
+they select the more attractive, and at the same time vigorous, males,
+will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded females, which
+must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive males. So it will
+be if the more vigorous males select the more attractive and at the same
+time healthy and vigorous females; and this will especially hold good if
+the male defends the female, and aids in providing food for the young.
+The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in rearing a larger
+number of offspring has apparently sufficed to render sexual selection
+efficient. But a large preponderance in number of the males over the
+females would be still more efficient; whether the preponderance was
+only occasional and local, or permanent; whether it occurred at birth,
+or subsequently from the greater destruction of the females; or whether
+it indirectly followed from the practice of polygamy.
+
+
+_The Male generally more modified than the Female._—Throughout the
+animal kingdom, when the sexes differ from each other in external
+appearance, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, has been chiefly
+modified; for the female still remains more like the young of her own
+species, and more like the other members of the same group. The cause of
+this seems to lie in the males of almost all animals having stronger
+passions than the females. Hence it is the males that fight together and
+sedulously display their charms before the females; and those which are
+victorious transmit their superiority to their male offspring. Why the
+males do not transmit their characters to both sexes will hereafter be
+considered. That the males of all mammals eagerly pursue the females is
+notorious to every one. So it is with birds; but many male birds do not
+so much pursue the female, as display their plumage, perform strange
+antics, and pour forth their song, in her presence. With the few fish
+which have been observed, the male seems much more eager than the
+female; and so it is with alligators, and apparently with Batrachians.
+Throughout the enormous class of insects, as Kirby remarks,[346] “the
+law is, that the male shall seek the female.” With spiders and
+crustaceans, as I hear from two great authorities, Mr. Blackwall and Mr.
+C. Spence Bate, the males are more active and more erratic in their
+habits than the females. With insects and crustaceans, when the organs
+of sense or locomotion are present in the one sex and absent in the
+other, or when, as is frequently the case, they are more highly
+developed in the one than the other, it is almost invariably the male,
+as far as I can discover, which retains such organs, or has them most
+developed; and this shews that the male is the more active member in the
+courtship of the sexes.[347]
+
+The female, on the other hand, with the rarest exception, is less eager
+than the male. As the illustrious Hunter[348] long ago observed, she
+generally “requires to be courted;” she is coy, and may often be seen
+endeavouring for a long time to escape from the male. Every one who has
+attended to the habits of animals will be able to call to mind instances
+of this kind. Judging from various facts, hereafter to be given, and
+from the results which may fairly be attributed to sexual selection, the
+female, though comparatively passive, generally exerts some choice and
+accepts one male in preference to others. Or she may accept, as
+appearances would sometimes lead us to believe, not the male which is
+the most attractive to her, but the one which is the least distasteful.
+The exertion of some choice on the part of the female seems almost as
+general a law as the eagerness of the male.
+
+We are naturally led to enquire why the male in so many and such widely
+distinct classes has been rendered more eager than the female, so that
+he searches for her and plays the more active part in courtship. It
+would be no advantage and some loss of power if both sexes were mutually
+to search for each other; but why should the male almost always be the
+seeker? With plants, the ovules after fertilisation have to be nourished
+for a time; hence the pollen is necessarily brought to the female
+organs—being placed on the stigma, through the agency of insects or of
+the wind, or by the spontaneous movements of the stamens; and with the
+Algæ, &c., by the locomotive power of the antherozooids. With
+lowly-organised animals permanently affixed to the same spot and having
+their sexes separate, the male element is invariably brought to the
+female; and we can see the reason; for the ova, even if detached before
+being fertilised and not requiring subsequent nourishment or protection,
+would be, from their larger relative size, less easily transported than
+the male element. Hence plants[349] and many of the lower animals are,
+in this respect, analogous. In the case of animals not affixed to the
+same spot, but enclosed within a shell with no power of protruding any
+part of their bodies, and in the case of animals having little power of
+locomotion, the males must trust the fertilising element to the risk of
+at least a short transit through the waters of the sea. It would,
+therefore, be a great advantage to such animals, as their organisation
+became perfected, if the males when ready to emit the fertilising
+element, were to acquire the habit of approaching the female as closely
+as possible. The males of various lowly-organised animals having thus
+aboriginally acquired the habit of approaching and seeking the females,
+the same habit would naturally be transmitted to their more highly
+developed male descendants; and in order that they should become
+efficient seekers, they would have to be endowed with strong passions.
+The acquirement of such passions would naturally follow from the more
+eager males leaving a larger number of offspring than the less eager.
+
+The great eagerness of the male has thus indirectly led to the much
+more frequent development of secondary sexual characters in the male
+than in the female. But the development of such characters will have
+been much aided, if the conclusion at which I arrived after studying
+domesticated animals, can be trusted, namely, that the male is more
+liable to vary than the female. I am aware how difficult it is to verify
+a conclusion of this kind. Some slight evidence, however, can be gained
+by comparing the two sexes in mankind, as man has been more carefully
+observed than any other animal. During the Novara Expedition[350] a vast
+number of measurements of various parts of the body in different races
+were made, and the men were found in almost every case to present a
+greater range of variation than the women; but I shall have to recur to
+this subject in a future chapter. Mr. J. Wood,[351] who has carefully
+attended to the variation of the muscles in man, puts in italics the
+conclusion that “the greatest number of abnormalities in each subject is
+found in the males.” He had previously remarked that “altogether in 102
+subjects the varieties of redundancy were found to be half as many again
+as in females, contrasting widely with the greater frequency of
+deficiency in females before described.” Professor Macalister like wise
+remarks[352] that variations in the muscles “are probably more common in
+males than females.” Certain muscles which are not normally present in
+mankind are also more frequently developed in the male than in the
+female sex, although exceptions to this rule are said to occur. Dr.
+Burt Wilder[353] has tabulated the cases of 152 individuals with
+supernumerary digits, of which 86 were males, and 39, or less than half,
+females; the remaining 27 being of unknown sex. It should not, however,
+be overlooked that women would more frequently endeavour to conceal a
+deformity of this kind than men. Whether the large proportional number
+of deaths of the male offspring of man and apparently of sheep, compared
+with the female offspring, before, during, and shortly after birth (see
+supplement), has any relation to a stronger tendency in the organs of
+the male to vary and thus to become abnormal in structure or function, I
+will not pretend to conjecture.
+
+In various classes of animals a few exceptional cases occur, in which
+the female instead of the male has acquired well pronounced secondary
+sexual characters, such as brighter colours, greater size, strength, or
+pugnacity. With birds, as we shall hereafter see, there has sometimes
+been a complete transposition of the ordinary characters proper to each
+sex; the females having become the more eager in courtship, the males
+remaining comparatively passive, but apparently selecting, as we may
+infer from the results, the more attractive females. Certain female
+birds have thus been rendered more highly coloured or otherwise
+ornamented, as well as more powerful and pugnacious than the males,
+these characters being transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+It may be suggested that in some cases a double process of selection has
+been carried on; the males having selected the more attractive females,
+and the latter the more attractive males. This process however, though
+it might lead to the modification of both sexes, would not make the one
+sex different from the other, unless indeed their taste for the
+beautiful differed; but this is a supposition too improbable in the case
+of any animal, excepting man, to be worth considering. There are,
+however, many animals, in which the sexes resemble each other, both
+being furnished with the same ornaments, which analogy would lead us to
+attribute to the agency of sexual selection. In such cases it may be
+suggested with more plausibility, that there has been a double or mutual
+process of sexual selection; the more vigorous and precocious females
+having selected the more attractive and vigorous males, the latter
+having rejected all except the more attractive females. But from what we
+know of the habits of animals, this view is hardly probable, the male
+being generally eager to pair with any female. It is more probable that
+the ornaments common to both sexes were acquired by one sex, generally
+the male, and then transmitted to the offspring of both sexes. If,
+indeed, during a lengthened period the males of any species were greatly
+to exceed the females in number, and then during another lengthened
+period under different conditions the reverse were to occur, a double,
+but not simultaneous, process of sexual selection might easily be
+carried on, by which the two sexes might be rendered widely different.
+
+We shall hereafter see that many animals exist, of which neither sex is
+brilliantly coloured or provided with special ornaments, and yet the
+members of both sexes or of one alone have probably been modified
+through sexual selection. The absence of bright tints or other ornaments
+may be the result of variations of the right kind never having occurred,
+or of the animals themselves preferring simple colours, such as plain
+black or white. Obscure colours have often been acquired through natural
+selection for the sake of protection, and the acquirement through
+sexual selection of conspicuous colours, may have been checked from the
+danger thus incurred. But in other cases the males have probably
+struggled together during long ages, through brute force, or by the
+display of their charms, or by both means combined, and yet no effect
+will have been produced unless a larger number of offspring were left by
+the more successful males to inherit their superiority, than by the less
+successful males; and this, as previously shewn, depends on various
+complex contingencies.
+
+Sexual selection acts in a less rigorous manner than natural selection.
+The latter produces its effects by the life or death at all ages of the
+more or less successful individuals. Death, indeed, not rarely ensues
+from the conflicts of rival males. But generally the less successful
+male merely fails to obtain a female, or obtains later in the season a
+retarded and less vigorous female, or, if polygamous, obtains fewer
+females; so that they leave fewer, or less vigorous, or no offspring. In
+regard to structures acquired through ordinary or natural selection,
+there is in most cases, as long as the conditions of life remain the
+same, a limit to the amount of advantageous modification in relation to
+certain special ends; but in regard to structures adapted to make one
+male victorious over another, either in fighting or in charming the
+female, there is no definite limit to the amount of advantageous
+modification; so that as long as the proper variations arise the work of
+sexual selection will go on. This circumstance may partly account for
+the frequent and extraordinary amount of variability presented by
+secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless, natural selection will
+determine that characters of this kind shall not be acquired by the
+victorious males, which would be injurious to them in any high degree,
+either by expending too much of their vital powers, or by exposing them
+to any great danger. The development, however, of certain structures—of
+the horns, for instance, in certain stags—has been carried to a
+wonderful extreme; and in some instances to an extreme which, as far as
+the general conditions of life are concerned, must be slightly injurious
+to the male. From this fact we learn that the advantages which favoured
+males have derived from conquering other males in battle or courtship,
+and thus leaving a numerous progeny, have been in the long run greater
+than those derived from rather more perfect adaptation to the external
+conditions of life. We shall further see, and this could never have been
+anticipated, that the power to charm the female has been in some few
+instances more important than the power to conquer other males in
+battle.
+
+
+LAWS OF INHERITANCE.
+
+In order to understand how sexual selection has acted, and in the course
+of ages has produced conspicuous results with many animals of many
+classes, it is necessary to bear in mind the laws of inheritance, as far
+as they are known. Two distinct elements are included under the term
+“inheritance,” namely the transmission and the development of
+characters; but as these generally go together, the distinction is often
+overlooked. We see this distinction in those characters which are
+transmitted through the early years of life, but are developed only at
+maturity or during old age. We see the same distinction more clearly
+with secondary sexual characters, for these are transmitted through both
+sexes, though developed in one alone. That they are present in both
+sexes, is manifest when two species, having strongly-marked sexual
+characters, are crossed, for each transmits the characters proper to
+its own male and female sex to the hybrid offspring of both sexes. The
+same fact is likewise manifest, when characters proper to the male are
+occasionally developed in the female when she grows old or becomes
+diseased; and so conversely with the male. Again, characters
+occasionally appear, as if transferred from the male to the female, as
+when, in certain breeds of the fowl, spurs regularly appear in the young
+and healthy females; but in truth they are simply developed in the
+female; for in every breed each detail in the structure of the spur is
+transmitted through the female to her male offspring. In all cases of
+reversion, characters are transmitted through two, three, or many
+generations, and are then under certain unknown favourable conditions
+developed. This important distinction between transmission and
+development will be easiest kept in mind by the aid of the hypothesis of
+pangenesis, whether or not it be accepted as true. According to this
+hypothesis, every unit or cell of the body throws off gemmules or
+undeveloped atoms, which are transmitted to the offspring of both sexes,
+and are multiplied by self-division. They may remain undeveloped during
+the early years of life or during successive generations; their
+development into units or cells, like those from which they were
+derived, depending on their affinity for, and union with, other units or
+cells previously developed in the due order of growth.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Periods of Life._—This tendency is well
+established. If a new character appears in an animal whilst young,
+whether it endures throughout life or lasts only for a time, it will
+reappear, as a general rule, at the same age and in the same manner in
+the offspring. If, on the other hand, a new character appears at
+maturity, or even during old age, it tends to reappear in the offspring
+at the same advanced age. When deviations from this rule occur, the
+transmitted characters much oftener appear before than after the
+corresponding age. As I have discussed this subject at sufficient length
+in another work,[354] I will here merely give two or three instances,
+for the sake of recalling the subject to the reader’s mind. In several
+breeds of the Fowl, the chickens whilst covered with down, in their
+first true plumage, and in their adult plumage, differ greatly from each
+other, as well as from their common parent-form, the _Gallus bankiva_;
+and these characters are faithfully transmitted by each breed to their
+offspring at the corresponding period of life. For instance, the
+chickens of spangled Hamburghs, whilst covered with down, have a few
+dark spots on the head and rump, but are not longitudinally striped, as
+in many other breeds; in their first true plumage, “they are beautifully
+pencilled,” that is each feather is transversely marked by numerous dark
+bars; but in their second plumage the feathers all become spangled or
+tipped with a dark round spot.[355] Hence in this breed variations have
+occurred and have been transmitted at three distinct periods of life.
+The Pigeon offers a more remarkable case, because the aboriginal
+parent-species does not undergo with advancing age any change of
+plumage, excepting that at maturity the breast becomes more iridescent;
+yet there are breeds which do not acquire their characteristic colours
+until they have moulted two, three, or four times; and these
+modifications of plumage are regularly transmitted.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Seasons of the Year._—With animals in a
+state of nature innumerable instances occur of characters periodically
+appearing at different seasons. We see this with the horns of the stag,
+and with the fur of arctic animals which becomes thick and white during
+the winter. Numerous birds acquire bright colours and other decorations
+during the breeding-season alone. I can throw but little light on this
+form of inheritance from facts observed under domestication. Pallas
+states,[356] that in Siberia domestic cattle and horses periodically
+become lighter-coloured during the winter; and I have observed a similar
+marked change of colour in certain ponies in England. Although I do not
+know that this tendency to assume a differently coloured coat during
+different seasons of the year is transmitted, yet it probably is so, as
+all shades of colour are strongly inherited by the horse. Nor is this
+form of inheritance, as limited by season, more remarkable than
+inheritance as limited by age or sex.
+
+
+_Inheritance as Limited by Sex._—The equal transmission of characters
+to both, sexes is the commonest form of inheritance, at least with those
+animals which do not present strongly-marked sexual differences, and
+indeed with many of these. But characters are not rarely transferred
+exclusively to that sex, in which they first appeared. Ample evidence on
+this head has been advanced in my work on Variation under
+Domestication; but a few instances may here be given. There are breeds
+of the sheep and goat, in which the horns of the male differ greatly in
+shape from those of the female; and these differences, acquired under
+domestication, are regularly transmitted to the same sex. With
+tortoise-shell cats the females alone, as a general rule, are thus
+coloured, the males being rusty-red. With most breeds of the fowl, the
+characters proper to each sex are transmitted to the same sex alone. So
+general is this form of transmission that it is an anomaly when we see
+in certain breeds variations transmitted equally to both sexes. There
+are also certain sub-breeds of the fowl in which the males can hardly be
+distinguished from each other, whilst the females differ considerably in
+colour. With the pigeon the sexes of the parent-species do not differ in
+any external character; nevertheless in certain domesticated breeds the
+male is differently coloured from the female.[357] The wattle in the
+English Carrier pigeon and the crop in the Pouter are more highly
+developed in the male than in the female; and although these characters
+have been gained through long-continued selection by man, the difference
+between the two sexes is wholly due to the form of inheritance which has
+prevailed; for it has arisen, not from, but rather in opposition to, the
+wishes of the breeder.
+
+Most of our domestic races have been formed by the accumulation of many
+slight variations; and as some of the successive steps have been
+transmitted to one sex alone, and some to both sexes, we find in the
+different breeds of the same species all gradations between great sexual
+dissimilarity and complete similarity. Instances have already been
+given with the breeds of the fowl and pigeon; and under nature analogous
+cases are of frequent occurrence. With animals under domestication, but
+whether under nature I will not venture to say, one sex may lose
+characters proper to it, and may thus come to resemble to a certain
+extent the opposite sex; for instance, the males of some breeds of the
+fowl have lost their masculine plumes and hackles. On the other hand the
+differences between the sexes may be increased under domestication, as
+with merino sheep, in which the ewes have lost their horns. Again,
+characters proper to one sex may suddenly appear in the other sex; as
+with those sub-breeds of the fowl in which the hens whilst young acquire
+spurs; or, as in certain Polish sub-breeds, in which the females, as
+there is reason to believe, originally acquired a crest, and
+subsequently transferred it to the males. All these cases are
+intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis; for they depend on the
+gemmules of certain units of the body, although present in both sexes,
+becoming through the influence of domestication dormant in the one sex;
+or if naturally dormant, becoming developed.
+
+There is one difficult question which it will be convenient to defer to
+a future chapter; namely, whether a character at first developed in both
+sexes, can be rendered through selection limited in its development to
+one sex alone. If, for instance, a breeder observed that some of his
+pigeons (in which species characters are usually transferred in an equal
+degree to both sexes) varied into pale blue; could he by long-continued
+selection make a breed, in which the males alone should be of this tint,
+whilst the females remained unchanged? I will here only say, that this,
+though perhaps not impossible, would be extremely difficult; for the
+natural result of breeding from the pale-blue males would be to change
+his whole stock, including both sexes, into this tint. If, however,
+variations of the desired tint appeared, which were from the first
+limited in their development to the male sex, there would not be the
+least difficulty in making a breed characterised by the two sexes being
+of a different colour, as indeed has been effected with a Belgian breed,
+in which the males alone are streaked with black. In a similar manner,
+if any variation appeared in a female pigeon, which was from the first
+sexually limited in its development, it would be easy to make a breed
+with the females alone thus characterised; but if the variation was not
+thus originally limited, the process would be extremely difficult,
+perhaps impossible.
+
+
+_On the Relation between the period of Development of a Character and
+its transmission to one sex or to both sexes._—Why certain characters
+should be inherited by both sexes, and other characters by one sex
+alone, namely by that sex in which the character first appeared, is in
+most cases quite unknown. We cannot even conjecture why with certain
+sub-breeds of the pigeon, black striæ, though transmitted through the
+female, should be developed in the male alone, whilst every other
+character is equally transferred to both sexes. Why, again, with cats,
+the tortoise-shell colour should, with rare exceptions, be developed in
+the female alone. The very same characters, such as deficient or
+supernumerary digits, colour-blindness, &c., may with mankind be
+inherited by the males alone of one family, and in another family by the
+females alone, though in both cases transmitted through the opposite as
+well as the same sex.[358] Although we are thus ignorant, two rules
+often hold good, namely that variations which, first appear in either
+sex at a late period of life, tend to be developed in the same sex
+alone; whilst variations which first appear early in life in either sex
+tend to be developed in both sexes. I am, however, far from supposing
+that this is the sole determining cause. As I have not elsewhere
+discussed this subject, and as it has an important bearing on sexual
+selection, I must here enter into lengthy and somewhat intricate
+details.
+
+It is in itself probable that any character appearing at an early age
+would tend to be inherited equally by both sexes, for the sexes do not
+differ much in constitution, before the power of reproduction is gained.
+On the other hand, after this power has been gained and the sexes have
+come to differ in constitution, the gemmules (if I may again use the
+language of pangenesis) which are cast off from each varying part in the
+one sex would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities for
+uniting with the tissues of the same sex, and thus becoming developed,
+than with those of the opposite sex.
+
+I was first led to infer that a relation of this kind exists, from the
+fact that whenever and in whatever manner the adult male has come to
+differ from the adult female, he differs in the same manner from the
+young of both sexes. The generality of this fact is quite remarkable: it
+holds good with almost all mammals, birds, amphibians, and fishes; also
+with many crustaceans, spiders and some few insects, namely certain
+orthoptera and libellulæ. In all these cases the variations, through the
+accumulation of which the male acquired his proper masculine characters,
+must have occurred at a somewhat late period of life; otherwise the
+young males would have been similarly characterised; and conformably
+with our rule, they are transmitted to and developed in the adult males
+alone. When, on the other hand, the adult male closely resembles the
+young of both sexes (these, with rare exceptions, being alike), he
+generally resembles the adult female; and in most of these cases the
+variations through which the young and old acquired their present
+characters, probably occurred in conformity with our rule during youth.
+But there is here room for doubt, as characters are sometimes
+transferred to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which they
+first appeared in the parents, so that the parents may have varied when
+adult, and have transferred their characters to their offspring whilst
+young. There are, moreover, many animals, in which the two sexes closely
+resemble each other, and yet both differ from their young; and here the
+characters of the adults must have been acquired late in life;
+nevertheless, these characters in apparent contradiction to our rule,
+are transferred to both sexes. We must not, however, overlook the
+possibility or even probability of successive variations of the same
+nature sometimes occurring, under exposure to similar conditions,
+simultaneously in both sexes at a rather late period of life; and in
+this case the variations would be transferred to the offspring of both
+sexes at a corresponding late age; and there would be no real
+contradiction to our rule of the variations which occur late in life
+being transferred exclusively to the sex in which they first appeared.
+This latter rule seems to hold true more generally than the second rule,
+namely, that variations which occur in either sex early in life tend to
+be transferred to both sexes. As it was obviously impossible even to
+estimate in how large a number of cases throughout the animal kingdom
+these two propositions hold good, it occurred to me to investigate some
+striking or crucial instances, and to rely on the result.
+
+An excellent case for investigation is afforded by the Deer Family. In
+all the species, excepting one, the horns are developed in the male
+alone, though certainly transmitted through the female, and capable of
+occasional abnormal development in her. In the reindeer, on the other
+hand, the female is provided with horns; so that in this species, the
+horns ought, according to our rule, to appear early in life, long before
+the two sexes had arrived at maturity and had come to differ much in
+constitution. In all the other species of deer the horns ought to appear
+later in life, leading to their development in that sex alone, in which
+they first appeared in the progenitor of the whole Family. Now in seven
+species, belonging to distinct sections of the family and inhabiting
+different regions, in which the stags alone bear horns, I find that the
+horns first appear at periods varying from nine months after birth in
+the roebuck to ten or twelve or even more months in the stags of the six
+other larger species.[359] But with the reindeer the case is widely
+different, for as I hear from Prof. Nilsson, who kindly made special
+enquiries for me in Lapland, the horns appear in the young animals
+within four or five weeks after birth, and at the same time in both
+sexes. So that here we have a structure, developed at a most unusually
+early age in one species of the family, and common to both sexes in this
+one species.
+
+In several kinds of antelopes the males alone are provided with horns,
+whilst in the greater number both sexes have horns. With respect to the
+period of development, Mr. Blyth informs me that there lived at one time
+in the Zoological Gardens a young koodoo (_Ant. strepsiceros_), in which
+species the males alone are horned, and the young of a closely-allied
+species, viz. the eland (_Ant. oreas_), in which both sexes are horned.
+Now in strict conformity with our rule, in the young male koodoo,
+although arrived at the age of ten months, the horns were remarkably
+small considering the size ultimately attained by them: whilst in the
+young male eland, although only three months old, the horns were already
+very much larger than in the koodoo. It is also worth notice that in the
+prong-horned antelope,[360] in which species the horns, though present
+in both sexes, are almost rudimentary in the female, they do not appear
+until about five or six months after birth. With sheep, goats, and
+cattle, in which the horns are well developed in both sexes, though not
+quite equal in size, they can be felt, or even seen, at birth or soon
+afterwards.[361] Our rule, however, fails in regard to some breeds of
+sheep, for instance merinos, in which the rams alone are horned; for I
+cannot find on enquiry,[362] that the horns are developed later in life
+in this breed than in ordinary sheep in which both sexes are horned. But
+with domesticated sheep the presence or absence of horns is not a firmly
+fixed character; a certain proportion of the merino ewes bearing small
+horns, and some of the rams being hornless; whilst with ordinary sheep
+hornless ewes are occasionally produced.
+
+In most of the species of the splendid family of the Pheasants, the
+males differ conspicuously from the females, and they acquire their
+ornaments at a rather late period of life. The eared pheasant
+(_Crossoptilon auritum_), however, offers a remarkable exception, for
+both sexes possess the fine caudal plumes, the large ear-tufts and the
+crimson velvet about the head; and I find on enquiry in the Zoological
+Gardens that all these characters, in accordance with our rule, appear
+very early in life. The adult male can, however, be distinguished from
+the adult female by one character, namely by the presence of spurs; and
+conformably with our rule, these do not begin to be developed, as I am
+assured by Mr. Bartlett, before the age of six months, and even at this
+age, can hardly be distinguished in the two sexes.[363] The male and
+female Peacock differ conspicuously from each other in almost every
+part of their plumage, except in the elegant head-crest, which is common
+to both sexes; and this is developed very early in life, long before the
+other ornaments which are confined to the male. The wild-duck offers an
+analogous case, for the beautiful green speculum on the wings is common
+to both sexes, though duller and somewhat smaller in the female, and it
+is developed early in life, whilst the curled tail-feathers and other
+ornaments peculiar to the male are developed later.[364] Between such
+extreme cases of close sexual resemblance and wide dissimilarity, as
+those of the Crossoptilon and peacock, many intermediate ones could be
+given, in which the characters follow in their order of development our
+two rules.
+
+As most insects emerge from their pupal state in a mature condition, it
+is doubtful whether the period of development determines the
+transference of their characters to one or both sexes. But we do not
+know that the coloured scales, for instance, in two species of
+butterflies, in one of which the sexes differ in colour, whilst in the
+other they are alike, are developed at the same relative age in the
+cocoon. Nor do we know whether all the scales are simultaneously
+developed on the wings of the same species of butterfly, in which
+certain coloured marks are confined to one sex, whilst other marks are
+common to both sexes. A difference of this kind in the period of
+development is not so improbable as it may at first appear; for with the
+Orthoptera, which assume their adult state, not by a single
+metamorphosis, but by a succession of moults, the young males of some
+species at first resemble the females, and acquire their distinctive
+masculine characters only during a later moult. Strictly analogous cases
+occur during the successive moults of certain male crustaceans.
+
+We have as yet only considered the transference of characters,
+relatively to their period of development, with species in a natural
+state; we will now turn to domesticated animals; first touching on
+monstrosities and diseases. The presence of supernumerary digits, and
+the absence of certain phalanges, must be determined at an early
+embryonic period—the tendency to profuse bleeding is at least
+congenital, as is probably colour-blindness—yet these peculiarities,
+and other similar ones, are often limited in their transmission to one
+sex; so that the rule that characters which are developed at an early
+period tend to be transmitted to both sexes, here wholly fails. But this
+rule, as before remarked, does not appear to be nearly so generally true
+as the converse proposition, namely, that characters which appear late
+in life in one sex are transmitted exclusively to the same sex. From the
+fact of the above abnormal peculiarities becoming attached to one sex,
+long before the sexual functions are active, we may infer that there
+must be a difference of some kind between the sexes at an extremely
+early age. With respect to sexually-limited diseases, we know too little
+of the period at which they originate, to draw any fair conclusion.
+Gout, however, seems to fall under our rule; for it is generally caused
+by intemperance after early youth, and is transmitted from the father to
+his sons in a much more marked manner than to his daughters.
+
+In the various domestic breeds of sheep, goats, and cattle, the males
+differ from their respective females in the shape or development of
+their horns, forehead, mane, dewlap, tail, and hump on the shoulders;
+and these peculiarities, in accordance with our rule, are not fully
+developed until rather late in life. With dogs, the sexes do not differ,
+except that in certain breeds, especially in the Scotch deer-hound, the
+male is much larger and heavier than the female; and as we shall see in
+a future chapter, the male goes on increasing in size to an unusually
+late period of life, which will account, according to our rule, for his
+increased size being transmitted to his male offspring alone. On the
+other hand, the tortoise-shell colour of the hair, which is confined to
+female cats, is quite distinct at birth, and this case violates our
+rule. There is a breed of pigeons in which the males alone are streaked
+with black, and the streaks can be detected even in the nestlings; but
+they become more conspicuous at each successive moult, so that this case
+partly opposes and partly supports the rule. With the English Carrier
+and Pouter pigeon the full development of the wattle and the crop occurs
+rather late in life, and these characters, conformably with our rule,
+are transmitted in full perfection to the males alone. The following
+cases perhaps come within the class previously alluded to, in which the
+two sexes have varied in the same manner at a rather late period of
+life, and have consequently transferred their new characters to both
+sexes at a corresponding late period; and if so, such cases are not
+opposed to our rule. Thus there are sub-breeds of the pigeon, described
+by Neumeister,[365] both sexes of which change colour after moulting
+twice or thrice, as does likewise the Almond Tumbler; nevertheless these
+changes, though occurring rather late in life, are common to both sexes.
+One variety of the Canary-bird, namely the London Prize, offers a nearly
+analogous case.
+
+With the breeds of the Fowl the inheritance of various characters by one
+sex or by both sexes, seems generally determined by the period at which
+such characters are developed. Thus in all the many breeds in which the
+adult male differs greatly in colour from the female and from the adult
+male parent-species, he differs from the young male, so that the newly
+acquired characters must have appeared at a rather late period of life.
+On the other hand with most of the breeds in which the two sexes
+resemble each other, the young are coloured in nearly the same manner as
+their parents, and this renders it probable that their colours first
+appeared early in life. We have instances of this fact in all black and
+white breeds, in which the young and old of both sexes are alike; nor
+can it be maintained that there is something peculiar in a black or
+white plumage, leading to its transference to both sexes; for the males
+alone of many natural species are either black or white, the females
+being very differently coloured. With the so-called Cuckoo sub-breeds of
+the fowl, in which the feathers are transversely pencilled with dark
+stripes, both sexes and the chickens are coloured in nearly the same
+manner. The laced plumage of the Sebright bantam is the same in both
+sexes, and in the chickens the feathers are tipped with black, which
+makes a near approach to lacing. Spangled Hamburghs, however, offer a
+partial exception, for the two sexes, though not quite alike, resemble
+each other more closely than do the sexes of the aboriginal
+parent-species, yet they acquire their characteristic plumage late in
+life, for the chickens are distinctly pencilled. Turning to other
+characters besides colour: the males alone of the wild parent-species
+and of most domestic breeds possess a fairly well developed comb, but in
+the young of the Spanish fowl it is largely developed at a very early
+age, and apparently in consequence of this it is of unusual size in the
+adult females. In the Game breeds pugnacity is developed at a
+wonderfully early age, of which curious proofs could be given; and this
+character is transmitted to both sexes, so that the hens, from their
+extreme pugnacity, are now generally exhibited in separate pens. With
+the Polish breeds the bony protuberance of the skull which supports the
+crest is partially developed even before the chickens are hatched, and
+the crest itself soon begins to grow, though at first feebly;[366] and
+in this breed a great bony protuberance and an immense crest
+characterise the adults of both sexes.
+
+Finally, from what we have now seen of the relation which exists in many
+natural species and domesticated races, between the period of the
+development of their characters and the manner of their
+transmission—for example the striking fact of the early growth of the
+horns in the reindeer, in which both sexes have horns, in comparison
+with their much later growth in the other species in which the male
+alone bears horns—we may conclude that one cause, though not the sole
+cause, of characters being exclusively inherited by one sex, is their
+development at a late age. And secondly, that one, though apparently a
+less efficient, cause of characters being inherited by both sexes is
+their development at an early age, whilst the sexes differ but little in
+constitution. It appears, however, that some difference must exist
+between the sexes even during an early embryonic period, for characters
+developed at this age not rarely become attached to one sex.
+
+
+_Summary and concluding remarks._—From the foregoing discussion on the
+various laws of inheritance, we learn that characters often or even
+generally tend to become developed in the same sex, at the same age, and
+periodically at the same season of the year, in which they first
+appeared in the parents. But these laws, from unknown causes, are very
+liable to change. Hence the successive steps in the modification of a
+species might readily be transmitted in different ways; some of the
+steps being transmitted to one sex, and some to both; some to the
+offspring at one age, and some at all ages. Not only are the laws of
+inheritance extremely complex, but so are the causes which induce and
+govern variability. The variations thus caused are preserved and
+accumulated by sexual selection, which is in itself an extremely complex
+affair, depending, as it does, on ardour in love, courage, and the
+rivalry of the males, and on the powers of perception, taste, and will
+of the female. Sexual selection will also be dominated by natural
+selection for the general welfare of the species. Hence the manner in
+which the individuals of either sex or of both sexes are affected
+through sexual selection cannot fail to be complex in the highest
+degree.
+
+When variations occur late in life in one sex, and are transmitted to
+the same sex at the same age, the other sex and the young are
+necessarily left unmodified. When they occur late in life, but are
+transmitted to both sexes at the same age, the young alone are left
+unmodified. Variations, however, may occur at any period of life in one
+sex or in both, and be transmitted to both sexes at all ages, and then
+all the individuals of the species will be similarly modified. In the
+following chapters it will be seen that all these cases frequently occur
+under nature.
+
+Sexual selection can never act on any animal whilst young, before the
+age for reproduction has arrived. From the great eagerness of the male
+it has generally acted on this sex and not on the females. The males
+have thus become provided with weapons for fighting with their rivals,
+or with organs for discovering and securely holding the female, or for
+exciting and charming her. When the sexes differ in these respects, it
+is also, as we have seen, an extremely general law that the adult male
+differs more or less from the young male; and we may conclude from this
+fact that the successive variations, by which the adult male became
+modified, cannot have occurred much before the age for reproduction. How
+then are we to account for this general and remarkable coincidence
+between the period of variability and that of sexual selection,—
+principles which are quite independent of each other? I
+think we can see the cause: it is not that the males have never varied
+at an early age, but that such variations have commonly been lost,
+whilst those occurring at a later age have been preserved.
+
+All animals produce more offspring than can survive to maturity; and we
+have every reason to believe that death falls heavily on the weak and
+inexperienced young. If then a certain proportion of the offspring were
+to vary at birth or soon afterwards, in some manner which at this age
+was of no service to them, the chance of the preservation of such
+variations would be small. We have good evidence under domestication how
+soon variations of all kinds are lost, if not selected. But variations
+which occurred at or near maturity, and which were of immediate service
+to either sex, would probably be preserved; as would similar variations
+occurring at an earlier period in any individuals which happened to
+survive. As this principle has an important bearing on sexual selection,
+it may be advisable to give an imaginary illustration. We will take a
+pair of animals, neither very fertile nor the reverse, and assume that
+after arriving at maturity they live on an average for five years,
+producing each year five young. They would thus produce 25 offspring;
+and it would not, I think, be an unfair estimate to assume that 18 or 20
+out of the 25 would perish before maturity, whilst still young and
+inexperienced; the remaining seven or five sufficing to keep up the
+stock of mature individuals. If so, we can see that variations which
+occurred during youth, for instance in brightness, and which were not of
+the least service to the young, would run a good chance of being utterly
+lost. Whilst similar variations, which occurring at or near maturity in
+the comparatively few individuals surviving to this age, and which
+immediately gave an advantage to certain males, by rendering them more
+attractive to the females, would be likely to be preserved. No doubt
+some of the variations in brightness which occurred at an earlier age
+would by chance be preserved, and eventually give to the male the same
+advantage as those which appeared later; and this will account for the
+young males commonly partaking to a certain extent (as may be observed
+with many birds) of the bright colours of their adult male parents. If
+only a few of the successive variations in brightness were to occur at a
+late age, the adult male would be only a little brighter than the young
+male; and such cases are common.
+
+In this illustration I have assumed that the young varied in a manner
+which was of no service to them; but many characters proper to the adult
+male would be actually injurious to the young,—as bright colours from
+making them conspicuous, or horns of large size from expending much
+vital force. Such variations in the young would promptly be eliminated
+through natural selection. With the adult and experienced males, on the
+other hand, the advantage thus derived in their rivalry with other males
+would often more than counterbalance exposure to some degree of danger.
+Thus we can understand how it is that variations which must originally
+have appeared rather late in life have alone or in chief part been
+preserved for the development of secondary sexual characters; and the
+remarkable coincidence between the periods of variability and of sexual
+selection is intelligible.
+
+As variations which give to the male an advantage in lighting with other
+males, or in finding, securing, or charming the female, would be of no
+use to the female, they will not have been preserved in this sex either
+during youth or maturity. Consequently such variations would be
+extremely liable to be lost; and the female, as far as these characters
+are concerned, would be left unmodified, excepting in so far as she may
+have received them by transference from the male. No doubt if the female
+varied and transferred serviceable characters to her male offspring,
+these would be favoured through sexual selection; and then both sexes
+would thus far be modified in the same manner. But I shall hereafter
+have to recur to these more intricate contingencies.
+
+In the following chapters, I shall treat of the secondary sexual
+characters in animals of all classes, and shall endeavour in each case
+to apply the principles explained in the present chapter. The lowest
+classes will detain us for a very short time, but the higher animals,
+especially birds, must be treated at considerable length. It should be
+borne in mind that for reasons already assigned, I intend to give only a
+few illustrative instances of the innumerable structures by the aid of
+which the male finds the female, or, when found, holds her. On the other
+hand, all structures and instincts by which the male conquers other
+males, and by which he allures or excites the female, will be fully
+discussed, as these are in many ways the most interesting.
+
+
+_Supplement on the proportional numbers of the two sexes in animals
+belonging to various classes._
+
+
+As no one, as far as I can discover, has paid attention to the relative
+numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal kingdom, I will here give
+such materials as I have been able to collect, although they are
+extremely imperfect. They consist in only a few instances of actual
+enumeration, and the numbers are not very large. As the proportions are
+known with certainty on a large scale in the case of man alone, I will
+first give them, as a standard of comparison.
+
+
+_Man._—In England during ten years (from 1857 to 1866) 707,120 children
+on an annual average have been born alive, in the proportion of 104.5
+males to 100 females. But in 1857 the male births throughout England
+were as 105.2, and in 1865 as 104.0 to 100. Looking to separate
+districts, in Buckinghamshire (where on an average 5000 children are
+annually born) the _mean_ proportion of male to female births, during
+the whole period of the above ten years, was as 102.8 to 100; whilst in
+N. Wales (where the average annual births are 12,873) it was as high as
+106.2 to 100. Taking a still smaller district, viz., Rutlandshire (where
+the annual births average only 739), in 1864 the male births were as
+114.6, and in 1862 as 97.0 to 100; but even in this small district the
+average of the 7385 births during the whole ten years was as 104.5 to
+100; that is in the same ratio as throughout England.[367] The
+proportions are sometimes slightly disturbed by unknown causes; thus
+Prof. Faye states “that in some districts of Norway there has been
+during a decennial period a steady deficiency of boys, whilst in others
+the opposite condition has existed.” In France during forty-four years
+the male to the female births have been as 106.2 to 100; but during this
+period it has occurred five times in one department, and six times in
+another, that the female births have exceeded the males. In Russia the
+average proportion is as high as 108.9 to 100.[368] It is a singular
+fact that with Jews the proportion of male births is decidedly larger
+than with Christians: thus in Prussia the proportion is as 113, in
+Breslau as 114, and in Livonia as 120 to 100; the Christian births in
+these countries being the same as usual, for instance, in Livonia as 104
+to 100.[369] It is a still more singular fact that in different nations,
+under different conditions and climates, in Naples, Prussia, Westphalia,
+France and England, the excess of male over female births is less when
+they are illegitimate than when legitimate.[370]
+
+In various parts of Europe, according to Prof. Faye and other authors,
+“a still greater preponderance of males would be met with, if death
+struck both sexes in equal proportion in the womb and during birth. But
+the fact is, that for every 100 still-born females, we have in several
+countries from 134.6 to 144.9 still-born males.” Moreover during the
+first four or five years of life more male children die than females;
+“for example in England, during the first year, 126 boys die
+for every 100 girls,—a proportion which in France is still more
+unfavourable.”[371] As a consequence of this excess in the death-rate of
+male children, and of the exposure of men when adult to various dangers,
+and of their tendency to emigrate, the females in all old-settled
+countries, where statistical records have been kept,[372] are found to
+preponderate considerably over the males.
+
+It has often been supposed that the relative ages of the parents
+determine the sex of the offspring; and Prof. Leuckart[373] has advanced
+what he considers sufficient evidence, with respect to man and certain
+domesticated animals, to shew that this is one important factor in the
+result. So again the period of impregnation has been thought to be the
+efficient cause; but recent observations discountenance this belief.
+Again, with mankind polygamy has been supposed to lead to the birth of a
+greater proportion of female infants; but Dr. J. Campbell[374] carefully
+attended to this subject in the harems of Siam, and he concludes that
+the proportion of male to female births is the same as from monogamous
+unions. Hardly any animal has been rendered so highly polygamous as our
+English race-horses, and we shall immediately see that their male and
+female offspring are almost exactly equal in number.
+
+
+  _Horses._—Mr. Tegetmeier has been so kind as to tabulate for
+  me from the ‘Racing Calendar’ the births of race-horses during
+  a period of twenty-one years, viz. from 1846 to 1867; 1849
+  being omitted, as no returns were that year published. The
+  total births have been 25,560,[375] consisting of 12,763 males
+  and 12,797 females, or in the proportion of 99.7 males to 100
+  females. As these numbers are tolerably large, and as they are
+  drawn from all parts of England, during several years, we may
+  with much confidence conclude that with the domestic horse, or
+  at least with the race-horse, the two sexes are produced in
+  almost equal numbers. The fluctuations in the proportions
+  during successive years are closely like those which occur with
+  mankind, when a small and thinly-populated area is considered:
+  thus in 1856 the male horses were as 107.1, and in 1867 as only
+  92.6 to 100 females. In the tabulated returns the proportions
+  vary in cycles, for the males exceeded the females during six
+  successive years; and the females exceeded the males during two
+  periods each of four years: this, however, may be accidental;
+  at least I can detect nothing of the kind with man in the
+  decennial table in the Registrar’s Report for 1866. I may add
+  that certain, mares, and this holds good with certain cows and
+  with women, tend to produce more of one sex than of the other;
+  Mr. Wright of Yeldersley House, informs me that one of his Arab
+  mares, though put seven times to different horses, produced
+  seven fillies.
+
+
+  _Dogs._—During a period of twelve years, from 1857 to 1868,
+  the births of a large number of greyhounds, throughout England,
+  have been sent to the ‘Field’ newspaper; and I am again
+  indebted to Mr. Tegetmeier for carefully tabulating the
+  results. The recorded, births have been 6878, consisting of
+  3605 males and 3273 females, that is, in the proportion of
+  110.1 males to 100 females. The greatest fluctuations occurred
+  in 1864, when the proportion was as 95.3 males, and in 1867, as
+  116.3 males to 100 females. The above average proportion of
+  110.1 to 100 is probably nearly correct in the case of the
+  greyhound, but whether it would hold with other domesticated
+  breeds is in some degree doubtful. Mr. Cupples has enquired
+  from several great breeders of dogs, and finds that all without
+  exception believe that females are produced in excess; he
+  suggests that this belief may have arisen from females being
+  less valued and the consequent disappointment producing a
+  stronger impression on the mind.
+
+
+  _Sheep._—The sexes of sheep are not ascertained by
+  agriculturists until several months after birth, at the period
+  when the males are castrated; so that the following returns do
+  not give the proportions at birth. Moreover, I find that
+  several great breeders in Scotland, who annually raise some
+  thousand sheep, are firmly convinced that a larger proportion
+  of males than of females die during the first one or two years;
+  therefore the proportion of males would be somewhat greater at
+  birth than at the age of castration. This is a remarkable
+  coincidence with what occurs, as we have seen, with mankind,
+  and both cases probably depend on some common cause. I have
+  received returns from four gentlemen in England who have bred
+  lowland sheep, chiefly Leicesters, during the last ten or
+  sixteen years; they amount altogether to 8965 births,
+  consisting of 4407 males and 4558 females; that is in the
+  proportion of 96.7 males to 100 females. With respect to
+  Cheviot and black-faced sheep bred in Scotland, I have received
+  returns from six breeders, two of them on a large scale,
+  chiefly for the years 1867-1869, but some of the returns
+  extending back to 1862. The total number recorded amounts to
+  50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 females, or in
+  the proportion of 97.9 males to 100 females. If we take the
+  English and Scotch returns together, the total number amounts
+  to 59,650, consisting of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or
+  as 97·7 to 100. So that with sheep at the age of castration the
+  females are certainly in excess of the males; but whether this
+  would hold good at birth is doubtful, owing to the greater
+  liability in the males to early death.[376]
+
+  Of _Cattle_ I have received returns from nine gentlemen of 982
+  births, too few to be trusted; these consisted of 477
+  bull-calves and 505 cow-calves; _i.e._ in the proportion of
+  94·4 males to 100 females. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+  in 1867 out of 34 calves born on a farm in Derbyshire only one
+  was a bull. Mr. Harrison Weir writes to me that he has enquired
+  from several breeders of _Pigs_, and most of them estimate the
+  male to the female births as about 7 to 6. This same gentleman
+  has bred _Rabbits_ for many years, and has noticed that a far
+  greater number of bucks are produced than does.
+
+  Of mammalia in a state of nature I have been able to learn very
+  little. In regard to the common rat, I have received
+  conflicting statements. Mr. R. Elliot of Laighwood, informs me
+  that a rat-catcher assured him that he had always found the
+  males in great excess, even with the young in the nest. In
+  consequence of this, Mr. Elliot himself subsequently examined
+  some hundred old ones, and found the statement true. Mr. F.
+  Buckland has bred a large number of white rats, and he also
+  believes that the males greatly exceed the females. In regard
+  to Moles, it is said that “the males are much more numerous
+  than the females;”[377] and as the catching of these animals is
+  a special occupation, the statement may perhaps be trusted. Sir
+  A. Smith, in describing an antelope of S. Africa[378] (_Kobus
+  ellipsiprymnus_), remarks, that in the herds of this and other
+  species, the males are few in number compared with the females:
+  the natives believe that they are born in this proportion;
+  others believe that the younger males are expelled from the
+  herds, and Sir A. Smith says, that though he has himself never
+  seen herds consisting of young males alone, others affirm that
+  this does occur. It appears probable that the young males when
+  expelled from the herd, would be likely to fell a prey to the
+  many beasts of prey of the country.
+
+
+  BIRDS.
+
+  With respect to the _Fowl_, I have received only one account,
+  namely, that out of 1001 chickens of a highly-bred stock of
+  Cochins, reared during eight years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved
+  males and 514 females: _i.e._ as 94.7 to 100. In regard to
+  domestic pigeons there is good evidence that the males are
+  produced in excess, or that their lives are longer; for these
+  birds invariably pair, and single males, as Mr. Tegetmeier
+  informs me, can always be purchased cheaper than females.
+  Usually the two birds reared from the two eggs laid in the same
+  nest consist of a male and female; but Mr. Harrison Weir, who
+  has been so large a breeder, says that he has often bred two
+  cocks from the same nest, and seldom two hens; moreover the hen
+  is generally the weaker of the two, and more liable to perish.
+
+  With respect to birds in a state of nature, Mr. Gould and
+  others[379] are convinced that the males are generally the more
+  numerous; and as the young males of many species resemble the
+  females, the latter would naturally appear to be the most
+  numerous. Large numbers of pheasants are reared by Mr. Baker of
+  Leadenhall from eggs laid by wild birds, and he informs Mr.
+  Jenner Weir that four or five males to one female are generally
+  produced. An experienced observer remarks[380] that in
+  Scandinavia the broods of the capercailzie and black-cock
+  contain more males than females; and that with the Dal-ripa (a
+  kind of ptarmigan) more males than females attend the _leks_ or
+  places of courtship; but this latter circumstance is accounted
+  for by some observers by a greater number of hen birds being
+  killed by vermin. From various facts given by White of
+  Selbourne,[381] it seems clear that the males of the partridge
+  must be in considerable excess in the south of England; and I
+  have been assured that this is the case in Scotland. Mr. Weir
+  on enquiring from the dealers who receive at certain seasons
+  large numbers of ruffs (_Machetes pugnax_) was told that the
+  males are much the most numerous. This same naturalist has also
+  enquired for me from the bird-catchers, who annually catch an
+  astonishing number of various small species alive for the
+  London market, and he was unhesitatingly answered by an old and
+  trustworthy man, that with the chaffinch the males are in large
+  excess; he thought as high as 2 males to 1 female, or at least
+  as high as 5 to 3.[382] The males of the blackbird, he likewise
+  maintained, were by far the most numerous, whether caught by
+  traps or by netting at night. These statements may apparently
+  be trusted, because the same man said that the sexes are about
+  equal with the lark, the twite (_Linaria montana_), and
+  goldfinch. On the other hand he is certain that with the common
+  linnet, the females preponderate greatly, but unequally during
+  different years; during some years he has found the females to
+  the males as four to one. It should, however, be borne in mind,
+  that the chief season for catching birds does not begin till
+  September, so that with some species partial migrations may
+  have begun, and the flocks at this period often consist of hens
+  alone. Mr. Salvin paid particular attention to the sexes of the
+  humming-birds in Central America, and he is convinced that with
+  most of the species the males are in excess; thus one year he
+  procured 204 specimens belonging to ten species, and these
+  consisted of 166 males and of 38 females. With two other
+  species the females were in excess: but the proportions
+  apparently vary either during different seasons or in different
+  localities; for on one occasion the males of _Campylopterus
+  hemileucurus_ were to the females as five to two, and on
+  another occasion[383] in exactly the reversed ratio. As bearing
+  on this latter point, I may add, that Mr. Powys found in Corfu
+  and Epirus the sexes of the chaffinch keeping apart, and “the
+  females by far the most numerous;” whilst in Palestine Mr.
+  Tristram found “the male flocks appearing greatly to exceed the
+  female in number.”[384] So again with the _Quiscalus major_,
+  Mr. G. Taylor[385] says, that in Florida there were “very few
+  females in proportion to the males,” whilst in Honduras the
+  proportion was the other way, the species there having the
+  character of a polygamist.
+
+
+  FISH.
+
+  With Fish the proportional numbers of the sexes can be
+  ascertained only by catching them in the adult or nearly adult
+  state; and there are many difficulties in arriving at any just
+  conclusion.[386] Infertile females might readily be mistaken
+  for males, as Dr. Günther has remarked to me in regard to
+  trout. With some species the males are believed to die soon
+  after fertilising the ova. With many species the males are of
+  much smaller size than the females, so that a large number of
+  males would escape from the same net by which the females were
+  caught. M. Carbonnier,[387] who has especially attended to the
+  natural history of the pike (_Esox lucius_) states that many
+  males, owing to their small size, are devoured by the larger
+  females; and he believes that the males of almost all fish are
+  exposed from the same cause to greater danger than the females.
+  Nevertheless in the few cases in which the proportional numbers
+  have been actually observed, the males appear to be largely in
+  excess. Thus Mr. R. Buist, the superintendent of the
+  Stormontfield experiments, says that in 1865, out of 70 salmon
+  first landed for the purpose of obtaining the ova, upwards of
+  60 were males. In 1867 he again “calls attention to the vast
+  disproportion of the males to the females. We had at the outset
+  at least ten males to one female.” Afterwards sufficient
+  females for obtaining ova were procured. He adds, “from the
+  great proportion of the males, they are constantly fighting and
+  tearing each other on the spawning-beds.”[388] This
+  disproportion, no doubt, can be accounted for in part, but
+  whether wholly is very doubtful, by the males ascending the
+  rivers before the females. Mr. F. Buckland remarks in regard to
+  trout, that “it is a curious fact that the males preponderate
+  very largely in number over the females. It _invariably_
+  happens that when the first rush of fish is made to the net,
+  there will be at least seven or eight males to one female found
+  captive. I cannot quite account for this; either the males are
+  more numerous than the females, or the latter seek safety by
+  concealment rather than flight.” He then adds, that by
+  carefully searching the banks, sufficient females for obtaining
+  ova can be found.[389] Mr. H. Lee informs me that out of 212
+  trout, taken for this purpose in Lord Portsmouth’s park, 150
+  were males and 62 females.
+
+  With the Cyprinidæ the males likewise seem to be in excess; but
+  several members of this Family, viz., the carp, tench, bream
+  and minnow, appear regularly to follow the practice, rare in
+  the animal kingdom, of polyandry; for the female whilst
+  spawning is always attended by two males, one on each side, and
+  in the case of the bream by three or four males. This fact is
+  so well known, that it is always recommended to stock a pond
+  with two male tenches to one female, or at least with three
+  males to two females. With the minnow, an excellent observer
+  states, that on the spawning-beds the males are ten times as
+  numerous as the females; when a female comes amongst the males,
+  “she is immediately pressed closely by a male on each side; and
+  when they have been in that situation for a time, are
+  superseded by other two males.”[390]
+
+
+  INSECTS.
+
+  In this class, the Lepidoptera alone afford the means of
+  judging of the proportional numbers of the sexes; for they have
+  been collected with special care by many good observers, and
+  have been largely bred from the egg or caterpillar state. I had
+  hoped that some breeders of silk-moths might have kept an exact
+  record, but after writing to France and Italy, and consulting
+  various treatises, I cannot find that this has ever been done.
+  The general opinion appears to be that the sexes are nearly
+  equal, but in Italy as I hear from Professor Canestrini, many
+  breeders are convinced that the females are produced in excess.
+  The same naturalist, however, informs me, that in the two
+  yearly broods of the Ailanthus silk-moth (_Bombyx cynthia_),
+  the males greatly preponderate in the first, whilst in the
+  second the two sexes are nearly equal, or the females rather in
+  excess.
+
+  In regard to Butterflies in a state of nature, several
+  observers have been much struck by the apparently enormous
+  preponderance of the males.[391] Thus Mr. Bates,[392] in
+  speaking of the species, no less than about a hundred in
+  number, which inhabit the Upper Amazons, says that the males
+  are much more numerous than the females, even in the proportion
+  of a hundred to one. In North America, Edwards, who had great
+  experience, estimates in the genus Papilio the males to the
+  females as four to one; and Mr. Walsh, who informed me of this
+  statement, says that with _P. turnus_ this is certainly the
+  case. In South Africa, Mr. R. Trimen found the males in excess
+  in 19 species;[393] and in one of these, which swarms in open
+  places, he estimated the number of males as fifty to one
+  female. With another species, in which the males are numerous
+  in certain localities, he collected during seven years only
+  five females. In the island of Bourbon, M. Maillard states that
+  the males of one species of Papilio are twenty times as
+  numerous as the females.[394] Mr. Trimen informs me that as far
+  as he has himself seen, or heard from others, it is rare for
+  the females of any butterfly to exceed in number the males; but
+  this is perhaps the case with three South African species. Mr.
+  Wallace[395] states that the females of _Ornithoptera
+  crœsus_, in the Malay archipelago, are more common and more
+  easily caught than the males; but this is a rare butterfly. I
+  may here add, that in Hyperythra, a genus of moths, Guenée
+  says, that from four to five females are sent in collections
+  from India for one male.
+
+  When this subject of the proportional numbers of the sexes of
+  insects was brought before the Entomological Society,[396] it
+  was generally admitted that the males of most Lepidoptera, in
+  the adult or imago state, are caught in greater numbers than
+  the females; but this fact was attributed by various observers
+  to the more retiring habits of the females, and to the males
+  emerging earlier from the cocoon. This latter circumstance is
+  well known to occur with most Lepidoptera, as well as with
+  other insects. So that, as M. Personnat remarks, the males of
+  the domesticated _Bombyx yamamai_, are lost at the beginning of
+  the season, and the females at the end, from the want of
+  mates.[397] I cannot however persuade myself that these causes
+  suffice to explain the great excess of males in the cases,
+  above given, of butterflies which are extremely common in their
+  native countries. Mr. Stainton, who has paid such close
+  attention during many years to the smaller moths, informs me
+  that when he collected them in the imago state, he thought that
+  the males were ten times as numerous as the females, but that
+  since he has reared them on a large scale from the caterpillar
+  state, he is convinced that the females are the most numerous.
+  Several entomologists concur in this view. Mr. Doubleday,
+  however, and some others, take an opposite view, and are
+  convinced that they have reared from the egg and caterpillar
+  states a larger proportion of males than of females.
+
+  Besides the more active habits of the males, their earlier
+  emergence from the cocoon, and their frequenting in some cases
+  more open stations, other causes may be assigned for an
+  apparent or real difference in the proportional numbers of the
+  sexes of Lepidoptera, when captured in the imago state, and
+  when reared from the egg or caterpillar state. It is believed
+  by many breeders in Italy, as I hear from Professor Canestrini,
+  that the female caterpillar of the silk-moth suffers more from
+  the recent disease than the male; and Dr. Staudinger informs me
+  that in rearing Lepidoptera more females die in the cocoon than
+  males. With many species the female caterpillar is larger than
+  the male, and a collector would naturally choose the finest
+  specimens, and thus unintentionally collect a larger number of
+  females. Three collectors have told me that this was their
+  practice; but Dr. Wallace is sure that most collectors take all
+  the specimens which they can find of the rarer kinds, which
+  alone are worth the trouble of rearing. Birds when surrounded
+  by caterpillars would probably devour the largest; and
+  Professor Canestrini informs me that in Italy some breeders
+  believe, though on insufficient evidence, that in the first
+  brood of the Ailanthus silk-moth, the wasps destroy a larger
+  number of the female than of the male caterpillars. Dr. Wallace
+  further remarks that female caterpillars, from being larger
+  than the males, require more time for their development and
+  consume more food and moisture; and thus they would be exposed
+  during a longer time to danger from ichneumons, birds, &c., and
+  in times of scarcity would perish in greater numbers. Hence it
+  appears quite possible that, in a state of nature, fewer female
+  Lepidoptera may reach maturity than males; and for our special
+  object we are concerned with the numbers at maturity, when the
+  sexes are ready to propagate their kind.
+
+  The manner in which the males of certain moths congregate in
+  extraordinary numbers round a single female, apparently
+  indicates a great excess of males, though this fact may perhaps
+  be accounted for by the earlier emergence of the males from
+  their cocoons. Mr. Stainton informs me that from twelve to
+  twenty males may often be seen congregated round a female
+  _Elachista rufocinerea_. It is well known that if a virgin
+  _Lasiocampa quercus_ or _Saturnia carpini_ be exposed in a
+  cage, vast numbers of males collect round her, and if confined
+  in a room will even come down the chimney to her. Mr.
+  Doubleday believes that he has seen from fifty to a hundred
+  males of both these species attracted in the course of a single
+  day by a female under confinement. Mr. Trimen exposed in the
+  Isle of Wight a box in which a female of the Lasiocampa had
+  been confined on the previous day, and five males soon
+  endeavoured to gain admittance. M. Verreaux, in Australia,
+  having placed the female of a small Bombyx in a box in his
+  pocket, was followed by a crowd of males, so that about 200
+  entered the house with him.[398]
+
+  Mr. Doubleday has called my attention to Dr. Staudinger’s[399]
+  list of Lepidoptera, which gives the prices of the males and
+  females of 300 species or well-marked varieties of
+  (Rhopalocera) butterflies. The prices for both sexes of the
+  very common species are of course the same; but with 114 of the
+  rarer species they differ; the males being in all cases,
+  excepting one, the cheapest. On an average of the prices of the
+  113 species, the price of the male to that of the female is as
+  100 to 149; and this apparently indicates that inversely the
+  males exceed the females in number in the same proportion.
+  About 2000 species or varieties of moths (Heterocera) are
+  catalogued, those with wingless females being here excluded on
+  account of the difference in habits of the two sexes: of these
+  2000 species, 141 differ in price according to sex, the males
+  of 130 being cheaper, and the males of only 11 being dearer
+  than the females. The average price of the males of the 130
+  species, to that of the females, is as 100 to 143. With respect
+  to the butterflies in this priced list, Mr. Doubleday thinks
+  (and no man in England has had more experience), that there is
+  nothing in the habits of the species which can account for the
+  difference in the prices of the two sexes, and that it can be
+  accounted for only by an excess in the numbers of the males.
+  But I am bound to add that Dr. Staudinger himself, as he
+  informs me, is of a different opinion. He thinks that the less
+  active habits of the females and the earlier emergence of the
+  males will account for his collectors securing a larger number
+  of males than of females, and consequently for the lower prices
+  of the former With respect to specimens reared from the
+  caterpillar-state, Dr. Staudinger believes, as previously
+  stated, that a greater number of females than of males die
+  under confinement in the cocoons. He adds that with certain
+  species one sex seems to preponderate over the other during
+  certain years.
+
+  Of direct observations on the sexes of Lepidoptera, reared
+  either from eggs or caterpillars, I have received only the few
+  following cases:—
+
+  ———————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————————
+                                                    Males. | Females.
+  The Rev. J. Hellins[400] of Exeter reared, during        |
+    1868, imagos of 73 species, which consisted of   153   |   137
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Albert Jones of Eltham reared, during 1868,          |
+    imagos of 9 species, which, consisted of         159   |   126
+                                                           |
+  During 1869 he reared imagos from 4 species,             |
+    consisting of                                    114   |   112
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Buckler of Emsworth, Hants, during 1869,             |
+    reared imagos from 74 species, consisting of     180   |   169
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace of Colchester reared from one brood          |
+    of Bombyx cynthia                                 52   |    48
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, from cocoons of Bombyx               |
+    Pernyi sent from China, during 1869              224   |   123
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, during 1868 and 1869,                |
+    from two lots of cocoons of Bombyx yamamai        52   |    46
+                                                    ———————+——————
+                        Total                        934   |   761
+  —————————————————————————————————————————————————————————+—————————
+
+  So that in these eight lots of cocoons and eggs, males were
+  produced in excess. Taken together the proportion of males is
+  as 122.7 to 100 females. But the numbers are hardly large
+  enough to be trustworthy.
+
+  On the whole, from the above various sources of evidence, all
+  pointing to the same direction, I infer that with most species
+  of Lepidoptera, the males in the imago state generally exceed
+  the females in number, whatever the proportions may be at their
+  first emergence from the egg.
+
+  With reference to the other Orders of insects, I have been able
+  to collect very little reliable information. With the
+  stag-beetle (_Lucanus cervus_) “the males appear to be much
+  more numerous than the females;” but when, as Cornelius
+  remarked during 1867, an unusual number of these beetles
+  appeared in one part of Germany, the females appeared to exceed
+  the males as six so one. With one of the Elateridæ, the males
+  are said to be much more numerous than the females, and “two or
+  three are often found united with one female;”[401] so that here
+  polyandry seems to prevail. With Siagonium (Staphylinidæ), in
+  which the males are furnished with horns, “the females are far
+  more numerous than the opposite sex.” Mr. Janson stated at the
+  Entomological Society that the females of the bark-feeding
+  _Tomicus villosus_ are so common as to be a plague, whilst the
+  males are so rare as to be hardly known. In other Orders, from
+  unknown causes, but apparently in some instances owing to
+  parthenogenesis, the males of certain species have never been
+  discovered or are excessively rare, as with several of the
+  Cynipidæ.[402] In all the gall-making Cynipidæ known to Mr.
+  Walsh, the females are four or five times as numerous as the
+  males; and so it is, as he informs me, with the gall-making
+  Cecidomyiiæ (Diptera). With some common species of Saw-flies
+  (Tenthredinæ) Mr. F. Smith has reared hundreds of specimens
+  from larvæ of all sizes, but has never reared a single male: on
+  the other hand Curtis says,[403] that with certain species
+  (Athalia), bred by him, the males to the females were as six to
+  one; whilst exactly the reverse occurred with the mature
+  insects of the same species caught in the fields. With the
+  Neuroptera, Mr. Walsh states that in many, but by no means in
+  all, the species of the Odonatous groups (Ephemerina), there is
+  a great overplus of males: in the genus Hetærina, also, the
+  males are generally at least four times as numerous as the
+  females. In certain species in the genus Gomphus the males are
+  equally numerous, whilst in two other species, the females are
+  twice or thrice as numerous as the males. In some European
+  species of Psocus thousands of females may be collected without
+  a single male, whilst with other species of the same genus both
+  sexes are common.[404] In England, Mr. MacLachlan has captured
+  hundreds of the female _Apatania muliebris_, but has never seen
+  the male; and of _Boreus hyemalis_ only four or five males have
+  been here seen.[405] With most of these species (excepting, as
+  I have heard, with the Tenthredinæ) there is no reason to
+  suppose that the females are subject to parthenogenesis; and
+  thus we see how ignorant we are on the causes of the apparent
+  discrepancy in the proportional numbers of the two sexes.
+
+  In the other Classes of the Articulata I have been able to
+  collect still less information. With Spiders, Mr. Blackwall,
+  who has carefully attended to this class during many years,
+  writes to me that the males from their more erratic habits are
+  more commonly seen, and therefore appear to be the more
+  numerous. This is actually the case with a few species; but he
+  mentions several species in six genera, in which the females
+  appear to be much more numerous than the males.[406] The small
+  size of the males in comparison with the females, which is
+  sometimes carried to an extreme degree, and their widely
+  different appearance, may account in some instances for their
+  rarity in collections.[407]
+
+  Some of the lower Crustaceans are able to propagate their kind
+  asexually, and this will account for the extreme rarity of the
+  males. With some other forms (as with Tanais and Cypris) there
+  is reason to believe, as Fritz Müller informs me, that the male
+  is much shorter-lived than the female, which, supposing the two
+  sexes to be at first equal in number, would explain the
+  scarcity of the males. On the other hand this same naturalist
+  has invariably taken, on the shores of Brazil, far more males
+  than females of the Diastylidæ and of Cypridina; thus with a
+  species in the latter genus, 63 specimens caught the same day,
+  included 57 males; but he suggests that this preponderance may
+  be due to some unknown difference in the habits of the two
+  sexes. With one of the higher Brazilian crabs, namely a
+  Gelasimus, Fritz Müller found the males to be more numerous
+  than the females. The reverse seems to be the case, according
+  to the large experience of Mr. C. Spence Bate, with six common
+  British crabs, the names of which he has given me.
+
+
+_On the Power of Natural Selection to regulate the proportional Numbers
+of the Sexes, and General Fertility._—In some peculiar cases, an excess
+in the number of one sex over the other might be a great advantage to a
+species, as with the sterile females of social insects, or with those
+animals in which more than one male is requisite to fertilise the
+female, as with certain cirripedes and perhaps certain fishes. An
+inequality between the sexes in these cases might have been acquired
+through natural selection, but from their rarity they need not here be
+further considered. In all ordinary cases an inequality would be no
+advantage or disadvantage to certain individuals more than to others;
+and therefore it could hardly have resulted from natural selection. We
+must attribute the inequality to the direct action of those unknown
+conditions, which with mankind lead to the males being born in a
+somewhat larger excess in certain countries than in others, or which
+cause the proportion between the sexes to differ slightly in legitimate
+and illegitimate births.
+
+Let us now take the case of a species producing from the unknown causes
+just alluded to, an excess of one sex—we will say of males—these being
+superfluous and useless, or nearly useless. Could the sexes be equalised
+through natural selection? We may feel sure, from all characters being
+variable, that certain pairs would produce a somewhat less excess of
+males over females than other pairs. The former, supposing the actual
+number of the offspring to remain constant, would necessarily produce
+more females, and would therefore be more productive. On the doctrine of
+chances a greater number of the offspring of the more productive pairs
+would survive; and these would inherit a tendency to procreate fewer
+males and more females. Thus a tendency towards the equalisation of the
+sexes would be brought about. But our supposed species would by this
+process be rendered, as just remarked, more productive; and this would
+in many cases be far from an advantage; for whenever the limit to the
+numbers which exist, depends, not on destruction by enemies, but on the
+amount of food, increased fertility will lead to severer competition and
+to most of the survivors being badly fed. In this case, if the sexes
+were equalised by an increase in the number of the females, a
+simultaneous decrease in the total number of the offspring would be
+beneficial, or even necessary, for the existence of the species; and
+this, I believe, could be effected through natural selection in the
+manner hereafter to be described. The same train of reasoning is
+applicable in the above, as well as in the following case, if we assume
+that females instead of males are produced in excess, for such females
+from not uniting with males would be superfluous and useless. So it
+would be with polygamous species, if we assume the excess of females to
+be inordinately great.
+
+An excess of either sex, we will again say of the males, could, however,
+apparently be eliminated through natural selection in another and
+indirect manner, namely by an actual diminution of the males, without
+any increase of the females, and consequently without any increase in
+the productiveness of the species. From the variability of all
+characters, we may feel assured that some pairs, inhabiting any
+locality, would produce a rather smaller excess of superfluous males,
+but an equal number of productive females. When the offspring from the
+more and the less male-productive parents were all mingled together,
+none would have any direct advantage over the others; but those that
+produced few superfluous males would have one great indirect advantage,
+namely that their ova or embryos would probably be larger and finer, or
+their young better nurtured in the womb and afterwards. We see this
+principle illustrated with plants; as those which bear a vast number of
+seed produce small ones; whilst those which bear comparatively few
+seeds, often produce large ones well-stocked with nutriment for the use
+of the seedlings.[408] Hence the offspring of the parents which had
+wasted least force in producing superfluous males would be the most
+likely to survive, and would inherit the same tendency not to produce
+superfluous males, whilst retaining their full fertility in the
+production of females. So it would be with the converse case of the
+female sex. Any slight excess, however, of either sex could hardly be
+checked in so indirect a manner. Nor indeed has a considerable
+inequality between the sexes been always prevented, as we have seen in
+some of the cases given in the previous discussion. In these cases the
+unknown causes which determine the sex of the embryo, and which under
+certain conditions lead to the production of one sex in excess over the
+other, have not been mastered by the survival of those varieties which
+were subjected to the least waste of organised matter and force by the
+production of superfluous individuals of either sex. Nevertheless we may
+conclude that natural selection will always tend, though sometimes
+inefficiently, to equalise the relative numbers of the two sexes.
+
+Having said this much on the equalisation of the sexes, it may be well
+to add a few remarks on the regulation through natural selection of the
+ordinary fertility of species. Mr. Herbert Spencer has shewn in an able
+discussion[409] that with all organisms a ratio exists between what he
+calls individuation and genesis; whence it follows that beings which
+consume much matter or force in their growth, complicated structure or
+activity, or which produce ova and embryos of large size, or which
+expend much energy in nurturing their young, cannot be so productive as
+beings of an opposite nature. Mr. Spencer further shews that minor
+differences in fertility will be regulated through natural selection.
+Thus the fertility of each species will tend to increase, from the more
+fertile pairs producing a larger number of offspring, and these from
+their mere number will have the best chance of surviving, and will
+transmit their tendency to greater fertility. The only check to a
+continued augmentation of fertility in each organism seems to be either
+the expenditure of more power and the greater risks run by the parents
+that produce a more numerous progeny, or the contingency of very
+numerous eggs and young being produced of smaller size, or less
+vigorous, or subsequently not so well nurtured. To strike a balance in
+any case between the disadvantages which follow from the production of a
+numerous progeny, and the advantages (such as the escape of at least
+some individuals from various dangers) is quite beyond our power of
+judgment.
+
+When an organism has once been rendered extremely fertile, how its
+fertility can be reduced through natural selection is not so clear as
+how this capacity was first acquired. Yet it is obvious that if
+individuals of a species, from a decrease of their natural enemies, were
+habitually reared in larger numbers than could be supported, all the
+members would suffer. Nevertheless the offspring from the less fertile
+parents would have no direct advantage over the offspring from the more
+fertile parents, when all were mingled together in the same district.
+All the individuals would mutually tend to starve each other. The
+offspring indeed of the less fertile parents would lie under one great
+disadvantage, for from the simple fact of being produced in smaller
+numbers, they would be the most liable to extermination. Indirectly,
+however, they would partake of one great advantage; for under the
+supposed condition of severe competition, when all were pressed for
+food, it is extremely probable that those individuals which from some
+variation in their constitution produced fewer eggs or young, would
+produce them of greater size or vigour; and the adults reared from such
+eggs or young would manifestly have the best chance of surviving, and
+would inherit a tendency towards lessened fertility. The parents,
+moreover, which had to nourish or provide for fewer offspring would
+themselves be exposed to a less severe strain in the struggle for
+existence, and would have a better chance of surviving. By these steps,
+and by no others as far as I can see, natural selection under the above
+conditions of severe competition for food, would lead to the formation
+of a new race less fertile, but better adapted for survival, than the
+parent-race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
+
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes—Brilliant
+  colours—Mollusca—Annelids—Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity—Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males—Myriapoda.
+
+
+In the lowest classes the two sexes are not rarely united in the same
+individual, and therefore secondary sexual characters cannot be
+developed. In many cases in which the two sexes are separate, both are
+permanently attached to some support, and the one cannot search or
+struggle for the other. Moreover it is almost certain that these animals
+have too imperfect senses and much too low mental powers to feel mutual
+rivalry, or to appreciate each other’s beauty or other attractions.
+
+Hence in these classes, such as the Protozoa, Cœlenterata,
+Echinodermata, Scolecida, true secondary sexual characters do not occur;
+and this fact agrees with the belief that such characters in the higher
+classes have been acquired through sexual selection, which depends on
+the will, desires, and choice of either sex. Nevertheless some few
+apparent exceptions occur; thus, as I hear from Dr. Baird, the males of
+certain Entozoa, or internal parasitic worms, differ slightly in colour
+from the females; but we have no reason to suppose that such differences
+have been augmented through sexual selection.
+
+Many of the lower animals, whether hermaphrodites or with the sexes
+separate, are ornamented with the most brilliant tints, or are shaded
+and striped in an elegant manner. This is the case with many corals and
+sea-anemonies (Actiniæ), with some jelly-fish (Medusæ, Porpita, &c.),
+with some Planariæ, Ascidians, numerous Star-fishes, Echini, &c.; but we
+may conclude from the reasons already indicated, namely the union of the
+two sexes in some of these animals, the permanently affixed condition of
+others, and the low mental powers of all, that such colours do not serve
+as a sexual attraction, and have not been acquired through sexual
+selection. With the higher animals the case is very different; for with
+them when one sex is much more brilliantly or conspicuously coloured
+than the other, and there is no difference in the habits of the two
+sexes which will account for this difference, we have reason to believe
+in the influence of sexual selection; and this belief is strongly
+confirmed when the more ornamented individuals, which are almost always
+the males, display their attractions before the other sex. We may also
+extend this conclusion to both sexes, when coloured alike, if their
+colours are plainly analogous to those of one sex alone in certain other
+species of the same group.
+
+How, then, are we to account for the beautiful or even gorgeous colours
+of many animals in the lowest classes? It appears very doubtful whether
+such colours usually serve as a protection; but we are extremely liable
+to err in regard to characters of all kinds in relation to protection,
+as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Wallace’s excellent
+essay on this subject. It would not, for instance, at first occur to any
+one that the perfect transparency of the Medusæ, or jelly-fishes, was of
+the highest service to them as a protection; but when we are reminded
+by Häckel that not only the medusæ but many floating mollusca,
+crustaceans, and even small oceanic fishes partake of this same
+glass-like structure, we can hardly doubt that they thus escape the
+notice of pelagic birds and other enemies.
+
+Notwithstanding our ignorance how far colour in many cases serves as a
+protection, the most probable view in regard to the splendid tints of
+many of the lowest animals seems to be that their colours are the direct
+result either of the chemical nature or the minute structure of their
+tissues, independently of any benefit thus derived. Hardly any colour is
+finer than that of arterial blood; but there is no reason to suppose
+that the colour of the blood is in itself any advantage; and though it
+adds to the beauty of the maiden’s cheek, no one will pretend that it
+has been acquired for this purpose. So again with many animals,
+especially the lower ones, the bile is richly coloured; thus the extreme
+beauty of the Eolidæ (naked sea-slugs) is chiefly due, as I am informed
+by Mr. Hancock, to the biliary glands seen through the translucent
+integuments; this beauty being probably of no service to these animals.
+The tints of the decaying leaves in an American forest are described by
+every one as gorgeous; yet no one supposes that these tints are of the
+least advantage to the trees. Bearing in mind how many substances
+closely analogous to natural organic compounds have been recently formed
+by chemists, and which exhibit the most splendid colours, it would have
+been a strange fact if substances similarly coloured had not often
+originated, independently of any useful end being thus gained, in the
+complex laboratory of living organisms.
+
+
+_The sub-kingdom of the Mollusca._—Throughout this great division
+(taken in its largest acceptation) of the animal kingdom, secondary
+sexual characters, such as we are here considering, never, as far as I
+can discover, occur. Nor could they be expected in the three lowest
+classes, namely in the Ascidians, Polyzoa, and Brachiopods (constituting
+the Molluscoida of Huxley), for most of these animals are permanently
+affixed to a support or have their sexes united in the same individual.
+In the Lamellibranchiata, or bivalve shells, hermaphroditism is not
+rare. In the next higher class of the Gasteropoda, or marine univalve
+shells, the sexes are either united or separate. But in this latter case
+the males never possess special organs for finding, securing, or
+charming the females, or for fighting with other males. The sole
+external difference between the sexes consists, as I am informed by Mr.
+Gwyn Jeffreys, in the shell sometimes differing a little in form; for
+instance, the shell of the male periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_) is
+narrower and has a more elongated spire than that of the female. But
+differences of this nature, it may be presumed, are directly connected
+with the act of reproduction or with the development of the ova.
+
+The Gasteropoda, though capable of locomotion and furnished with
+imperfect eyes, do not appear to be endowed with sufficient mental
+powers for the members of the same sex to struggle together in rivalry,
+and thus to acquire secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless with the
+pulmoniferous gasteropods, or land-snails, the pairing is preceded by
+courtship; for these animals, though hermaphrodites, are compelled by
+their structure to pair together. Agassiz remarks,[410] “Quiconque a eu
+l’occasion d’observer les amours des limaçons, ne saurait mettre en
+doute la séduction déployée dans les mouvements et les allures qui
+préparent et accomplissent le double embrassement de ces
+hermaphrodites.” These animals appear also susceptible of some degree of
+permanent attachment: an accurate observer, Mr. Lonsdale, informs me
+that he placed a pair of land-shells (_Helix pomatia_), one of which was
+weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden. After a short time the
+strong and healthy individual disappeared, and was traced by its track
+of slime over a wall into an adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale
+concluded that it had deserted its sickly mate; but after an absence of
+twenty-four hours it returned, and apparently communicated the result of
+its successful exploration, for both then started along the same track
+and disappeared over the wall.
+
+Even in the highest class of the Mollusca, namely the Cephalopoda or
+cuttle-fishes, in which the sexes are separate, secondary sexual
+characters of the kind which we are here considering, do not, as far as
+I can discover, occur. This is a surprising circumstance, as these
+animals possess highly-developed sense-organs and have considerable
+mental powers, as will be admitted by every one who has watched their
+artful endeavours to escape from an enemy.[411] Certain Cephalopoda,
+however, are characterised by one extraordinary sexual character,
+namely, that the male element collects within one of the arms or
+tentacles, which is then cast off, and, clinging by its sucking-discs to
+the female, lives for a time an independent life. So completely does the
+cast-off arm resemble a separate animal, that it was described by Cuvier
+as a parasitic worm under the name of Hectocotyle. But this marvellous
+structure may be classed as a primary rather than as a secondary sexual
+character.
+
+Although with the Mollusca sexual selection does not seem to have come
+into play; yet many univalve and bivalve shells, such as volutes, cones,
+scallops, &c., are beautifully coloured and shaped. The colours do not
+appear in most cases to be of any use as a protection; they are probably
+the direct result, as in the lowest classes, of the nature of the
+tissues; the patterns and the sculpture of the shell depending on its
+manner of growth. The amount of light seems to a certain extent to be
+influential; for although, as repeatedly stated by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
+the shells of some species living at a profound depth are brightly
+coloured, yet we generally see the lower surfaces and the parts covered
+by the mantle less highly coloured than the upper and exposed
+surfaces.[412] In some cases, as with shells living amongst corals or
+brightly-tinted sea-weeds, the bright colours may serve as a protection.
+But many of the nudibranch mollusca, or sea-slugs, are as beautifully
+coloured as any shells, as may be seen in Messrs. Alder and Hancock’s
+magnificent work; and from information kindly given me by Mr. Hancock,
+it is extremely doubtful whether these colours usually serve as a
+protection. With some species this may be the case, as with one which
+lives on the green leaves of algæ, and is itself bright-green. But many
+brightly-coloured, white or otherwise conspicuous species, do not seek
+concealment; whilst again some equally conspicuous species, as well as
+other dull-coloured kinds, live under stones and in dark recesses. So
+that with these nudibranch molluscs, colour apparently does not stand in
+any close relation to the nature of the places which they inhabit.
+
+These naked sea-slugs are hermaphrodites, yet they pair together, as do
+land-snails, many of which have extremely pretty shells. It is
+conceivable that two hermaphrodites, attracted by each others’ greater
+beauty, might unite and leave offspring which would inherit their
+parents’ greater beauty. But with such lowly-organised creatures this is
+extremely improbable. Nor is it at all obvious how the offspring from
+the more beautiful pairs of hermaphrodites would have any advantage, so
+as to increase in numbers, over the offspring of the less beautiful,
+unless indeed vigour and beauty generally coincided. We have not here a
+number of males becoming mature before the females, and the more
+beautiful ones selected by the more vigorous females. If, indeed,
+brilliant colours were beneficial to an hermaphrodite animal in relation
+to its general habits of life, the more brightly-tinted individuals
+would succeed best and would increase in number; but this would be a
+case of natural and not of sexual selection.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Vermes or Annulosa_: Class, _Annelida (or
+Sea-worms)_.—In this class, although the sexes (when separate)
+sometimes differ from each other in characters of such importance that
+they have been placed under distinct genera or even families, yet the
+differences do not seem of the kind which can be safely attributed to
+sexual selection. These animals, like those in the preceding classes,
+apparently stand too low in the scale, for the individuals of either sex
+to exert any choice in selecting a partner, or for the individuals of
+the same sex to struggle together in rivalry.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Arthropoda_: Class, _Crustacea_.—In this great
+class we first meet with undoubted secondary sexual characters, often
+developed in a remarkable manner. Unfortunately the habits of
+crustaceans are very imperfectly known, and we cannot explain the uses
+of many structures peculiar to one sex. With the lower parasitic species
+the males are of small size, and they alone are furnished with perfect
+swimming-legs, antennæ and sense-organs; the females being destitute of
+these organs, with their bodies often consisting of a mere distorted
+mass. But these extraordinary differences between the two sexes are no
+doubt related to their widely different habits of life, and consequently
+do not concern us. In various crustaceans, belonging to distinct
+families, the anterior antennæ are furnished with peculiar thread-like
+bodies, which are believed to act as smelling-organs, and these are much
+more numerous in the males than in the females. As the males, without
+any unusual development of their olfactory organs, would almost
+certainly be able sooner or later to find the females, the increased
+number of the smelling-threads has probably been acquired through sexual
+selection, by the better provided males having been the most successful
+in finding partners and in leaving offspring. Fritz Müller has described
+a remarkable dimorphic species of Tanais, in which the male is
+represented by two distinct forms, never graduating into each other. In
+the one form the male is furnished with more numerous smelling-threads,
+and in the other form with more powerful and more elongated chelæ or
+pincers which serve to hold the female. Fritz Müller suggests that these
+differences between the two male forms of the same species must have
+originated in certain individuals having varied in the number of the
+smelling-threads, whilst other individuals varied in the shape and size
+of their chelæ; so that of the former, those which were best able to
+find the female, and of the latter, those which were best able to hold
+her when found, have left the greater number of progeny to inherit their
+respective advantages.[413]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Labidocera Darwinii, (from Lubbock).
+
+_a._ Part of right-hand anterior antenna of male, forming a prehensile
+organ.
+
+_b._ Posterior pair of thoracic legs of male.
+
+_c._ Ditto of female.]
+
+In some of the lower crustaceans, the right-hand anterior antenna of the
+male differs greatly in structure from the left-hand one, the latter
+resembling in its simple tapering joints the antennæ of the female. In
+the male the modified antenna is either swollen in the middle or
+angularly bent, or converted (fig. 3) into an elegant, and sometimes
+wonderfully complex, prehensile organ.[414] It serves, as I hear from
+Sir J. Lubbock, to hold the female, and for this same purpose one of the
+two posterior legs (_b_) on the same side of the body is converted into
+a forceps. In another family the inferior or posterior antennæ are
+“curiously zigzagged” in the males alone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Anterior part of body of Callianassa (from
+Milne-Edwards), showing the unequal and differently-constructed right
+and left-hand chelæ of the male.
+
+N.B.—The artist by mistake has reversed the drawing, and made the
+left-hand chela the largest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Second leg of male Orchestia Tucuratinga (from
+Fritz Müller).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Ditto of female.]
+
+In the higher crustaceans the anterior legs form a pair of chelæ or
+pincers, and these are generally larger in the male than in the female.
+In many species the chelæ on the opposite sides of the body are of
+unequal size, the right-hand one being, as I am informed by Mr. C.
+Spence Bate, generally, though not invariably, the largest. This
+inequality is often much greater in the male than in the female. The two
+chelæ also often differ in structure (figs. 4, 5, and 6), the smaller one
+resembling those of the female. What advantage is gained by their
+inequality in size on the opposite sides of the body, and by the
+inequality being much greater in the male than in the female; and why,
+when they are of equal size, both are often much larger in the male than
+in the female, is not known. The chelæ are sometimes of such length and
+size that they cannot possibly be used, as I hear from Mr. Spence Bate,
+for carrying food to the mouth. In the males of certain freshwater
+prawns (Palæmon) the right leg is actually longer than the whole
+body.[415] It is probable that the great size of one leg with its chelæ
+may aid the male in fighting with his rivals; but this use will not
+account for their inequality in the female on the opposite sides
+of the body. In Gelasimus, according to a statement quoted by
+Milne-Edwards,[416] the male and female live in the same burrow, which
+is worth notice, as shewing that they pair, and the male closes the
+mouth of the burrow with one of its chelæ, which is enormously
+developed; so that here it indirectly serves as a means of defence.
+Their main use, however, probably is to seize and to secure the female,
+and this in some instances, as with Gammarus, is known to be the case.
+The sexes, however, of the common shore-crab (_Carcinus mænas_), as Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me, unite directly after the female has moulted her
+hard shell, and when she is so soft that she would be injured if seized
+by the strong pincers of the male; but as she is caught and carried
+about by the male previously to the act of moulting, she could then be
+seized with impunity.
+
+Fritz Müller states that certain species of Melita are distinguished
+from all other amphipods by the females having “the coxal lamellæ of the
+penultimate pair of feet produced into hook-like processes, of which the
+males lay hold with the hands of the first pair.” The development of
+these hook-like processes probably resulted from those females which
+were the most securely held during the act of reproduction, having left
+the largest number of offspring. Another Brazilian amphipod (_Orchestia
+Darwinii_, fig. 7) is described by Fritz Müller, as presenting a case of
+dimorphism, like that of Tanais; for there are two male forms, which
+differ in the structure of their chelæ.[417] As chelæ of either shape
+would certainly have sufficed to hold the female, for both are now used
+for this purpose, the two male forms probably originated, by some having
+varied in one manner and some in another; both forms having derived
+certain special, but nearly equal advantages, from their differently
+shaped organs.
+
+It is not known that male crustaceans fight together for the possession
+of the females, but this is probable; for with most animals when the
+male is larger than the female, he seems to have acquired his greater
+size by having conquered during many generations other males. Now Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me that in most of the crustacean orders, especially
+in the highest or the Brachyura, the male is larger than the female; the
+parasitic genera, however, in which the sexes follow different habits of
+life, and most of the Entomostraca must be excepted. The chelæ of many
+crustaceans are weapons well adapted for fighting. Thus a Devil-crab
+(_Portunus puber_) was seen by a son of Mr. Bate fighting with a
+_Carcinus mænas_, and the latter was soon thrown on its back, and had
+every limb torn from its body. When several males of a Brazilian
+Gelasimus, a species furnished with immense pincers, were placed
+together by Fritz Müller in a glass vessel, they mutilated and killed
+each other. Mr. Bate put a large male _Carcinus mænas_ into a pan of
+water, inhabited by a female paired with a smaller male; the latter was
+soon dispossessed, but, as Mr. Bate adds, “if they fought, the victory
+was a bloodless one, for I saw no wounds.” This same naturalist
+separated a male sand-skipper (so common on our sea-shores), _Gammarus
+marinus_, from its female, both of which were imprisoned in the same
+vessel with many individuals of the same species. The female being thus
+divorced joined her comrades. After an interval the male was again put
+into the same vessel and he then, after swimming about for a time,
+dashed into the crowd, and without any fighting at once took away his
+wife. This fact shews that in the Amphipoda, an order low in the scale,
+the males and females recognise each other, and are mutually attached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Orchestia Darwinii (from Fritz Müller), showing
+the differently-constructed chelæ of the two male forms.]
+
+The mental powers of the Crustacea are probably higher than might have
+been expected. Any one who has tried to catch one of the shore-crabs, so
+numerous on many tropical coasts, will have perceived how wary and alert
+they are. There is a large crab (_Birgus latro_), found on coral
+islands, which makes at the bottom of a deep burrow a thick bed of the
+picked fibres of the cocoa-nut. It feeds on the fallen fruit of this
+tree by tearing off the husk, fibre by fibre; and it always begins at
+that end where the three eye-like depressions are situated. It then
+breaks through one of these eyes by hammering with its heavy front
+pincers, and turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its narrow
+posterior pincers. But these actions are probably instinctive, so that
+they would be performed as well by a young as by an old animal. The
+following case, however, can hardly be so considered: a trustworthy
+naturalist, Mr. Gardner,[418] whilst watching a shore-crab (Gelasimus)
+making its burrow, threw some shells towards the hole. One rolled in,
+and three other shells remained within a few inches of the mouth. In
+about five minutes the crab brought out the shell which had fallen in,
+and carried it away to the distance of a foot; it then saw the three
+other shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they might likewise
+roll in, carried them to the spot where it had laid the first. It would,
+I think, be difficult to distinguish this act from one performed by man
+by the aid of reason.
+
+With respect to colour which so often differs in the two sexes of
+animals belonging to the higher classes, Mr. Spence Bate does not know
+of any well-marked instances with our British crustaceans. In some
+cases, however, the male and female differ slightly in tint, but Mr.
+Bate thinks not more than may be accounted for by their different habits
+of life, such as by the male wandering more about and being thus more
+exposed to the light. In a curious Bornean crab, which inhabits sponges,
+Mr. Bate could always distinguish the sexes by the male not having the
+epidermis so much rubbed off. Dr. Power tried to distinguish by colour
+the sexes of the species which inhabit the Mauritius, but always failed,
+except with one species of Squilla, probably the _S. stylifera_, the
+male of which is described as being “of a beautiful blueish-green,” with
+some of the appendages cherry-red, whilst the female is clouded with
+brown and grey, “with the red about her much less vivid than in the
+male.”[419] In this case, we may suspect the agency of sexual selection.
+With Saphirina (an oceanic genus of Entomostraca, and therefore low in
+the scale) the males are furnished with minute shields or cell-like
+bodies, which exhibit beautiful changing colours; these being absent in
+the females, and in the case of one species in both sexes.[420] It
+would, however, be extremely rash to conclude that these curious organs
+serve merely to attract the females. In the female of a Brazilian
+species of Gelasimus, the whole body, as I am informed by Fritz Müller,
+is of a nearly uniform greyish-brown. In the male the posterior part of
+the cephalo-thorax is pure white, with the anterior part of a rich
+green, shading into dark brown; and it is remarkable that these colours
+are liable to change in the course of a few minutes—the white becoming
+dirty grey or even black, the green “losing much of its brilliancy.” The
+males apparently are much more numerous than the females. It deserves
+especial notice that they do not acquire their bright colours until they
+become mature. They differ also from the females in the larger size of
+their chelæ. In some species of the genus, probably in all, the sexes
+pair and inhabit the same burrow. They are also, as we have seen, highly
+intelligent animals. From these various considerations it seems highly
+probable that the male in this species has become gaily ornamented in
+order to attract or excite the female.
+
+It has just been stated that the male Gelasimus does not acquire his
+conspicuous colours until mature and nearly ready to breed. This seems
+the general rule in the whole class with the many remarkable differences
+in structure between the two sexes. We shall hereafter find the same law
+prevailing throughout the great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and in
+all cases it is eminently distinctive of characters which have been
+acquired through sexual selection. Fritz Müller[421] gives some
+striking instances of this law; thus the male sand-hopper (Orchestia)
+does not acquire his large claspers, which are very differently
+constructed from those of the female, until nearly full-grown; whilst
+young his claspers resemble those of the female. Thus, again, the male
+Brachyscelus possesses, like all other amphipods, a pair of posterior
+antennæ; the female, and this is a most extraordinary circumstance, is
+destitute of them, and so is the male as long as he remains immature.
+
+
+Class, _Arachnida_ (Spiders).—The males are often darker, but sometimes
+lighter than the females, as may be seen in Mr. Blackwall’s magnificent
+work.[422] In some species the sexes differ conspicuously from each
+other in colour; thus the female of _Sparassus smaragdulus_ is
+dullish-green; whilst the adult male has the abdomen of a fine yellow,
+with three longitudinal stripes of rich red. In some species of Thomisus
+the two sexes closely resemble each other; in others they differ much;
+thus in _T. citreus_ the legs and body of the female are pale-yellow or
+green, whilst the front legs of the male are reddish-brown: in _T.
+floricolens_, the legs of the female are pale-green, those of the male
+being ringed in a conspicuous manner with various tints. Numerous
+analogous cases could be given in the genera Epeira, Nephila,
+Philodromus, Theridion, Linyphia, &c. It is often difficult to say which
+of the two sexes departs most from the ordinary coloration of the genus
+to which the species belong; but Mr. Blackwall thinks that, as a
+general rule, it is the male. Both sexes whilst young, as I am informed
+by the same author, usually resemble each other; and both often undergo
+great changes in colour during their successive moults before arriving
+at maturity. In other cases the male alone appears to change colour.
+Thus the male of the above-mentioned brightly-coloured Sparassus at
+first resembles the female and acquires his peculiar tints only when
+nearly adult. Spiders are possessed of acute senses, and exhibit much
+intelligence. The females often shew, as is well known, the strongest
+affection for their eggs, which they carry about enveloped in a silken
+web. On the whole it appears probable that well-marked differences in
+colour between the sexes have generally resulted from sexual selection,
+either on the male or female side. But doubts may be entertained on this
+head from the extreme variability in colour of some species, for
+instance of _Theridion lineatum_, the sexes of which differ when adult;
+this great variability indicates that their colours have not been
+subjected to any form of selection.
+
+Mr. Blackwall does not remember to have seen the males of any species
+fighting together for the possession of the female. Nor, judging from
+analogy, is this probable; for the males are generally much smaller than
+the females, sometimes to an extraordinary degree.[423] Had the males
+been in the habit of fighting together, they would, it is probable, have
+gradually acquired greater size and strength. Mr. Blackwall has
+sometimes seen two or more males on the same web with a single female;
+but their courtship is too tedious and prolonged an affair to be easily
+observed. The male is extremely cautious in making his advances, as the
+female carries her coyness to a dangerous pitch. De Geer saw a male that
+“in the midst of his preparatory caresses was seized by the object of
+his attentions, enveloped by her in a web and then devoured, a sight
+which, as he adds, filled him with horror and indignation.”[424]
+
+Westring has made the interesting discovery that the males of several
+species of Theridion[425] have the power of making a stridulating sound
+(like that made by many beetles and other insects, but feebler), whilst
+the females are quite mute. The apparatus consists of a serrated ridge
+at the base of the abdomen, against which the hard hinder part of the
+thorax is rubbed; and of this structure not a trace could be detected in
+the females. From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, to be
+described in the next chapter, we may feel almost sure that the
+stridulation serves, as Westring remarks, either to call or to excite
+the female; and this is the first case in the ascending scale of the
+animal kingdom, known to me, of sounds emitted for this purpose.
+
+
+Class, _Myriapoda_.—In neither of the two orders in this class,
+including the millipedes and centipedes, can I find any well-marked
+instances of sexual differences such as more particularly concern us. In
+_Glomeris limbata_, however, and perhaps in some few other species, the
+males differ slightly in colour from the females; but this Glomeris is a
+highly variable species. In the males of the Diplopoda, the legs
+belonging to one of the anterior segments of the body, or to the
+posterior segment, are modified into prehensile hooks which serve to
+secure the female. In some species of Iulus the tarsi of the male are
+furnished with membranous suckers for the same purpose. It is a much
+more unusual circumstance, as we shall see when we treat of Insects,
+that it is the female in Lithobius which is furnished with prehensile
+appendages at the extremity of the body for holding the male.[426]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females—Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood—Difference in size between the
+  sexes—Thysanura—Diptera—Hemiptera—Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone—Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours—Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour—Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours—Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes.
+
+
+In the immense class of insects the sexes sometimes differ in their
+organs for locomotion, and often in their sense-organs, as in the
+pectinated and beautifully plumose antennæ of the males of many species.
+In one of the Ephemeræ, namely Chloëon, the male has great pillared
+eyes, of which the female is entirely destitute.[427] The ocelli are
+absent in the females of certain other insects, as in the Mutillidæ,
+which are likewise destitute of wings. But we are chiefly concerned with
+structures by which one male is enabled to conquer another, either in
+battle or courtship, through his strength, pugnacity, ornaments, or
+music. The innumerable contrivances, therefore, by which the male is
+able to seize the female, may be briefly passed over. Besides the
+complex structures at the apex of the abdomen, which ought perhaps to be
+ranked as primary organs,[428] “it is astonishing,” as Mr. B. D.
+Walsh[429] has remarked, “how many different organs are worked in by
+nature, for the seemingly insignificant object of enabling the male to
+grasp the female firmly.” The mandibles or jaws are sometimes used for
+this purpose; thus the male _Corydalis cornutus_ (a neuropterous insect
+in some degree allied to the Dragon-flies, &c.) has immense curved jaws,
+many times longer than those of the female; and they are smooth instead
+of being toothed, by which means he is enabled to seize her without
+injury.[430] One of the stag-beetles of North America (_Lucanus
+elaphus_) uses his jaws, which are much larger than those of the female,
+for the same purpose, but probably likewise for fighting. In one of the
+sand-wasps (_Ammophila_) the jaws in the two sexes are closely alike,
+but are used for widely different purposes; the males, as Professor
+Westwood observes, “are exceedingly ardent, seizing their partners round
+the neck with their sickle-shaped jaws;”[431] whilst the females use
+these organs for burrowing in sand-banks and making their nests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Crabro cribrarius. Upper figure, male: lower
+figure, female.]
+
+The tarsi of the front-legs are dilated in many male beetles, or are
+furnished with broad cushions of hairs; and in many genera of
+water-beetles they are armed with a round flat sucker, so that the male
+may adhere to the slippery body of the female. It is a much more unusual
+circumstance that the females of some water-beetles (Dytiscus) have
+their elytra deeply grooved, and in _Acilius sulcatus_ thickly set with
+hairs, as an aid to the male. The females of some other water-beetles
+(Hydroporus) have their elytra punctured for the same object.[432] In
+the male of _Crabro cribrarius_ (fig. 8.), it is the tibia which is
+dilated into a broad horny plate, with minute membraneous dots, giving
+to it a singular appearance like that of a riddle.[433] In the male of
+Penthe (a genus of beetles) a few of the middle joints of the antennæ
+are dilated and furnished on the inferior surface with cushions of
+hair, exactly like those on the tarsi of the Carabidæ, “and obviously
+for the same end.” In male dragon-flies, “the appendages at the tip of
+the tail are modified in an almost infinite variety of curious patterns
+to enable them to embrace the neck of the female.” Lastly in the males
+of many insects, the legs are furnished with peculiar spines, knobs or
+spurs; or the whole leg is bowed or thickened, but this is by no means
+invariably a sexual character; or one pair, or all three pairs are
+elongated, sometimes to an extravagant length.[434]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Taphroderes distortus (much enlarged). Upper
+figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+In all the orders, the sexes of many species present differences, of
+which the meaning is not understood. One curious case is that of a
+beetle (fig. 9), the male of which has the left mandible much enlarged;
+so that the mouth is greatly distorted. In another Carabidous beetle,
+the Eurygnathus,[435] we have the unique case, as far as known to Mr.
+Wollaston, of the head of the female being much broader and larger,
+though in a variable degree, than that of the male. Any number of such
+cases could be given. They abound in the Lepidoptera: one of the most
+extraordinary is that certain male butterflies have their fore-legs more
+or less atrophied, with the tibiæ and tarsi reduced to mere rudimentary
+knobs. The wings, also, in the two sexes often differ in neuration,[436]
+and sometimes considerably in outline, as in the _Aricoris epitus_,
+which was shown to me in the British Museum by Mr. A. Butler. The males
+of certain South American butterflies have tufts of hair on the margins
+of the wings, and horny excrescences on the discs of the posterior
+pair.[437] In several British butterflies, the males alone, as shewn by
+Mr. Wonfor, are in parts clothed with peculiar scales.
+
+The purpose of the luminosity in the female glow-worm is likewise not
+understood; for it is very doubtful whether the primary use of the light
+is to guide the male to the female. It is no serious objection to this
+latter belief that the males emit a feeble light; for secondary sexual
+characters proper to one sex are often developed in a slight degree in
+the other sex. It is a more valid objection that the larvæ shine, and in
+some species brilliantly: Fritz Müller informs me that the most luminous
+insect which he ever beheld in Brazil, was the larva of some beetle.
+Both sexes of certain luminous species of Elater emit light. Kirby and
+Spence suspect that the phosphorescence serves to frighten and drive
+away enemies.
+
+
+_Difference in Size between the Sexes._—With insects of all kinds the
+males are commonly smaller than the females;[438] and this difference
+can often be detected even in the larval state. So considerable is the
+difference between the male and female cocoons of the silk-moth
+(_Bombyx mori_), that in France they are separated by a particular mode
+of weighing.[439] In the lower classes of the animal kingdom, the
+greater size of the females seems generally to depend on their
+developing an enormous number of ova; and this may to a certain extent
+hold good with insects. But Dr. Wallace has suggested a much more
+probable explanation. He finds, after carefully attending to the
+development of the caterpillars of _Bombyx cynthia_ and _yamamai_, and
+especially of some dwarfed caterpillars reared from a second brood on
+unnatural food, “that in proportion as the individual moth is finer, so
+is the time required for its metamorphosis longer; and for this reason
+the female, which is the larger and heavier insect, from having to carry
+her numerous eggs, will be preceded by the male, which is smaller and
+has less to mature.”[440] Now as most insects are short-lived, and as
+they are exposed to many dangers, it would manifestly be advantageous to
+the female to be impregnated as soon as possible. This end would be
+gained by the males being first matured in large numbers ready for the
+advent of the females; and this again would naturally follow, as Mr. A.
+E. Wallace has remarked,[441] through natural selection; for the smaller
+males would be first matured, and thus would procreate a large number of
+offspring which would inherit the reduced size of their male parents,
+whilst the larger males from being matured later would leave fewer
+offspring.
+
+There are, however, exceptions to the rule of male insects being smaller
+than the females; and some of these exceptions are intelligible. Size
+and strength would be an advantage to the males, which fight for the
+possession of the female; and in these cases the males, as with the
+stag-beetle (Lucanus), are larger than the females. There are, however,
+other beetles which are not known to fight together, of which the males
+exceed the females in size; and the meaning of this fact is not known;
+but in some of these cases, as with the huge Dynastes and Megasoma, we
+can at least see that there would be no necessity for the males to be
+smaller than the females, in order to be matured before them, for these
+beetles are not short-lived, and there would be ample time for the
+pairing of the sexes. So, again, male dragon-flies (Libellulidæ) are
+sometimes sensibly larger, and never smaller, than the females;[442] and
+they do not, as Mr. MacLachlan believes, generally pair with the
+females, until a week or fortnight has elapsed, and until they have
+assumed their proper masculine colours. But the most curious case,
+shewing on what complex and easily-overlooked relations, so trifling a
+character as a difference in size between the sexes may depend, is that
+of the aculeate Hymenoptera; for Mr. F. Smith informs me that throughout
+nearly the whole of this large group the males, in accordance with the
+general rule, are smaller than the females and emerge about a week
+before them; but amongst the Bees, the males of _Apis mellifica_,
+_Anthidium manicatum_ and _Anthophora acervorum_, and amongst the
+Fossores, the males of the _Methoca ichneumonides_, are larger than the
+females. The explanation of this anomaly is that a marriage-flight is
+absolutely necessary with these species, and the males require great
+strength and size in order to carry the females through the air.
+Increased size has here been acquired in opposition to the usual
+relation between size and the period of development, for the males,
+though larger, emerge before the smaller females.
+
+We will now review the several Orders, selecting such facts as more
+particularly concern us. The Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) will be
+retained for a separate chapter.
+
+
+Order, _Thysanura_.—The members of this Order are lowly organised for
+their class. They are wingless, dull-coloured, minute insects, with
+ugly, almost misshapen heads and bodies. The sexes do not differ; but
+they offer one interesting fact, by showing that the males pay sedulous
+court to their females even low down in the animal scale. Sir J.
+Lubbock[443] in describing the _Smynthurus luteus_, says: “it is very
+amusing to see these little creatures coquetting together. The male,
+which is much smaller than the female, runs round her, and they butt one
+another, standing face to face, and moving backward and forward like two
+playful lambs. Then the female pretends to run away and the male runs
+after her with a queer appearance of anger, gets in front and stands
+facing her again; then she turns coyly round, but he, quicker and more
+active, scuttles round too, and seems to whip her with his antennæ; then
+for a bit they stand face to face, play with their antennæ, and seem to
+be all in all to one another.”
+
+
+Order, _Diptera_ (Flies).—The sexes differ little in colour. The
+greatest difference, known to Mr. F. Walker, is in the genus Bibio, in
+which the males are blackish or quite black, and the females obscure
+brownish-orange. The genus Elaphomyia, discovered by Mr. Wallace[444] in
+New Guinea, is highly remarkable, as the males are furnished with horns,
+of which the females are quite destitute. The horns spring from beneath
+the eyes, and curiously resemble those of stags, being either branched
+or palmated. They equal in length the whole of the body in one of the
+species. They might be thought to serve for fighting, but as in one
+species they are of a beautiful pink colour, edged with black, with a
+pale central stripe, and as these insects have altogether a very elegant
+appearance, it is perhaps more probable that the horns serve as
+ornaments. That the males of some Diptera fight together is certain; for
+Prof. Westwood[445] has several times seen this with some species of
+Tipula or Harry-long-legs. Many observers believe that when gnats
+(Culicidæ) dance in the air in a body, alternately rising and falling,
+the males are courting the females. The mental faculties of the Diptera
+are probably fairly well developed, for their nervous system is more
+highly developed than in most other Orders of insects.[446]
+
+
+Order, _Hemiptera_ (Field-Bugs).—Mr. J. W. Douglas, who has
+particularly attended to the British species, has kindly given me an
+account of their sexual differences. The males of some species are
+furnished with wings, whilst the females are wingless; the sexes differ
+in the form of the body and elytra; in the second joints of their
+antennæ and in their tarsi; but as the signification of these
+differences is quite unknown, they may be here passed over. The females
+are generally larger and more robust than the males. With British, and,
+as far as Mr. Douglas knows, with exotic species, the sexes do not
+commonly differ much in colour; but in about six British species the
+male is considerably darker than the female, and in about four other
+species the female is darker than the male. Both sexes of some species
+are beautifully marked with vermilion and black. It is doubtful whether
+these colours serve as a protection. If in any species the males had
+differed from the females in an analogous manner, we might have been
+justified in attributing such conspicuous colours to sexual selection
+with transference to both sexes.
+
+Some species of Reduvidæ make a stridulating noise; and, in the case of
+_Pirates stridulus_, this is said[447] to be effected by the movement of
+the neck within the pro-thoracic cavity. According to Westring,
+_Reduvius personatus_ also stridulates. But I have not been able to
+learn any particulars about these insects; nor have I any reason to
+suppose that they differ sexually in this respect.
+
+
+Order, _Homoptera._—Every one who has wandered in a tropical forest
+must have been astonished at the din made by the male Cicadæ. The
+females are mute; as the Grecian poet Xenarchus says, “Happy the Cicadas
+live, since they all have voiceless wives.” The noise thus made could be
+plainly heard on board the “Beagle,” when anchored at a quarter of a
+mile from the shore of Brazil; and Captain Hancock says it can be heard
+at the distance of a mile. The Greeks formerly kept, and the Chinese now
+keep, these insects in cages for the sake of their song, so that it
+must be pleasing to the ears of some men.[448] The Cicadidæ usually sing
+during the day; whilst the Fulgoridæ appear to be night-songsters. The
+sound, according to Landois,[449] who has recently studied the subject,
+is produced by the vibration of the lips of the spiracles, which are set
+into motion by a current of air emitted from the tracheæ. It is
+increased by a wonderfully complex resounding apparatus, consisting of
+two cavities covered by scales. Hence the sound may truly be called a
+voice. In the female the musical apparatus is present, but very much
+less developed than in the male, and is never used for producing sound.
+
+With respect to the object of the music, Dr. Hartman in speaking of the
+_Cicada septemdecim_ of the United States, says,[450] “the drums are now
+(June 6th and 7th, 1851) heard in all directions. This I believe to be
+the marital summons from the males. Standing in thick chestnut sprouts
+about as high as my head, where hundreds were around me, I observed the
+females coming around the drumming males.” He adds, “this season (Aug.
+1868) a dwarf pear-tree in my garden produced about fifty larvæ of _Cic.
+pruinosa_; and I several times noticed the females to alight near a male
+while he was uttering his clanging notes.” Fritz Müller writes to me
+from S. Brazil that he has often listened to a musical contest between
+two or three males of a Cicada, having a particularly loud voice, and
+seated at a considerable distance from each other. As soon as the first
+had finished his song, a second immediately began; and after he had
+concluded, another began, and so on. As there is so much rivalry between
+the males, it is probable that the females not only discover them by the
+sounds emitted, but that, like female birds, they are excited or allured
+by the male with the most attractive voice.
+
+I have not found any well-marked cases of ornamental differences between
+the sexes of the Homoptera. Mr. Douglas informs me that there are three
+British species, in which the male is black or marked with black bands,
+whilst the females are pale-coloured or obscure.
+
+
+Order, _Orthoptera_.—The males in the three saltatorial families
+belonging to this Order are remarkable for their musical powers, namely
+the Achetidæ or crickets, the Locustidæ for which there is no exact
+equivalent name in English, and the Acridiidæ or grasshoppers. The
+stridulation produced by some of the Locustidæ is so loud that it can be
+heard during the night at the distance of a mile;[451] and that made by
+certain species is not unmusical even to the human ear, so that the
+Indians on the Amazons keep them in wicker cages. All observers agree
+that the sounds serve either to call or excite the mute females. But it
+has been noticed[452] that the male migratory locust of Russia (one of
+the Acridiidæ) whilst coupled with the female, stridulates from anger or
+jealousy when approached by another male. The house-cricket when
+surprised at night uses its voice to warn its fellows.[453] In North
+America the Katy-did (_Platyphyllum concavum_, one of the Locustidæ) is
+described[454] as mounting on the upper branches of a tree, and in the
+evening beginning “his noisy babble, while rival notes issue from the
+neighbouring trees, and the groves resound with the call of
+_Katy-did-she-did_, the live-long night.” Mr. Bates, in speaking of the
+European field-cricket (one of the Achetidæ), says, “the male has been
+observed to place itself in the evening at the entrance of its burrow,
+and stridulate until a female approaches, when the louder notes are
+succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician
+caresses with his antennæ the mate he has won.”[455] Dr. Scudder was
+able to excite one of these insects to answer him, by rubbing on a file
+with a quill.[456] In both sexes a remarkable auditory apparatus has
+been discovered by Von Siebold, situated in the front legs.[457]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Gryllus campestris (from Landois).
+
+Right-hand figure, under side of part of the wing-nervure, much
+magnified, showing the teeth, _st_.
+
+Left-hand figure, upper surface of wing-cover, with the projecting,
+smooth nervure, _r._, across which the teeth (_st_) are scraped.]
+
+In the three Families the sounds are differently produced. In the males
+Of the Achetidæ both wing-covers have the same structure; and this in
+the field-cricket (_Gryllus campestris_, fig. 10) consists, as
+described by Landois,[458] of from 131 to 138 sharp, transverse ridges
+or teeth (_st_) on the under side of one of the nervures of the
+wing-cover. This toothed nervure is rapidly scraped across a projecting,
+smooth, hard nervure (_r_) on the upper surface of the opposite wing.
+First one wing is rubbed over the other, and then the movement is
+reversed. Both wings are raised a little at the same time, so as to
+increase the resonance. In some species the wing-covers of the males are
+furnished at the base with a talc-like plate.[459] I have here given a
+drawing (fig. 11) of the teeth on the under side of the nervure of
+another species of Gryllus, viz. _G. domesticus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Teeth of Nervure of Gryllus domesticus (from
+Landois).]
+
+In the Locustidæ the opposite wing-covers differ in structure (fig. 12),
+and cannot, as in the last family, be indifferently used in a reversed
+manner. The left wing, which acts as the bow of the fiddle, lies over
+the right wing which serves as the fiddle itself. One of the nervures
+(_a_) on the under surface of the former is finely serrated, and is
+scraped across the prominent nervures on the upper surface of the
+opposite or right wing. In our British _Phasgonura viridissima_ it
+appeared to me that the serrated nervure is rubbed against the rounded
+hind corner of the opposite wing, the edge of which is thickened,
+coloured brown, and very sharp. In the right wing, but not in the left,
+there is a little plate, as transparent as talc, surrounded by nervures,
+and called the speculum. In _Ephippiger vitium_, a member of this same
+family, we have a curious subordinate modification; for the wing-covers
+are greatly reduced in size, but “the posterior part of the pro-thorax
+is elevated into a kind of dome over the wing-covers, and which has
+probably the effect of increasing the sound.”[460]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Chlorocœlus Tanana (from Bates). _a_, _b_.
+Lobes of opposite wing-covers.]
+
+We thus see that the musical apparatus is more differentiated or
+specialised in the Locustidæ, which includes I believe the most powerful
+performers in the Order, than in the Achetidæ, in which both wing-covers
+have the same structure and the same function.[461] Landois, however,
+detected in one of the Locustidæ, namely in Decticus, a short and narrow
+row of small teeth, mere rudiments, on the inferior surface of the
+right wing-cover, which underlies the other and is never used as the
+bow. I observed the same rudimentary structure on the under side of the
+right wing-cover in _Phasgonura viridissima_. Hence we may with
+confidence infer that the Locustidæ are descended from a form, in which,
+as in the existing Achetidæ, both wing-covers had serrated nervures on
+the under surface, and could be indifferently used as the bow; but that
+in the Locustidæ the two wing-covers gradually became differentiated and
+perfected, on the principle of the division of labour, the one to act
+exclusively as the bow and the other as the fiddle. By what steps the
+more simple apparatus in the Achetidæ originated, we do not know, but it
+is probable that the basal portions of the wing-covers overlapped each
+other formerly as at present, and that the friction of the nervures
+produced a grating sound, as I find is now the case with the wing-covers
+of the females.[462] A grating sound thus occasionally and accidentally
+made by the males, if it served them ever so little as a love-call to
+the females, might readily have been intensified through sexual
+selection by fitting variations in the roughness of the nervures having
+been continually preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13, Hind-leg of Stenobothrus pratorum: _r_, the
+stridulating ridge; lower figure, the teeth, forming the ridge, much
+magnified (from Landois).]
+
+In the last and third Family, namely the Acridiidæ or grasshoppers, the
+stridulation is produced in a very different manner, and is not so
+shrill, according to Dr. Scudder, as in the preceding Families. The
+inner surface of the femur (fig. 13, _r_) is furnished with a
+longitudinal row of minute, elegant, lancet-shaped, elastic teeth, from
+85 to 93 in number;[463] and these are scraped across the sharp,
+projecting nervures on the wing-covers, which, are thus made to vibrate
+and resound. Harris[464] says that when one of the males begins to play,
+he first “bends the shank of the hind-leg beneath, the thigh, where it
+is lodged in a furrow designed to receive it, and then draws the leg
+briskly up and down. He does not play both fiddles together, but
+alternately first upon one and then on the other.” In many species, the
+base of the abdomen is hollowed out into a great cavity which is
+believed to act as a resounding board. In Pneumora (fig. 14), a S.
+African genus belonging to this same family, we meet with a new and
+remarkable modification: in the males a small notched ridge projects
+obliquely from each side of the abdomen, against which the hind femora
+are rubbed.[465] As the male is furnished with wings, the female being
+wingless, it is remarkable that the thighs are not rubbed in the usual
+manner against the wing-covers; but this may perhaps be accounted for by
+the unusually small size of the hind-legs. I have not been able to
+examine the inner surface of the thighs, which, judging from analogy,
+would be finely serrated. The species of Pneumora have been more
+profoundly modified for the sake of stridulation than any other
+orthopterous insect; for in the male the whole body has been converted
+into a musical instrument, being distended with air, like a great
+pellucid bladder, so as to increase the resonance. Mr. Trimen informs me
+that at the Cape of Good Hope these insects make a wonderful noise
+during the night There is one exception to the rule that the females in
+these three Families are destitute of an efficient musical apparatus;
+for both sexes of Ephippiger (Locustidæ) are said[466] to be thus
+provided. This case may be compared with that of the reindeer, in which
+species alone both sexes possess horns. Although the female orthoptera
+are thus almost invariably mute, yet Landois[467] found rudiments of the
+stridulating organs on the femora of the female Acridiidæ, and similar
+rudiments on the under surface of the wing-covers of the female
+Achetidæ; but he failed to find any rudiments in the females of
+Decticus, one of the Locustidæ. In the Homoptera the mute females of
+Cicada, have the proper musical apparatus in an undeveloped state; and
+we shall hereafter meet in other divisions of the animal kingdom with
+innumerable instances of structures proper to the male being present in
+a rudimentary condition in the female. Such cases appear at first sight
+to indicate that both sexes were primordially constructed in the same
+manner, but that certain organs were subsequently lost by the females.
+It is, however, a more probable view, as previously explained, that the
+organs in question were acquired by the males and partially transferred
+to the females.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pneumora (from specimens in the British Museum).
+Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Landois has observed another interesting fact, namely that in the
+females of the Acridiidæ, the stridulating teeth on the femora remain
+throughout life in the same condition in which they first appear in both
+sexes during the larval state. In the males, on the other hand, they
+become fully developed and acquire their perfect structure at the last
+moult, when the insect is mature and ready to breed.
+
+From the facts now given, we see that the means by which the males
+produce their sounds are extremely diversified in the Orthoptera, and
+are altogether different from those employed by the Homoptera. But
+throughout the animal kingdom we incessantly find the same object
+gained by the most diversified means; this being due to the whole
+organisation undergoing in the course of ages multifarious changes; and
+as part after part varies, different variations are taken advantage of
+for the same general purpose. The diversification of the means for
+producing sound in the three families of the Orthoptera and in the
+Homoptera, impresses the mind with the high importance of these
+structures to the males, for the sake of calling or alluring the
+females. We need feel no surprise at the amount of modification which
+the Orthoptera have undergone in this respect, as we now know, from Dr.
+Scudder’s remarkable discovery,[468] that there has been more than ample
+time. This naturalist has lately found a fossil insect in the Devonian
+formation of New Brunswick, which is furnished with “the well-known
+tympanum or stridulating apparatus of the male Locustidæ.” This insect,
+though in most respects related to the Neuroptera, appears to connect,
+as is so often the case with very ancient forms, the two Orders of the
+Neuroptera and Orthoptera which are now generally ranked as quite
+distinct.
+
+I have but little more to say on the Orthoptera. Some of the species are
+very pugnacious: when two male field-crickets (_Gryllus campestris_) are
+confined together, they fight till one kills the other; and the species
+of Mantis are described as manœuvring with their sword-like
+front-limbs, like hussars with their sabres. The Chinese keep these
+insects in little bamboo cages and match them like game-cocks.[469] With
+respect to colour, some exotic locusts are beautifully ornamented; the
+posterior wings being marked with red, blue, and black; but as
+throughout the Order the two sexes rarely differ much in colour, it is
+doubtful whether they owe these bright tints to sexual selection.
+Conspicuous colours may be of use to these insects as a protection, on
+the principle to be explained in the next chapter, by giving notice to
+their enemies that they are unpalatable. Thus it has been observed[470]
+that an Indian brightly-coloured locust was invariably rejected when
+offered to birds and lizards. Some cases, however, of sexual differences
+in colour in this Order are known. The male of an American cricket[471]
+is described as being as white as ivory, whilst the female varies from
+almost white to greenish-yellow or dusky. Mr. Walsh informs me that the
+adult male of _Spectrum femoratum_ (one of the Phasmidæ) “is of a
+shining brownish-yellow colour; the adult female being of a dull,
+opaque, cinereous-brown; the young of both sexes being green.” Lastly, I
+may mention that the male of one curious kind of cricket[472] is
+furnished with “a long membranous appendage, which falls over the face
+like a veil;” but whether this serves as an ornament is not known.
+
+
+Order, _Neuroptera_.—Little need here be said, except in regard to
+colour. In the Ephemeridæ the sexes often differ slightly in their
+obscure tints;[473] but it is not probable that the males are thus
+rendered attractive to the females. The Libellulidæ or dragon-flies are
+ornamented with splendid green, blue, yellow, and vermilion metallic
+tints; and the sexes often differ. Thus, the males of some of the
+Agrionidæ, as Prof. Westwood remarks[474] “are of a rich blue with black
+wings, whilst the females are fine green with colourless wings.” But in
+_Agrion Ramburii_ these colours are exactly reversed in the two
+sexes.[475] In the extensive N. American genus of Hetærina, the males
+alone have a beautiful carmine spot at the base of each wing. In _Anax
+junius_ the basal part of the abdomen in the male is a vivid
+ultra-marine blue, and in the female grass-green. In the allied genus
+Gomphus, on the other hand, and in some other genera, the sexes differ
+but little in colour. Throughout the animal kingdom, similar cases of
+the sexes of closely-allied forms either differing greatly, or very
+little, or not at all, are of frequent occurrence. Although with many
+Libellulidæ there is so wide a difference in colour between the sexes,
+it is often difficult to say which is the most brilliant; and the
+ordinary coloration of the two sexes is exactly reversed, as we have
+just seen, in one species of Agrion. It is not probable that their
+colours in any case have been gained as a protection. As Mr. MacLachlan,
+who has closely attended to this family, writes to me, dragon-flies—the
+tyrants of the insect-world—are the least liable of any insect to be
+attacked by birds or other enemies. He believes that their bright
+colours serve as a sexual attraction. It deserves notice, as bearing on
+this subject, that certain dragon-flies appear to be attracted by
+particular colours: Mr. Patterson observed[476] that the species of
+Agrionidæ, of which the males are blue, settled in numbers on the blue
+float of a fishing line; whilst two other species were attracted by
+shining white colours.
+
+It is an interesting fact, first observed by Schelver, that the males,
+in several genera belonging to two sub-families, when they first emerge
+from the pupal state are coloured exactly like the females; but that
+their bodies in a short time assume a conspicuous milky-blue tint, owing
+to the exudation of a kind of oil, soluble in ether and alcohol. Mr.
+MacLachlan believes that in the male of _Libellula depressa_ this change
+of colour does not occur until nearly a fortnight after the
+metamorphosis, when the sexes are ready to pair.
+
+Certain species of Neurothemis present, according to Brauer[477] a
+curious case of dimorphism, some of the females having their wings
+netted in the usual manner; whilst other females have them “very richly
+netted as in the males of the same species.” Brauer “explains the
+phenomenon on Darwinian principles by the supposition that the close
+netting of the veins is a secondary sexual character in the males.” This
+latter character is generally developed in the males alone, but being,
+like every other masculine character, latent in the female, is
+occasionally developed in them. We have here an illustration of the
+manner in which the two sexes of many animals have probably come to
+resemble each other, namely by variations first appearing in the males,
+being preserved in them, and then transmitted to and developed in the
+females; but in this particular genus a complete transference is
+occasionally and abruptly effected. Mr. MacLachlan informs me of another
+case of dimorphism occurring in several species of Agrion in which a
+certain number of individuals are found of an orange colour, and these
+are invariably females. This is probably a case of reversion, for in
+the true Libellulæ, when the sexes differ in colour, the females are
+always orange or yellow, so that supposing Agrion to be descended from
+some primordial form having the characteristic sexual colours of the
+typical Libellulæ, it would not be surprising that a tendency to vary in
+this manner should occur in the females alone.
+
+Although many dragon-flies are such large, powerful, and fierce insects,
+the males have not been observed by Mr. MacLachlan to fight together,
+except, as he believes, in the case of some of the smaller species of
+Agrion. In another very distinct group in this Order, namely in the
+Termites or white ants, both sexes at the time of swarming may be seen
+running about, “the male after the female, sometimes two chasing one
+female, and contending with great eagerness who shall win the
+prize.”[478]
+
+
+Order, _Hymenoptera_.—That inimitable observer, M. Fabre,[479] in
+describing the habits of Cerceris, a wasp-like insect, remarks that
+“fights frequently ensue between the males for the possession of some
+particular female, who sits an apparently unconcerned beholder of the
+struggle for supremacy, and when the victory is decided, quietly flies
+away in company with the conqueror.” Westwood[480] says that the males
+of one of the saw-flies (Tenthredinæ) “have been found fighting
+together, with their mandibles locked.” As M. Fabre speaks of the males
+of Cerceris striving to obtain a particular female, it may be well to
+bear in mind that insects belonging to this Order have the power of
+recognising each other after long intervals of time, and are deeply
+attached. For instance, Pierre Huber, whose accuracy no one doubts,
+separated some ants, and when after an interval of four months they met
+others which had formerly belonged to the same community, they mutually
+recognised and caressed each other with their antennæ. Had they been
+strangers they would have fought together. Again, when two communities
+engage in a battle, the ants on the same side in the general confusion
+sometimes attack each other, but they soon perceive their mistake, and
+the one ant soothes the other.[481]
+
+In this Order slight differences in colour, according to sex, are
+common, but conspicuous differences are rare except in the family of
+Bees; yet both sexes of certain groups are so brilliantly coloured—for
+instance in Chrysis, in which vermilion and metallic greens
+prevail—that we are tempted to attribute the result to sexual
+selection. In the Ichneumonidæ, according to Mr. Walsh,[482] the males
+are almost universally lighter coloured than the females. On the other
+hand, in the Tenthredinidæ the males are generally darker than the
+females. In the Siricidæ the sexes frequently differ; thus the male of
+_Sirex juvencus_ is banded with orange, whilst the female is dark
+purple; but it is difficult to say which sex is the most ornamented. In
+_Tremex columbæ_ the female is much brighter coloured than the male.
+With ants, as I am informed by Mr. F. Smith, the males of several
+species are black, the females being testaceous. In the family of Bees,
+especially in the solitary species, as I hear from the same
+distinguished entomologist, the sexes often differ in colour. The males
+are generally the brightest, and in Bombus as well as in Apathus, much
+more variable in colour than the females. In _Anthophora retusa_ the
+male is of a rich fulvous-brown, whilst the female is quite black: so
+are the females of several species of Xylocopa, the males being bright
+yellow. In an Australian bee (_Lestis bombylans_), the female is of an
+extremely brilliant steel-blue, sometimes tinted with vivid green; the
+male being of a bright brassy colour clothed with rich fulvous
+pubescence. As in this group the females are provided with excellent
+defensive weapons in their stings, it is not probable that they have
+come to differ in colour from the males for the sake of protection.
+
+_Mutilla Europæa_ emits a stridulating noise; and according to
+Goureau[483] both sexes have this power. He attributes the sound to the
+friction of the third and preceding abdominal segments; and I find that
+these surfaces are marked with very fine concentric ridges, but so is
+the projecting thoracic collar, on which the head articulates; and this
+collar, when scratched with the point of a needle, emits the proper
+sound. It is rather surprising that both sexes should have the power of
+stridulating, as the male is winged and the female wingless. It is
+notorious that Bees express certain emotions, as of anger, by the tone
+of their humming, as do some dipterous insects; but I have not referred
+to these sounds, as they are not known to be in any way connected with
+the act of courtship.
+
+
+Order, _Coleoptera_ (Beetles).—Many beetles are coloured so as to
+resemble the surfaces which they habitually frequent. Other species are
+ornamented with gorgeous metallic tints,—for instance, many Carabidæ,
+which live on the ground and have the power of defending themselves by
+an intensely acrid secretion,—the splendid diamond-beetles which are
+protected by an extremely hard covering,—many species of Chrysomela,
+such as _C. cerealis_, a large species beautifully striped with various
+colours, and in Britain confined to the bare summit of Snowdon,—and a
+host of other species. These splendid colours, which are often arranged
+in stripes, spots, crosses and other elegant patterns, can hardly be
+beneficial, as a protection, except in the case of some flower-feeding
+species; and we cannot believe that they are purposeless. Hence the
+suspicion arises, that they serve as a sexual attraction; but we have no
+evidence on this head, for the sexes rarely differ in colour. Blind
+beetles, which cannot of course behold each other’s beauty, never
+exhibit, as I hear from Mr. Waterhouse, jun., bright colours, though
+they often have polished coats: but the explanation of their obscurity
+may be that blind insects inhabit caves and other obscure stations.
+
+Some Longicorns, however, especially certain Prionidæ, offer an
+exception to the common rule that the sexes of beetles do not differ in
+colour. Most of these insects are large and splendidly coloured. The
+males in the genus Pyrodes,[484] as I saw in Mr. Bates’ collection, are
+generally redder but rather duller than the females, the latter being
+coloured of a more or less splendid golden green. On the other hand, in
+one species the male is golden-green, the female being richly tinted
+with red and purple. In the genus Esmeralda the sexes differ so greatly
+in colour that they have been ranked as distinct species: in one species
+both are of a beautiful shining green, but the male has a red thorax. On
+the whole, as far as I could judge, the females of those Prionidæ, in
+which the sexes differ, are coloured more richly than the males; and
+this does not accord with the common rule in regard to colour when
+acquired through sexual selection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced);
+lower figure, female (nat. size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Phanæus faunus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Dipelicus cantori.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged.]
+
+A most remarkable distinction between the sexes of many beetles is
+presented by the great horns which rise from the head, thorax, or
+clypeus of the males; and in some few cases from the under surface of
+the body. These horns, in the great family of the Lamellicorns, resemble
+those of various quadrupeds, such as stags, rhinoceroses, &c., and are
+wonderful both from their size and diversified shapes. Instead of
+describing them, I have given figures of the males and females of some
+of the more remarkable forms. (Figs. 15 to 19.) The females generally
+exhibit rudiments of the horns in the form of small knobs or ridges; but
+some are destitute of even a rudiment. On the other hand, the horns are
+nearly as well developed in the female as in the male of _Phanæus
+lancifer_; and only a little less well developed in the females of some
+other species of the same genus and of Copris. In the several
+subdivisions of the family, the differences in structure of the horns do
+not run parallel, as I am informed by Mr. Bates, with their more
+important and characteristic differences; thus within the same natural
+section of the genus Onthophagus, there are species which have either a
+single cephalic horn, or two distinct horns.
+
+In almost all cases, the horns are remarkable from their excessive
+variability; so that a graduated series can be formed, from the most
+highly developed males to others so degenerate that they can barely be
+distinguished from the females. Mr. Walsh[485] found that in _Phanæus
+carnifex_ the horns were thrice as long in some males as in others. Mr.
+Bates, after examining above a hundred males of _Onthophagus rangifer_
+(fig. 19), thought that he had at last discovered a species in which
+the horns did not vary; but further research proved the contrary.
+
+The extraordinary size of the horns, and their widely different
+structure in closely-allied forms, indicate that they have been formed
+for some important purpose; but their excessive variability in the males
+of the same species leads to the inference that this purpose cannot be
+of a definite nature. The horns do not show marks of friction, as if
+used for any ordinary work. Some authors suppose[486] that as the males
+wander much more than the females, they require horns as a defence
+against their enemies; but in many cases the horns do not seem well
+adapted for defence, as they are not sharp. The most obvious conjecture
+is that they are used by the males for fighting together; but they have
+never been observed to fight; nor could Mr. Bates, after a careful
+examination of numerous species, find any sufficient evidence in their
+mutilated or broken condition of their having been thus used. If the
+males had been habitual fighters, their size would probably have been
+increased through sexual selection, so as to have exceeded that of the
+female; but Mr. Bates, after comparing the two sexes in above a hundred
+species of the Copridæ, does not find in well-developed individuals any
+marked difference in this respect. There is, moreover, one beetle,
+belonging to the same great division of the Lamellicorns, namely
+Lethrus, the males of which are known to fight, but they are not
+provided with horns, though their mandibles are much larger than those
+of the female.
+
+The conclusion, which best agrees with the fact of the horns having been
+so immensely yet not fixedly developed,—as shewn by their extreme
+variability in the same species and by their extreme diversity in
+closely-allied species—is that they have been acquired as ornaments.
+This view will at first appear extremely improbable; but we shall
+hereafter find with many animals, standing much higher in the scale,
+namely fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, that various kinds of
+crests, knobs, horns and combs have been developed apparently for this
+sole purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Onitis furcifer, male, viewed from beneath.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer,
+viewed laterally. Right-hand figure, female. _a._ Rudiment of cephalic
+horn. _b._ Trace of thoracic horn or crest.]
+
+The males of _Onitis furcifer_ (fig. 20) are furnished with singular
+projections on their anterior femora, and with a great fork or pair of
+horns on the lower surface of the thorax. This situation seems extremely
+ill adapted for the display of these projections, and they may be of
+some real service; but no use can at present be assigned to them. It is
+a highly remarkable fact, that although the males do not exhibit even a
+trace of horns on the upper surface of the body, yet in the females a
+rudiment of a single horn on the head (fig. 21, _a_), and of a crest
+(_b_) on the thorax, are plainly visible. That the slight thoracic crest
+in the female is a rudiment of a projection proper to the male, though
+entirely absent in the male of this particular species, is clear: for
+the female of _Bubas bison_ (a form which comes next to _Onitis_) has a
+similar slight crest on the thorax, and the male has in the same
+situation a great projection. So again there can be no doubt that the
+little point (_a_) on the head of the female _Onitis furcifer_, as well
+of the females of two or three allied species, is a rudimentary
+representative of the cephalic horn, which is common to the males of so
+many lamellicorn beetles, as in Phanæus, fig. 17. The males indeed of
+some unnamed beetles in the British Museum, which are believed actually
+to belong to the genus Onitis, are furnished with a similar horn. The
+remarkable nature of this case will be best perceived by an
+illustration: the Ruminant quadrupeds run parallel with the lamellicorn
+beetles, in some females possessing horns as large as those of the male,
+in others having them much smaller, or existing as mere rudiments
+(though this is as rare with ruminants as it is common with
+Lamellicorns), or in having none at all. Now if a new species of deer or
+sheep were discovered with the female bearing distinct rudiments of
+horns, whilst the head of the male was absolutely smooth, we should have
+a case like that of _Onitis furcifer_.
+
+In this case the old belief of rudiments having been created to complete
+the scheme of nature is so far from holding good, that all ordinary
+rules are completely broken through. The view which seems the most
+probable is that some early progenitor of Onitis acquired, like other
+Lamellicorns, horns on the head and thorax, and then transferred them,
+in a rudimentary condition, as with so many existing species, to the
+female, by whom they have ever since been retained. The subsequent loss
+of the horns by the male may have resulted through the principle of
+compensation from the development of the projections on the lower
+surface, whilst the female has not been thus affected, as she is not
+furnished with these projections, and consequently has retained the
+rudiments of the horns on the upper surface. Although this view is
+supported by the case of Bledius immediately to be given, yet the
+projections on the lower surface differ greatly in structure and
+development in the males of the several species of Onitis, and are even
+rudimentary in some; nevertheless the upper surface in all these species
+is quite destitute of horns. As secondary sexual characters are so
+eminently variable, it is possible that the projections on the lower
+surface may have been first acquired by some progenitor of Onitis and
+produced their effect through compensation, and then have been in
+certain cases almost completely lost.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure,
+male; right-hand figure, female.]
+
+All the cases hitherto given refer to the Lamellicorns, but the males of
+some few other beetles, belonging to two widely distinct groups, namely,
+the Curculionidæ and Staphylinidæ, are furnished with horns,—in the
+former on the lower surface of the body,[487] in the latter on the upper
+surface of the head and thorax. In the Staphylinidæ the horns of the
+males in the same species are extraordinarily variable, just as we have
+seen with the Lamellicorns. In Siagonium we have a case of dimorphism,
+for the males can be divided into two sets, differing greatly in the
+size of their bodies, and in the development of their horns, without any
+intermediate gradations. In a species of Bledius (fig. 22), also
+belonging to the Staphylinidæ, male specimens can be found in the same
+locality, as Professor Westwood states, “in which the central horn of
+the thorax is very large, but the horns of the head quite rudimental;
+and others, in which the thoracic horn is much shorter, whilst the
+protuberances on the head are long.”[488] Here, then, we apparently have
+an instance of compensation of growth, which throws light on the curious
+case just given of the loss of the upper horns by the males of _Onitis
+furcifer_.
+
+
+_Law of Battle._—Some male beetles, which seem ill fitted for fighting,
+nevertheless engage in conflicts for the possession of the females. Mr.
+Wallace[489] saw two males of _Leptorhynchus angustatus_, a linear
+beetle with a much elongated rostrum, “fighting for a female, who stood
+close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other with their
+rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest rage.” The
+smaller male, however, “soon ran away, acknowledging himself
+vanquished.” In some few cases the males are well adapted for fighting,
+by possessing great toothed mandibles, much larger than those of the
+females. This is the case with the common stag-beetle (_Lucanus
+cervus_), the males of which emerge from the pupal state about a week
+before the other sex, so that several may often be seen pursuing the
+same female. At this period they engage in fierce conflicts. When Mr. A.
+H. Davis[490] enclosed two males with one female in a box, the larger
+male severely pinched the smaller one, until he resigned his
+pretensions. A friend informs me that when a boy he often put the males
+together to see them fight, and he noticed that they were much bolder
+and fiercer than the females, as is well known to be the case with the
+higher animals. The males would seize hold of his finger, if held in
+front, but not so the females. With many of the Lucanidæ, as well as
+with the above-mentioned Leptorhynchus, the males are larger and more
+powerful insects than the females. The two sexes of _Lethrus cephalotes_
+(one of the Lamellicorns) inhabit the same burrow; and the male has
+larger mandibles than the female. If, during the breeding-season, a
+strange male attempts to enter the burrow, he is attacked; the female
+does not remain passive, but closes the mouth of the burrow, and
+encourages her mate by continually pushing him on from behind. The
+action does not cease until the aggressor is killed or runs away.[491]
+The two sexes of another lamellicorn beetle, the _Ateuchus cicatricosus_
+live in pairs, and seem much attached to each other; the male excites
+the female to roll the balls of dung in which the ova are deposited; and
+if she is removed, he becomes much agitated. If the male is removed, the
+female ceases all work, and as M. Brulerie[492] believes, would remain
+on the spot until she died.
+
+The great mandibles of the male Lucanidæ are extremely variable both in
+size and structure, and in this respect resemble the horns on the head
+and thorax of many male Lamellicorns and Staphylinidæ. A perfect series
+can be formed from the best-provided to the worst-provided or degenerate
+males. Although the mandibles of the common stag-beetle, and probably of
+many other species, are used as efficient weapons for fighting, it is
+doubtful whether their great size can thus be accounted for. We have
+seen that with the _Lucanus elaphus_ of N. America they are used for
+seizing the female. As they are so conspicuous and so elegantly
+branched, the suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that they may be
+serviceable to the males as an ornament, in the same manner as the horns
+on the head and thorax of the various above described species. The male
+_Chiasognathus grantii_ of S. Chile—a splendid beetle belonging to the
+same family—has enormously-developed mandibles (fig. 23); he is bold
+and pugnacious; when threatened on any side he faces round, opening his
+great jaws, and at the same time stridulating loudly; but the mandibles
+were not strong enough to pinch my finger so as to cause actual pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Chiasognathus grantii, reduced. Upper figure,
+male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Sexual selection, which implies the possession of considerable
+perceptive powers and of strong passions, seems to have been more
+effective with the Lamellicorns than with any other family of the
+Coleoptera or beetles. With some species the males are provided with
+weapons for fighting; some live in pairs and show mutual affection;
+many have the power of stridulating when excited; many are furnished
+with the most extraordinary horns, apparently for the sake of ornament;
+some which are diurnal in their habits are gorgeously coloured; and,
+lastly, several of the largest beetles in the world belong to this
+family, which was placed by Linnæus and Fabricius at the head of the
+Order of the Coleoptera.[493]
+
+
+_Stridulating organs._—Beetles belonging to many and widely distinct
+families possess these organs. The sound can sometimes be heard at the
+distance of several feet or even yards,[494] but is not comparable with
+that produced by the Orthoptera. The part which may be called the rasp
+generally consists of a narrow slightly-raised surface, crossed by very
+fine, parallel ribs, sometimes so fine as to cause iridescent colours,
+and having a very elegant appearance under the microscope. In some
+cases, for instance, with Typhæus, it could be plainly seen that
+extremely minute, bristly, scale-like prominences, which cover the whole
+surrounding surface in approximately parallel lines, give rise to the
+ribs of the rasp by becoming confluent and straight, and at the same
+time more prominent and smooth. A hard ridge on any adjoining part of
+the body, which in some cases is specially modified for the purpose,
+serves as the scraper for the rasp. The scraper is rapidly moved across
+the rasp, or conversely the rasp across the scraper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Necrophorus (from Landois). _r._ The two rasps.
+Left-hand figure, part of the rasp highly magnified.]
+
+These organs are situated in widely different positions. In the
+carrion-beetles (Necrophorus) two parallel rasps (_r_, fig. 24) stand on
+the dorsal surface of the fifth abdominal segment, each rasp being
+crossed, as described by Landois,[495] by from 126 to 140 fine ribs.
+These ribs are scraped by the posterior margins of the elytra, a small
+portion of which projects beyond the general outline. In many
+Crioceridæ, and in _Clythra 4-punctata_ (one of the Chrysomelidæ), and
+in some Tenebrionidæ, &c.,[496] the rasp is seated on the dorsal apex of
+the abdomen, on the pygidium or pro-pygidium, and is scraped as above by
+the elytra. In Heterocerus, which belongs to another family, the rasps
+are placed on the sides of the first abdominal segment, and are scraped
+by ridges on the femora.[497] In certain Curculionidæ and Carabidæ,[498]
+the parts are completely reversed in position, for the rasps are seated
+on the inferior surface of the elytra, near their apices, or along their
+outer margins, and the edges of the abdominal segments serve as the
+scrapers. In _Pelobius hermanni_ (one of Dytiscidæ or water-beetles) a
+strong ridge runs parallel and near to the sutural margin of the elytra,
+and is crossed by ribs, coarse in the middle part, but becoming
+gradually finer at both ends, especially at the upper end; when this
+insect is held under water or in the air, a stridulating noise is
+produced by scraping the extreme horny margin of the abdomen against the
+rasp. In a great number of long-horned beetles (Longicornia) the organs
+are altogether differently situated, the rasp being on the meso-thorax,
+which is rubbed against the pro-thorax; Landois counted 238 very fine
+ribs on the rasp of _Cerambyx heros_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Hind-leg of Geotrupes stercorarius (from
+Landois). _r._ Rasp. _c._ Coxa. _f._ Femur. _t._ Tibia. _tr._ Tarsi.]
+
+Many Lamellicorns have the power of stridulating, and the organs differ
+greatly in position. Some species stridulate very loudly, so that when
+Mr. F. Smith caught a _Trox sabulosus_, a gamekeeper who stood by
+thought that he had caught a mouse; but I failed to discover the proper
+organs in this beetle. In Geotrupes and Typhæus a narrow ridge runs
+obliquely across (_r_, fig. 25) the coxa of each hind-leg, having in
+_G. stercorarius_ 84 ribs, which are scraped by a specially-projecting
+part of one of the abdominal segments. In the nearly allied _Copris
+lunaris_, an excessively narrow fine rasp runs along the sutural margin
+of the elytra, with another short rasp near the basal outer margin; but
+in some other Coprini the rasp is seated, according to Leconte,[499] on
+the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In Oryctes it is seated on the
+pro-pygidium, and in some other Dynastini, according to the same
+entomologist, on the under surface of the elytra. Lastly, Westring
+states that in _Omaloplia brunnea_ the rasp is placed on the
+pro-sternum, and the scraper on the meta-sternum, the parts thus
+occupying the under surface of the body, instead of the upper surface as
+in the Longicorns.
+
+We thus see that the stridulating organs in the different coleopterous
+families are wonderfully diversified in position, but not much in
+structure. Within the same family some species are provided with these
+organs, and some are quite destitute of them. This diversity is
+intelligible, if we suppose that originally various species made a
+shuffling or hissing noise by the rubbing together of the hard and rough
+parts of their bodies which were in contact; and that from the noise
+thus produced being in some way useful, the rough surfaces were
+gradually developed into regular stridulating organs. Some beetles as
+they move, now produce, either intentionally or unintentionally, a
+shuffling noise, without possessing any proper organs for the purpose.
+Mr. Wallace informs me that the _Euchirus longimanus_ (a Lamellicorn,
+with the anterior legs wonderfully elongated in the male) “makes, whilst
+moving, a low hissing sound by the protrusion and contraction of the
+abdomen; and when seized it produces a grating sound by rubbing its
+hind-legs against the edges of the elytra.” The hissing sound is clearly
+due to a narrow rasp running along the sutural margin of each elytron;
+and I could likewise make the grating sound by rubbing the shagreened
+surface of the femur against the granulated margin of the corresponding
+elytron; but I could not here detect any proper rasp; nor is it likely
+that I could have overlooked it in so large an insect. After examining
+Cychrus and reading what Westring has written in his two papers about
+this beetle, it seems very doubtful whether it possesses any true rasp,
+though it has the power of emitting a sound.
+
+From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, I expected to find
+that the stridulating organs in the Coleoptera differed according to
+sex; but Landois, who has carefully examined several species, observed
+no such difference; nor did Westring; nor did Mr. G. R. Crotch in
+preparing the numerous specimens which he had the kindness to send me
+for examination. Any slight sexual difference, however, would be
+difficult to detect, on account of the great variability of these
+organs. Thus in the first pair of the _Necrophorus humator_ and of the
+_Pelobius_ which I examined, the rasp was considerably larger in the
+male than in the female; but not so with succeeding specimens. In
+_Geotrupes stercorarius_ the rasp appeared to me thicker, opaquer, and
+more prominent in three males than in the same number of females;
+consequently my son, Mr. F. Darwin, in order to discover whether the
+sexes differed in their power of stridulating, collected 57 living
+specimens, which he separated into two lots, according as they made,
+when held in the same manner, a greater or lesser noise. He then
+examined their sexes, but found that the males were very nearly in the
+same proportion to the females in both lots. Mr. F. Smith has kept alive
+numerous specimens of _Mononychus pseudacori_ (Curculionidæ), and is
+satisfied that both sexes stridulate, and apparently in an equal degree.
+
+Nevertheless the power of stridulating is certainly a sexual character
+in some few Coleoptera. Mr. Crotch has discovered that the males alone
+of two species of Heliopathes (Tenebrionidæ) possess stridulating
+organs. I examined five males of _H. gibbus_, and in all these there was
+a well-developed rasp, partially divided into two, on the dorsal surface
+of the terminal abdominal segment; whilst in the same number of females
+there was not even a rudiment of the rasp, the membrane of this segment
+being transparent and much thinner than in the male. In _H.
+cribratostriatus_ the male has a similar rasp, excepting that it is not
+partially divided into two portions, and the female is completely
+destitute of this organ; but in addition the male has on the apical
+margins of the elytra, on each side of the suture, three or four short
+longitudinal ridges, which are crossed by extremely fine ribs, parallel
+to and resembling those on the abdominal rasp; whether these ridges
+serve as an independent rasp, or as a scraper for the abdominal rasp, I
+could not decide: the female exhibits no trace of this latter structure.
+
+Again, in three species of the Lamellicorn genus Oryctes, we have a
+nearly parallel case. In the females of _O. gryphus_ and _nasicornis_
+the ribs on the rasp of the pro-pygidium are less continuous and less
+distinct than in the males; but the chief difference is that the whole
+upper surface of this segment, when held in the proper light, is seen to
+be clothed with hairs, which are absent or are represented by
+excessively fine down in the males. It should be noticed that in all
+Coleoptera the effective part of the rasp is destitute of hairs. In _O.
+senegalensis_ the difference between the sexes is more strongly marked,
+and this is best seen when the proper segment is cleaned and viewed as a
+transparent object. In the female the whole surface is covered with
+little separate crests, bearing spines; whilst in the male these crests
+become, in proceeding towards the apex, more and more confluent,
+regular, and naked; so that three-fourths of the segment is covered with
+extremely fine parallel ribs, which are quite absent in the female. In
+the females, however, of all three species of Oryctes, when the abdomen
+of a softened specimen is pushed backwards and forwards, a slight
+grating or stridulating sound can be produced.
+
+In the case of the Heliopathes and Oryctes there can hardly be a doubt
+that the males stridulate in order to call or to excite the females; but
+with most beetles the stridulation apparently serves both sexes as a
+mutual call. This view is not rendered improbable from beetles
+stridulating under various emotions; we know that birds use their voices
+for many purposes besides singing to their mates. The great
+Chiasognathus stridulates in anger or defiance; many species do the same
+from distress or fear, when held so that they cannot escape; Messrs.
+Wollaston and Crotch were able, by striking the hollow stems of trees in
+the Canary Islands, to discover the presence of beetles belonging to the
+genus Acalles by their stridulation. Lastly the male Ateuchus
+stridulates to encourage the female in her work, and from distress when
+she is removed.[500] Some naturalists believe that beetles make this
+noise to frighten away their enemies; but I cannot think that the
+quadrupeds and birds which are able to devour the larger beetles with
+their extremely hard coats, would be frightened by so slight a grating
+sound. The belief that the stridulation serves as a sexual call is
+supported by the fact that death-ticks (_Anobium tessellatum_) are well
+known to answer each other’s ticking, or, as I have myself observed, a
+tapping noise artificially made; and Mr. Doubleday informs me that he
+has twice or thrice observed a female ticking,[501] and in the course of
+an hour or two has found her united with a male, and on one occasion
+surrounded by several males. Finally, it seems probable that the two
+sexes of many kinds of beetles were at first enabled to find each other
+by the slight shuffling noise produced by the rubbing together of the
+adjoining parts of their hard bodies; and that as the males or females
+which made the greatest noise succeeded best in finding partners, the
+rugosities on various parts of their bodies were gradually developed by
+means of sexual selection into true stridulating organs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+INSECTS, _continued_.—ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+
+  Courtship of butterflies—Battles—Ticking noise—Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males—Examples—Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life—Colours adapted for protection—Colours of
+  moths—Display—Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera—Variability—Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females—Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males—Bright colours of
+  caterpillars—Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects—Birds and insects compared.
+
+
+In this great Order the most interesting point for us is the difference
+in colour between the sexes of the same species, and between the
+distinct species of the same genus. Nearly the whole of the following
+chapter will be devoted to this subject; but I will first make a few
+remarks on one or two other points. Several males may often be seen
+pursuing and crowding round the same female. Their courtship appears to
+be a prolonged affair, for I have frequently watched one or more males
+pirouetting round a female until I became tired, without seeing the end
+of the courtship. Although butterflies are such weak and fragile
+creatures, they are pugnacious, and an Emperor butterfly[502] has been
+captured with the tips of its wings broken from a conflict with another
+male. Mr. Collingwood in speaking of the frequent battles between the
+butterflies of Borneo says, “They whirl round each other with the
+greatest rapidity, and appear to be incited by the greatest ferocity.”
+One case is known of a butterfly, namely the _Ageronia feronia_, which
+makes a noise like that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a
+spring catch, and which could be heard at the distance of several yards.
+At Rio de Janeiro this sound was noticed by me, only when two were
+chasing each other in an irregular course, so that it is probably made
+during the courtship of the sexes; but I neglected to attend to this
+point.[503]
+
+Every one has admired the extreme beauty of many butterflies and of some
+moths; and we are led to ask, how has this beauty been acquired? Have
+their colours and diversified patterns simply resulted from the direct
+action of the physical conditions to which these insects have been
+exposed, without any benefit being thus derived? Or have successive
+variations been accumulated and determined either as a protection or for
+some unknown purpose, or that one sex might be rendered attractive to
+the other? And, again, what is the meaning of the colours being widely
+different in the males and females of certain species, and alike in the
+two sexes of other species? Before attempting to answer these questions
+a body of facts must be given.
+
+With most of our English butterflies, both those which are beautiful,
+such as the admiral, peacock, and painted lady (Vanessæ), and those
+which are plain-coloured, such as the meadow-browns (Hipparchiæ), the
+sexes are alike. This is also the case with the magnificent Heliconidæ
+and Danaidæ of the tropics. But in certain other tropical groups, and
+with some of our English butterflies, as the purple emperor, orange-tip,
+&c. (_Apatura Iris_ and _Anthocharis cardamines_), the sexes differ
+either greatly or slightly in colour. No language suffices to describe
+the splendour of the males of some tropical species. Even within the
+same genus we often find species presenting an extraordinary difference
+between the sexes, whilst others have their sexes closely alike. Thus in
+the South American genus Epicalia, Mr. Bates, to whom I am much indebted
+for most of the following facts and for looking over this whole
+discussion, informs me that he knows twelve species, the two sexes of
+which haunt the same stations (and this is not always the case with
+butterflies), and therefore cannot have been differently affected by
+external conditions[504]. In nine of these species the males rank
+amongst the most brilliant of all butterflies, and differ so greatly
+from the comparatively plain females that they were formerly placed in
+distinct genera. The females of these nine species resemble each other
+in their general type of coloration, and likewise resemble both sexes in
+several allied genera, found in various parts of the world. Hence in
+accordance with the descent-theory we may infer that these nine species,
+and probably all the others of the genus, are descended from an
+ancestral form which was coloured in nearly the same manner. In the
+tenth species the female still retains the same general colouring, but
+the male resembles her, so that he is coloured in a much less gaudy and
+contrasted manner than the males of the previous species. In the
+eleventh and twelfth species, the females depart from the type of
+colouring which is usual with their sex in this genus, for they are
+gaily decorated in nearly the same manner as the males, but in a
+somewhat less degree. Hence in these two species the bright colours of
+the males seem to have been transferred to the females; whilst the male
+of the tenth species has either retained or recovered the plain colours
+of the female as well as of the parent-form of the genus; the two sexes
+being thus rendered in both cases, though in an opposite manner, nearly
+alike. In the allied genus Eubagis, both sexes of some of the species
+are plain-coloured and nearly alike; whilst with the greater number the
+males are decorated with beautiful metallic tints, in a diversified
+manner, and differ much from their females. The females throughout the
+genus retain the same general style of colouring, so that they commonly
+resemble each other much more closely than they resemble their own
+proper males.
+
+In the genus Papilio, all the species of the Æneas group are remarkable
+for their conspicuous and strongly contrasted colours, and they
+illustrate the frequent tendency to gradation in the amount of
+difference between the sexes. In a few species, for instance in _P.
+ascanius_, the males and females are alike; in others the males are a
+little or very much more superbly coloured than the females. The genus
+Junonia allied to our Vanessæ offers a nearly parallel case, for
+although the sexes of most of the species resemble each other and are
+destitute of rich colours, yet in certain species, as in _J. œnone_,
+the male is rather more brightly coloured than the female, and in a few
+(for instance _J. andremiaja_) the male is so different from the female
+that he might be mistaken for an entirely distinct species.
+
+Another striking case was pointed out to me in the British museum by Mr.
+A. Butler, namely one of the Tropical American Theclæ, in which both
+sexes are nearly alike and wonderfully splendid; in another, the male
+is coloured in a similarly gorgeous manner, whilst the whole upper
+surface of the female is of a dull uniform brown. Our common little
+English blue butterflies of the genus Lycæna, illustrate the various
+differences in colour between the sexes, almost as well, though not in
+so striking a manner, as the above exotic genera. In _Lycæna agestis_
+both sexes have wings of a brown colour, bordered with small ocellated
+orange spots, and are consequently alike. In _L. œgon_ the wings of
+the male are of a fine blue, bordered with black; whilst the wings of
+the female are brown, with a similar border, and closely resemble those
+of _L. agestis_. Lastly, in _L. arion_ both sexes are of a blue colour
+and nearly alike, though in the female the edges of the wings are rather
+duskier, with the black spots plainer; and in a bright blue Indian
+species both sexes are still more closely alike.
+
+I have given the foregoing cases in some detail in order to shew, in the
+first place, that when the sexes of butterflies differ, the male as a
+general rule is the most beautiful, and departs most from the usual type
+of colouring of the group to which the species belongs. Hence in most
+groups the females of the several species resemble each other much more
+closely than do the males. In some exceptional cases, however, to which
+I shall hereafter allude, the females are coloured more splendidly than
+the males. In the second place these cases have been given to bring
+clearly before the mind that within the same genus, the two sexes
+frequently present every gradation from no difference in colour to so
+great a difference that it was long before the two were placed by
+entomologists in the same genus. In the third place, we have seen that
+when the sexes nearly resemble each other, this apparently may be due
+either to the male having transferred his colours to the female, or to
+the male having retained, or perhaps recovered, the primordial colours
+of the genus to which the species belongs. It also deserves notice that
+in those groups in which the sexes present any difference of colour, the
+females usually resemble the males to a certain extent, so that when the
+males are beautiful to an extraordinary degree, the females almost
+invariably exhibit some degree of beauty. From the numerous cases of
+gradation in the amount of difference between the sexes, and from the
+prevalence of the same general type of coloration throughout the whole
+of the same group, we may conclude that the causes, whatever they may
+be, which have determined the brilliant colouring of the males alone of
+some species, and of both sexes in a more or less equal degree of other
+species, have generally been the same.
+
+As so many gorgeous butterflies inhabit the tropics, it has often been
+supposed that they owe their colours to the great heat and moisture of
+these zones; but Mr. Bates[505] has shewn by the comparison of various
+closely-allied groups of insects from the temperate and tropical
+regions, that this view cannot be maintained; and the evidence becomes
+conclusive when brilliantly-coloured males and plain-coloured females of
+the same species inhabit the same district, feed on the same food, and
+follow exactly the same habits of life. Even when the sexes resemble
+each other, we can hardly believe that their brilliant and
+beautifully-arranged colours are the purposeless result of the nature of
+the tissues, and the action of the surrounding conditions.
+
+With animals of all kinds, whenever colour has been modified for some
+special purpose, this has been, as far as we can judge, either for
+protection or as an attraction between the sexes. With many species of
+butterflies the upper surfaces of the wings are obscurely coloured, and
+this in all probability leads to their escaping observation and danger.
+But butterflies when at rest would be particularly liable to be attacked
+by their enemies; and almost all the kinds when resting raise their
+wings vertically over their backs, so that the lower sides alone are
+exposed to view. Hence it is this side which in many cases is obviously
+coloured so as to imitate the surfaces on which these insects commonly
+rest. Dr. Rössler, I believe, first noticed the similarity of the closed
+wings of certain Vanessæ and other butterflies to the bark of trees.
+Many analogous and striking facts could be given. The most interesting
+one is that recorded by Mr. Wallace[506] of a common Indian and Sumatran
+butterfly (Kallima), which disappears like magic when it settles in a
+bush; for it hides its head and antennæ between its closed wings, and
+these in form, colour, and veining cannot be distinguished from a
+withered leaf together with the footstalk. In some other cases the lower
+surfaces of the wings are brilliantly coloured, and yet are protective;
+thus in _Thecla rubi_ the wings when closed are of an emerald green and
+resemble the young leaves of the bramble, on which this butterfly in the
+spring may often be seen seated.
+
+Although the obscure tints of the upper or under surface of many
+butterflies no doubt serve to conceal them, yet we cannot possibly
+extend this view to the brilliant and conspicuous colours of many kinds,
+such as our admiral and peacock Vanessæ, our white cabbage-butterflies
+(Pieris), or the great swallow-tail Papilio which haunts the open
+fens—for these butterflies are thus rendered visible to every living
+creature. With these species both sexes are alike; but in the common
+brimstone butterfly (_Gonepteryx rhamni_), the male is of an intense
+yellow, whilst the female is much paler; and in the orange-tip
+(_Anthocharis cardamines_) the males alone have the bright orange tips
+to their wings. In these cases the males and females are equally
+conspicuous, and it is not credible that their difference in colour
+stands in any relation to ordinary protection. Nevertheless it is
+possible that the conspicuous colours of many species may be in an
+indirect manner beneficial, as will hereafter be explained, by leading
+their enemies at once to recognise them as unpalatable. Even in this
+case it does not certainly follow that their bright colours and
+beautiful patterns were acquired for this special purpose. In some other
+remarkable cases, beauty has been gained for the sake of protection,
+through the imitation of other beautiful species, which inhabit the same
+district and enjoy an immunity from attack by being in some way
+offensive to their enemies.
+
+The female of our orange-tip butterfly, above referred to, and of an
+American species (_Anth. genutia_) probably shew us, as Mr. Walsh has
+remarked to me, the primordial colours of the parent-species of the
+genus; for both sexes of four or five widely-distributed species are
+coloured in nearly the same manner. We may infer here, as in several
+previous cases, that it is the males of _Anth. cardamines_ and _genutia_
+which have departed from the usual type of colouring of their genus. In
+the _Anth. sara_ from California, the orange-tips have become partially
+developed in the female; for her wings are tipped with reddish-orange,
+but paler than in the male, and slightly different in some other
+respects. In an allied Indian form, the _Iphias glaucippe_, the
+orange-tips are fully developed in both sexes. In this Iphias the under
+surface of the wings marvellously resembles, as pointed out to me by Mr.
+A. Butler, a pale-coloured leaf; and in our English orange-tip, the
+under surface resembles the flower-head of the wild parsley, on which it
+may be seen going to rest at night.[507] The same reasoning power which
+compels us to believe that the lower surfaces have here been coloured
+for the sake of protection, leads us to deny that the wings have been
+tipped, especially when this character is confined to the males, with
+bright orange for the same purpose.
+
+
+Turning now to Moths: most of these rest motionless with their wings
+depressed during the whole or greater part of the day; and the upper
+surfaces of their wings are often shaded and coloured in an admirable
+manner, as Mr. Wallace has remarked, for escaping detection. With most
+of the Bombycidæ and Noctuidæ,[508] when at rest, the front-wings
+overlap and conceal the hind-wings; so that the latter might be brightly
+coloured without much risk; and they are thus coloured in many species
+of both families. During the act of flight, moths would often be able to
+escape from their enemies; nevertheless, as the hind-wings are then
+fully exposed to view, their bright colours must generally have been
+acquired at the cost of some little risk. But the following fact shews
+us how cautious we ought to be in drawing conclusions on this head. The
+common yellow under-wings (Triphaena) often fly about during the day or
+early evening, and are then conspicuous from the colour of their
+hind-wings. It would naturally be thought that this would be a source of
+danger; but Mr. J. Jenner Weir believes that it actually serves them as
+a means of escape, for birds strike at these brightly coloured and
+fragile surfaces, instead of at the body. For instance, Mr. Weir turned
+into his aviary a vigorous specimen of _Triphaena pronuba_, which was
+instantly pursued by a robin; but the bird’s attention being caught by
+the coloured wings, the moth was not captured until after about fifty
+attempts, and small portions of the wings were repeatedly broken off. He
+tried the same experiment, in the open air, with a _T. fimbria_ and
+swallow; but the large size of this moth probably interfered with its
+capture.[509] We are thus reminded of a statement made by Mr.
+Wallace,[510] namely, that in the Brazilian forests and Malayan islands,
+many common and highly-decorated butterflies are weak flyers, though
+furnished with a broad expanse of wings; and they “are often captured
+with pierced and broken wings, as if they had been seized by birds, from
+which they had escaped: if the wings had been much smaller in proportion
+to the body, it seems probable that the insect would more frequently
+have been struck or pierced in a vital part, and thus the increased
+expanse of the wings may have been indirectly beneficial.”
+
+
+_Display._—The bright colours of butterflies and of some moths are
+specially arranged for display, whether or not they serve in addition as
+a protection. Bright colours would not be visible during the night; and
+there can be no doubt that moths, taken as a body, are much less gaily
+decorated than butterflies, all of which are diurnal in their habits.
+But the moths in certain families, such as the Zygænidæ, various
+Sphingidæ, Uraniidæ, some Arctiidæ and Saturniidæ, fly about during the
+day or early evening, and many of these are extremely beautiful, being
+far more brightly coloured than the strictly nocturnal kinds. A few
+exceptional cases, however, of brightly-coloured nocturnal species have
+been recorded.[511]
+
+There is evidence of another kind in regard to display. Butterflies, as
+before remarked, elevate their wings when at rest, and whilst basking in
+the sunshine often alternately raise and depress them, thus exposing to
+full view both surfaces; and although the lower surface is often
+coloured in an obscure manner as a protection, yet in many species it is
+as highly coloured as the upper surface, and sometimes in a very
+different manner. In some tropical species the lower surface is even
+more brilliantly coloured than the upper.[512] In one English
+fritillary, the _Argynnis aglaia_, the lower surface alone is ornamented
+with shining silver discs. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the upper
+surface, which is probably the most fully exposed, is coloured more
+brightly and in a more diversified manner than the lower. Hence the
+lower surface generally affords to entomologists the most useful
+character for detecting the affinities of the various species.
+
+Now if we turn to the enormous group of moths, which do not habitually
+expose to full view the under surface of their wings, this side is very
+rarely, as I hear from Mr. Stainton, coloured more brightly than the
+upper side, or even with equal brightness. Some exceptions to the rule,
+either real or apparent, must be noticed, as that of Hypopyra, specified
+by Mr. Wormald.[513] Mr. R. Trimen informs me that in Guenée’s great
+work, three moths are figured, in which the under surface is much the
+most brilliant. For instance, in the Australian Gastrophora the upper
+surface of the fore-wing is pale greyish-ochreous, while the lower
+surface is magnificently ornamented by an ocellus of cobalt-blue, placed
+in the midst of a black mark, surrounded by orange-yellow, and this by
+bluish-white. But the habits of these three moths are unknown; so that
+no explanation can be given of their unusual style of colouring. Mr.
+Trimen also informs me that the lower surface of the wings in certain
+other Geometræ[514] and quadrifid Noctuæ are either more variegated or
+more brightly-coloured than the upper surface; but some of these species
+have the habit of “holding their wings quite erect over their backs,
+retaining them in this position for a considerable time,” and thus
+exposing to view the under surface. Other species when settled on the
+ground or herbage have the habit of now and then suddenly and slightly
+lifting up their wings. Hence the lower surface of the wings being more
+brightly-coloured than the upper surface in certain moths is not so
+anomalous a circumstance as it at first appears. The Saturniidæ include
+some of the most beautiful of all moths, their wings being decorated, as
+in our British Emperor moth, with fine ocelli; and Mr. T. W. Wood[515]
+observes that they resemble butterflies in some of their movements; “for
+instance, in the gentle waving up and down of the wings, as if for
+display, which is more characteristic of diurnal than of nocturnal
+Lepidoptera.”
+
+It is a singular fact that no British moths, nor as far as I can
+discover hardly any foreign species, which are brilliantly coloured,
+differ much in colour according to sex; though this is the case with
+many brilliant butterflies. The male, however, of one American moth, the
+_Saturnia Io_, is described as having its fore-wings deep yellow,
+curiously marked with purplish-red spots; whilst the wings of the female
+are purple-brown, marked with grey lines.[516] The British moths which
+differ sexually in colour are all brown, or various tints of dull
+yellow, or nearly white. In several species the males are much darker
+than the females,[517] and these belong to groups which generally fly
+about during the afternoon. On the other hand, in many genera, as Mr.
+Stainton informs me, the males have the hind-wings whiter than those of
+the female—of which, fact _Agrotis exclamationis_ offers a good
+instance. The males are thus rendered more conspicuous than the females,
+whilst flying about in the dusk. In the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_)
+the difference is more strongly marked; the males being white and the
+females yellow with darker markings. It is difficult to conjecture what
+the meaning can be of these differences between the sexes in the shades
+of darkness or lightness; but we can hardly suppose that they are the
+result of mere variability with sexually-limited inheritance,
+independently of any benefit thus derived.
+
+From the foregoing statements it is impossible to admit that the
+brilliant colours of butterflies and of some few moths, have commonly
+been acquired for the sake of protection. We have seen that their
+colours and elegant patterns are arranged and exhibited as if for
+display. Hence I am led to suppose that the females generally prefer, or
+are most excited by the more brilliant males; for on any other
+supposition the males would be ornamented, as far as we can see, for no
+purpose. We know that ants and certain lamellicorn beetles are capable
+of feeling an attachment for each other, and that ants recognise their
+fellows after an interval of several months. Hence there is no abstract
+improbability in the Lepidoptera, which probably stand nearly or quite
+as high in the scale as these insects, having sufficient mental capacity
+to admire bright colours. They certainly discover flowers by colour,
+and, as I have elsewhere shewn, the plants which are fertilised
+exclusively by the wind never have a conspicuously-coloured corolla. The
+Humming-bird Sphinx may often be seen to swoop down from a distance on a
+bunch of flowers in the midst of green foliage; and I have been assured
+by a friend, that these moths repeatedly visited flowers painted on the
+walls of a room in the South of France. The common white butterfly, as I
+hear from Mr. Doubleday, often flies down to a bit of paper on the
+ground, no doubt mistaking it for one of its own species. Mr.
+Collingwood[518] in speaking of the difficulty of collecting certain
+butterflies in the Malay Archipelago, states that “a dead specimen
+pinned upon a conspicuous twig will often arrest an insect of the same
+species in its headlong flight, and bring it down within easy reach of
+the net, especially if it be of the opposite sex.”
+
+The courtship of butterflies is a prolonged affair. The males sometimes
+fight together in rivalry; and many may be seen pursuing or crowding
+round the same female. If, then, the females do not prefer one male to
+another, the pairing must be left to mere chance, and this does not
+appear to me a probable event. If, on the other hand, the females
+habitually, or even occasionally, prefer the more beautiful males, the
+colours of the latter will have been rendered brighter by degrees, and
+will have been transmitted to both sexes or to one sex, according to
+which law of inheritance prevailed. The process of sexual selection will
+have been much facilitated, if the conclusions arrived at from various
+kinds of evidence in the supplement to the ninth chapter can be trusted;
+namely that the males of many Lepidoptera, at least in the imago state,
+greatly exceed in number the females.
+
+Some facts, however, are opposed to the belief that female butterflies
+prefer the more beautiful males; thus, as I have been assured by several
+observers, fresh females may frequently be seen paired with battered,
+faded or dingy males; but this is a circumstance which could hardly
+fail often to follow from the males emerging from their cocoons earlier
+than the females. With moths of the family of the Bombycidæ, the sexes
+pair immediately after assuming the imago state; for they cannot feed,
+owing to the rudimentary condition of their mouths. The females, as
+several entomologists have remarked to me, lie in an almost torpid
+state, and appear not to evince the least choice in regard to their
+partners, This is the case with the common silk-moth (_B. mori_), as I
+have been told by some continental and English breeders. Dr. Wallace,
+who has had such immense experience in breeding _Bombyx cynthia_, is
+convinced that the females evince no choice or preference. He has kept
+above 300 of these moths living together, and has often found the most
+vigorous females mated with stunted males. The reverse apparently seldom
+occurs; for, as he believes, the more vigorous males pass over the
+weakly females, being attracted by those endowed with most vitality.
+Although we have been indirectly induced to believe that the females of
+many species prefer the more beautiful males, I have no reason to
+suspect, either with moths or butterflies, that the males are attracted
+by the beauty of the females. If the more beautiful females had been
+continually preferred, it is almost certain, from the colours of
+butterflies being so frequently transmitted to one sex alone, that the
+females would often have been rendered more beautiful than their male
+partners. But this does not occur except in a few instances; and these
+can be explained, as we shall presently see, on the principle of
+mimickry and protection.
+
+
+As sexual selection primarily depends on variability, a few words must
+be added on this subject. In respect to colour there is no difficulty,
+as any number of highly variable Lepidoptera could be named. One good
+instance will suffice. Mr. Bates shewed me a whole series of specimens
+of _Papilio sesostris_ and _childrenæ_; in the latter the males varied
+much in the extent of the beautifully enamelled green patch on the
+fore-wings, and in the size of the white mark, as well as of the
+splendid crimson stripe on the hind-wings; so that there was a great
+contrast between the most and least gaudy males. The male of _Papilio
+sesostris_, though a beautiful insect, is much less so than _P.
+childrenæ_. It likewise varies a little in the size of the green patch
+on the fore-wings, and in the occasional appearance of a small crimson
+stripe on the hind-wings, borrowed, as it would seem, from its own
+female; for the females of this and of many other species in the Æneas
+group possess this crimson stripe. Hence between the brightest specimens
+of _P. sesostris_ and the least bright of _P. childrenæ_, there was but
+a small interval; and it was evident that as far as mere variability is
+concerned, there would be no difficulty in permanently increasing by
+means of selection the beauty of either species. The variability is here
+almost confined to the male sex; but Mr. Wallace and Mr. Bates have
+shewn[519] that the females of some other species are extremely
+variable, the males being nearly constant. As I have before mentioned
+the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_) as one of the best instances in
+Britain of a difference in colour between the sexes of moths, it may be
+worth adding[520] that in the Shetland Islands, males are frequently
+found which closely resemble the females. In a future chapter I shall
+have occasion to shew that the beautiful eye-like spots or ocelli, so
+common on the wings of many Lepidoptera, are eminently variable.
+
+
+On the whole, although many serious objections may be urged, it seems
+probable that most of the species of Lepidoptera which are brilliantly
+coloured, owe their colours to sexual selection, excepting in certain
+cases, presently to be mentioned, in which conspicuous colours are
+beneficial as a protection. From the ardour of the male throughout the
+animal kingdom, he is generally willing to accept any female; and it is
+the female which usually exerts a choice. Hence if sexual selection has
+here acted, the male, when the sexes differ, ought to be the most
+brilliantly coloured; and this undoubtedly is the ordinary rule. When
+the sexes are brilliantly coloured and resemble each other, the
+characters acquired by the males appear to have been transmitted to both
+sexes. But will this explanation of the similarity and dissimilarity in
+colour between the sexes suffice?
+
+The males and females of the same species of butterfly are known[521] in
+several cases to inhabit different stations, the former commonly basking
+in the sunshine, the latter haunting gloomy forests. It is therefore
+possible that different conditions of life may have acted directly on
+the two sexes; but this is not probable,[522] as in the adult state they
+are exposed during a very short period to different conditions; and the
+larvæ of both are exposed to the same conditions. Mr. Wallace believes
+that the less brilliant colours of the female have been specially
+gained in all or almost all cases for the sake of protection. On the
+contrary it seems to me more probable that the males alone, in the large
+majority of cases, have acquired their bright colours through sexual
+selection, the females having been but little modified. Consequently the
+females of distinct but allied species ought to resemble each other much
+more closely than do the males of the same species; and this is the
+general rule. The females thus approximately show us the primordial
+colouring of the parent-species of the group to which they belong. They
+have, however, almost always been modified to a certain extent by some
+of the successive steps of variation, through the accumulation of which
+the males were rendered beautiful, having been transferred to them. The
+males and females of allied though distinct species will also generally
+have been exposed during their prolonged larval state to different
+conditions, and may have been thus indirectly affected; though with the
+males any slight change of colour thus caused will often have been
+completely masked by the brilliant tints gained through sexual
+selection. When we treat of Birds, I shall have to discuss the whole
+question whether the differences in colour between the males and females
+have been in part specially gained by the latter as a protection; so
+that I will here only give unavoidable details.
+
+In all cases when the more common form of equal inheritance by both
+sexes has prevailed, the selection of bright-coloured males would tend
+to make the females bright-coloured; and the selection of dull-coloured
+females would tend to make the males dull. If both processes were
+carried on simultaneously, they would tend to neutralise each other. As
+far as I can see, it would be extremely difficult to change through
+selection the one form of inheritance into the other. But by the
+selection of successive variations, which were from the first sexually
+limited in their transmission, there would not be the slightest
+difficulty in giving bright colours to the males alone, and at the same
+time or subsequently, dull colours to the females alone. In this latter
+manner female butterflies and moths may, as I fully admit, have been
+rendered inconspicuous for the sake of protection, and widely different
+from their males.
+
+Mr. Wallace[523] has argued with much force in favour of his view that
+when the sexes differ, the female has been specially modified for the
+sake of protection; and that this has been effected by one form of
+inheritance, namely, the transmission of characters to both sexes,
+having been changed through the agency of natural selection into the
+other form, namely, transmission to one sex. I was at first strongly
+inclined to accept this view; but the more I have studied the various
+classes throughout the animal kingdom, the less probable it has
+appeared. Mr. Wallace urges that both sexes of the _Heliconidæ_,
+_Danaidæ_, _Acroeidæ_ are equally brilliant because both are protected
+from the attacks of birds and other enemies, by their offensive odour;
+but that in other groups, which do not possess this immunity, the
+females have been rendered inconspicuous, from having more need of
+protection than the males. This supposed difference in the “need of
+protection by the two sexes” is rather deceptive, and requires some
+discussion. It is obvious that brightly-coloured individuals, whether
+males or females, would equally attract, and obscurely-coloured
+individuals equally escape, the attention of their enemies. But we are
+concerned with the effects of the destruction or preservation of certain
+individuals of either sex, on the character of the race. With insects,
+after the male has fertilised the female, and after the latter has laid
+her eggs, the greater or less immunity from danger of either sex could
+not possibly have any effect on the offspring. Before the sexes have
+performed their proper functions, if they existed in equal numbers and
+if they strictly paired (all other circumstances being the same), the
+preservation of the males and females would be equally important for the
+existence of the species and for the character of the offspring. But
+with most animals, as is known to be the case with the domestic
+silk-moth, the male can fertilise two or three females; so that the
+destruction of the males would not be so injurious to the species as
+that of the females. On the other hand, Dr. Wallace believes that with
+moths the progeny from a second or third fertilisation is apt to be
+weakly, and therefore would not have so good chance of surviving. When
+the males exist in much greater numbers than the females, no doubt many
+males might be destroyed with impunity to the species; but I cannot see
+that the results of ordinary selection for the sake of protection would
+be influenced by the sexes existing in unequal numbers; for the same
+proportion of the more conspicuous individuals, whether males or
+females, would probably be destroyed. If indeed the males presented a
+greater range of variation in colour, the result would be different; but
+we need not here follow out such complex details. On the whole I cannot
+perceive that an inequality in the numbers of the two sexes would
+influence in any marked manner the effects of ordinary selection on the
+character of the offspring.
+
+Female Lepidoptera require, as Mr. Wallace insists, some days to
+deposit their fertilised ova and to search for a proper place; during
+this period (whilst the life of the male was of no importance) the
+brighter-coloured females would be exposed to danger and would be liable
+to be destroyed. The duller-coloured females on the other hand would
+survive, and thus would influence, it might be thought, in a marked
+manner the character of the species,—either of both sexes or of one
+sex, according to which form of inheritance prevailed. But it must not
+be forgotten that the males emerge from the cocoon-state some days
+before the females, and during this period, whilst the unborn females
+were safe, the brighter-coloured males would be exposed to danger; so
+that ultimately both sexes would probably be exposed during a nearly
+equal length of time to danger, and the elimination of conspicuous
+colours would not be much more effective in the one than the other sex.
+
+It is a more important consideration that female Lepidoptera, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, and as is known to every collector, are generally
+slower flyers than the males. Consequently the latter, if exposed to
+greater danger from being conspicuously coloured, might be able to
+escape from their enemies, whilst the similarly-coloured females would
+be destroyed; and thus the females would have the most influence in
+modifying the colour of their progeny.
+
+There is one other consideration: bright colours, as far as sexual
+selection is concerned, are commonly of no service to the females; so
+that if the latter varied in brightness, and the variations were
+sexually limited in their transmission, it would depend on mere chance
+whether the females had their bright colours increased; and this would
+tend throughout the Order to diminish the number of species with
+brightly-coloured females in comparison with the species having
+brightly-coloured males. On the other hand, as bright colours are
+supposed to be highly serviceable to the males in their love-struggles,
+the brighter males (as we shall see in the chapter on Birds) although
+exposed to rather greater danger, would on an average procreate a
+greater number of offspring than the duller males. In this case, if the
+variations were limited in their transmission to the male sex, the males
+alone would be rendered more brilliantly coloured; but if the variations
+were not thus limited, the preservation and augmentation of such
+variations would depend on whether more evil was caused to the species
+by the females being rendered conspicuous, than good to the males by
+certain individuals being successful over their rivals.
+
+As there can hardly be a doubt that both sexes of many butterflies and
+moths have been rendered dull-coloured for the sake of protection, so
+it may have been with the females alone of some species in which
+successive variations towards dullness first appeared in the female sex
+and were from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex.
+If not thus limited, both sexes would become dull-coloured. We shall
+immediately see, when we treat of mimickry, that the females alone of
+certain butterflies have been rendered extremely beautiful for the sake
+of protection, without any of the successive protective variations
+having been transferred to the male, to whom they could not possibly
+have been in the least degree injurious, and therefore could not have
+been eliminated through natural selection. Whether in each particular
+species, in which the sexes differ in colour, it is the female which has
+been specially modified for the sake of protection; or whether it is the
+male which has been specially modified for the sake of sexual
+attraction, the female having retained her primordial colouring only
+slightly changed through the agencies before alluded to; or whether
+again both sexes have been modified, the female for protection and the
+male for sexual attraction, can only be definitely decided when we know
+the life-history of each species.
+
+Without distinct evidence, I am unwilling to admit that a double process
+of selection has long been going on with a multitude of species,—the
+males having been rendered more brilliant by beating their rivals; and
+the females more dull-coloured by having escaped from their enemies. We
+may take as an instance the common brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx),
+which appears early in the spring before any other kind. The male of
+this species is of a far more intense yellow than the female, though she
+is almost equally conspicuous; and in this case it does not seem
+probable that she specially acquired her pale tints as a protection,
+though it is probable that the male acquired his bright colours as a
+sexual attraction. The female of _Anthocharis cardamines_ does not
+possess the beautiful orange tips to her wings with which the male is
+ornamented; consequently she closely resembles the white butterflies
+(Pieris) so common in our gardens; but we have no evidence that this
+resemblance is beneficial. On the contrary, as she resembles both sexes
+of several species of the same genus inhabiting various quarters of the
+world, it is more probable that she has simply retained to a large
+extent her primordial colours.
+
+Various facts support the conclusion that with the greater number of
+brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera, it is the male which has been
+modified; the two sexes having come to differ from each other, or to
+resemble each other, according to which form of inheritance has
+prevailed. Inheritance is governed by so many unknown laws or
+conditions, that they seem to us to be most capricious in their
+action;[524] and we can so far understand how it is that with
+closely-allied species the sexes of some differ to an astonishing
+degree, whilst the sexes of others are identical in colour. As the
+successive steps in the process of variation are necessarily all
+transmitted through the female, a greater or less number of such steps
+might readily become developed in her; and thus we can understand the
+frequent gradations from an extreme difference to no difference at all
+between the sexes of the species within the same group. These cases of
+gradation are much too common to favour the supposition that we here see
+females actually undergoing the process of transition and losing their
+brightness for the sake of protection; for we have every reason to
+conclude that at any one time the greater number of species are in a
+fixed condition. With respect to the differences between the females of
+the species in the same genus or family, we can perceive that they
+depend, at least in part, on the females partaking of the colours of
+their respective males. This is well illustrated in those groups in
+which the males are ornamented to an extraordinary degree; for the
+females in these groups generally partake to a certain extent of the
+splendour of their male partners. Lastly, we continually find, as
+already remarked, that the females of almost all the species in the same
+genus, or even family, resemble each other much more closely in colour
+than do the males; and this indicates that the males have undergone a
+greater amount of modification than the females.
+
+
+_Mimickry._—This principle was first made clear in an admirable paper
+by Mr. Bates,[525] who thus threw a flood of light on many obscure
+problems. It had previously been observed that certain butterflies in S.
+America belonging to quite distinct families, resembled the Heliconidæ
+so closely in every stripe and shade of colour that they could not be
+distinguished except by an experienced entomologist. As the Heliconidæ
+are coloured in their usual manner, whilst the others depart from the
+usual colouring of the groups to which they belong, it is clear that the
+latter are the imitators, and the Heliconidæ the imitated. Mr. Bates
+further observed that the imitating species are comparatively rare,
+whilst the imitated swarm in large numbers; the two sets living mingled
+together. From the fact of the Heliconidæ being conspicuous and
+beautiful insects, yet so numerous in individuals and species, he
+concluded that they must be protected from the attacks of birds by some
+secretion or odour; and this hypothesis has now been confirmed by a
+considerable body of curious evidence.[526] From these considerations
+Mr. Bates inferred that the butterflies which imitate the protected
+species had acquired their present marvellously deceptive appearance,
+through variation and natural selection, in order to be mistaken for the
+protected kinds and thus to escape being devoured. No explanation is
+here attempted of the brilliant colours of the imitated, but only of the
+imitating butterflies. We must account for the colours of the former in
+the same general manner, as in the cases previously discussed in this
+chapter. Since the publication of Mr. Bates’ paper, similar and equally
+striking facts have been observed by Mr. Wallace[527] in the Malayan
+region, and by Mr. Trimen in South Africa.
+
+As some writers[528] have felt much difficulty in understanding how the
+first steps in the process of mimickry could have been effected through
+natural selection, it may be well to remark that the process probably
+has never commenced with forms widely dissimilar in colour. But with two
+species moderately like each other, the closest resemblance if
+beneficial to either form could readily be thus gained; and if the
+imitated form was subsequently and gradually modified through sexual
+selection or any other means, the imitating form would be led along the
+same track, and thus be modified to almost any extent, so that it might
+ultimately assume an appearance or colouring wholly unlike that of the
+other members of the group to which it belonged. As extremely slight
+variations in colour would not in many cases suffice to render a species
+so like another protected species as to lead to its preservation, it
+should be remembered that many species of Lepidoptera are liable to
+considerable and abrupt variations in colour. A few instances have been
+given in this chapter; but under this point of view Mr. Bates’ original
+paper on mimickry, as well as Mr. Wallace’s papers, should be consulted.
+
+In the foregoing cases both sexes of the imitating species
+resemble the imitated; but occasionally the female alone mocks a
+brilliantly-coloured and protected species inhabiting the same district.
+Consequently the female differs in colour from her own male, and, which
+is a rare and anomalous circumstance, is the more brightly-coloured of
+the two. In all the few species of Pieridæ, in which the female is more
+conspicuously coloured than the male, she imitates, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, some protected species inhabiting the same region. The
+female of _Diadema anomala_ is rich purple-brown with almost the whole
+surface glossed with satiny blue, and she closely imitates the
+_Euplœa midamus_, “one of the commonest butterflies of the East;”
+whilst the male is bronzy or olive-brown, with only a slight blue gloss
+on the outer parts of the wings.[529] Both sexes of this Diadema and of
+_D. bolina_ follow the same habits of life, so that the differences in
+colour between the sexes cannot be accounted for by exposure to
+different conditions;[530] even if this explanation were admissible in
+other instances.[531]
+
+The above cases of female butterflies which are more brightly-coloured
+than the males, shew us, firstly, that variations have arisen in a state
+of nature in the female sex, and have been transmitted exclusively, or
+almost exclusively, to the same sex; and, secondly, that this form of
+inheritance has not been determined through natural selection. For if we
+assume that the females, before they became brightly coloured in
+imitation of some protected kind, were exposed during each season for a
+longer period to danger than the males; or if we assume that they could
+not escape so swiftly from their enemies, we can understand how they
+alone might originally have acquired through natural selection and
+sexually-limited inheritance their present protective colours. But
+except on the principle of these variations having been transmitted
+exclusively to the female offspring, we cannot understand why the males
+should have remained dull-coloured; for it would surely not have been in
+any way injurious to each individual male to have partaken by
+inheritance of the protective colours of the female, and thus to have
+had a better chance of escaping destruction. In a group in which
+brilliant colours are so common as with butterflies, it cannot be
+supposed that the males have been kept dull-coloured through sexual
+selection by the females rejecting the individuals which were rendered
+as beautiful as themselves. We may, therefore, conclude that in these
+cases inheritance by one sex is not due to the modification through
+natural selection of a tendency to equal inheritance by both sexes.
+
+It may be well here to give an analogous case in another Order, of
+characters acquired only by the female, though not in the least
+injurious, as far as we can judge, to the male. Amongst the Phasmidæ, or
+spectre-insects, Mr. Wallace states that “it is often the females alone
+that so strikingly resemble leaves, while the males show only a rude
+approximation.” Now, whatever may be the habits of these insects, it is
+highly improbable that it could be disadvantageous to the males to
+escape detection by resembling leaves.[532] Hence we may conclude that
+the females alone in this latter as in the previous cases originally
+varied in certain characters; these characters having been preserved and
+augmented through ordinary selection for the sake of protection and from
+the first transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+
+_Bright Colours of Caterpillars._—Whilst reflecting on the beauty of
+many butterflies, it occurred to me that some caterpillars were
+splendidly coloured, and as sexual selection could not possibly have
+here acted, it appeared rash to attribute the beauty of the mature
+insect to this agency, unless the bright colours of their larvæ could
+be in some manner explained. In the first place it may be observed that
+the colours of caterpillars do not stand in any close correlation with
+those of the mature insect. Secondly, their bright colours do not serve
+in any ordinary manner as a protection. As an instance of this, Mr.
+Bates informs me that the most conspicuous caterpillar which he ever
+beheld (that of a Sphinx) lived on the large green leaves of a tree on
+the open llanos of South America; it was about four inches in length,
+transversely banded with black and yellow, and with its head, legs, and
+tail of a bright red. Hence it caught the eye of any man who passed by
+at the distance of many yards, and no doubt of every passing bird.
+
+I then applied to Mr. Wallace, who has an innate genius for solving
+difficulties. After some consideration he replied: “Most caterpillars
+require protection, as may be inferred from some kinds being furnished
+with spines or irritating hairs, and from many being coloured green like
+the leaves on which they feed, or curiously like the twigs of the trees
+on which they live.” I may add as another instance of protection, that
+there is a caterpillar of a moth, as I am informed by Mr. J. Mansel
+Weale, which lives on the mimosas in South Africa, and fabricates for
+itself a case, quite undistinguishable from the surrounding thorns. From
+such considerations Mr. Wallace thought it probable that
+conspicuously-coloured caterpillars were protected by having a nauseous
+taste; but as their skin is extremely tender, and as their intestines
+readily protrude from a wound, a slight peck from the beak of a bird
+would be as fatal to them as if they had been devoured. Hence, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, “distastefulness alone would be insufficient to protect
+a caterpillar unless some outward sign indicated to its would-be
+destroyer that its prey was a disgusting morsel.” Under these
+circumstances it would be highly advantageous to a caterpillar to be
+instantaneously and certainly recognised as unpalatable by all birds and
+other animals. Thus the most gaudy colours would be serviceable, and
+might have been gained by variation and the survival of the most
+easily-recognised individuals.
+
+This hypothesis appears at first sight very bold; but when it was
+brought before the Entomological Society[533] it was supported by
+various statements; and Mr. J. Jenner Weir, who keeps a large number of
+birds in an aviary, has made, as he informs me, numerous trials, and
+finds no exception to the rule, that all caterpillars of nocturnal and
+retiring habits with smooth skins, all of a green colour, and all which
+imitate twigs, are greedily devoured by his birds. The hairy and spinose
+kinds are invariably rejected, as were four conspicuously-coloured
+species. When the birds rejected a caterpillar, they plainly shewed, by
+shaking their heads and cleansing their beaks, that they were disgusted
+by the taste.[534] Three conspicuous kinds of caterpillars and moths
+were also given by Mr. A. Butler to some lizards and frogs, and were
+rejected; though other kinds were eagerly eaten. Thus the probable truth
+of Mr. Wallace’s view is confirmed, namely, that certain caterpillars
+have been made conspicuous for their own good, so as to be easily
+recognised by their enemies, on nearly the same principle that certain
+poisons are coloured by druggists for the good of man. This view will,
+it is probable, be hereafter extended to many animals, which are
+coloured in a conspicuous manner.
+
+
+_Summary and Concluding Remarks on Insects._—Looking back to the
+several Orders, we have seen that the sexes often differ in various
+characters, the meaning of which is not understood. The sexes, also,
+often differ in their organs of sense or locomotion, so that the males
+may quickly discover or reach the females, and still oftener in the
+males possessing diversified contrivances for retaining the females when
+found. But we are not here much concerned with sexual differences of
+these kinds.
+
+In almost all the Orders, the males of some species, even of weak and
+delicate kinds, are known to be highly pugnacious; and some few are
+furnished with special weapons for fighting with their rivals. But the
+law of battle does not prevail nearly so widely with insects as with the
+higher animals. Hence probably it is that the males have not often been
+rendered larger and stronger than the females. On the contrary they are
+usually smaller, in order that they may be developed within a shorter
+time, so as to be ready in large numbers for the emergence of the
+females.
+
+In two families of the Homoptera the males alone possess, in an
+efficient state, organs which may be called vocal; and in three families
+of the Orthoptera the males alone possess stridulating organs. In both
+cases these organs are incessantly used during the breeding-season, not
+only for calling the females, but for charming or exciting them in
+rivalry with other males. No one who admits the agency of natural
+selection, will dispute that these musical instruments have been
+acquired through sexual selection. In four other Orders the members of
+one sex, or more commonly of both sexes, are provided with organs for
+producing various sounds, which apparently serve merely as call-notes.
+Even when both sexes are thus provided, the individuals which were able
+to make the loudest or most continuous noise would gain partners before
+those which were less noisy, so that their organs have probably been
+gained through sexual selection. It is instructive to reflect on the
+wonderful diversity of the means for producing sound, possessed by the
+males alone or by both sexes in no less than six Orders, and which were
+possessed by at least one insect at an extremely remote geological
+epoch. We thus learn how effectual sexual selection has been in leading
+to modifications of structure, which sometimes, as with the Homoptera,
+are of an important nature.
+
+From the reasons assigned in the last chapter, it is probable that the
+great horns of the males of many lamellicorn, and some other beetles,
+have been acquired as ornaments. So perhaps it may be with certain other
+peculiarities confined to the male sex. From the small size of insects,
+we are apt to undervalue their appearance. If we could imagine a male
+Chalcosoma (fig. 15) with its polished, bronzed coat of mail, and vast
+complex horns, magnified to the size of a horse or even of a dog, it
+would be one of the most imposing animals in the world.
+
+The colouring of insects is a complex and obscure subject. When the male
+differs slightly from the female, and neither are brilliantly coloured,
+it is probable that the two sexes have varied in a slightly different
+manner, with the variations transmitted to the same sex, without any
+benefit having been thus derived or evil suffered. When the male is
+brilliantly coloured and differs conspicuously from the female, as with
+some dragon-flies and many butterflies, it is probable that he alone has
+been modified, and that he owes his colours to sexual selection; whilst
+the female has retained a primordial or very ancient type of colouring,
+slightly modified by the agencies before explained, and has therefore
+not been rendered obscure, at least in most cases, for the sake of
+protection. But the female alone has sometimes been coloured
+brilliantly so as to imitate other protected species inhabiting the same
+district. When the sexes resemble each other and both are obscurely
+coloured, there is no doubt that they have been in a multitude of cases
+coloured for the sake of protection. So it is in some instances when
+both are brightly coloured, causing them to resemble surrounding objects
+such as flowers, or other protected species, or indirectly by giving
+notice to their enemies that they are of an unpalatable nature. In many
+other cases in which the sexes resemble each other and are brilliantly
+coloured, especially when the colours are arranged for display, we may
+conclude that they have been gained by the male sex as an attraction,
+and have been transferred to both sexes. We are more especially led to
+this conclusion whenever the same type of coloration prevails throughout
+a group, and we find that the males of some species differ widely in
+colour from the females, whilst both sexes of other species are quite
+alike, with intermediate gradations connecting these extreme states.
+
+In the same manner as bright colours have often been partially
+transferred from the males to the females, so it has been with the
+extraordinary horns of many lamellicorn and some other beetles. So,
+again, the vocal or instrumental organs proper to the males of the
+Homoptera and Orthoptera have generally been transferred in a
+rudimentary, or even in a nearly perfect condition to the females; yet
+not sufficiently perfect to be used for producing sound. It is also an
+interesting fact, as bearing on sexual selection, that the stridulating
+organs of certain male Orthoptera are not fully developed until the last
+moult; and that the colours of certain male dragon-flies are not fully
+developed until some little time after their emergence from the pupal
+state, and when they are ready to breed.
+
+Sexual selection implies that the more attractive individuals are
+preferred by the opposite sex; and as with insects, when the sexes
+differ, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, is the most
+ornamented and departs most from the type to which the species
+belongs;—and as it is the male which searches eagerly for the female,
+we must suppose that the females habitually or occasionally prefer the
+more beautiful males, and that these have thus acquired their beauty.
+That in most or all the orders the females have the power of rejecting
+any particular male, we may safely infer from the many singular
+contrivances possessed by the males, such as great jaws, adhesive
+cushions, spines, elongated legs, &c., for seizing the female; for these
+contrivances shew that there is some difficulty in the act. In the case
+of unions between distinct species, of which many instances have been
+recorded, the female must have been a consenting party. Judging from
+what we know of the perceptive powers and affections of various insects,
+there is no antecedent improbability in sexual selection having come
+largely into action; but we have as yet no direct evidence on this head,
+and some facts are opposed to the belief. Nevertheless, when we see many
+males pursuing the same female, we can hardly believe that the pairing
+is left to blind chance—that the female exerts no choice, and is not
+influenced by the gorgeous colours or other ornaments, with which the
+male alone is decorated.
+
+If we admit that the females of the Homoptera and Orthoptera appreciate
+the musical tones emitted by their male partners, and that the various
+instruments for this purpose have been perfected through sexual
+selection, there is little improbability in the females of other insects
+appreciating beauty in form or colour, and consequently in such
+characters having been thus gained by the males. But from the
+circumstance of colour being so variable, and from its having been so
+often modified for the sake of protection, it is extremely difficult to
+decide in how large a proportion of cases sexual selection has come into
+play. This is more especially difficult in those Orders, such as the
+Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera, in which the two sexes rarely
+differ much in colour; for we are thus cut off from our best evidence of
+some relation between the reproduction of the species and colour. With
+the Coleoptera, however, as before remarked, it is in the great
+lamellicorn group, placed by some authors at the head of the Order, and
+in which we sometimes see a mutual attachment between the sexes, that we
+find the males of some species possessing weapons for sexual strife,
+others furnished with wonderful horns, many with stridulating organs,
+and others ornamented with splendid metallic tints. Hence it seems
+probable that all these characters have been gained through the same
+means, namely sexual selection.
+
+When we treat of Birds, we shall see that they present in their
+secondary sexual characters the closest analogy with insects. Thus, many
+male birds are highly pugnacious, and some are furnished with special
+weapons for fighting with their rivals. They possess organs which are
+used during the breeding-season for producing vocal and instrumental
+music. They are frequently ornamented with combs, horns, wattles and
+plumes of the most diversified kinds, and are decorated with beautiful
+colours, all evidently for the sake of display. We shall find that, as
+with insects, both sexes, in certain groups, are equally beautiful, and
+are equally provided with ornaments which are usually confined to the
+male sex. In other groups both sexes are equally plain-coloured and
+unornamented. Lastly, in some few anomalous cases, the females are more
+beautiful than the males. We shall often find, in the same group of
+birds, every gradation from no difference between the sexes, to an
+extreme difference. In the latter case we shall see that the females,
+like female insects, often possess more or less plain traces of the
+characters which properly belong to the males. The analogy, indeed, in
+all these respects between birds and insects, is curiously close.
+Whatever explanation applies to the one class probably applies to the
+other; and this explanation, as we shall hereafter attempt to shew, is
+almost certainly sexual selection.
+
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As the works of the first-named authors are so well known,
+  I need not give the titles; but as those of the latter are less
+  well known in England, I will give them:—‘Sechs Vorlesungen
+  über die Darwin’sche Theorie:’ zweite Auflage, 1868, von Dr. L.
+  Büchner; translated into French under the title ‘Conférences
+  sur la Théorie Darwinienne,’ 1869. ‘Der Mensch, im Lichte der
+  Darwin’sche Lehre,’ 1865, von Dr. F. Rolle. I will not attempt
+  to give references to all the authors who have taken the same
+  side of the question. Thus G. Canestrini has published
+  (‘Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,’ Modena, 1867, p. 81) a very
+  curious paper on rudimentary characters, as bearing on the
+  origin of man. Another work has (1869) been published by Dr.
+  Barrago Francesco, bearing in Italian the title of “Man, made
+  in the image of God, was also made in the image of the ape.”
+
+  [2] Prof. Häckel is the sole author who, since the publication
+  of the ‘Origin,’ has discussed, in his various works, in a very
+  able manner, the subject of sexual selection, and has seen its
+  full importance.
+
+  [3] ‘Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,’ 1868, s. 96.
+
+  [4] ‘Leç. sur la Phys.’ 1866, p. 890, as quoted by M. Dally,
+  ‘L’Ordre des Primates et le Transformisme,’ 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [5] ‘Naturgeschichte der Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s.
+  50.
+
+  [6] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. 1864, s. 75, 86. On the Ateles,
+  s. 105. For other analogous statements, see s. 25, 107.
+
+  [7] With respect to insects see Dr. Laycock ‘On a General Law
+  of Vital Periodicity,’ British Association, 1842. Dr.
+  Macculloch, ‘Silliman’s North American Journal of Science,’
+  vol. xvii. p. 305, has seen a dog suffering from tertian ague.
+
+  [8] I have given the evidence on this head in my ‘Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 15.
+
+  [9] “Mares e diversis generibus Quadrumanorum sine dubio
+  dignoscunt feminas humanas a maribus. Primum, credo, odoratu,
+  postea aspectu. Mr. Youatt, qui diu in Hortis Zoologicis
+  (Bestiariis) medicus animalium erat, vir in rebus observandis
+  cautus et sagax, hoc mihi certissime probavit, et curatores
+  ejusdem loci et alii e ministris confirmaverunt. Sir Andrew
+  Smith et Brehm notabant idem in Cynocephalo. Illustrissimus
+  Cuvier etiam narrat multa de hac re quâ ut opinor nihil turpius
+  potest indicari inter omnia hominibus et Quadrumanis communia.
+  Narrat enim Cynocephalum quendam in furorem incidere aspectu
+  feminarum aliquarum, sed nequaquam accendi tanto furore ab
+  omnibus. Semper eligebat juniores, et dignoscebat in turba, et
+  advocabat voce gestuque.”
+
+  [10] This remark is made with respect to Cynocephalus and the
+  anthropomorphous apes by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and F. Cuvier,
+  ‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ tom. i. 1824.
+
+  [11] Huxley, ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’ 1863, p. 34.
+
+  [12] ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’ 1863, p. 67.
+
+  [13] The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, ‘Icones
+  Phys.,’ 1851-1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines
+  in length, so that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of
+  the dog is from Bischoff, ‘Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+  Hunde-Eies,’ 1845, tab. xi. fig. 42 B. This drawing is five
+  times magnified, the embryo being 25 days old. The internal
+  viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages in both
+  drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by Prof.
+  Huxley, from whose work, ‘Man’s Place in Nature.’ the idea of
+  giving them was taken. Häckel has also given analogous drawings
+  in his ‘Schöpfungsgeschichte.’
+
+  [14] Prof. Wyman in ‘Proc. of American Acad. of Sciences,’ vol.
+  iv. 1860, p. 17.
+
+  [15] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. i. p. 533.
+
+  [16] ‘Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,’ 1868, s. 95.
+
+  [17] ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. ii. p. 553.
+
+  [18] ‘Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist.’ Boston, 1863, vol. ix. p. 185.
+
+  [19] ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’ p. 65.
+
+  [20] I had written a rough copy of this chapter before reading
+  a valuable paper, “Caratteri rudimentali in ordine all’origine
+  del uomo” (‘Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,’ Modena, 1867, p. 81),
+  by G. Canestrini, to which paper I am considerably indebted.
+  Häckel has given admirable discussions on this whole subject,
+  under the title of Dysteleology, in his ‘Generelle Morphologie’
+  and ‘Schöpfungsgeschichte.’
+
+  [21] Some good criticisms on this subject have been given by
+  Messrs. Murie and Mivart, in ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869,
+  vol. vii. p. 92.
+
+  [22] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’
+  vol. ii. pp. 317 and 397. See also ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th
+  edit. p. 535.
+
+  [23] For instance M. Richard (‘Annales des Sciences Nat.’ 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. 1852, tom. xviii. p. 13) describes and figures
+  rudiments of what he calls the “muscle pédieux de la main,”
+  which he says is sometimes “infiniment petit.” Another muscle,
+  called “le tibial postérieur,” is generally quite absent in the
+  hand, but appears from time to time in a more or less
+  rudimentary condition.
+
+  [24] Prof. W. Turner, ‘Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,’ 1866-67, p.
+  65.
+
+  [25] Canestrini quotes Hyrt. (‘Annuario della Soc. dei
+  Naturalisti,’ Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.
+
+  [26] ‘The Diseases of the Ear,’ by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p.
+  12.
+
+  [27] See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the
+  Lemuroidea, in Messrs. Murie and Mivart’s excellent paper in
+  ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.
+
+  [28] Müller’s ‘Elements of Physiology,’ Eng. translat., 1842,
+  vol. ii. p. 1117. Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p.
+  260; ibid. on the Walrus, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ November 8th,
+  1854. See also R. Knox, ‘Great Artists and Anatomists,’ p. 106.
+  This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in Negroes and
+  Australians than in Europeans, see Carl Vogt, ‘Lectures on
+  Man,’ Eng. translat. p. 129.
+
+  [29] ‘The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p.
+  134.
+
+  [30] Eschricht, Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen
+  Körper ‘Müllers Archiv für Anat. und Phys.’ 1837, s. 47. I
+  shall often have to refer to this very curious paper.
+
+  [31] Paget, ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ 1853, vol. i. p.
+  71.
+
+  [32] Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.
+
+  [33] Dr. Webb, ‘Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,’ as
+  quoted by Dr. C. Carter Blake in ‘Anthropological Review,’
+  July, 1867, p. 299.
+
+  [34] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. pp. 320, 321,
+  and 325.
+
+  [35] ‘On the Primitive Form of the Skull,’ Eng. translat. in
+  ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [36] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. pp. 416, 434,
+  441.
+
+  [37] ‘Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.’ Modena, 1867, p. 94.
+
+  [38] M. C. Martins (“De l’Unité Organique,” in ‘Revue des Deux
+  Mondes,’ June 15, 1862, p. 16), and Häckel (‘Generelle
+  Morphologie,’ B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the
+  singular fact of this rudiment sometimes causing death.
+
+  [39] ‘The Lancet,’ Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, ‘Great
+  Artists and Anatomists,’ p. 63. See also an important memoir on
+  this process by Dr. Grube, in the ‘Bulletin de l’Acad. Imp. de
+  St. Pétersbourg,’ tom. xii. 1867, p. 448.
+
+  [40] “On the Caves of Gibraltar,” ‘Transact. Internat. Congress
+  of Prehist. Arch.’ Third Session, 1869, p. 54.
+
+  [41] Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this
+  subject. ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ 1867-1868, p. 625.
+
+  [42] Owen, ‘On the Nature of Limbs,’ 1849, p. 114.
+
+  [43] Leuckart, in Todd’s ‘Cyclop. of Anat.’ 1849-52, vol. iv.
+  p. 1415. In man this organ is only from three to six lines in
+  length, but, like so many other rudimentary parts, it is
+  variable in development as well as in other characters.
+
+  [44] See, on this subject, Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol.
+  iii. pp. 675, 676, 706.
+
+  [45] See the evidence on these points, as given by Lubbock,
+  ‘Prehistoric Times,’ p. 354, &c.
+
+  [46] ‘L’Instinct chez les Insectes.’ ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’
+  Feb. 1870, p. 690.
+
+  [47] ‘The American Beaver and his Works,’ 1868.
+
+  [48] ‘The Principles of Psychology,’ 2nd edit. 1870, pp.
+  418-443.
+
+  [49] ‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870,
+  p. 212
+
+  [50] ‘Recherches sur les Mœurs des Fourmis,’ 1810, p. 173.
+
+  [51] All the following statements, given on the authority of
+  these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger’s ‘Naturges. der
+  Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm’s
+  ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 10-87.
+
+  [52] ‘Bridgewater Treatise,’ p. 263.
+
+  [53] W. C. L. Martin, ‘Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,’ 1841, p. 405.
+
+  [54] Quoted by Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p.
+  168.
+
+  [55] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’
+  vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [56] ‘Les Mœurs des Fourmis,’ 1810, p. 150.
+
+  [57] Quoted in Dr. Maudsley’s ‘Physiology and Pathology of
+  Mind,’ 1868, pp. 19, 220.
+
+  [58] Dr. Jerdon, ‘Birds of India,’ vol. i. 1862, p. xxi.
+
+  [59] Mr. L. H. Morgan’s work on ‘The American Beaver,’ 1868,
+  offers a good illustration of this remark. I cannot, however,
+  avoid thinking that he goes too far in underrating the power of
+  Instinct.
+
+  [60] ‘The Moor and the Loch,’ p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on ‘Dog
+  Breaking,’ 1850, p. 46.
+
+  [61] ‘Personal Narrative,’ Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.
+
+  [62] Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, ‘Antiquity of Man,’ p. 497.
+
+  [63] ‘Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the “Beagle,”’
+  1845, p. 398. ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th edit. p. 260.
+
+  [64] ‘Lettres Phil. sur l’Intelligence des Animaux,’ nouvelle
+  edit. 1802, p. 86.
+
+  [65] See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i. ‘On the
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.’
+
+  [66] ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1864, p. 186.
+
+  [67] Savage and Wyman in ‘Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.’ vol.
+  iv. 1843-44, p. 383.
+
+  [68] ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 51-56.
+
+  [69] ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 79, 82.
+
+  [70] ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. i. 1869, p. 87.
+
+  [71] ‘Primeval Man,’ 1869, pp. 145, 147.
+
+  [72] ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p. 473, &c.
+
+  [73] Quoted in ‘Anthropological Review,’ 1864, p. 158.
+
+  [74] Rengger, ibid. s. 45.
+
+  [75] See my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [76] See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor’s very
+  interesting work, ‘Researches into the Early History of
+  Mankind,’ 1865, chaps. ii. to iv.
+
+  [77] Hon. Daines Barrington in ‘Philosoph. Transactions,’ 1773,
+  p. 262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in ‘Ann. des Sc. Nat.’ 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 119.
+
+  [78] ‘On the Origin of Language,’ by H. Wedgwood, 1866.
+  ‘Chapters on Language,’ by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, 1865. These
+  works are most interesting. See also ‘De la Phys. et de
+  Parole,’ par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 190. The work on this
+  subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher, has been translated
+  by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title of ‘Darwinism
+  tested by the Science of Language,’ 1869.
+
+  [79] Vogt, ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 169. With
+  respect to savages, I have given some facts in my ‘Journal of
+  Researches,’ &c., 1845, p. 206.
+
+  [80] See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often
+  quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.
+
+  [81] See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, ‘The Physiology
+  and Pathology of Mind,’ 2nd edit. 1868, p. 199.
+
+  [82] Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance,
+  ‘Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,’ by Dr.
+  Abercrombie, 1838, p. 150.
+
+  [83] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’
+  vol. ii. p. 6.
+
+  [84] See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, ‘The
+  Physiology and Pathology of Mind,’ 1808, p. 199.
+
+  [85] Macgillivray, ‘Hist. of British Birds,’ vol. ii. 1839, p.
+  29. An excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the
+  magpie learns to pronounce single words, and even short
+  sentences, more readily than almost any other British bird;
+  yet, as he adds, after long and closely investigating its
+  habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature, display
+  any unusual capacity for imitation. ‘Researches in Zoology,’
+  1834, p. 158.
+
+  [86] See the very interesting parallelism between the
+  development of species and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in
+  ‘The Geolog. Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,’ 1863, chap.
+  xxiii.
+
+  [87] See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an
+  interesting article, entitled “Philology and Darwinism” in
+  ‘Nature,’ March 24th, 1870, p. 528.
+
+  [88] ‘Nature,’ Jan. 6th, 1870, p. 257.
+
+  [89] Quoted by C. S. Wake, ‘Chapters on Man,’ 1868, p. 101.
+
+  [90] Buckland, ‘Bridgewater Treatise,’ p. 411.
+
+  [91] See some good remarks on the simplification of languages,
+  by Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 278.
+
+  [92] ‘Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne,’ French
+  translat., 1869, p. 132.
+
+  [93] The Rev. Dr. J. M’Cann, ‘Anti-Darwinism,’ 1869, p. 13.
+
+  [94] ‘The Spectator,’ Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.
+
+  [95] See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F. W.
+  Farrar, in the ‘Anthropological Review,’ Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii.
+  For further facts see Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd
+  edit. 1869. p. 564; and especially the chapters on Religion in
+  his ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870.
+
+  [96] The Worship of Animals and Plants, in the ‘Fortnightly
+  Review,’ Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.
+
+  [97] Tylor, ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 1865, p. 6. See also
+  the three striking chapters on the Development of Religion, in
+  Lubbock’s ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870. In a like manner Mr.
+  Herbert Spencer, in his ingenious essay in the ‘Fortnightly
+  Review’ (May 1st, 1870, p. 535), accounts for the earliest
+  forms of religious belief throughout the world, by man being
+  led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look at
+  himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the
+  spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be
+  powerful, it is propitiated by various gifts and ceremonies,
+  and its aid invoked. He then further shews that names or
+  nicknames given from some animal or other object to the early
+  progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed after a long
+  interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe; and
+  such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist
+  as a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god.
+  Nevertheless I cannot but suspect that there is a still earlier
+  and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or
+  movement is thought to be endowed with some form of life, and
+  with mental faculties analogous to our own.
+
+  [98] See an able article on the Psychical Elements of Religion,
+  by Mr. L. Owen Pike, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ April, 1870, p.
+  lxiii.
+
+  [99] ‘Religion, Moral, &c., der Darwin’schen Art-Lehre,’ 1869,
+  s. 53.
+
+  [100] ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. p. 571. In this work (at
+  p. 553) there will be found an excellent account of the many
+  strange and capricious customs of savages.
+
+  [101] See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, ‘Unité
+  de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 21, &c.
+
+  [102] ‘Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,’ 1837, p. 231, &c.
+
+  [103] ‘Metaphysics of Ethics,’ translated by J. W. Semple,
+  Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.
+
+  [104] Mr. Bain gives a list (‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868,
+  p. 543-725) of twenty-six British authors who have written on
+  this subject, and whose names are familiar to every reader; to
+  these, Mr. Bain’s own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr.
+  Shadworth Hodgson, and Sir J. Lubbock, as well as of others,
+  may be added.
+
+  [105] Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social
+  animal (‘Psychological Enquiries,’ 1854, p. 192), asks the
+  pregnant question, “ought not this to settle the disputed
+  question as to the existence of a moral sense?” Similar ideas
+  have probably occurred to many persons, as they did long ago to
+  Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J. S. Mill speaks, in his celebrated work,
+  ‘Utilitarianism,’ (1864, p. 46), of the social feelings as a
+  “powerful natural sentiment,” and as “the natural basis of
+  sentiment for utilitarian morality;” but on the previous page
+  he says, “if, as is my own belief, the moral feelings are not
+  innate, but acquired, they are not for that reason less
+  natural.” It is with hesitation that I venture to differ from
+  so profound a thinker, but it can hardly be disputed that the
+  social feelings are instinctive or innate in the lower animals;
+  and why should they not be so in man? Mr. Bain (see, for
+  instance, ‘The Emotions and the Will,’ 1865, p. 481) and others
+  believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual
+  during his lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is
+  at least extremely improbable.
+
+  [106] ‘Die Darwin’sche Theorie,’ s. 101.
+
+  [107] Mr. R. Brown in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 409.
+
+  [108] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case
+  of the monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54.
+  With respect to the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is
+  given (s. 76) on the evidence of Alvarez, whose observations
+  Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the old male
+  baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the
+  eagle, s. 56.
+
+  [109] ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ November, 1868, p. 382.
+
+  [110] Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. p. 446.
+
+  [111] As quoted by Mr. L. H. Morgan, ‘The American Beaver,’
+  1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account
+  of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away by a
+  strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to
+  reach the shore by half a dozen old birds.
+
+  [112] As Mr. Bain states, “effective aid to a sufferer springs
+  from sympathy proper:” ‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p.
+  245.
+
+  [113] ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 85.
+
+  [114] ‘De l’Espèce et de la Class.’ 1869, p. 97.
+
+  [115] ‘Der Darwin’schen Art-Lehre,’ 1869, s. 54.
+
+  [116] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 76.
+
+  [117] See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith’s
+  ‘Theory of Moral Sentiments.’ Also Mr. Bain’s ‘Mental and Moral
+  Science,’ 1868, p. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that
+  “sympathy is, indirectly, a source of pleasure to the
+  sympathiser;” and he accounts for this through reciprocity. He
+  remarks that “the person benefited, or others in his stead, may
+  make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the
+  sacrifice.” But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is
+  strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure,
+  in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of
+  almost every other instinct.
+
+  [118] This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of
+  ‘White’s Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ 1853, p. 204) was first
+  recorded by the illustrious Jenner, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1824,
+  and has since been confirmed by several observers, especially
+  by Mr. Blackwall. This latter careful observer examined, late
+  in the autumn, during two years, thirty-six nests; he found
+  that twelve contained young dead birds, five contained eggs on
+  the point of being hatched, and three eggs not nearly hatched.
+  Many birds not yet old enough for a prolonged flight are
+  likewise deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, ‘Researches
+  in Zoology,’ 1834, pp. 108, 118. For some additional evidence,
+  although this is not wanted, see Leroy, ‘Lettres Phil.’ 1802,
+  p. 217.
+
+  [119] Hume remarks (‘An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
+  Morals,’ edit. of 1751, p. 132), “there seems a necessity for
+  confessing that the happiness and misery of others are not
+  spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of
+  the former ... communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the
+  latter ... throws a melancholy damp over the imagination.”
+
+  [120] ‘Mental and Moral Science,’ 1868, p. 254.
+
+  [121] I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian
+  Indians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to
+  betraying the plans of their companions in war (‘Journal of
+  Researches,’ 1845, p. 103).
+
+  [122] Dr. Prosper Despine, in his ‘Psychologie Naturelle,’ 1868
+  (tom. i. p. 243; tom ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of
+  the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely
+  destitute of conscience.
+
+  [123] See an able article in the ‘North British Review,’ 1867,
+  p. 395. See also Mr. W. Bagehot’s articles on the Importance of
+  Obedience and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the ‘Fortnightly
+  Review,’ 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, &c.
+
+  [124] The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr.
+  Gerland, in his ‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’ 1868;
+  but I shall have to recur to the subject of infanticide in a
+  future chapter.
+
+  [125] See the very interesting discussion on Suicide in Lecky’s
+  ‘History of European Morals,’ vol. i. 1869, p. 223.
+
+  [126] See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton’s account of the Kaffirs,
+  ‘Anthropological Review,’ 1870, p. xv.
+
+  [127] Mr. M’Lennan has given ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865, p.
+  176, a good collection of facts on this head.
+
+  [128] Lecky, ‘History of European Morals,’ vol. i. 1869, p.
+  109.
+
+  [129] ‘Embassy to China,’ vol. ii. p. 348.
+
+  [130] See on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir
+  J. Lubbock, ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870.
+
+  [131] For instance Lecky, ‘Hist. European Morals,’ vol. i. p.
+  124.
+
+  [132] This term is used in an able article in the ‘Westminster
+  Review,’ Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the Greatest Happiness
+  principle, see J. S. Mill, ‘Utilitarianism,’ p. 17.
+
+  [133] Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in ‘Scientific
+  Opinion,’ Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his ‘Contributions
+  to the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 353.
+
+  [134] Tennyson, ‘Idylls of the King,’ p. 244.
+
+  [135] ‘The Thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,’ Eng.
+  translat., 2nd edit., 1869, p. 112. Marcus Aurelius was born
+  A.D. 121.
+
+  [136] Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain’s ‘Mental and Moral Science,’
+  1868, p. 722.
+
+  [137] A writer in the ‘North British Review’ (July, 1869, p.
+  531), well capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses
+  himself strongly to this effect. Mr. Lecky (‘Hist. of Morals,’
+  vol. i. p. 143) seems to a certain extent to coincide.
+
+  [138] See his remarkable work on ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1869, p.
+  349. The Duke of Argyll (‘Primeval Man,’ 1869, p. 188) has some
+  good remarks on the contest in man’s nature between right and
+  wrong.
+
+  [139] ‘The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,’ &c., p. 139.
+
+  [140] ‘Investigations in Military and Anthropolog. Statistics
+  of American Soldiers,’ by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 256.
+
+  [141] With respect to the “Cranial forms of the American
+  aborigines,” see Dr. Aitken Meigs in ‘Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.’
+  Philadelphia, May, 1866. On the Australians, see Huxley, in
+  Lyell’s ‘Antiquity of Man,’ 1863, p. 87. On the Sandwich
+  Islanders, Prof. J. Wyman, ‘Observations on Crania,’ Boston,
+  1868, p. 18.
+
+  [142] ‘Anatomy of the Arteries,’ by R. Quain.
+
+  [143] ‘Transact. Royal Soc.’ Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 175, 189.
+
+  [144] ‘Proc. Royal Soc.’ 1867, p. 544; also 1868, p. 483, 524.
+  There is a previous paper, 1866, p. 229.
+
+  [145] ‘Proc. R. Irish Academy,’ vol. x. 1868, p. 141.
+
+  [146] ‘Act. Acad.,’ St. Petersburg, 1778, part ii. p. 217.
+
+  [147] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger,
+  ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 57.
+
+  [148] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’
+  vol. ii. chap. xii.
+
+  [149] ‘Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry into its Laws and
+  Consequences,’ 1869.
+
+  [150] Mr. Bates remarks (‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ 1863,
+  vol. ii. p. 159), with respect to the Indians of the same S.
+  American tribe, “no two of them were at all similar in the
+  shape of the head; one man had an oval visage with fine
+  features, and another was quite Mongolian in breadth and
+  prominence of cheek, spread of nostrils, and obliquity of
+  eyes.”
+
+  [151] Blumenbach, ‘Treatises on Anthropolog.’ Eng. translat.,
+  1865, p. 205.
+
+  [152] Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ 1859, tom. ii. livre 3.
+  Quatrefages, ‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861. Also Lectures
+  on Anthropology, given in the ‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’
+  1866-1868.
+
+  [153] ‘Hist. Gen. et Part. des Anomalies de l’Organisation,’ in
+  three volumes, tom. i. 1832.
+
+  [154] I have fully discussed these laws in my ‘Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. chap. xxii.
+  and xxiii. M. J. P. Durand has lately 1868; published a
+  valuable essay ‘De l’Influence des Milieux, &c.’ He lays much
+  stress on the nature of the soil.
+
+  [155] ‘Investigations in Military and Anthrop. Statistics,’ &c.
+  1869, by B. A. Gould, p. 93, 107, 126, 131, 134.
+
+  [156] For the Polynesians, see Prichard’s ‘Physical Hist. of
+  Mankind,’ vol. v. 1847, p. 145, 283. Also Godron, ‘De
+  l’Espèce,’ tom. ii. p. 289. There is also a remarkable
+  difference in appearance between the closely-allied Hindoos
+  inhabiting the Upper Ganges and Bengal; see Elphinstone’s
+  ‘History of India,’ vol. i. p. 324.
+
+  [157] ‘Memoirs, Anthropolog. Soc.’ vol. iii. 1867-69, p. 561,
+  565, 567.
+
+  [158] Dr. Brakenridge, ‘Theory of Diathesis,’ ‘Medical Times,’
+  June 19 and July 17, 1869.
+
+  [159] I have given authorities for these several statements in
+  my ‘Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p.
+  297-300. Dr. Jaeger, “Ueber das Längenwachsthum der Knochen,”
+  ‘Jenaischen Zeitschrift,’ B. v. Heft i.
+
+  [160] ‘Investigations,’ &c. By B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 288.
+
+  [161] ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 4.
+
+  [162] ‘History of Greenland,’ Eng. translat. 1767, vol. i. p.
+  230.
+
+  [163] ‘Intermarriage.’ By Alex. Walker, 1838. p. 377.
+
+  [164] ‘The Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. i.
+  p. 173.
+
+  [165] ‘Principles of Biology,’ vol. i. p. 455.
+
+  [166] Paget, ‘Lectures on Surgical Pathology,’ vol. i. 1853, p.
+  209.
+
+  [167] ‘The Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii.
+  p. 8.
+
+  [168] ‘Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ s. 8, 10. I have had good
+  opportunities for observing the extraordinary power of eyesight
+  in the Fuegians.’ See also Lawrence (‘Lectures on Physiology,’
+  &c., 1822, p. 404) on this same subject. M. Giraud-Teulon has
+  recently collected (‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ 1870, p.
+  625) a large and valuable body of evidence proving that the
+  cause of short-sight, “_C’est le travail assidu, de près._”
+
+  [169] Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ on the authority of
+  Blumenbach, vol. i. 1851, p. 311; for the statement by Pallas,
+  vol. iv. 1844, p. 407.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Prichard, ‘Researches into the Phys. Hist. of
+  Mankind,’ vol. v. p. 463.
+
+  [171] Mr. Forbes’ valuable paper is now published in the
+  ‘Journal of the Ethnological Soc. of London,’ new series, vol.
+  ii. 1870, p. 193.
+
+  [172] Dr. Wilckens (‘Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt,’ No. 10,
+  1869) has lately published an interesting essay shewing how
+  domestic animals, which live in mountainous regions, have their
+  frames modified.
+
+  [173] ‘Mémoire sur les Microcéphales,’ 1867, p. 50, 125, 169,
+  171, 184-198.
+
+  [174] See Dr. A. Farre’s well-known article in the ‘Cyclop. of
+  Anat. and Phys.’ vol. v. 1859, p. 642. Owen ‘Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. 1868, p. 687. Prof. Turner in
+  ‘Edinburgh Medical Journal,’ Feb. 1865.
+
+  [175] ‘Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti in Modena,’ 1867, p.
+  83. Prof. Canestrini gives extracts on this subject from
+  various authorities. Laurillard remarks, that as he has found a
+  complete similarity in the form, proportions, and connexion of
+  the two malar bones in several human subjects and in certain
+  apes, he cannot consider this disposition of the parts as
+  simply accidental.
+
+  [176] A whole series of cases is given by Isid. Geoffroy
+  St.-Hilaire, ‘Hist. des Anomalies,’ tom. iii. p. 437.
+
+  [177] In my ‘Variation of Animals under Domestication’ (vol.
+  ii. p. 57) I attributed the not very rare cases of
+  supernumerary mammæ in women to reversion. I was led to this as
+  a _probable_ conclusion, by the additional mammæ being
+  generally placed symmetrically on the breast, and more
+  especially from one case, in which a single efficient mamma
+  occurred in the inguinal region of a woman, the daughter of
+  another woman with supernumerary mammæ. But Prof. Preyer (‘Der
+  Kampf um das Dasein,’ 1869, s. 45) states that _mammæ erraticæ_
+  have been known to occur in other situations, even on the back;
+  so that the force of my argument is greatly weakened or perhaps
+  quite destroyed.
+
+  With much hesitation I, in the same work (vol. ii. p. 12),
+  attributed the frequent cases of polydactylism in men to
+  reversion. I was partly led to this through Prof. Owen’s
+  statement, that some of the Ichthyopterygia possess more than
+  five digits, and therefore, as I supposed, had retained a
+  primordial condition; but after reading Prof. Gegenbaur’s paper
+  (‘Jenaischen Zeitschrift,’ B. v. Heft 3, s. 341), who is the
+  highest authority in Europe on such a point, and who disputes
+  Owen’s conclusion, I see that it is extremely doubtful whether
+  supernumerary digits can thus be accounted for. It was the fact
+  that such digits not only frequently occur and are strongly
+  inherited, but have the power of regrowth after amputation,
+  like the normal digits of the lower vertebrata, that chiefly
+  led me to the above conclusion. This extraordinary fact of
+  their regrowth remains inexplicable, if the belief in reversion
+  to some extremely remote progenitor must be rejected. I cannot,
+  however, follow Prof. Gegenbaur in supposing that additional
+  digits could not reappear through reversion, without at the
+  same time other parts of the skeleton being simultaneously and
+  similarly modified; for single characters often reappear
+  through reversion.
+
+  [178] ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. 1868, p. 323.
+
+  [179] ‘Generelle Morphologie,’ 1866, B. ii. s. clv.
+
+  [180] Carl Vogt’s ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p.
+  151.
+
+  [181] C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, ‘Anthropolog.
+  Review,’ 1867, p. 295. Schaaffhausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [182] ‘The Anatomy of Expression,’ 1844, p. 110, 131.
+
+  [183] Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the ‘Annuario,’ &c., 1867,
+  p. 90.
+
+  [184] These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires
+  to learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come
+  to resemble those of the Quadrumana. The following references
+  relate to the few points touched on in my text: Proc. Royal
+  Soc. vol. xiv. 1865, p. 379-384; vol. xv. 1866, p. 241, 242;
+  vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I may here add
+  that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn in their
+  Memoir on the Lemuroidea (‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vii.
+  1869, p. 96), how extraordinarily variable some of the muscles
+  are in these animals, the lowest members of the Primates.
+  Gradations, also, in the muscles leading to structures found in
+  animals still lower in the scale, are numerous in the
+  Lemuroidea.
+
+  [185] Prof. Macalister in ‘Proc. R. Irish Academy,’ vol. x.
+  1868, p. 124.
+
+  [186] Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his
+  observations, and finds that muscular abnormalities are most
+  frequent in the fore-arms, secondly in the face, thirdly in the
+  foot, &c.
+
+  [187] The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving (‘Proc. R. Irish
+  Academy,’ June 27, 1864, p. 715) a remarkable case of variation
+  in the human _flexor pollicis longus_, adds, “This remarkable
+  example shews that man may sometimes possess the arrangement of
+  tendons of thumb and fingers characteristic of the macaque; but
+  whether such a case should be regarded as a macaque passing
+  upwards into a man, or a man passing downwards into a macaque,
+  or as a congenital freak of nature, I cannot undertake to say.”
+  It is satisfactory to hear so capable an anatomist, and so
+  embittered an opponent of evolutionism, admitting even the
+  possibility of either of his first propositions. Prof.
+  Macalister has also described (‘Proc. R. Irish Acad.’ vol. x.
+  1864, p. 138) variations in the _flexor pollicis longus_,
+  remarkable from their relations to the same muscle in the
+  Quadrumana.
+
+  [188] The authorities for these several statements are given in
+  my ‘Variation of Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p.
+  320-335.
+
+  [189] This whole subject has been discussed in chap. xxiii.
+  vol. ii. of my ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication.’
+
+  [190] See the ever memorable ‘Essay on the Principle of
+  Population,’ by the Rev. T. Malthus, vol. i. 1826, p. 6, 517.
+
+  [191] ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’
+  vol. ii. p. 111-113, 163.
+
+  [192] Mr. Sedgwick, ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg.
+  Review,’ July, 1863, p. 170.
+
+  [193] ‘The Annals of Rural Bengal,’ by W. W. Hunter, 1868, p.
+  259.
+
+  [194] ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865.
+
+  [195] See some good remarks to this effect by W. Stanley
+  Jevons, “A Deduction from Darwin’s Theory,” ‘Nature,’ 1869, p.
+  231.
+
+  [196] Latham, ‘Man and his Migrations,’ 1851, p. 135.
+
+  [197] Messrs. Murie and Mivart in their “Anatomy of the
+  Lemuroidea” (‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vii. 1869, p. 96-98)
+  say, “some muscles are so irregular in their distribution that
+  they cannot be well classed in any of the above groups.” These
+  muscles differ even on the opposite sides of the same
+  individual.
+
+  [198] ‘Quarterly Review,’ April, 1869, p. 392. This subject is
+  more fully discussed in Mr. Wallace’s ‘Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, in which all the essays
+  referred to in this work are republished. The ‘Essay on Man’
+  has been ably criticised by Prof. Claparède, one of the most
+  distinguished zoologists in Europe, in an article published in
+  the ‘Bibliothèque Universelle,’ June, 1870. The remark quoted
+  in my text will surprise every one who has read Mr. Wallace’s
+  celebrated paper on ‘The Origin of Human Races deduced from the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,’ originally published in the
+  ‘Anthropological Review,’ May, 1864, p. clviii. I cannot here
+  resist quoting a most just remark by Sir J. Lubbock
+  (‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1865, p. 479) in reference to this paper,
+  namely, that Mr. Wallace, “with characteristic unselfishness,
+  ascribes it (_i.e._ the idea of natural selection) unreservedly
+  to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well known, he struck out the
+  idea independently, and published it, though not with the same
+  elaboration, at the same time.”
+
+  [199] Quoted by Mr. Lawson Tait in his “Law of Natural
+  Selection,”—‘Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,’
+  Feb. 1869. Dr. Keller is likewise quoted to the same effect.
+
+  [200] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 71.
+
+  [201] ‘Quarterly Review,’ April, 1869, p. 392.
+
+  [202] In _Hylobates syndactylus_, as the name expresses, two of
+  the digits regularly cohere; and this, as Mr. Blyth informs me,
+  is occasionally the case with the digits of _H. agilis_, _lar_,
+  and _leuciscus_.
+
+  [203] Brehm, ‘Thierleben,’ B. i. s. 80.
+
+  [204] “The Hand, its mechanism,” &c. ‘Bridgewater Treatise,’
+  1833, p. 38.
+
+  [205] Häckel has an excellent discussion on the steps by which
+  man became a biped: ‘Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,’ 1868, s.
+  507. Dr. Büchner (‘Conférences sur la Théorie Darwinienne,’
+  1869, p. 135) has given good cases of the use of the foot as a
+  prehensile organ by man; also on the manner of progression of
+  the higher apes to which I allude in the following paragraph:
+  see also Owen (‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 71) on
+  this latter subject.
+
+  [206] “On the Primitive Form of the Skull,” translated in
+  ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 428. Owen (‘Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,’ vol. ii. 1866, p. 551) on the mastoid processes
+  in the higher apes.
+
+  [207] ‘Die Grenzen der Thierwelt, eine Betrachtung zu Darwin’s
+  Lehre,’ 1868, s. 51.
+
+  [208] Dujardin, ‘Annales des Sc. Nat.’ 3rd series, Zoolog. tom.
+  xiv. 1850, p. 203. See also Mr. Lowne, ‘Anatomy and Phys. of
+  the _Musca vomitoria_,’ 1870, p. 14. My son, Mr. F. Darwin,
+  dissected for me the cerebral ganglia of the _Formica rufa_.
+
+  [209] ‘Philosophical Transactions,’ 1869, p. 513.
+
+  [210] Quoted in C. Vogt’s ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat.
+  1864, p. 88, 90. Prichard, ‘Phys. Hist. of Mankind,’ vol. i.
+  1838, p. 305.
+
+  [211] ‘Comptes Rendus des Séances,’ &c. June 1, 1868.
+
+  [212] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 124-129.
+
+  [213] Schaaffhausen gives from Blumenbach and Busch, the cases
+  of the spasms and cicatrix, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ Oct.
+  1868, p. 420. Dr. Jarrold (‘Anthropologia,’ 1808, p. 115, 116)
+  adduces from Camper and from his own observations, cases of the
+  modification of the skull from the head being fixed in an
+  unnatural position. He believes that certain trades, such as
+  that of a shoemaker, by causing the head to be habitually held
+  forward, makes the forehead more rounded and prominent.
+
+  [214] ‘Variation of Animals,’ &c., vol. i. p. 117 on the
+  elongation of the skull; p. 119, on the effect of the lopping
+  of one ear.
+
+  [215] Quoted by Schaaffhausen, in ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ Oct.
+  1868, p. 419.
+
+  [216] Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 619.
+
+  [217] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire remarks (‘Hist. Nat.
+  Générale,’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 215-217) on the head of man being
+  covered with long hair; also on the upper surfaces of monkeys
+  and of other mammals being more thickly clothed than the lower
+  surfaces. This has likewise been observed by various authors.
+  Prof. P. Gervais (‘Hist. Nat. des Mammifères,’ tom. i. 1854, p.
+  28), however, states that in the Gorilla the hair is thinner on
+  the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower
+  surface.
+
+  [218] Mr. St. George Mivart, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1865, p. 562,
+  583. Dr. J. E. Gray, ‘Cat. Brit. Mus.: Skeletons.’ Owen,
+  ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. ii. p. 517. Isidore Geoffroy,
+  ‘Hist. Nat. Gén.’ tom. ii. p. 244.
+
+  [219] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 280, 282.
+
+  [220] ‘Primeval Man,’ 1869, p. 66.
+
+  [221] ‘Anthropological Review,’ May, 1864, p. clviii.
+
+  [222] After a time the members or tribes which are absorbed
+  into another tribe assume, as Mr. Maine remarks (‘Ancient Law,’
+  1861, p. 131), that they are the co-descendants of the same
+  ancestors.
+
+  [223] Morlot, ‘Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat.’ 1860, p. 294.
+
+  [224] I have given instances in my ‘Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 196.
+
+  [225] See a remarkable series of articles on Physics and
+  Politics in the ‘Fortnightly Review,’ Nov. 1867; April 1, 1868;
+  July 1, 1869.
+
+  [226] ‘Origin of Civilisation,’ 1870, p. 265.
+
+  [227] Mr. Wallace gives cases in his ‘Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870, p. 354.
+
+  [228] ‘Ancient Law,’ 1861, p. 22. For Mr. Bagehot’s remarks,
+  ‘Fortnightly Review,’ April 1, 1868, p. 452.
+
+  [229] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 309.
+
+  [230] ‘Fraser’s Magazine,’ Sept. 1868, p. 353. This article
+  seems to have struck many persons, and has given rise to two
+  remarkable essays and a rejoinder in the ‘Spectator,’ Oct. 3rd
+  and 17th 1868. It has also been discussed in the ‘Q. Journal of
+  Science,’ 1869, p. 152, and by Mr. Lawson Tait in the ‘Dublin
+  Q. Journal of Medical Science,’ Feb. 1869, and by Mr. E. Ray
+  Lankester in his ‘Comparative Longevity,’ 1870, p. 128. Similar
+  views appeared previously in the ‘Australasian,’ July 13, 1867.
+  I have borrowed ideas from several of these writers.
+
+  [231] For Mr. Wallace, see ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ as before
+  cited. Mr. Galton in ‘Macmillan’s Magazine,’ Aug. 1865, p. 318;
+  also his great work, ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1870.
+
+  [232] ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1870, p. 132-140.
+
+  [233] See the fifth and sixth columns, compiled from good
+  authorities, in the table given in Mr. E. R. Lankester’s
+  ‘Comparative Longevity,’ 1870, p. 115.
+
+  [234] ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1870, p. 330.
+
+  [235] ‘Origin of Species’ (fifth edition, 1869), p. 104.
+
+  [236] ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1870, p. 347.
+
+  [237] E. Ray Lankester, ‘Comparative Longevity,’ 1870, p. 115.
+  The table of the intemperate is from Nelson’s ‘Vital
+  Statistics.’ In regard to profligacy, see Dr. Farr, “Influence
+  of Marriage on Mortality,” ‘Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of
+  Social Science,’ 1858.
+
+  [238] ‘Fraser’s Magazine,’ Sept. 1868, p. 353. ‘Macmillan’s
+  Magazine,’ Aug. 1865, p. 318. The Rev. F. W. Farrar (‘Fraser’s
+  Mag.,’ Aug. 1870, p. 264) takes a different view.
+
+  [239] “On the Laws of the Fertility of Women,” in ‘Transact.
+  Royal Soc.’ Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 287. See, also, Mr.
+  Galton, ‘Hereditary Genius,’ p. 352-357, for observations to
+  the above effect.
+
+  [240] ‘Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in
+  Scotland,’ 1867, p. xxix.
+
+  [241] These quotations are taken from our highest authority on
+  such questions, namely, Dr. Farr, in his paper “On the
+  Influence of Marriage on the Mortality of the French People,”
+  read before the Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of Social
+  Science, 1858.
+
+  [242] Dr. Farr, ibid. The quotations given below are extracted
+  from the same striking paper.
+
+  [243] I have taken the mean of the quinquennial means, given in
+  ‘The Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,’
+  1867. The quotation from Dr. Stark is copied from an article in
+  the ‘Daily News,’ Oct. 17th, 1868, which Dr. Farr considers
+  very carefully written.
+
+  [244] See the ingenious and original argument on this subject
+  by Mr. Galton, ‘Hereditary Genius,’ p. 340-342.
+
+  [245] Mr. Greg, ‘Fraser’s Magazine,’ Sept. 1868, p. 357.
+
+  [246] ‘Hereditary Genius,’ 1870, p. 357-359. The Rev. F. H.
+  Farrar (‘Fraser’s Mag.’ , Aug. 1870, p. 257) advances arguments
+  on the other side. Sir C. Lyell had already (‘Principles of
+  Geology,’ vol. ii. 1868, p. 489) called attention, in a
+  striking passage, to the evil influence of the Holy Inquisition
+  in having lowered, through selection, the general standard of
+  intelligence in Europe.
+
+  [247] Mr. Galton, ‘Macmillan’s Magazine,’ August, 1865, p. 325.
+  See, also, ‘Nature,’ “On Darwinism and National Life,” Dec.
+  1869, p. 184.
+
+  [248] ‘Last Winter in the United States,’ 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [249] ‘On the Origin of Civilisation,’ ‘Proc. Ethnological
+  Soc.’ Nov. 26, 1867.
+
+  [250] ‘Primeval Man,’ 1869.
+
+  [251] ‘Royal Institution of Great Britain,’ March 15, 1867.
+  Also, ‘Researches into the Early History of Mankind,’ 1865.
+
+  [252] ‘Primitive Marriage,’ 1865. See, likewise, an excellent
+  article, evidently by the same author, in the ‘North British
+  Review,’ July, 1869. Also, Mr. L. H. Morgan, “A Conjectural
+  Solution of the Origin of the Class. System of Relationship,”
+  in ‘Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,’ vol. vii. Feb. 1868.
+  Prof. Schaaffhausen (‘Anthropolog. Review,’ Oct. 1869, p. 373)
+  remarks on “the vestiges of human sacrifices found both in
+  Homer and the Old Testament.”
+
+  [253] Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869,
+  chap. xv. and xvi. _et passim_.
+
+  [254] Dr. F. Müller has made some good remarks to this effect
+  in the ‘Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ Abtheil. iii.
+  1868, s. 127.
+
+  [255] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of
+  the position assigned to man by various naturalists in their
+  classifications: ‘Hist. Nat. Gén.’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 170-189.
+
+  [256] See the very interesting article, “L’Instinct chez les
+  Insectes,” by M. George Pouchet, ‘Revue des Deux Mondes,’ Feb.
+  1870, p. 682.
+
+  [257] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  87.
+
+  [258] ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 4.
+
+  [259] ‘Evidence as to Man’s Place in Nature,’ 1863, p. 70, _et
+  passim_.
+
+  [260] Isid. Geoffroy, ‘Hist. Nat. Gén.’ tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.
+
+  [261] “Ueber die Richtung der Haare,” &c., Müller’s ‘Archiv für
+  Anat. und Phys.’ 1837, s. 51.
+
+  [262] On the hair in Hylobates, see ‘Nat. Hist. of Mammals,’ by
+  C. L. Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isid. Geoffroy on the
+  American monkeys and other kinds, ‘Hist. Nat. Gén.’ vol. ii.
+  1859, p. 216, 243. Eschricht, ibid., s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, ‘Anat.
+  of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 619. Wallace, ‘Contributions to
+  the Theory of Natural Selection,’ 1870. p. 344.
+
+  [263] ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th edit. 1869, p. 194. ‘The
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 348.
+
+  [264] ‘An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,’ 1869,
+  p. 99.
+
+  [265] This is nearly the same classification as that
+  provisionally adopted by Mr. St. George Mivart (‘Transact.
+  Philosoph. Soc.’ 1867, p. 300), who, after separating the
+  Lemuridæ, divides the remainder of the Primates into the
+  Hominidæ, the Simiadæ answering to the Catarhines, the Cebidæ,
+  and the Hapalidæ,—these two latter groups answering to the
+  Platyrhines.
+
+  [266] ‘Transact. Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.
+
+  [267] Mr. St. G. Mivart, ‘Transact. Phil. Soc.’ 1867, p. 410.
+
+  [268] Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea. ‘Transact.
+  Zoolog. Soc.’ vol. vii. 1869, p. 5.
+
+  [269] Häckel has come to this same conclusion. See ‘Ueber die
+  Entstehung des Menschengeschlechts,’ in Virchow’s ‘Sammlung.
+  gemein. wissen. Vorträge,’ 1868, s. 61. Also his ‘Natürliche
+  Schöpfungsgeschichte,’ 1868, in which he gives in detail his
+  views on the genealogy of man.
+
+  [270] ‘Anthropological Review,’ April, 1867, p. 236.
+
+  [271] ‘Elements of Geology,’ 1865, p. 583-585. ‘Antiquity of
+  Man’, 1863; p. 145.
+
+  [272] ‘Man’s Place in Nature,’ p. 105.
+
+  [273] Elaborate tables are given in his ‘Generelle Morphologie’
+  (B. ii. s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference
+  to man in his ‘Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte,’ 1868. Prof.
+  Huxley, in reviewing this latter work (‘The Academy,’ 1869, p.
+  42) says, that he considers the phylum or lines of descent of
+  the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed by Häckel, although he
+  differs on some points. He expresses, also, his high estimate
+  of the value of the general tenor and spirit of the whole work.
+
+  [274] ‘Palæontology,’ 1860, p. 199.
+
+  [275] I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Falkland
+  Islands, in April, 1833, and therefore some years before any
+  other naturalist, the locomotive larvæ of a compound Ascidian,
+  closely allied to, but apparently generically distinct from,
+  Synoicum. The tail was about five times as long as the oblong
+  head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It was plainly
+  divided, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, by
+  transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the
+  great cells figured by Kowalevsky. At an early stage of
+  development the tail was closely coiled round the head of the
+  larva.
+
+  [276] ‘Mémoires de l’Acad. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg,’
+  tom. x. No. 15, 1866.
+
+  [277] This is the conclusion of one of the highest authorities
+  in comparative anatomy, namely, Prof. Gegenbaur: ‘Grundzüge der
+  vergleich. Anat.’ 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at
+  chiefly from the study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the
+  researches of Waldeyer (as quoted in Humphry’s ‘Journal of
+  Anat. and Phys.’ 1869, p. 161), that the sexual organs of even
+  “the higher vertebrata are, in their early condition,
+  hermaphrodite.” Similar views have long been held by some
+  authors, though until recently not well based.
+
+  [278] The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen,
+  ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’ vol. iii. p. 771.
+
+  [279] Serranus is well known often to be in an hermaphrodite
+  condition; but Dr. Günther informs me that he is convinced that
+  this is not its normal state. Descent from an ancient
+  androgynous prototype would, however, naturally favour and
+  explain, to a certain extent, the recurrence of this condition
+  in these fishes.
+
+  [280] Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in ‘Quart. Journal of
+  Science,’ April, 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of
+  the development of Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal
+  pouch of the male in some way afford nourishment. On male
+  fishes hatching the ova in their mouths, see a very interesting
+  paper by Prof. Wyman, in ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.’
+  Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in ‘Journal of Anat. and
+  Phys.’ Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Günther has likewise described
+  similar cases.
+
+  [281] All vital functions tend to run their course in fixed and
+  recurrent periods, and with tidal animals the periods would
+  probably be lunar; for such animals must have been left dry or
+  covered deep with water,—supplied with copious food or
+  stinted,—during endless generations, at regular lunar
+  intervals. If then the Vertebrata are descended from an animal
+  allied to the existing tidal Ascidians, the mysterious fact,
+  that with the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, not to
+  mention other classes, many normal and abnormal vital processes
+  run their course according to lunar periods, is rendered
+  intelligible. A recurrent period, if approximately of the right
+  duration, when once gained, would not, as far as we can judge,
+  be liable to be changed; consequently it might be thus
+  transmitted during almost any number of generations. This
+  conclusion, if it could be proved sound, would be curious; for
+  we should then see that the period of gestation in each mammal,
+  and the hatching of each bird’s eggs, and many other vital
+  processes, still betrayed the primordial birthplace of these
+  animals.
+
+  [282] ‘History of India,’ 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa
+  makes exactly the same remark with respect to the Chinese.
+
+  [283] A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and
+  Indians, are given in the ‘Investigations in the Military and
+  Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,’ by B. A. Gould,
+  1869, p. 298-358; on the capacity of the lungs, p. 471. See
+  also the numerous and valuable tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from
+  the observations of Dr. Scherzer and Dr. Schwarz, in the ‘Reise
+  der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ 1867.
+
+  [284] See, for instance, Mr. Marshall’s account of the brain of
+  a Bush-woman, in ‘Phil. Transact.’ 1864, p. 519.
+
+  [285] Wallace, ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.
+
+  [286] With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves
+  of Abou-Simbel, M. Pouchet says (‘The Plurality of the Human
+  Races,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 50), that he was far from
+  finding recognisable representations of the dozen or more
+  nations which some authors believe that they can recognise.
+  Even some of the most strongly-marked races cannot be
+  identified with that degree of unanimity which might have been
+  expected from what has been written on the subject. Thus
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (‘Types of Mankind,’ p. 148) state
+  that Rameses II., or the Great, has features superbly European;
+  whereas Knox, another firm believer in the specific distinction
+  of the races of man (‘Races of Man,’ 1850, p. 201), speaking of
+  young Memnon (the same person with Rameses II., as I am
+  informed by Mr. Birch) insists in the strongest manner that he
+  is identical in character with the Jews of Antwerp. Again,
+  whilst looking in the British Museum with two competent judges,
+  officers of the establishment, at the statue of Amunoph III.,
+  we agreed that he had a strongly negro cast of features; but
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (ibid. p. 146, fig. 53) describe him
+  as “a hybrid, but not of negro intermixture.”
+
+  [287] As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, ‘Types of Mankind,’ 1854,
+  p. 439. They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt
+  thinks that the subject requires further investigation.
+
+  [288] “Diversity of Origin of the Human Races,” in the
+  ‘Christian Examiner,’ July, 1850.
+
+  [289] ‘Transact. B. Soc. of Edinburgh,’ vol. xxii. 1861, p.
+  567.
+
+  [290] ‘On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,’ Eng.
+  translat. 1864.
+
+  [291] See the interesting letter by Mr. T. A. Murray, in the
+  ‘Anthropolog. Review,’ April, 1868, p. liii. In this letter
+  Count Strzelecki’s statement, that Australian women who have
+  borne children to a white man are afterwards sterile with their
+  own race, is disproved. M. A. de Quatrefages has also collected
+  (‘Revue des Cours Scientifiques,’ March, 1869, p. 239) much
+  evidence that Australians and Europeans are not sterile when
+  crossed.
+
+  [292] ‘An Examination of Prof. Agassiz’s Sketch of the Nat.
+  Provinces of the Animal World,’ Charleston, 1855, p. 44.
+
+  [293] ‘Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American
+  Soldiers,’ by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.
+
+  [294] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 109. I may here remind the reader
+  that the sterility of species when crossed is not a
+  specially-acquired quality; but, like the incapacity of certain
+  trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other acquired
+  differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but
+  they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and
+  much less to external structure or to ordinary differences in
+  constitution. One important element in the sterility of crossed
+  species apparently lies in one or both having been long
+  habituated to fixed conditions; for we know that changed
+  conditions have a special influence on the reproductive system,
+  and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked) that
+  the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate
+  that sterility which is so general with species in a natural
+  state when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid.
+  vol. ii. p. 185, and ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th edit. p. 317)
+  that the sterility of crossed species has not been acquired
+  through natural selection: we can see that when two forms have
+  already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely possible
+  that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or
+  survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for as the
+  sterility increases fewer and fewer offspring will be produced
+  from which to breed, and at last only single individuals will
+  be produced, at the rarest intervals. But there is even a
+  higher grade of sterility than this. Both Gärtner and Kölreuter
+  have proved that in genera of plants including numerous
+  species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed
+  yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a
+  single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other
+  species, for the germen swells. It is here manifestly
+  impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have
+  already ceased to yield seeds; so that the acme of sterility,
+  when the germen alone is affected, cannot be gained through
+  selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades of
+  sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown
+  differences in the constitution of the reproductive system of
+  the species which are crossed.
+
+  [295] ‘The Variation of Animals,’ &c., vol. ii. p. 92.
+
+  [296] M. de Quatrefages has given (‘Anthropolog. Review,’ Jan.
+  1869, p. 22) an interesting account of the success and energy
+  of the Paulistas in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of
+  Portuguese and Indians, with a mixture of the blood of other
+  races.
+
+  [297] For instance with the aborigines of America and
+  Australia. Prof. Huxley says (‘Transact. Internat. Congress of
+  Prehist. Arch.’ 1868. p. 105) that the skulls of many South
+  Germans and Swiss are “as short and as broad as those of the
+  Tartars,” &c.
+
+  [298] See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz,
+  ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ Eng. translat. 1863, p. 198-208,
+  227. I have taken some of the above statements from H. Tuttle’s
+  ‘Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man,’ Boston, 1866, p. 35.
+
+  [299] Prof. Nägeli has carefully described several striking
+  cases in his ‘Botanische Mittheilungen,’ B. ii. 1866, s.
+  294-369. Prof. Asa Gray has made analogous remarks on some
+  intermediate forms in the Compositæ of N. America.
+
+  [300] ‘Origin of Species,’ 5th edit. p. 68.
+
+  [301] See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the ‘Fortnightly
+  Review,’ 1865, p. 275.
+
+  [302] ‘Lectures on Man,’ Eng. translat. 1864, p. 468.
+
+  [303] ‘Die Racen des Schweines,’ 1860, s. 46. ‘Vorstudien für
+  Geschichte, &c., Schweineschädel,’ 1864, s. 104. With respect
+  to cattle, see M. de Quatrefages, ‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’
+  1861, p. 119.
+
+  [304] Tylor’s ‘Early History of Mankind,’ 1865; for the
+  evidence with respect to gesture-language, see p. 54. Lubbock’s
+  ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 2nd edit. 1869.
+
+  [305] ‘The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,’ Eng.
+  translat. edited by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.
+
+  [306] Hodder M. Westropp, on Cromlechs, &c., ‘Journal of
+  Ethnological Soc.’ as given in ‘Scientific Opinion,’ June 2nd.
+  1869, p. 3.
+
+  [307] ‘Journal of Researches: Voyage of the “Beagle,”’ p. 46.
+
+  [308] ‘Prehistoric Times,’ 1869, p. 574.
+
+  [309] Translation in ‘Anthropological Review,’ Oct. 1868, p.
+  431.
+
+  [310] ‘Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.’ 1868,
+  p. 172-175. See also Broca (translation) in ‘Anthropological
+  Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 410.
+
+  [311] Dr. Gerland, ‘Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvölker,’
+  1868, s. 82.
+
+  [312] Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this
+  statement.
+
+  [313] See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland’s ‘Medical
+  Notes and Reflections,’ 1839, p. 390.
+
+  [314] I have collected (‘Journal of Researches, Voyage of the
+  “Beagle,”’ p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject:
+  see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the “breath of
+  civilisation as poisonous to savages.”
+
+  [315] Sproat, ‘Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,’ 1868, p.
+  284.
+
+  [316] Bagehot, “Physics and Politics,” ‘Fortnightly Review,’
+  April 1, 1868, p. 455.
+
+  [317] “On Anthropology,” translation, ‘Anthropolog. Review,’
+  Jan. 1868, p. 38.
+
+  [318] ‘The Annals of Rural Bengal,’ 1868, p. 134.
+
+  [319] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 95.
+
+  [320] Pallas, ‘Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,’ 1780, part ii. p.
+  69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his ‘Beyträge zur
+  Anthropologie,’ 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is
+  given by Godron, ‘De l’Espèce,’ 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &c.
+
+  [321] Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, ‘Races of Man,’
+  1850, p. 473.
+
+  [322] See De Quatrefages on this head, ‘Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,’ Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.
+
+  [323] Livingstone’s ‘Travels and Researches in S. Africa,’
+  1857, p. 338, 329. D’Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, ‘De
+  l’Espèce,’ vol. ii. p. 266.
+
+  [324] See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and
+  published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr.
+  Wells’ views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my ‘Origin of
+  Species.’ Various cases of colour correlated with
+  constitutional peculiarities are given in my ‘Variation of
+  Animals under Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 227, 335.
+
+  [325] See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, ‘Types of Mankind,’
+  p. 68.
+
+  [326] Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical
+  Society, April 20th, 1840, and given in the ‘Athenæum,’ 1840,
+  p. 353.
+
+  [327] ‘The Plurality of the Human Race’ (translat.), 1864, p.
+  60.
+
+  [328] Quatrefages, ‘Unité de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 205.
+  Waitz, ‘Introduct. to Anthropology,’ translat. vol. i. 1863, p.
+  124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his ‘Travels.’
+
+  [329] In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the
+  Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to
+  transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign
+  service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but
+  I have received no returns. “As several well-marked cases have
+  been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between
+  the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and
+  it being notorious that there is some limited degree of
+  relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate
+  inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth
+  consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in
+  Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability
+  to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the
+  several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical
+  districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of
+  comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are
+  drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of
+  intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were
+  kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered
+  from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would
+  soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated,
+  whether there exists any relation between the colour of the
+  hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps
+  no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is
+  well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained,
+  it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any
+  particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high
+  interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men
+  inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate,
+  might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of
+  dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long
+  succession of generations.”
+
+  [330] ‘Anthropological Review,’ Jan. 1866, p. xxi.
+
+  [331] See, for instance, Quatrefages (‘Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,’ Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of
+  residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases.
+  Dr. Rolle (‘Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,’ &c., 1865, s. 99)
+  states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number
+  of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the
+  course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes
+  informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in
+  colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by
+  them.
+
+  [332] Harlan, ‘Medical Researches,’ p. 532. Quatrefages (‘Unité
+  de l’Espèce Humaine,’ 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence
+  on this head.
+
+  [333] See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in ‘Anthropological
+  Review,’ Oct. 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [334] Mr. Catlin states (‘N. American Indians,’ 3rd edit. 1842,
+  vol. i. p. 49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about
+  one in ten or twelve of the members of all ages and both sexes
+  have bright silvery grey hair, which is hereditary. Now this
+  hair is as coarse and harsh as that of a horse’s mane, whilst
+  the hair of other colours is fine and soft.
+
+  [335] On the odour of the skin, Godron, ‘Sur l’Espèce,’ tom.
+  ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, ‘Die
+  Aufgaben der landwirth. Zootechnik,’ 1869, s. 7.
+
+  [336] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1810, p.
+  541. In regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below,
+  I am indebted to Fritz Müller.
+
+  [337] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 309.
+
+  [338] Even with those of plants in which the sexes are
+  separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the
+  female. Many hermaphrodite plants are, as first shewn by C. K.
+  Sprengel, dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs
+  are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be
+  self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is generally
+  mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there are
+  some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature
+  before the male.
+
+  [339] I have received information, hereafter to be given, to
+  this effect with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as
+  pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr.
+  Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows
+  weak.
+
+  [340] On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, ‘Boston Journal of Nat.
+  Hist.’ vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm,
+  ‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger,
+  ‘Naturgesch.: Säugethiere von Paraguay,’ 1830, s. 14, 20. On
+  Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.
+
+  [341] Pallas, ‘Spicilegia Zoolog.’ Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir
+  Andrew Smith, ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,’
+  1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his ‘Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates’ (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table
+  incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and which
+  are gregarious.
+
+  [342] Dr. Campbell, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 138. See
+  also an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in ‘Proc.
+  Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,’ May, 1868.
+
+  [343] ‘The Ibis,’ vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne
+  Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii.
+  1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great
+  Bustard, see L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’ 1867, p. 19, and
+  182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous
+  and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.
+
+  [344] The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively
+  (‘Ornamental Poultry,’ 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the
+  guinea-fowl being infertile when more than one female is kept
+  with the same male.
+
+  [345] Noel Humphreys, ‘River Gardens,’ 1857.
+
+  [346] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 342.
+
+  [347] One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, ‘Modern
+  Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the
+  rule, as the male has rudimentary wings, and never quits the
+  cell in which it is born, whilst the female has well-developed
+  wings. Audouin believes that the females are impregnated by the
+  males which are born in the same cells with them; but it is
+  much more probable that the females visit other cells, and thus
+  avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter meet with a few
+  exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the female,
+  instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.
+
+  [348] ‘Essays and Observations,’ edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861,
+  p. 194.
+
+  [349] Prof. Sachs (‘Lehrbuch der Botanik,’ 1870, s. 633) in
+  speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks,
+  “verhält sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die
+  andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv.”
+
+  [350] ‘Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,’ 1867, s. 216-269.
+  The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements
+  made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater
+  variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my
+  ‘Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 75.
+
+  [351] ‘Proceedings Royal Soc.’ vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and
+  524.
+
+  [352] ‘Proc. Royal Irish Academy,’ vol. x. 1868, p. 123.
+
+  [353] ‘Massachusetts Medical Soc.’ vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.
+
+  [354] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but
+  one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded
+  to, is fully explained.
+
+  [355] These facts are given on the high authority of a great
+  breeder, Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier’s ‘Poultry Book,’ 1868, p.
+  158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on
+  the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph,
+  see ‘Variation of Animals,’ &c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii.
+  p. 77.
+
+  [356] ‘Novæ species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,’ 1778, p. 7.
+  On the transmission of colour by the horse, see ‘Variation of
+  Animals, &c. under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii.
+  p. 71, for a general discussion on Inheritance as limited by
+  Sex.
+
+  [357] Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,’ 1865, p. 87.
+  Boitard et Corbié, ‘Les Pigeons de Volière,’ &c., 1824, p. 173.
+
+  [358] References are given in my ‘Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. p. 72.
+
+  [359] I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made
+  enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of
+  Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to
+  the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I am
+  obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the
+  _Cervus alces_ of N. America, see ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p.
+  221 and 254; and for the _C. Virginianus_ and _strongyloceros_
+  of the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in ‘Ottawa Acad. of
+  Nat. Sc.’ 1868, p. 13. For _Cervus Eldi_ of Pegu, see Lieut.
+  Beavan, ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1867, p. 762.
+
+  [360] _Antilocapra Americana._ Owen, ‘Anatomy of Vertebrates,’
+  vol. iii. p. 627.
+
+  [361] I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North
+  Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in
+  length, at birth. With cattle Youatt says (‘Cattle,’ 1834, p.
+  277) that the prominence of the frontal bone penetrates the
+  cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over
+  it.
+
+  [362] I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having
+  made inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with
+  respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of
+  Africa there is a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the
+  rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in
+  the one case observed, a young ram born on Feb. 10th first
+  showed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance the
+  development of the horns occurred at a later period of life,
+  conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in which
+  both sexes are horned.
+
+  [363] In the common peacock (_Pavo cristatus_) the male alone
+  possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (_P.
+  muticus_) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs.
+  Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would
+  have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock;
+  but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of
+  the previous year, belonging to both species, compared on April
+  23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the
+  spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by
+  slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been
+  informed if any difference in the rate of development had
+  subsequently been observed.
+
+  [364] In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in
+  the two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been
+  able to discover whether its full development occurs later in
+  life in the males of such species, than in the male of the
+  common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule.
+  With the allied _Mergus cucullatus_ we have, however, a case of
+  this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general
+  plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is
+  pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the
+  young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and
+  have a greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at
+  an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his
+  other more strongly-marked sexual differences in plumage: see
+  Audubon, ‘Ornithological Biography,’ vol. iii. 1835, p.
+  249-250.
+
+  [365] ‘Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,’ 1837, s. 21, 24. For the
+  case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, ‘Le Pigeon
+  Voyageur Belge.’ 1865, p. 87.
+
+  [366] For full particulars and references on all these points
+  respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see ‘Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,’ vol. i. p. 250, 256.
+  In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which
+  have arisen under domestication are described in the same work
+  under the head of each species.
+
+  [367] ‘Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for
+  1866.’ In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is
+  given.
+
+  [368] For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye’s
+  researches, in ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,’
+  April, 1867, p. 343, 345. For France, the ‘Annuaire pour l’An
+  1867.’ p. 213.
+
+  [369] In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, ‘La Loi de
+  Production des Sexes,’ 1863, p. 25.
+
+  [370] Babbage, ‘Edinburgh Journal of Science,’ 1829, vol. i. p.
+  88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate
+  children in England, see ‘Report of Registrar-General for
+  1866,’ p. xv.
+
+  [371] ‘British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,’ April,
+  1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks (‘Tenth Annual Report of
+  Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,’ 1867, p. xxviii) that “These
+  examples may suffice to shew that, at almost every stage of
+  life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death
+  and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of
+  this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that
+  infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general
+  treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the
+  higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and
+  constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone.”
+
+  [372] With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the
+  accurate Azara (‘Voyages dans l’Amérique mérid.’ tom. ii. 1809,
+  p. 60, 179), the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to
+  13.
+
+  [373] Leuckart in Wagner, ‘Handwörterbuch der Phys.’ B. iv.
+  1853, s. 774.
+
+  [374] Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.
+
+  [375] During the last eleven years a record has been kept of
+  the number of mares which have proved barren or prematurely
+  slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how
+  infertile these highly-nurtured and rather closely-interbred
+  animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares
+  failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male
+  colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to
+  produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were
+  born, and 794 mares failed.
+
+  [376] I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for
+  me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the
+  following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first
+  called my attention to the premature deaths of the males,—a
+  statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others.
+  To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for
+  the larger returns on sheep.
+
+  [377] Bell, ‘History of British Quadrupeds,’ p. 100.
+
+  [378] ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,’ 1849, pl.
+  29.
+
+  [379] Brehm (‘Illust. Thierleben,’ B. iv. s. 990) comes to the
+  same conclusion.
+
+  [380] On the authority of L. Lloyd, ‘Game Birds of Sweden,’
+  1867, p. 12, 132.
+
+  [381] ‘Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,’ letter xxix. edit. of 1825,
+  vol. i. p. 139.
+
+  [382] Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making
+  enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of
+  chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a
+  match between two experts; and one man caught in a day 62, and
+  another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught
+  by one man in a single day was 70.
+
+  [383] ‘Ibis,’ vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould’s
+  ‘Trochilidæ,’ 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions, I am
+  indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.
+
+  [384] ‘Ibis,’ 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.
+
+  [385] ‘Ibis,’ 1862, p. 137.
+
+  [386] Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, ‘Handwörterbuch der Phys.’
+  B. iv. 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many
+  males as females.
+
+  [387] Quoted in the ‘Farmer,’ March 18, 1869, p. 369.
+
+  [388] ‘The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,’ 1866, p.
+  23. The ‘Field’ newspaper, June 29th, 1867.
+
+  [389] ‘Land and Water,’ 1868, p. 41.
+
+  [390] Yarrell, ‘Hist. British Fishes,’ vol. i. 1836, p. 307; on
+  the _Cyprinus carpio_, p. 331; on the _Tinca vulgaris_, p. 331;
+  on the _Abramis brama_, p. 336. See, for the minnow (_Leuciscus
+  phoxinus_), ‘Loudon’s Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. v. 1832, p. 682.
+
+  [391] Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, ‘Handwörterbuch der
+  Phys.’ B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that with Butterflies the males are
+  three or four times as numerous as the females.
+
+  [392] ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. ii. 1863, p. 228,
+  347.
+
+  [393] Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his
+  ‘Rhopalocera Africæ Australis.’
+
+  [394] Quoted by Trimen, ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ vol. v. part iv.
+  1866, p. 330.
+
+  [395] ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxv. p. 37.
+
+  [396] ‘Proc. Entomolog. Soc.’ Feb. 17th, 1868.
+
+  [397] Quoted by Dr. Wallace in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ 3rd series,
+  vol. v. 1867, p. 487.
+
+  [398] Blanchard, ‘Metamorphoses, Mœurs des Insectes,’ 1868, p.
+  225-226.
+
+  [399] ‘Lepidopteren-Doubblettren Liste,’ Berlin, No. x. 1866.
+
+  [400] This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some
+  results from former years, in which the females seemed to
+  preponderate; but so many of the figures were estimates, that I
+  found it impossible to tabulate them.
+
+  [401] Günther’s ‘Record of Zoological Literature,’ 1867, p.
+  260. On the excess of female Lucanus, ibid. p. 250. On the
+  males of Lucanus in England, Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of
+  Insects,’ vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium, ibid. p. 172.
+
+  [402] Walsh, in ‘The American Entomologist,’ vol. i. 1869, p.
+  103. F. Smith, ‘Record of Zoological Literature,’ 1867, p. 328.
+
+  [403] ‘Farm Insects,’ p. 45-46.
+
+  [404] ‘Observations on N. American Neuroptera,’ by H. Hagen and
+  B. D. Walsh, ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,’ Oct. 1863, p. 168,
+  223, 239.
+
+  [405] ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. London,’ Feb. 17, 1868.
+
+  [406] Another great authority in this class, Prof. Thorell of
+  Upsala (‘On European Spiders,’ 1869-70, part i. p. 205) speaks
+  as if female spiders were generally commoner than the males.
+
+  [407] See, on this subject, Mr. Pickard-Cambridge, as quoted in
+  ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’ 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [408] I have often been struck with the fact, that in several
+  species of Primula the seeds in the capsules which contained
+  only a few were very much larger than the numerous seeds in the
+  more productive capsules.
+
+  [409] ‘Principles of Biology,’ vol. ii. 1867, chaps. ii.-xi.
+
+  [410] ‘De l’Espèce et de la Class.’ &c., 1869, p. 106.
+
+  [411] See, for instance, the account which I have given in my
+  ‘Journal of Researches,’ 1845, p. 7.
+
+  [412] I have given (‘Geolog. Observations on Volcanic Islands,’
+  1844, p. 53) a curious instance of the influence of light on
+  the colours of a frondescent incrustation, deposited by the
+  surf on the coast-rocks of Ascension, and formed by the
+  solution of triturated sea-shells.
+
+  [413] ‘Facts and Arguments for Darwin,’ English translat. 1869,
+  p. 20. See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads.
+  Sars has described a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in
+  ‘Nature,’ 1870, p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the
+  _Pontoporeia affinis_.
+
+  [414] See Sir J. Lubbock in ‘Annals. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’
+  vol. xi. 1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853) pl. vii. See
+  also Lubbock in ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ vol. iv. new series,
+  1856-1858, p. 8. With respect to the zigzagged antennæ
+  mentioned below, see Fritz Müller, ‘Facts and Arguments for
+  Darwin’ 1869, p. 40, foot-note.
+
+  [415] See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in
+  ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of
+  the genus, ibid. p. 585. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence
+  Bate for nearly all the above statements with respect to the
+  chelæ of the higher crustaceans.
+
+  [416] ‘Hist. Nat. des Crust.’ tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.
+
+  [417] Fritz Müller, ‘Facts and Arguments for Darwin,’ 1869, p.
+  25-28.
+
+  [418] ‘Travels in the Interior of Brazil,’ 1846, p. 111. I have
+  given, in my ‘Journal of Researches,’ p. 463, an account of the
+  habits of the Birgos.
+
+  [419] Mr. Ch. Fraser, in ‘Proc. Zoolog. Soc.’ 1869, p. 3. I am
+  indebted to Mr. Bate for the statement from Dr. Power.
+
+  [420] Claus, ‘Die freilebenden Copepoden,’ 1863, s. 35.
+
+  [421] ‘Facts and Arguments,’ &c., p. 79.
+
+  [422] ‘A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,’ 1861-64. For
+  the following facts, see p. 102, 77, 88.
+
+  [423] Aug. Vinson (‘Aranéides des Iles de la Réunion,’ pl. vi.
+  figs. 1 and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the
+  male in _Epeira nigra_. In this species, as I may add, the male
+  is testaceous and the female black with legs banded with red.
+  Other even more striking cases of inequality in size between
+  the sexes have been recorded (‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’
+  1868, July, p. 429); but I have not seen the original accounts.
+
+  [424] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. i.
+  1818, p. 280.
+
+  [425] Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4-punctatum et
+  guttatum; see Westring, in Kroyer, ‘Naturhist. Tidskrift,’ vol.
+  iv. 1842-1843, p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See,
+  also, for other species, ‘Araneæ Svecicæ,’ p. 184.
+
+  [426] Walckenaer et P. Gervais, ‘Hist. Nat. des Insectes:
+  Aptères,’ tom. iv. 1847, p. 17, 19, 68.
+
+  [427] Sir J. Lubbock, ‘Transact. Linnean Soc.’ vol. xxv. 1866,
+  p. 484. With respect to the Mutillidæ see Westwood, ‘Modern
+  Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. p. 213.
+
+  [428] These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied
+  species, and afford excellent specific characters. But their
+  importance, under a functional point of view, as Mr. E.
+  MacLachlan has remarked to me, has probably been overrated. It
+  has been suggested, that slight differences in these organs
+  would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of well-marked
+  varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their
+  development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer
+  from the many recorded cases (see for instance, Bronn,
+  ‘Geschichte der Natur,’ B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood,
+  ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ vol. iii. 1842, p. 195) of distinct
+  species having been observed in union. Mr. MacLachlan informs
+  me (vide ‘Stett. Ent. Zeitung,’ 1867, s. 155) that when several
+  species of Phryganidæ, which present strongly-pronounced
+  differences of this kind, were confined together by Dr. Aug.
+  Meyer, _they coupled_, and one pair produced fertile ova.
+
+  [429] ‘The Practical Entomologist,’ Philadelphia, vol. ii. May,
+  1867, p. 88.
+
+  [430] Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.
+
+  [431] ‘Modern Classification of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  206, 205. Mr. Walsh, who called my attention to this double use
+  of the jaws, says that he has repeatedly observed this fact.
+
+  [432] We have here a curious and inexplicable case of
+  dimorphism, for some of the females of four European species of
+  Dytiscus, and of certain species of Hydroporus, have their
+  elytra smooth; and no intermediate gradations between sulcated
+  or punctured and quite smooth elytra have been observed. See
+  Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the ‘Zoologist,’ vol. v.-vi.
+  1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to
+  Entomology,’ vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.
+
+  [433] Westwood, ‘Modern Class.’ vol. ii. p. 193. The following
+  statement about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are
+  taken from Mr. Walsh, ‘Practical Entomologist,’ Philadelphia,
+  vol. ii. p. 88.
+
+  [434] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduct.’ &c., vol. iii. p. 332-336.
+
+  [435] ‘Insecta Maderensia,’ 1854, p. 20.
+
+  [436] E. Doubleday, ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. i.
+  1848, p. 379. I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera
+  (see Shuckard, ‘Fossorial Hymenop.’ 1837, p. 39-43) differ in
+  neuration according to sex.
+
+  [437] H. W. Bates, in ‘Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.’ vol. vi.
+  1862, p. 74. Mr. Wonfor’s observations are quoted in ‘Popular
+  Science Review,’ 1868, p. 343.
+
+  [438] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ vol. iii.
+  p. 299.
+
+  [439] Robinet, ‘Vers à Soie,’ 1848, p. 207.
+
+  [440] ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.
+
+  [441] ‘Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.’ Feb. 4th, 1867, p. lxxi.
+
+  [442] For this and other statements on the size of the sexes,
+  see Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration
+  of life in insects, see p. 344.
+
+  [443] ‘Transact. Linnean Soc.’ vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.
+
+  [444] ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.
+
+  [445] ‘Modern Classification of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  526.
+
+  [446] See Mr. B. T. Lowne’s very interesting work, ‘On the
+  Anatomy of the Blow-Fly, Musca vomitoria,’ 1870, p. 14.
+
+  [447] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. p. 473.
+
+  [448] These particulars are taken from Westwood’s ‘Modern
+  Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the
+  Fulgoridæ, Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduct.’ vol. ii. p. 401.
+
+  [449] ‘Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.’ B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  152-158.
+
+  [450] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this
+  extract from a ‘Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,’
+  by Dr. Hartman.
+
+  [451] L. Guilding, ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xv. p. 154.
+
+  [452] Köppen, as quoted in the ‘Zoological Record,’ for 1867,
+  p. 460.
+
+  [453] Gilbert White, ‘Nat. Hist. of Selborne,’ vol. ii. 1825,
+  p. 262.
+
+  [454] Harris, ‘Insects of New England,’ 1842, p. 128.
+
+  [455] ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. i. 1863, p. 252.
+  Mr. Bates gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations
+  in the musical apparatus of the three families. See also
+  Westwood, ‘Modern Class.’ vol. ii. p. 445 and 453.
+
+  [456] ‘Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. xi. April, 1868.
+
+  [457] ‘Nouveau Manuel d’Anat. Comp.’ (French translat.), tom.
+  i. 1850 p. 567.
+
+  [458] ‘Zeitschrift für wissenschaft. Zoolog.’ B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  117.
+
+  [459] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. i. p. 440.
+
+  [460] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [461] Landois, ibid. s. 121, 122.
+
+  [462] Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the
+  female of the _Platyphyllum concavum_, “when captured makes a
+  feeble grating noise by shuffling her wing-covers together.”
+
+  [463] Landois, ibid. s. 113.
+
+  [464] ‘Insects of New England,’ 1842, p. 133.
+
+  [465] Westwood, ‘Modern Classification,’ vol. i. p. 462.
+
+  [466] Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [467] Landois, ibid. s. 115, 116, 120, 122.
+
+  [468] ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ 3rd series, vol. ii. (‘Journal of
+  Proceedings, p. 117.)
+
+  [469] Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. i. p. 427; for
+  crickets, p. 445.
+
+  [470] Mr. Ch. Horne, in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ May 3, 1869, p. xii.
+
+  [471] The _Oecanthus nivalis_, Harris, ‘Insects of New
+  England,’ 1842, p. 124.
+
+  [472] Platyblemnus: Westwood, ‘Modern. Class.’ vol. i. p. 447.
+
+  [473] B. D. Walsh, the Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois, in ‘Proc.
+  Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,’ 1862, p. 361.
+
+  [474] ‘Modern Class.’ vol. ii. p. 37.
+
+  [475] Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for
+  the following facts on Hetærina, Anax, and Gomphus.
+
+  [476] ‘Transact. Ent. Soc’ vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.
+
+  [477] See abstract in the ‘Zoological Record’ for 1867, p. 450.
+
+  [478] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduct. to Entomology,’ vol. ii.
+  1818, p. 35.
+
+  [479] See an interesting article, “The Writings of Fabre,” in
+  ‘Nat. Hist. Review,’ April, 1862, p. 122.
+
+  [480] ‘Journal of Proc. of Entomolog. Soc.’ Sept. 7th, 1863,
+  p. 169.
+
+  [481] P. Huber, ‘Recherches sur les Mœurs des Fourmis,’ 1810,
+  p. 150, 165.
+
+  [482] ‘Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,’ 1866, p.
+  238-239.
+
+  [483] Quoted by Westwood, ‘Modern Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii.
+  p. 214.
+
+  [484] Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ
+  conspicuously, has been described by Mr. Bates in ‘Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.’ 1869, p. 50. I will specify the few other cases in
+  which I have heard of a difference in colour between the sexes
+  of beetles. Kirby and Spence (‘Introduct. to Entomology,’ vol.
+  iii. p. 301) mention a Cantharis, Meloe, Rhagium, and the
+  _Leptura testacea_; the male of the latter being testaceous,
+  with a black thorax, and the female of a dull red all over.
+  These two latter beetles belong to the Order of Longicorns.
+  Messrs. R. Trimen and Waterhouse, junr., inform me of two
+  Lamellicorns, viz., a Peritrichia and Trichius, the male of the
+  latter being more obscurely coloured than the female. In
+  _Tillus elongatus_ the male is black, and the female always, as
+  it is believed, of a dark blue colour with a red thorax. The
+  male, also, of _Orsodacna atra_, as I hear from Mr. Walsh, is
+  black, the female (the so-called _O. ruficollis_) having a
+  rufous thorax.
+
+  [485] ‘Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,’ 1864, p. 228.
+
+  [486] Kirby and Spence, ‘Introduct. Entomolog.’ vol. iii. p.
+  300.
+
+  [487] Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 329.
+
+  [488] ‘Modern Classification of Insects,’ vol. i. p. 172. On
+  the same page there is an account of Siagonium. In the British
+  Museum I noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an
+  intermediate condition, so that the dimorphism is not strict.
+
+  [489] ‘The Malay Archipelago,’ vol. ii. 1869, p. 276.
+
+  [490] ‘Entomological Magazine,’ vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also
+  on the conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol.
+  iii. p. 314; and Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.
+
+  [491] Quoted from Fischer, in ‘Dict. Class. d’Hist. Nat.’ tom.
+  x. p. 324.
+
+  [492] ‘Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,’ 1866, as quoted in
+  ‘Journal of Travel,’ by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [493] Westwood, ‘Modern Class.’ vol. i. p. 184.
+
+  [494] Wollaston, On certain musical Curculionidæ, ‘Annals and
+  Mag. of Nat. Hist.’ vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.
+
+  [495] ‘Zeitschrift für wiss. Zoolog.’ B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.
+
+  [496] I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. R. Crotch for having sent
+  me numerous prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to
+  these three families and others, as well as for valuable
+  information of all kinds. He believes that the power of
+  stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously observed. I
+  am also much indebted to Mr. E. W. Janson, for information and
+  specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin, finds that
+  _Dermestes murinus_ stridulates, but he searched in vain for
+  the apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Mr. Algen
+  as a stridulator, in the ‘Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,’ 1869,
+  Nov., p. 130.
+
+  [497] Schiödte, translated in ‘Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.’
+  vol. xx. 1867, p. 37.
+
+  [498] Westring has described (Kroyer, ‘Naturhist. Tidskrift,’
+  B. ii. 1848-49, p. 334) the stridulating organs in these two,
+  as well as in other families. In the Carabidæ I have examined
+  _Elaphrus uliginosus_ and _Blethisa multipunctata_, sent to me
+  by Mr. Crotch. In Blethisa the transverse ridges on the
+  furrowed border of the abdominal segment do not come into play,
+  as far as I could judge, in scraping the rasps on the elytra.
+
+  [499] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent
+  me extracts from Leconte’s ‘Introduction to Entomology,’ p.
+  101, 143.
+
+  [500] M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in ‘Journal of Travel,’
+  A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [501] Mr. Doubleday informs me that “the noise is produced by
+  the insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and
+  then sinking its thorax five or six times, in rapid succession,
+  against the substance upon which it is sitting.” For references
+  on this subject see Landois, ‘Zeitschrift für wissen. Zoolog.’
+  B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted by Kirby and Spence,
+  ‘Introduct.’ vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of _Pimelia
+  striata_ produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen
+  against any hard substance, “and that the male, obedient to
+  this call, soon attends her and they pair.”
+
+  [502] Apatura Iris: ‘The Entomologist’s Weekly Intelligencer,’
+  1859, p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies see C. Collingwood,
+  ‘Rambles of a Naturalist,’ 1868, p. 183.
+
+  [503] See my ‘Journal of Researches,’ 1845, p. 33. Mr.
+  Doubleday has detected (‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ March 3rd, 1845, p.
+  123) a peculiar membranous sac at the base of the front wings,
+  which is probably connected with the production of the sound.
+
+  [504] See also Mr. Bates’ paper in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. of
+  Philadelphia,’ 1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same
+  subject, in regard to Diadema, in ‘Transact. Entomolog. Soc. of
+  London,’ 1869, p. 278.
+
+  [505] ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. i. 1863, p. 19.
+
+  [506] See the interesting article in the ‘Westminster Review,’
+  July, 1867, p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr.
+  Wallace in Hardwicke’s ‘Science Gossip,’ Sept. 1867, p. 196.
+
+  [507] See the interesting observations by Mr. T. W. Wood, ‘The
+  Student,’ Sept. 1868, p. 81.
+
+  [508] Mr. Wallace in ‘Hardwicke’s Science Gossip,’ Sept. 1867,
+  p. 193.
+
+  [509] See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir’s paper in ‘Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.’ 1869, p. 23.
+
+  [510] ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 16.
+
+  [511] For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood (‘Modern
+  Class. of Insects,’ vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this
+  case. On the relative colours of diurnal and nocturnal
+  Lepidoptera, see ibid. p. 333 and 392; also Harris, ‘Treatise
+  on the Insects of New England,’ 1842, p. 315.
+
+  [512] Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of
+  the wings of several species of Papilio, may be seen in the
+  beautiful plates to Mr. Wallace’s Memoir on the Papilionidæ of
+  the Malayan Region, in ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxv. part i.
+  1865.
+
+  [513] ‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ March 2nd, 1868.
+
+  [514] See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina
+  (one of the Geometræ) in ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ new series, vol.
+  v. pl. xv. and xvi.
+
+  [515] ‘Proc. Ent. Soc. of London,’ July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.
+
+  [516] Harris, ‘Treatise,’ &c., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.
+
+  [517] For instance, I observe in my son’s cabinet that the
+  males are darker than the females in the _Lasiocampa quercus_,
+  _Odonestis potatoria_, _Hypogymna dispar_, _Dasychira
+  pudibunda_, and _Cycnia mendica_. In this latter species the
+  difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly marked;
+  and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes,
+  an instance of protective mimickry confined to one sex, as will
+  hereafter be more fully explained. The white female of the
+  Cycnia resembles the very common _Spilosoma menthrasti_, both
+  sexes of which are white; and Mr. Stainton observed that this
+  latter moth was rejected with utter disgust by a whole brood of
+  young turkeys, which were fond of eating other moths; so that
+  if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British birds for the
+  Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white
+  deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.
+
+  [518] ‘Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,’ 1868, p.
+  182.
+
+  [519] Wallace on the Papilionidæ of the Malayan Region, in
+  ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxv. 1865, p. 8, 36. A striking case
+  of a rare variety, strictly intermediate between two other
+  well-marked female varieties, is given by Mr. Wallace. See also
+  Mr. Bates, in ‘Proc. Entomolog. Soc.’ Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xl.
+
+  [520] Mr. R. MacLachlan, ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ vol. ii. part
+  6th, 3rd series, 1866, p. 459.
+
+  [521] H. W. Bates, ‘The Naturalist on the Amazons,’ vol. ii.
+  1863, p. 228. A. R. Wallace, in ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxv.
+  1865, p. 10.
+
+  [522] On this whole subject see ‘The Variation of Animals and
+  Plants under Domestication,’ vol. ii. 1868, chap. xxiii.
+
+  [523] A. R. Wallace, in ‘The Journal of Travel,’ vol. i. 1868,
+  p. 88. ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1857, p. 37. See also
+  Messrs. Wallace and Bates in ‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ Nov. 19th, 1866,
+  p. xxxix.
+
+  [524] ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,’ vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.
+
+  [525] ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.
+
+  [526] ‘Proc. Ent. Soc.’ Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv.
+
+  [527] ‘Transact. Linn. Soc.’ vol. xxv. 1865, p. 1; also
+  ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301.
+
+  [528] See an ingenious article entitled, “Difficulties of the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,” in the ‘Month,’ 1869. The writer
+  strangely supposes that I attribute the variations in colour of
+  the Lepidoptera, by which certain species belonging to distinct
+  families have come to resemble others, to reversion to a common
+  progenitor; but there is no more reason to attribute these
+  variations to reversion than in the case of any ordinary
+  variation.
+
+  [529] Wallace, “Notes on Eastern Butterflies,” ‘Transact. Ent.
+  Soc.’ 1869, p. 287.
+
+  [530] Wallace, in ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p. 37; and
+  in ‘Journal of Travel and Nat. Hist.’ vol. i. 1868, p. 88.
+
+  [531] See remarks by Messrs. Bates and Wallace, in ‘Proc. Ent.
+  Soc.’ Nov. 19, 1866, p. xxxix.
+
+  [532] See Mr. Wallace in ‘Westminster Review,’ July, 1867, p.
+  11 and 37. The male of no butterfly, as Mr. Wallace informs me,
+  is known to differ in colour, as a protection, from the female;
+  and he asks me how I can explain this fact on the principle
+  that one sex alone has varied and has transmitted its
+  variations exclusively to the same sex, without the aid of
+  selection to check the variations being inherited by the other
+  sex. No doubt if it could be shewn that the females of very
+  many species had been rendered beautiful through protective
+  mimickry, but that this has never occurred with the males, it
+  would be a serious difficulty. But the number of cases as yet
+  known hardly suffices for a fair judgment. We can see that the
+  males, from having the power of flying more swiftly, and thus
+  escaping danger, would not be so likely as the females to have
+  had their colours modified for the sake of protection; but this
+  would not in the least have interfered with their receiving
+  protective colours through inheritance from the females. In the
+  second place, it is probable that sexual selection would
+  actually tend to prevent a beautiful male from becoming
+  obscure, for the less brilliant individuals would be less
+  attractive to the females. Supposing that the beauty of the
+  male of any species had been mainly acquired through sexual
+  selection, yet if this beauty likewise served as a protection,
+  the acquisition would have been aided by natural selection. But
+  it would be quite beyond our power to distinguish between the
+  two processes of sexual and ordinary selection. Hence it is not
+  likely that we should be able to adduce cases of the males
+  having been rendered brilliant exclusively through protective
+  mimickry, though this is comparatively easy with the females,
+  which have rarely or never been rendered beautiful, as far as
+  we can judge, for the sake of sexual attraction, although they
+  have often received beauty through inheritance from their male
+  parents.
+
+  [533] ‘Proc. Entomolog. Soc.’ Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv., and
+  March 4th, 1867, p. lxxx.
+
+  [534] See Mr. J. Jenner Weir’s paper on insects and
+  insectivorous birds, in ‘Transact. Ent. Soc.’ 1869, p. 21; also
+  Mr. Butler’s paper, ibid. p. 27.
+
+
+END OF VOL. I.
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+THE FABLES OF ÆSOP; A NEW VERSION, chiefly from ORIGINAL SOURCES. By
+REV. THOMAS JAMES. With 100 Woodcuts.
+
+STORIES FOR CHILDREN SELECTED FROM THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By RT. HON.
+J. W. CROKER. With 24 Woodcuts.
+
+THE COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON.
+
+THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MORAL FEELINGS. By JOHN ABERCROMBIE.
+
+POEMS AND SONGS. By ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. With Biographical Notice.
+
+THE FRANCHISE; a Privilege and not a Right. Proved by the Political
+Experience of the Ancients. By H. S. TREMENHEERE.
+
+
+_Three Shillings._
+
+“THE FORTY-FIVE;” A NARRATIVE OF THE INSURRECTION OF 1745 IN SCOTLAND.
+To which are added Letters of PRINCE CHARLES STUART. By LORD MAHON.
+
+
+_Three Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE BIBLE IN SPAIN; or, The Adventures and Imprisonment of an Englishman
+in attempting to Circulate the Scriptures in the Peninsula. By GEORGE
+BORROW.
+
+THE GYPSIES OF SPAIN; their Manners, Customs, Religion, and Language. By
+GEORGE BORROW.
+
+THE BEAUTIES OF LORD BYRON’S WRITINGS; POETRY AND PROSE. With Portrait.
+
+LIFE OF LOUIS PRINCE OF CONDÉ, SURNAMED THE GREAT. By LORD MAHON.
+
+SKETCHES OF GERMAN LIFE AND SCENES FROM THE WAR OF LIBERATION IN
+GERMANY. By VARNHAGEN VON ERESE. Translated by SIR ALEXANDER DUFF
+GORDON.
+
+THE TRUE STORY OF THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+DEEDS OF NAVAL DARING; or, ANECDOTES OF THE BRITISH NAVY. By EDWARD
+GIFFARD.
+
+TYPEE; or, The Marquesas Islanders. By HERMAN MELVILLE.
+
+OMOO: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas; a Sequel to ‘Typee.’
+By HERMAN MELVILLE.
+
+THE BIBLE IN THE HOLY LAND; being Extracts from Dean Stanley’s ‘Sinai
+and Palestine.’ With Woodcuts.
+
+AN ESSAY ON ENGLISH POETRY. With Short Notices of the British Poets. By
+THOMAS CAMPBELL.
+
+HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL ESSAYS. By LORD MAHON.
+
+LIFE OF LORD CLIVE. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO. With Selections from his Correspondence. By
+REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+THE RISE OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE: being a History of British India from its
+Origin till the Peace of 1783. By LORD MAHON.
+
+A NARRATIVE OF THE SIEGE OF KARS, and of the Six Months’ Resistance by
+the Turkish Garrison under General Williams. With Travels and Adventures
+in Armenia, &c. By HUMPHREY SANDWITH, M.D.
+
+SKETCHES OF PERSIA. By SIR JOHN MALCOLM.
+
+THE WILD SPORTS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HIGHLANDS. By CHARLES ST.
+JOHN.
+
+GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. By RICHARD FORD.
+
+TRAVELS IN MEXICO AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. By G. F. RUXTON.
+
+PORTUGAL AND GALLICIA; WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE
+OF THE BASQUE PROVINCES. By LORD CARNARVON.
+
+A RESIDENCE AT SIERRA LEONE. Described from a Journal kept on the Spot,
+and Letters written to Friends at Home. By A LADY.
+
+THE REMAINS IN VERSE AND PROSE OF ARTHUR HENRY HALLAM. With Preface,
+Memoir, and Portrait.
+
+THE POETICAL WORKS OF BISHOP HEBER; containing Palestine, Europe, the
+Red Sea, Hymns, &c. With Portrait.
+
+GLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. By EDWARD JESSE. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE REJECTED ADDRESSES: or, The New Theatrum Poetarum. By HORACE and
+JAMES SMITH. With Portrait and Woodcuts.
+
+CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL; or, The Last Days of a Philosopher. By SIR
+HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+SALMONIA; or, Days of Fly-fishing. By SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS AND THE INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH. By JOHN
+ABERCROMBIE.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE TABLE-TALK OF THE LATE SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. With
+Portrait.
+
+PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING, for every Month in the Year. By
+MRS. LOUDON. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With Translations from the Ancient Poets.
+Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY, from the Earliest Times to the Conquest of
+Alexander the Great. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, from the earliest period to the
+Georgian Era. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE CHIEF WRITERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. Chronologically
+arranged. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.—I. Old Testament History; II. Connection
+of Old and New Testaments; III. New Testament History to A.D. 70. Edited
+by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Four Shillings._
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the FIRST INVASION by the ROMANS, continued
+down to 1865. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS.
+MARKHAM. With 100 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the CONQUEST by the GAULS, continued down to
+1867. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS. MARKHAM.
+With 70 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF GERMANY, from the INVASION of the KINGDOM by the ROMANS under
+MARIUS, continued down to 1867. On the Plan of MRS. MARKHAM. With 50
+Woodcuts.
+
+SHALL AND WILL; or, the Future Auxiliary Verb. By SIR EDMUND HEAD.
+
+
+_Four Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+CHILDREN OF THE LAKE. A Poem. By EDWARD SALLESBURY.
+
+A LADY’S DIARY OF THE SIEGE OF LUCKNOW.
+
+HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; or, Hints on Emergencies. By JOHN F. SOUTH. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Five Shillings._
+
+ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS; HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC. Translated with Notes
+by J. G. LOCKHART. With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+MISCELLANIES. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+INTRODUCTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE GREEK CLASSIC POETS. By HENRY NELSON
+COLERIDGE.
+
+HYMNS IN PROSE FOR CHILDREN. By MRS. BARBAULD. With 112 Illustrations.
+
+RECOLLECTIONS OF THE DRUSES, AND SOME NOTES ON THEIR RELIGION. By LORD
+CARNARVON.
+
+THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. BASED ON MODERN RESEARCHES. By REV. F. W.
+FARRAR.
+
+MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY. Founded on Principles of Economy and Practical
+Knowledge, and adapted for Private Families. With Woodcuts.
+
+DRAMAS AND PLAYS. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+THE HORSE AND HIS RIDER. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD. With Woodcuts.
+
+HANDBOOK OF FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS, chiefly from English Authors.
+
+THE CHACE—THE TURF—AND THE ROAD. A Series of Popular Essays. By C. J.
+APPERLEY (NIMROD). With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+AUNT IDA’S WALKS AND TALKS. A Story Book for Children. By A LADY.
+
+STORIES FOR DARLINGS. A Book for Boys and Girls. With Illustrations.
+
+THE CHARMED ROE. A Story Book for Young People. Illustrated by OTTO
+SPECKTER.
+
+DON JUAN AND BEPPO. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD’S WORD. By ARCHBISHOP THOMSON, D.D.
+
+ATHENS AND ATTICA; Notes of a Tour. By BISHOP WORDSWORTH, D.D. With
+Illustrations.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS—XVIIITH CENTURY, 1700-1799. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST, D.C.L. With Maps. 5 vols. Post
+8vo. 5s. each.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS—XIXTH CENTURY, 1800-15. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST. 4 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. each.
+
+
+_Six Shillings._
+
+BENEDICITE; or, THE SONG OF THE THREE CHILDREN. Being ILLUSTRATIONS of
+the POWER, BENEFICENCE, and DESIGN manifested by the CREATOR in HIS
+WORKS. By DR. CHAPLIN CHILD.
+
+OLD DECCAN DAYS; or, HINDOO FAIRY LEGENDS current in Southern India. By
+M. FRERE. With Introduction by SIR BARTLE FRERE. With Illustrations.
+
+THE WILD GARDEN; or, OUR GROVES AND SHRUBBERIES MADE BEAUTIFUL BY THE
+NATURALIZATION OF HARDY EXOTIC PLANTS. By WILLIAM ROBINSON. With
+Frontispiece.
+
+MISSIONARY TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE,
+M.D. With Map and Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS OF A HUNTER’S LIFE IN SOUTH AFRICA; By GORDON CUMMING. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES; or, The Invisible World, as revealed by the
+Microscope. By GIDEON A. MANTELL. With Plates.
+
+LIVES OF BRINDLEY AND THE EARLY ENGINEERS. By SAMUEL SMILES. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+LIFE OF TELFORD. With a History of Roads and Travelling in England. By
+SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+LIVES OF GEORGE AND ROBERT STEPHENSON. By SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+SELF-HELP. With Illustrations of Character and Conduct. By SAMUEL
+SMILES.
+
+INDUSTRIAL BIOGRAPHY: Iron-workers and Toolmakers. A Sequel to
+‘Self-help.’ By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+THE HUGUENOTS IN ENGLAND AND IRELAND: their Settlements, Churches, and
+Industries. By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+WILD WALES; its People, Language, and Scenery. With Introductory
+Remarks. By GEORGE BORROW.
+
+A MANUAL OF ETHNOLOGY; or, A POPULAR HISTORY of the RACES of the OLD
+WORLD. By CHARLES L. BRACE.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings._
+
+JOURNALS OF A TOUR IN INDIA. By BISHOP HEBER. 2 vols.
+
+ADVENTURES AMONG THE MARQUESAS AND SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. By HERMAN
+MELVILLE. 2 vols.
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL PROGRESS. By MONTAGU BURROWS, M.A.
+
+LIFE AND POETICAL WORKS OF REV. GEORGE CRABBE. Edited by HIS SON. With
+Notes, Portrait, and Illustrations.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE ART OF TRAVEL; or, Hints on the Shifts and Contrivances available in
+Wild Countries. By FRANCIS GALTON. With Woodcuts.
+
+VISITS TO THE MONASTERIES OF THE LEVANT. By HON. R. CURZON. With
+Illustrations.
+
+LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES; an Account of a Yacht Voyage to Iceland,
+Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen, &c. By LORD DUFFERIN. With Illustrations.
+
+BUBBLES FROM THE BRUNNEN OF NASSAU. By an Old Man (SIR FRANCIS HEAD).
+With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS; a Narrative of an Expedition to Assyria in
+1845-47. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND BABYLON; a Narrative of a Second Expedition to Assyria in
+1849-51. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+THREE YEARS’ RESIDENCE IN ABYSSINIA, with Travels in that Country. By
+MANSFIELD PARKYNS. With Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS IN DAMASCUS, with TRAVELS in PALMYRA, LEBANON, and among the
+GIANT CITIES OF BASHAN and THE HAURAN. By REV. J. L. PORTER. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE ‘FOX’ IN THE ARCTIC SEAS, and the Discovery of the
+Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions. By SIR LEOPOLD McCLINTOCK.
+With Illustrations.
+
+REMINISCENCES OF ATHENS AND THE MOREA, during Travels in Greece. By LORD
+CARNARVON. With Map.
+
+PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN INDIA. By GENERAL MUNDY. With Illustrations.
+
+PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT, MADE SCIENCE IN EARNEST: or, The First Principles
+of Natural Philosophy explained by the Toys and Sports of Youth. By DR.
+PARIS. With Woodcuts.
+
+BLIND PEOPLE; their Works and Ways. With Lives of some famous Blind Men.
+By REV. B. G. JOHNS. With Illustrations.
+
+HORACE: A New Edition of the Text. Edited by DEAN MILMAN. With 100
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE BOOK OF THE CHURCH. By ROBERT SOUTHEY.
+
+A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG PAINTERS. By C. R. LESLIE, R.A. With 24
+Illustrations.
+
+A GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF FERNS, with Tables to show their
+Distribution. By K. M. LYELL. With a Frontispiece.
+
+THE STORY OF THE LIFE OF LORD BACON. By W. HEPWORTH DIXON.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; Its Antiquities, Geography,
+Biography, and Natural History. By DR. WM. SMITH. With Maps and
+Illustrations.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY.
+By DR. WM. SMITH. With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. By DR. WM. SMITH.
+With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. With a Dictionary of Proper Names,
+and Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and Moneys. By DR.
+WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY, By DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+THE STUDENT’S HUME; AN EPITOME of the HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By DAVID HUME.
+Corrected and continued to 1868. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By HENRY HALLAM. With
+the Author’s latest Additions. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the Press._
+
+THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES OF EUROPE. By HENRY HALLAM.
+With the Author’s Supplemental Notes. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the
+Press._
+
+THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF FRANCE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND EMPIRE, 1852. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF ROME. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. With Chapters on the History of Literature
+and Art. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S GIBBON; AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL
+OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By EDWARD GIBBON. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S HISTORY OF GREECE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN
+CONQUEST. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST. From the Earliest Times to
+the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria,
+Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By PHILIP SMITH,
+B.A. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. FROM THE CREATION TO THE RETURN OF
+THE JEWS FROM CAPTIVITY. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an Introduction, containing
+the connection of the Old and New Testaments. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By GEORGE P. MARSH.
+Edited, with additional Chapters and Notes.
+
+THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By T. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited,
+with Notes and Illustrations.
+
+THE STUDENT’S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the BEST
+WRITERS. By THOS. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited, with Additions.
+
+THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Mathematical, Physical, and
+Descriptive. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT’S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. With Quotations and
+References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D.
+
+THE STUDENT’S BLACKSTONE. A SYSTEMATIC ABRIDGMENT OF THE ENTIRE
+COMMENTARIES. By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D.
+
+A PRACTICAL HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew text of Genesis i.-vi. and
+Psalms i.-vi., Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. By REV. STANLEY
+LEATHES.
+
+
+_Nine Shillings._
+
+THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE. Revised by H. W. BATES. With
+Portrait.
+
+THE STUDENT’S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR CHARLES LYELL. With 600
+Woodcuts.
+
+A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. By VARIOUS WRITERS. Edited by SIR J. F.
+HERSCHEL and REV. ROBERT MAIN.
+
+POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON. With Notes, Illustrations, and Portrait.
+
+LIFE OF LORD BYRON; with his Letters and Journals. By THOMAS MOORE. With
+Portraits.
+
+ARCHBISHOP BECKET; A BIOGRAPHY. By CANON ROBERTSON, M.A. With
+Illustrations.
+
+PICTURES OF THE CHINESE, DRAWN BY THEMSELVES. Described by REV. R. H.
+COBBOLD. With 34 Illustrations.
+
+THE ENGLISH BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE PENINSULAR WAR. By SIR WILLIAM
+NAPIER. With Portrait.
+
+THE YOUNG OFFICER’S COMPANION; or, ESSAYS on MILITARY DUTIES and
+QUALITIES: with ILLUSTRATIONS from HISTORY. By LORD DE ROS.
+
+DOG-BREAKING; the most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy Method, whether
+great Excellence or only Mediocrity be required. With a Few Hints for
+those who Love the Dog and the Gun. By GENERAL HUTCHINSON. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+LIST OF SCHOOL CLASSICS.
+
+By DR. WILLIAM SMITH.
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART I. A FIRST LATIN COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and
+Exercise Book with Vocabularies. _13th Edition._ _3s. 6d._
+
+*** This Edition contains the Accidence arranged for the ‘Public School
+Latin Primer.’
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART II. LATIN READING BOOK. An Introduction to
+Ancient Mythology, Geography, Roman Antiquities, and History. With Notes
+and a Dictionary. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART III. LATIN POETRY. 1. Easy Hexameters and
+Pentameters. 2. Eclogæ Ovidianæ. 3. Prosody and Metre. 4. First Latin
+Verse Book. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART IV. LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. Rules of Syntax,
+with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises on the Syntax.
+_3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART V. SHORT TALES AND ANECDOTES FROM ANCIENT
+HISTORY, FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN PROSE. _3s._
+
+A LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, with a Latin-English Dictionary to Phædrus,
+Cornelius Nepos, and Cæsar’s ‘Gallic War.’ _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT’S LATIN GRAMMAR. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and THEOPHILUS D.
+HALL. _6s._
+
+A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GRÆCA, PART I. A FIRST GREEK COURSE, containing Grammar,
+Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. By DR. WM. SMITH. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GRÆCA, PART II. A READING BOOK; containing short Tales,
+Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. With a Lexicon. _3s.
+6d._
+
+INITIA GRÆCA, PART III. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION; containing the Rules of
+Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT’S GREEK GRAMMAR. By PROFESSOR CURTIUS, and WM. SMITH, D.C.L.
+_6s._
+
+A SMALLER GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA GRÆCA. A FIRST GREEK COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise
+Book, with Vocabularies. By H. E. BUTTON, M.A. _3s. 6d._
+
+MATTHIÆ’S GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged by BLOMFIELD. Revised and enlarged, by
+E. S. CROOKE, B.A. _4s._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.’ S FIRST LATIN BOOK; including a Short Syntax and Prosody
+with an English Translation. _2s. 6d._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.’ S LATIN GRAMMAR. _3s. 6d._
+
+ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS; designed for Early Proficients in the
+Art of Latin Versification. By REV. W. OXENHAM. _3s. 6d._
+
+
+LIST OF HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.
+
+THE CONTINENT, &c.
+
+HANDBOOK—TRAVEL TALK,—ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN. _3s. 6d._
+
+HANDBOOK—NORTH GERMANY, HOLLAND, BELGIUM, PRUSSIA, AND THE RHINE TO
+SWITZERLAND. With Map and Plans.
+
+HANDBOOK—SOUTH GERMANY, THE TYROL, BAVARIA, AUSTRIA, SALZBURG, STYRIA,
+HUNGARY, AND THE DANUBE, FROM ULM TO THE BLACK SEA. With Map and Plans.
+_10s._
+
+HANDBOOK—SWITZERLAND, THE ALPS OF SAVOY AND PIEDMONT. With Maps and
+Plans. _10s._
+
+HANDBOOK—FRANCE, NORMANDY, BRITTANY, THE FRENCH ALPS, DAUPHINE,
+PROVENCE, AND THE PYRENEES. With Maps. _12s._
+
+HANDBOOK—PARIS AND ITS ENVIRONS. With Map and Plans. _3s. 6d._
+
+*** MURRAY’S PLAN OF PARIS. _3s. 6d._
+
+HANDBOOK—CORSICA AND SARDINIA. With Map. _4s._
+
+HANDBOOK—SPAIN, MADRID, THE CASTILES, THE BASQUE PROVINCES, LEON, THE
+ASTURIAS, GALICIA, ESTREMADURA, ANDALUSIA, RONDA, GRANADA, MURCIA,
+VALENCIA, CATALONIA, ARAGON, NAVARRE, THE BALEARIC ISLANDS, &c., &c.
+With Maps. 2 vols. _24s._
+
+HANDBOOK—PORTUGAL, LISBON, PORTO, CINTRA, MAFRA, &c. With Map. _9s._
+
+HANDBOOK—NORTH ITALY, PIEDMONT, NICE, LOMBARDY, VENICE, PARMA, MODENA,
+AND ROMAGNA. With Map and Plans. _12s._
+
+HANDBOOK—CENTRAL ITALY, TUSCANY, FLORENCE, LUCCA, UMBRIA, THE MARCHES,
+AND THE PATRIMONY OF ST. PETER. With Map. _10s._
+
+HANDBOOK—ROME AND ITS ENVIRONS. With Map and Plans. _9s._
+
+HANDBOOK—SOUTH ITALY, TWO SICILIES, NAPLES, POMPEII, HERCULANEUM,
+VESUVIUS, ABRUZZI, &c. With Map. _10s._
+
+HANDBOOK—SICILY, PALERMO, MESSINA, CATANIA, SYRACUSE, ETNA, AND THE
+RUINS OF THE GREEK TEMPLES. With Map. _12s._
+
+HANDBOOK—EGYPT, THE NILE, ALEXANDRIA, CAIRO, THEBES, AND THE OVERLAND
+ROUTE TO INDIA. With Map. _15s._
+
+HANDBOOK—GREECE, THE IONIAN ISLANDS, ATHENS, ALBANIA, THESSALY, AND
+MACEDONIA. With Map.
+
+HANDBOOK—CONSTANTINOPLE, THE BOSPHORUS, DARDANELLES, BROUSA, AND PLAIN
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
+Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st editio, by Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st edition)
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34967]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by StevenGibbs, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN,
+
+AND
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+
+
+BY CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOL. I.
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+LONDON:
+
+JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
+
+1871.
+
+[_The right of Translation is reserved._]
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+
+  ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION; or, THE
+    PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE; Fifth
+    Edition (_Tenth Thousand_), with Additions and Corrections.
+    1869. MURRAY.
+
+  THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. In two vols.
+    With Illustrations. 1868. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES BY WHICH BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE
+    FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING. With
+    numerous Woodcuts. MURRAY.
+
+  A NATURALIST'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or, A JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES INTO
+    THE NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRIES visited during the
+    voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle,' under the command of Captain FITZROY, R.N.
+    _Eleventh Thousand_. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. SMITH, ELDER & CO.
+
+  A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illustrations. 2 vols.
+    8vo. HARDWICKE.
+
+  ON THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF CLIMBING PLANTS. With Woodcuts. WILLIAMS
+    & NORGATE.
+
+
+LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING
+CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                  Page 1-5
+
+
+  PART I.
+
+  ON THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man--Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals--Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence--Development--Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.--The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man                                                     9-33
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense--Certain instincts in common--The
+  emotions--Curiosity--Imitation--Attention--Memory--Imagination--
+  Reason--Progressive improvement--Tools and weapons used by
+  animals--Language--Self-consciousness--Sense of beauty--Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions                        34-69
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+    ANIMALS--_continued_.
+
+  The moral sense--Fundamental proposition--The qualities of
+  social animals--Origin of sociability--Struggle between opposed
+  instincts--Man and social animal--The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts--The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages--The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development--The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct--Transmission of moral tendencies--Summary                70-106
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man--Inheritance--Causes of
+  variability--Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals--Direct action of the conditions of life--Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts--Arrested
+  development--Reversion--Correlated variation--Rate of
+  increase--Checks to increase--Natural selection--Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world--Importance of his corporeal
+  structure--The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect--Consequent changes of structure--Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth--Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull--Nakedness--Absence of a tail--Defenceless condition of
+  man                                                            107-157
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES
+    DURING PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection--Importance of imitation--Social and moral
+  faculties--Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe--Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations--Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous    158-184
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+  Position of man in the animal series--The natural system
+  genealogical--Adaptive characters of slight value--Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana--Rank of man in the natural system--Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man--Absence of fossil connecting-links--Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure--Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata--Conclusion                         185-213
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters--Application to the
+  races of man--Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct species--Sub-species--
+  Monogenists and polygenists--Convergence of character--Numerous
+  points of resemblance in body and mind   between the most
+  distinct races of man--The state of man when he first spread
+  over the earth--Each race not descended from a single
+  pair--The extinction of races--The formation of races--
+  The effects of crossing--Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life--Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection--Sexual selection.                            214-250
+
+
+  PART II. SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  Secondary sexual characters--Sexual selection--Manner of
+  action--Excess of males--Polygamy--The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection--Eagerness of the
+  male--Variability of the male--Choice exerted by the
+  female--Sexual compared with natural selection--Inheritance at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex--Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance--Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection--Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom--On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection                                      253-320
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL
+    KINGDOM.
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes--Brilliant
+  colours--Mollusca--Annelids--Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity--Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males--Myriapoda                            321-340
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females--Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood--Difference in size between the
+  sexes--Thysanura--Diptera--Hemiptera--Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone--Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours--Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour--Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours--Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes                          341-385
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  INSECTS, _continued_.--ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+  Courtship of butterflies--Battles--Ticking noise--Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males--Examples--Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life--Colours adapted for protection--Colours of
+  moths--Display--Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera--Variability--Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females--Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males--Bright colours of
+  caterpillars--Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects--Birds and insects compared        386-423
+
+
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN;
+
+AND ON
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The nature of the following work will be best understood by a brief
+account of how it came to be written. During many years I collected
+notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of
+publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to
+publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices
+against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first
+edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work "light would be
+thrown on the origin of man and his history;" and this implies that man
+must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion
+respecting his manner of appearance on this earth. Now the case wears a
+wholly different aspect. When a naturalist like Carl Vogt ventures to
+say in his address as President of the National Institution of Geneva
+(1869), "personne, en Europe au moins, n'ose plus soutenir la cr�ation
+ind�pendante et de toutes pi�ces, des esp�ces," it is manifest that at
+least a large number of naturalists must admit that species are the
+modified descendants of other species; and this especially holds good
+with the younger and rising naturalists. The greater number accept the
+agency of natural selection; though some urge, whether with justice the
+future must decide, that I have greatly overrated its importance. Of the
+older and honoured chiefs in natural science, many unfortunately are
+still opposed to evolution in every form.
+
+In consequence of the views now adopted by most naturalists, and which
+will ultimately, as in every other case, be followed by other men, I
+have been led to put together my notes, so as to see how far the general
+conclusions arrived at in my former works were applicable to man. This
+seemed all the more desirable as I had never deliberately applied these
+views to a species taken singly. When we confine our attention to any
+one form, we are deprived of the weighty arguments derived from the
+nature of the affinities which connect together whole groups of
+organisms--their geographical distribution in past and present times,
+and their geological succession. The homological structure,
+embryological development, and rudimentary organs of a species, whether
+it be man or any other animal, to which our attention may be directed,
+remain to be considered; but these great classes of facts afford, as it
+appears to me, ample and conclusive evidence in favour of the principle
+of gradual evolution. The strong support derived from the other
+arguments should, however, always be kept before the mind.
+
+The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like
+every other species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly,
+the manner of his development; and thirdly, the value of the
+differences between the so-called races of man. As I shall confine
+myself to these points, it will not be necessary to describe in detail
+the differences between the several races--an enormous subject which has
+been fully discussed in many valuable works. The high antiquity of man
+has recently been demonstrated by the labours of a host of eminent men,
+beginning with M. Boucher de Perthes; and this is the indispensable
+basis for understanding his origin. I shall, therefore, take this
+conclusion for granted, and may refer my readers to the admirable
+treatises of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, and others. Nor shall
+I have occasion to do more than to allude to the amount of difference
+between man and the anthropomorphous apes; for Prof. Huxley, in the
+opinion of most competent judges, has conclusively shewn that in every
+single visible character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order of Primates.
+
+This work contains hardly any original facts in regard to man; but as
+the conclusions at which I arrived, after drawing up a rough draft,
+appeared to me interesting, I thought that they might interest others.
+It has often and confidently been asserted, that man's origin can never
+be known: but ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does
+knowledge: it is those who know little, and not those who know much, who
+so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by
+science. The conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other species
+of some ancient, lower, and extinct form, is not in any degree new.
+Lamarck long ago came to this conclusion, which has lately been
+maintained by several eminent naturalists and philosophers; for instance
+by Wallace, Huxley, Lyell, Vogt, Lubbock, B�chner, Rolle, &c.,[1] and
+especially by H�ckel. This last naturalist, besides his great work,
+'Generelle Morphologie' (1866), has recently (1868, with a second edit.
+in 1870), published his 'Nat�rliche Sch�pfungsgeschichte,' in which he
+fully discusses the genealogy of man. If this work had appeared before
+my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it.
+Almost all the conclusions at which I have arrived I find confirmed by
+this naturalist, whose knowledge on many points is much fuller than
+mine. Wherever I have added any fact or view from Prof. H�ckel's
+writings, I give his authority in the text, other statements I leave as
+they originally stood in my manuscript, occasionally giving in the
+foot-notes references to his works, as a confirmation of the more
+doubtful or interesting points.
+
+During many years it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual
+selection has played an important part in differentiating the races of
+man; but in my 'Origin of Species' (first edition, p. 199) I contented
+myself by merely alluding to this belief. When I came to apply this view
+to man, I found it indispensable to treat the whole subject in full
+detail.[2] Consequently the second part of the present work, treating of
+sexual selection, has extended to an inordinate length, compared with
+the first part; but this could not be avoided.
+
+I had intended adding to the present volumes an essay on the expression
+of the various emotions by man and the lower animals. My attention was
+called to this subject many years ago by Sir Charles Bell's admirable
+work. This illustrious anatomist maintains that man is endowed with
+certain muscles solely for the sake of expressing his emotions. As this
+view is obviously opposed to the belief that man is descended from some
+other and lower form, it was necessary for me to consider it. I likewise
+wished to ascertain how far the emotions are expressed in the same
+manner by the different races of man. But owing to the length of the
+present work, I have thought it better to reserve my essay, which is
+partially completed, for separate publication.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+THE DESCENT OR ORIGIN OF MAN.
+
+PART I.--THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man--Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals--Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence--Development--Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.--The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man.
+
+
+He who wishes to decide whether man is the modified descendant of some
+pre-existing form, would probably first enquire whether man varies,
+however slightly, in bodily structure and in mental faculties; and if
+so, whether the variations are transmitted to his offspring in
+accordance with the laws which prevail with the lower animals; such as
+that of the transmission of characters to the same age or sex. Again,
+are the variations the result, as far as our ignorance permits us to
+judge, of the same general causes, and are they governed by the same
+general laws, as in the case of other organisms; for instance by
+correlation, the inherited effects of use and disuse, &c.? Is man
+subject to similar malconformations, the result of arrested development,
+of reduplication of parts, &c., and does he display in any of his
+anomalies reversion to some former and ancient type of structure? It
+might also naturally be enquired whether man, like so many other
+animals, has given rise to varieties and sub-races, differing but
+slightly from each other, or to races differing so much that they must
+be classed as doubtful species? How are such races distributed over the
+world; and how, when crossed, do they react on each other, both in the
+first and succeeding generations? And so with many other points.
+
+The enquirer would next come to the important point, whether man tends
+to increase at so rapid a rate, as to lead to occasional severe
+struggles for existence, and consequently to beneficial variations,
+whether in body or mind, being preserved, and injurious ones eliminated.
+Do the races or species of men, whichever term may be applied, encroach
+on and replace each other, so that some finally become extinct? We shall
+see that all these questions, as indeed is obvious in respect to most of
+them, must be answered in the affirmative, in the same manner as with
+the lower animals. But the several considerations just referred to may
+be conveniently deferred for a time; and we will first see how far the
+bodily structure of man shows traces, more or less plain, of his descent
+from some lower form. In the two succeeding chapters the mental powers
+of man, in comparison with those of the lower animals, will be
+considered.
+
+
+_The Bodily Structure of Man._--It is notorious that man is constructed
+on the same general type or model with other mammals. All the bones in
+his skeleton can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat,
+or seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels and internal
+viscera. The brain, the most important of all the organs, follows the
+same law, as shewn by Huxley and other anatomists. Bischoff,[3] who is a
+hostile witness, admits that every chief fissure and fold in the brain
+of man has its analogy in that of the orang; but he adds that at no
+period of development do their brains perfectly agree; nor could this be
+expected, for otherwise their mental powers would have been the same.
+Vulpian[4] remarks: "Les diff�rences r�elles qui existent entre
+l'enc�phale de l'homme et celui des singes sup�rieurs, sont bien
+minimes. Il ne faut pas se faire d'illusions � cet �gard. L'homme est
+bien plus pr�s des singes anthropomorphes par les caract�res anatomiques
+de son cerveau que ceux-ci ne le sont non-seulement des autres
+mammif�res, mais m�mes de certains quadrumanes, des guenons et des
+macaques." But it would be superfluous here to give further details on
+the correspondence between man and the higher mammals in the structure
+of the brain and all other parts of the body.
+
+It may, however, be worth while to specify a few points, not directly or
+obviously connected with structure, by which this correspondence or
+relationship is well shewn.
+
+Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and to communicate to
+them, certain diseases as hydrophobia, variola, the glanders, &c.; and
+this fact proves the close similarity of their tissues and blood, both
+in minute structure and composition, far more plainly than does their
+comparison under the best microscope, or by the aid of the best chemical
+analysis. Monkeys are liable to many of the same non-contagious diseases
+as we are; thus Rengger,[5] who carefully observed for a long time the
+_Cebus Azar�_ in its native land, found it liable to catarrh, with the
+usual symptoms, and which when often recurrent led to consumption.
+These monkeys suffered also from apoplexy, inflammation of the bowels,
+and cataract in the eye. The younger ones when shedding their milk-teeth
+often died from fever. Medicines produced the same effect on them as on
+us. Many kinds of monkeys have a strong taste for tea, coffee, and
+spirituous liquors: they will also, as I have myself seen, smoke tobacco
+with pleasure. Brehm asserts that the natives of north-eastern Africa
+catch the wild baboons by exposing vessels with strong beer, by which
+they are made drunk. He has seen some of these animals, which he kept in
+confinement, in this state; and he gives a laughable account of their
+behaviour and strange grimaces. On the following morning they were very
+cross and dismal; they held their aching heads with both hands and wore
+a most pitiable expression: when beer or wine was offered them, they
+turned away with disgust, but relished the juice of lemons.[6] An
+American monkey, an Ateles, after getting drunk on brandy, would never
+touch it again, and thus was wiser than many men. These trifling facts
+prove how similar the nerves of taste must be in monkeys and man, and
+how similarly their whole nervous system is affected.
+
+Man is infested with internal parasites, sometimes causing fatal
+effects, and is plagued by external parasites, all of which belong to
+the same genera or families with those infesting other mammals. Man is
+subject like other mammals, birds, and even insects, to that mysterious
+law, which causes certain normal processes, such as gestation, as well
+as the maturation and duration of various diseases, to follow lunar
+periods.[7] His wounds are repaired by the same process of healing; and
+the stumps left after the amputation of his limbs occasionally possess,
+especially during an early embryonic period, some power of regeneration,
+as in the lowest animals.[8]
+
+The whole process of that most important function, the reproduction of
+the species, is strikingly the same in all mammals, from the first act
+of courtship by the male[9] to the birth and nurturing of the young.
+Monkeys are born in almost as helpless a condition as our own infants;
+and in certain genera the young differ fully as much in appearance from
+the adults, as do our children from their full-grown parents.[10] It has
+been urged by some writers as an important distinction, that with man
+the young arrive at maturity at a much later age than with any other
+animal; but if we look to the races of mankind which inhabit tropical
+countries the difference is not great, for the orang is believed not to
+be adult till the age of from ten to fifteen years.[11] Man differs
+from woman in size, bodily strength, hairyness, &c., as well as in mind,
+in the same manner as do the two sexes of many mammals. It is, in short,
+scarcely possible to exaggerate the close correspondence in general
+structure, in the minute structure of the tissues, in chemical
+composition and in constitution, between man and the higher animals,
+especially the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+
+_Embryonic Development._--Man is developed from an ovule, about the
+125th of an inch in diameter, which differs in no respect from the
+ovules of other animals. The embryo itself at a very early period can
+hardly be distinguished from that of other members of the vertebrate
+kingdom. At this period the arteries run in arch-like branches, as if to
+carry the blood to branchi� which are not present in the higher
+vertebrata, though the slits on the sides of the neck still remain (_f_,
+_g_, fig. 1), marking their former position. At a somewhat later period,
+when the extremities are developed, "the feet of lizards and mammals,"
+as the illustrious Von Baer remarks, "the wings and feet of birds, no
+less than the hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental
+form." It is, says Prof. Huxley,[12] "quite in the later stages of
+development that the young human being presents marked differences from
+the young ape, while the latter departs as much from the dog in its
+developments, as the man does. Startling as this last assertion may
+appear to be, it is demonstrably true."
+
+As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have
+given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of
+development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy.[13]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Upper figure human embryo, from Ecker. Lower
+figure that of a dog, from Bischoff.
+
+  _a._ Fore-brain, cerebral hemispheres, &c.
+  _b._ Mid-brain, corpora quadrigemina.
+  _c._ Hind-brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata.
+  _d._ Eye.
+  _e._ Ear.
+  _f._ First visceral arch.
+  _g._ Second visceral arch.
+   H. Vertebral columns and muscles in process of development.
+  _i._ Anterior {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DOWN AND LEFT~}
+                {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL~} extremities.
+   K. Posterior {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT UP AND LEFT~}
+   L. Tail or os coccyx.]
+
+After the foregoing statements made by such high authorities, it would
+be superfluous on my part to give a number of borrowed details, shewing
+that the embryo of man closely resembles that of other mammals. It may,
+however, be added that the human embryo likewise resembles in various
+points of structure certain low forms when adult. For instance, the
+heart at first exists as a simple pulsating vessel; the excreta are
+voided through a cloacal passage; and the os coccyx projects like a true
+tail, "extending considerably beyond the rudimentary legs."[14] In the
+embryos of all air-breathing vertebrates, certain glands called the
+corpora Wolffiana, correspond with and act like the kidneys of mature
+fishes.[15] Even at a later embryonic period, some striking resemblances
+between man and the lower animals may be observed. Bischoff says that
+the convolutions of the brain in a human foetus at the end of the
+seventh month reach about the same stage of development as in a baboon
+when adult.[16] The great toe, as Prof. Owen remarks,[17] "which forms
+the fulcrum when standing or walking, is perhaps the most
+characteristic peculiarity in the human structure;" but in an embryo,
+about an inch in length, Prof. Wyman[18] found "that the great toe was
+shorter than the others, and, instead of being parallel to them,
+projected at an angle from the side of the foot, thus corresponding with
+the permanent condition of this part in the quadrumana." I will conclude
+with a quotation from Huxley,[19] who after asking, does man originate
+in a different way from a dog, bird, frog or fish? says, "the reply is
+not doubtful for a moment; without question, the mode of origin and the
+early stages of the development of man are identical with those of the
+animals immediately below him in the scale: without a doubt in these
+respects, he is far nearer to apes, than the apes are to the dog."
+
+
+_Rudiments._--This subject, though not intrinsically more important than
+the two last, will for several reasons be here treated with more
+fullness.[20] Not one of the higher animals can be named which does not
+bear some part in a rudimentary condition; and man forms no exception to
+the rule. Rudimentary organs must be distinguished from those that are
+nascent; though in some cases the distinction is not easy. The former
+are either absolutely useless, such as the mamm� of male quadrupeds, or
+the incisor teeth of ruminants which never cut through the gums; or they
+are of such slight service to their present possessors, that we cannot
+suppose that they were developed under the conditions which now exist.
+Organs in this latter state are not strictly rudimentary, but they are
+tending in this direction. Nascent organs, on the other hand, though not
+fully developed, are of high service to their possessors, and are
+capable of further development. Rudimentary organs are eminently
+variable; and this is partly intelligible, as they are useless or nearly
+useless, and consequently are no longer subjected to natural selection.
+They often become wholly suppressed. When this occurs, they are
+nevertheless liable to occasional reappearance through reversion; and
+this is a circumstance well worthy of attention.
+
+Disuse at that period of life, when an organ is chiefly used, and this
+is generally during maturity, together with inheritance at a
+corresponding period of life, seem to have been the chief agents in
+causing organs to become rudimentary. The term "disuse" does not relate
+merely to the lessened action of muscles, but includes a diminished flow
+of blood to a part or organ, from being subjected to fewer alternations
+of pressure, or from becoming in any way less habitually active.
+Rudiments, however, may occur in one sex of parts normally present in
+the other sex; and such rudiments, as we shall hereafter see, have often
+originated in a distinct manner. In some cases organs have been reduced
+by means of natural selection, from having become injurious to the
+species under changed habits of life. The process of reduction is
+probably often aided through the two principles of compensation and
+economy of growth; but the later stages of reduction, after disuse has
+done all that can fairly be attributed to it, and when the saving to be
+effected by the economy of growth would be very small,[21] are difficult
+to understand. The final and complete suppression of a part, already
+useless and much reduced in size, in which case neither compensation nor
+economy can come into play, is perhaps intelligible by the aid of the
+hypothesis of pangenesis, and apparently in no other way. But as the
+whole subject of rudimentary organs has been fully discussed and
+illustrated in my former works,[22] I need here say no more on this
+head.
+
+Rudiments of various muscles have been observed in many parts of the
+human body;[23] and not a few muscles, which are regularly present in
+some of the lower animals can occasionally be detected in man in a
+greatly reduced condition. Every one must have noticed the power which
+many animals, especially horses, possess of moving or twitching their
+skin; and this is effected by the panniculus carnosus. Remnants of this
+muscle in an efficient state are found in various parts of our bodies;
+for instance, on the forehead, by which the eyebrows are raised. The
+_platysma myoides_, which is well developed on the neck, belongs to this
+system, but cannot be voluntarily brought into action. Prof. Turner, of
+Edinburgh, has occasionally detected, as he informs me, muscular
+fasciculi in five different situations, namely in the axill�, near the
+scapul�, &c., all of which must be referred to the system of the
+panniculus. He has also shewn[24] that the _musculus sternalis_ or
+_sternalis brutorum_, which is not an extension of the _rectus
+abdominalis_, but is closely allied to the panniculus, occurred in the
+proportion of about 3 per cent. in upwards of 600 bodies: he adds, that
+this muscle affords "an excellent illustration of the statement that
+occasional and rudimentary structures are especially liable to variation
+in arrangement."
+
+Some few persons have the power of contracting the superficial muscles
+on their scalps; and these muscles are in a variable and partially
+rudimentary condition. M. A. de Candolle has communicated to me a
+curious instance of the long-continued persistence or inheritance of
+this power, as well as of its unusual development. He knows a family, in
+which one member, the present head of a family, could, when a youth,
+pitch several heavy books from his head by the movement of the scalp
+alone; and he won wagers by performing this feat. His father, uncle,
+grandfather, and all his three children possess the same power to the
+same unusual degree. This family became divided eight generations ago
+into two branches; so that the head of the above-mentioned branch is
+cousin in the seventh degree to the head of the other branch. This
+distant cousin resides in another part of France, and on being asked
+whether he possessed the same faculty, immediately exhibited his power.
+This case offers a good illustration how persistently an absolutely
+useless faculty may be transmitted.
+
+The extrinsic muscles which serve to move the whole external ear, and
+the intrinsic muscles which move the different parts, all of which
+belong to the system of the panniculus, are in a rudimentary condition
+in man; they are also variable in development, or at least in function.
+I have seen one man who could draw his ears forwards, and another who
+could draw them backwards;[25] and from what one of these persons told
+me, it is probable that most of us by often touching our ears and thus
+directing our attention towards them, could by repeated trials recover
+some power of movement. The faculty of erecting the ears and of
+directing them to different points of the compass, is no doubt of the
+highest service to many animals, as they thus perceive the point of
+danger; but I have never heard of a man who possessed the least power of
+erecting his ears,--the one movement which might be of use to him. The
+whole external shell of the ear may be considered a rudiment, together
+with the various folds and prominences (helix and anti-helix, tragus and
+anti-tragus, &c.) which in the lower animals strengthen and support the
+ear when erect, without adding much to its weight. Some authors,
+however, suppose that the cartilage of the shell serves to transmit
+vibrations to the acoustic nerve; but Mr. Toynbee,[26] after collecting
+all the known evidence on this head, concludes that the external shell
+is of no distinct use. The ears of the chimpanzee and orang are
+curiously like those of man, and I am assured by the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens that these animals never move or erect them; so that
+they are in an equally rudimentary condition, as far as function is
+concerned, as in man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors of
+man, should have lost the power of erecting their ears we cannot say. It
+may be, though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing to
+their arboreal habits and great strength they were but little exposed to
+danger, and so during a lengthened period moved their ears but little,
+and thus gradually lost the power of moving them. This would be a
+parallel case with that of those large and heavy birds, which from
+inhabiting oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks of
+beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the power of using their
+wings for flight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Human Ear, modelled and drawn by Mr. Woolner.
+
+_a._ The projecting point.]
+
+The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of one little
+peculiarity in the external ear, which he has often observed both in men
+and women, and of which he perceived the full signification. His
+attention was first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure
+of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was thus led to examine
+the ears of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully those of
+man. The peculiarity consists in a little blunt point, projecting from
+the inwardly folded margin, or helix. Mr. Woolner made an exact model of
+one such case, and has sent me the accompanying drawing. (Fig. 2.) These
+points not only project inwards, but often a little outwards, so that
+they are visible when the head is viewed from directly in front or
+behind. They are variable in size and somewhat in position, standing
+either a little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on one ear and
+not on the other. Now the meaning of these projections is not, I think,
+doubtful; but it may be thought that they offer too trifling a character
+to be worth notice. This thought, however, is as false as it is natural.
+Every character, however slight, must be the result of some definite
+cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves consideration. The
+helix obviously consists of the extreme margin of the ear folded
+inwards; and this folding appears to be in some manner connected with
+the whole external ear being permanently pressed backwards. In many
+monkeys, which do not stand high in the order, as baboons and some
+species of macacus,[27] the upper portion of the ear is slightly
+pointed, and the margin is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
+were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily project inwards
+and probably a little outwards. This could actually be observed in a
+specimen of the _Ateles beelzebuth_ in the Zoological Gardens; and we
+may safely conclude that it is a similar structure--a vestige of
+formerly pointed ears--which occasionally reappears in man.
+
+The nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, with its accessory muscles
+and other structures, is especially well developed in birds, and is of
+much functional importance to them, as it can be rapidly drawn across
+the whole eye-ball. It is found in some reptiles and amphibians, and in
+certain fishes, as in sharks. It is fairly well developed in the two
+lower divisions of the mammalian series, namely, in the monotremata and
+marsupials, and in some few of the higher mammals, as in the walrus. But
+in man, the quadrumana, and most other mammals, it exists, as is
+admitted by all anatomists, as a mere rudiment, called the semilunar
+fold.[28]
+
+The sense of smell is of the highest importance to the greater number of
+mammals--to some, as the ruminants, in warning them of danger; to
+others, as the carnivora, in finding their prey; to others, as the wild
+boar, for both purposes combined. But the sense of smell is of extremely
+slight service, if any, even to savages, in whom it is generally more
+highly developed than in the civilised races. It does not warn them of
+danger, nor guide them to their food; nor does it prevent the Esquimaux
+from sleeping in the most fetid atmosphere, nor many savages from eating
+half-putrid meat. Those who believe in the principle of gradual
+evolution, will not readily admit that this sense in its present state
+was originally acquired by man, as he now exists. No doubt he inherits
+the power in _an_ enfeebled and so far rudimentary condition, from some
+early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable and by whom it was
+continually used. We can thus perhaps understand how it is, as Dr.
+Maudsley has truly remarked,[29] that the sense of smell in man "is
+singularly effective in recalling vividly the ideas and images of
+forgotten scenes and places;" for we see in those animals, which have
+this sense highly developed, such as dogs and horses, that old
+recollections of persons and places are strongly associated with their
+odour.
+
+Man differs conspicuously from all the other Primates in being almost
+naked. But a few short straggling hairs are found over the greater part
+of the body in the male sex, and fine down on that of the female sex, In
+individuals belonging to the same race these hairs are highly variable,
+not only in abundance, but likewise in position: thus the shoulders in
+some Europeans are quite naked, whilst in others they bear thick tufts
+of hair.[30] There can be little doubt that the hairs thus scattered
+over the body are the rudiments of the uniform hairy coat of the lower
+animals. This view is rendered all the more probable, as it is known
+that fine, short, and pale-coloured hairs on the limbs and other parts
+of the body occasionally become developed into "thickset, long, and
+rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally nourished near old-standing
+inflamed surfaces.[31]
+
+I am informed by Mr. Paget that persons belonging to the same family
+often have a few hairs in their eyebrows much longer than the others; so
+that this slight peculiarity seems to be inherited. These hairs
+apparently represent the vibriss�, which are used as organs of touch by
+many of the lower animals. In a young chimpanzee I observed that a few
+upright, rather long, hairs, projected above the eyes, where the true
+eyebrows, if present, would have stood.
+
+The fine wool-like hair, or so-called lanugo, with which the human
+foetus during the sixth month is thickly covered, offers a more
+curious case. It is first developed, during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially round the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. A moustache of this kind was observed by
+Eschricht[32] on a female foetus; but this is not so surprising a
+circumstance as it may at first appear, for the two sexes generally
+resemble each other in all external characters during an early period of
+growth. The direction and arrangement of the hairs on all parts of the
+foetal body are the same as in the adult, but are subject to much
+variability. The whole surface, including even the forehead and ears, is
+thus thickly clothed; but it is a significant fact that the palms of the
+hands and the soles of the feet are quite naked, like the inferior
+surfaces of all four extremities in most of the lower animals. As this
+can hardly be an accidental coincidence, we must consider the woolly
+covering of the foetus to be the rudimental representative of the
+first permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are born hairy. This
+representation is much more complete, in accordance with the usual law
+of embryological development, than that afforded by the straggling hairs
+on the body of the adult.
+
+It appears as if the posterior molar or wisdom-teeth were tending to
+become rudimentary in the more civilised races of man. These teeth are
+rather smaller than the other molars, as is likewise the case with the
+corresponding teeth in the chimpanzee and orang; and they have only two
+separate fangs. They do not cut through the gums till about the
+seventeenth year, and I am assured by dentists that they are much more
+liable to decay, and are earlier lost, than the other teeth. It is also
+remarkable that they are much more liable to vary both in structure and
+in the period of their development than the other teeth.[33] In the
+Melanian races, on the other hand, the wisdom-teeth are usually
+furnished with three separate fangs, and are generally sound: they also
+differ from the other molars in size less than in the Caucasian
+races.[34] Prof. Schaaffhausen accounts for this difference between the
+races by "the posterior dental portion of the jaw being always
+shortened" in those that are civilised,[35] and this shortening may, I
+presume, be safely attributed to civilised men habitually feeding on
+soft, cooked food, and thus using their jaws less. I am informed by Mr.
+Brace that it is becoming quite a common practice in the United States
+to remove some of the molar teeth of children, as the jaw does not grow
+large enough for the perfect development of the normal number.
+
+With respect to the alimentary canal I have met with an account of only
+a single rudiment, namely the vermiform appendage of the c�cum. The
+c�cum is a branch or diverticulum of the intestine, ending in a
+cul-de-sac, and it is extremely long in many of the lower
+vegetable-feeding mammals. In the marsupial koala it is actually more
+than thrice as long as the whole body.[36] It is sometimes produced into
+a long gradually-tapering point, and is sometimes constricted in parts.
+It appears as if, in consequence of changed diet or habits, the c�cum
+had become much shortened in various animals, the vermiform appendage
+being left as a rudiment of the shortened part. That this appendage is a
+rudiment, we may infer from its small size, and from the evidence which
+Prof. Canestrini[37] has collected of its variability in man. It is
+occasionally quite absent, or again is largely developed. The passage is
+sometimes completely closed for half or two-thirds of its length, with
+the terminal part consisting of a flattened solid expansion. In the
+orang this appendage is long and convoluted: in man it arises from the
+end of the short c�cum, and is commonly from four to five inches in
+length, being only about the third of an inch in diameter. Not only is
+it useless, but it is sometimes the cause of death, of which fact I have
+lately heard two instances: this is due to small hard bodies, such as
+seeds, entering the passage and causing inflammation.[38]
+
+In the Quadrumana and some other orders of mammals, especially in the
+Carnivora, there is a passage near the lower end of the humerus, called
+the supra-condyloid foramen, through which the great nerve of the fore
+limb passes, and often the great artery. Now in the humerus of man, as
+Dr. Struthers[39] and others have shewn, there is generally a trace of
+this passage, and it is sometimes fairly well developed, being formed by
+a depending hook-like process of bone, completed by a band of ligament.
+When present the great nerve invariably passes through it, and this
+clearly indicates that it is the homologue and rudiment of the
+supra-condyloid foramen of the lower animals. Prof. Turner estimates, as
+he informs me, that it occurs in about one per cent. of recent
+skeletons; but during ancient times it appears to have been much more
+common. Mr. Busk[40] has collected the following evidence on this head:
+Prof. Broca "noticed the perforation in four and a half per cent. of the
+arm-bones collected in the 'Cimeti�re du Sud' at Paris; and in the
+Grotto of Orrony, the contents of which are referred to the Bronze
+period, as many as eight humeri out of thirty-two were perforated; but
+this extraordinary proportion, he thinks, might be due to the cavern
+having been a sort of 'family vault.' Again, M. Dupont found 30 per
+cent. of perforated bones in the caves of the Valley of the Lesse,
+belonging to the Reindeer period; whilst M. Leguay, in a sort of
+_dolmen_ at Argenteuil, observed twenty-five per cent. to be perforated;
+and M. Pruner-Bey found twenty-six per cent. in the same condition in
+bones from Vaur�al. Nor should it be left unnoticed that M. Pruner-Bey
+states that this condition is common in Guanche skeletons." The fact
+that ancient races, in this and several other cases, more frequently
+present structures which resemble those of the lower animals than do the
+modern races, is interesting. One chief cause seems to be that ancient
+races stand somewhat nearer than modern races in the long line of
+descent to their remote animal-like progenitors.
+
+The os coccyx in man, though functionless as a tail, plainly represents
+this part in other vertebrate animals. At an early embryonic period it
+is free, and, as we have seen, projects beyond the lower extremities. In
+certain rare and anomalous cases it has been known, according to Isidore
+Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and others,[41] to form a small external rudiment
+of a tail. The os coccyx is short, usually including only four vertebr�:
+and these are in a rudimental condition, for they consist, with the
+exception of the basal one, of the centrum alone.[42] They are furnished
+with some small muscles; one of which, as I am informed by Prof. Turner,
+has been expressly described by Theile as a rudimentary repetition of
+the extensor of the tail, which is so largely developed in many mammals.
+
+The spinal cord in man extends only as far downwards as the last dorsal
+or first lumbar vertebra; but a thread-like structure (the _filum
+terminale_) runs down the axis of the sacral part of the spinal canal,
+and even along the back of the coccygeal bones. The upper part of this
+filament, as Prof. Turner informs me, is undoubtedly homologous with the
+spinal cord; but the lower part apparently consists merely of the _pia
+mater_, or vascular investing membrane. Even in this case the os coccyx
+may be said to possess a vestige of so important a structure as the
+spinal cord, though no longer enclosed within a bony canal. The
+following fact, for which I am also indebted to Prof. Turner, shews how
+closely the os coccyx corresponds with the true tail in the lower
+animals: Luschka has recently discovered at the extremity of the
+coccygeal bones a very peculiar convoluted body, which is continuous
+with the middle sacral artery; and this discovery led Krause and Meyer
+to examine the tail of a monkey (Macacus) and of a cat, in both of which
+they found, though not at the extremity, a similarly convoluted body.
+
+The reproductive system offers various rudimentary structures; but these
+differ in one important respect from the foregoing cases. We are not
+here concerned with a vestige of a part which does not belong to the
+species in an efficient state; but with a part which is always present
+and efficient in the one sex, being represented in the other by a mere
+rudiment. Nevertheless, the occurrence of such rudiments is as difficult
+to explain on the belief of the separate creation of each species, as in
+the foregoing cases. Hereafter I shall have to recur to these rudiments,
+and shall shew that their presence generally depends merely on
+inheritance; namely, on parts acquired by one sex having been partially
+transmitted to the other. Here I will only give some instances of such
+rudiments. It is well known that in the males of all mammals, including
+man, rudimentary mamm� exist. These in several instances have become
+well developed, and have yielded a copious supply of milk. Their
+essential identity in the two sexes is likewise shewn by their
+occasional sympathetic enlargement in both during an attack of the
+measles. The _vesicula prostatica_, which has been observed in many
+male mammals, is now universally acknowledged to be the homologue of the
+female uterus, together with the connected passage. It is impossible to
+read Leuckart's able description of this organ, and his reasoning,
+without admitting the justness of his conclusion. This is especially
+clear in the case of those mammals in which the true female uterus
+bifurcates, for in the males of these the vesicula likewise
+bifurcates.[43] Some additional rudimentary structures belonging to the
+reproductive system might here have been adduced.[44]
+
+
+The bearing of the three great classes of facts now given is
+unmistakeable. But it would be superfluous here fully to recapitulate
+the line of argument given in detail in my 'Origin of Species.' The
+homological construction of the whole frame in the members of the same
+class is intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common
+progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to diversified
+conditions. On any other view the similarity of pattern between the hand
+of a man or monkey, the foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing
+of a bat, &c., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific explanation
+to assert that they have all been formed on the same ideal plan. With
+respect to development, we can clearly understand, on the principle of
+variations supervening at a rather late embryonic period, and being
+inherited at a corresponding period, how it is that the embryos of
+wonderfully different forms should still retain, more or less perfectly,
+the structure of their common progenitor. No other explanation has ever
+been given of the marvellous fact that the embryo of a man, dog, seal,
+bat, reptile, &c., can at first hardly be distinguished from each other.
+In order to understand the existence of rudimentary organs, we have only
+to suppose that a former progenitor possessed the parts in question in a
+perfect state, and that under changed habits of life they became greatly
+reduced, either from simple disuse, or through the natural selection of
+those individuals which were least encumbered with a superfluous part,
+aided by the other means previously indicated.
+
+Thus we can understand how it has come to pass that man and all other
+vertebrate animals have been constructed on the same general model, why
+they pass through the same early stages of development, and why they
+retain certain rudiments in common. Consequently we ought frankly to
+admit their community of descent: to take any other view, is to admit
+that our own structure and that of all the animals around us, is a mere
+snare laid to entrap our judgment. This conclusion is greatly
+strengthened, if we look to the members of the whole animal series, and
+consider the evidence derived from their affinities or classification,
+their geographical distribution and geological succession. It is only
+our natural prejudice, and that arrogance which made our forefathers
+declare that they were descended from demi-gods, which leads us to demur
+to this conclusion. But the time will before long come when it will be
+thought wonderful, that naturalists, who were well acquainted with the
+comparative structure and development of man and other mammals, should
+have believed that each was the work of a separate act of creation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense--Certain instincts in common--The
+  emotions--Curiosity--Imitation--Attention--Memory--Imagination
+  --Reason--Progressive improvement--Tools and weapons used by
+  animals--Language--Self-consciousness--Sense of beauty--Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions.
+
+
+We have seen in the last chapter that man bears in his bodily structure
+clear traces of his descent from some lower form; but it may be urged
+that, as man differs so greatly in his mental power from all other
+animals, there must be some error in this conclusion. No doubt the
+difference in this respect is enormous, even if we compare the mind of
+one of the lowest savages, who has no words to express any number higher
+than four, and who uses no abstract terms for the commonest objects or
+affections,[45] with that of the most highly organised ape. The
+difference would, no doubt, still remain immense, even if one of the
+higher apes had been improved or civilised as much as a dog has been in
+comparison with its parent-form, the wolf or jackal. The Fuegians rank
+amongst the lowest barbarians; but I was continually struck with
+surprise how closely the three natives on board H.M.S. "Beagle," who had
+lived some years in England and could talk a little English, resembled
+us in disposition and in most of our mental faculties. If no organic
+being excepting man had possessed any mental power, or if his powers had
+been of a wholly different nature from those of the lower animals, then
+we should never have been able to convince ourselves that our high
+faculties had been gradually developed. But it can be clearly shewn that
+there is no fundamental difference of this kind. We must also admit that
+there is a much wider interval in mental power between one of the lowest
+fishes, as a lamprey or lancelet, and one of the higher apes, than
+between an ape and man; yet this immense interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations.
+
+Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition between a barbarian,
+such as the man described by the old navigator Byron, who dashed his
+child on the rocks for dropping a basket of sea-urchins, and a Howard or
+Clarkson; and in intellect, between a savage who does not use any
+abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakspeare. Differences of this kind
+between the highest men of the highest races and the lowest savages, are
+connected by the finest gradations. Therefore it is possible that they
+might pass and be developed into each other.
+
+My object in this chapter is solely to shew that there is no fundamental
+difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties.
+Each division of the subject might have been extended into a separate
+essay, but must here be treated briefly. As no classification of the
+mental powers has been universally accepted, I shall arrange my remarks
+in the order most convenient for my purpose; and will select those facts
+which have most struck me, with the hope that they may produce some
+effect on the reader.
+
+With respect to animals very low in the scale, I shall have to give some
+additional facts under Sexual Selection, shewing that their mental
+powers are higher than might have been expected. The variability of the
+faculties in the individuals of the same species is an important point
+for us, and some few illustrations will here be given. But it would be
+superfluous to enter into many details on this head, for I have found on
+frequent enquiry, that it is the unanimous opinion of all those who have
+long attended to animals of many kinds, including birds, that the
+individuals differ greatly in every mental characteristic. In what
+manner the mental powers were first developed in the lowest organisms,
+is as hopeless an enquiry as how life first originated. These are
+problems for the distant future, if they are ever to be solved by man.
+
+As man possesses the same senses with the lower animals, his fundamental
+intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common,
+as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for
+her new-born offspring, the power possessed by the latter of sucking,
+and so forth. But man, perhaps, has somewhat fewer instincts than those
+possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series. The orang
+in the Eastern islands, and the chimpanzee in Africa, build platforms on
+which they sleep; and, as both species follow the same habit, it might
+be argued that this was due to instinct, but we cannot feel sure that it
+is not the result of both animals having similar wants and possessing
+similar powers of reasoning. These apes, as we may assume, avoid the
+many poisonous fruits of the tropics, and man has no such knowledge; but
+as our domestic animals, when taken to foreign lands and when first
+turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs, which they
+afterwards avoid, we cannot feel sure that the apes do not learn from
+their own experience or from that of their parents what fruits to
+select. It is however certain, as we shall presently see, that apes
+have an instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous
+animals.
+
+The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the instincts in the
+higher animals are remarkable in contrast with those of the lower
+animals. Cuvier maintained that instinct and intelligence stand in an
+inverse ratio to each other; and some have thought that the intellectual
+faculties of the higher animals have been gradually developed from their
+instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting essay,[46] has shewn that no
+such inverse ratio really exists. Those insects which possess the most
+wonderful instincts are certainly the most intelligent. In the
+vertebrate series, the least intelligent members, namely fishes and
+amphibians, do not possess complex instincts; and amongst mammals the
+animal most remarkable for its instincts, namely the beaver, is highly
+intelligent, as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Morgan's
+excellent account of this animal.[47]
+
+Although the first dawnings of intelligence, according to Mr. Herbert
+Spencer,[48] have been developed through the multiplication and
+co-ordination of reflex actions, and although many of the simpler
+instincts graduate into actions of this kind and can hardly be
+distinguished from them, as in the case of young animals sucking, yet
+the more complex instincts seem to have originated independently of
+intelligence. I am, however, far from wishing to deny that instinctive
+actions may lose their fixed and untaught character, and be replaced by
+others performed by the aid of the free will. On the other hand, some
+intelligent actions--as when, birds on oceanic islands first learn to
+avoid man--after being performed during many generations, become
+converted into instincts and are inherited. They may then be said to be
+degraded in character, for they are no longer performed through reason
+or from experience. But the greater number of the more complex instincts
+appear to have been gained in a wholly different manner, through the
+natural selection of variations of simpler instinctive actions. Such
+variations appear to arise from the same unknown causes acting on the
+cerebral organisation, which induce slight variations or individual
+differences in other parts of the body; and these variations, owing to
+our ignorance, are often said to arise spontaneously. We can, I think,
+come to no other conclusion with respect to the origin of the more
+complex instincts, when we reflect on the marvellous instincts of
+sterile worker-ants and bees, which leave no offspring to inherit the
+effects of experience and of modified habits.
+
+Although a high degree of intelligence is certainly compatible with the
+existence of complex instincts, as we see in the insects just named and
+in the beaver, it is not improbable that they may to a certain extent
+interfere with each other's development. Little is known about the
+functions of the brain, but we can perceive that as the intellectual
+powers become highly developed, the various parts of the brain must be
+connected by the most intricate channels of intercommunication; and as a
+consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to become less well
+fitted to answer in a definite and uniform, that is instinctive, manner
+to particular sensations or associations.
+
+I have thought this digression worth giving, because we may easily
+underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of
+man, when we compare their actions founded on the memory of past events,
+on foresight, reason, and imagination, with exactly similar actions
+instinctively performed by the lower animals; in this latter case the
+capacity of performing such actions having been gained, step by step,
+through the variability of the mental organs and natural selection,
+without any conscious intelligence on the part of the animal during each
+successive generation. No doubt, as Mr. Wallace has argued,[49] much of
+the intelligent work done by man is due to imitation and not to reason;
+but there is this great difference between his actions and many of those
+performed by the lower animals, namely, that man cannot, on his first
+trial, make, for instance, a stone hatchet or a canoe, through his power
+of imitation. He has to learn his work by practice; a beaver, on the
+other hand, can make its dam or canal, and a bird its nest, as well, or
+nearly as well, the first time it tries, as when old and experienced.
+
+To return to our immediate subject: the lower animals, like man,
+manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. Happiness is
+never better exhibited than by young animals, such as puppies, kittens,
+lambs, &c., when playing together, like our own children. Even insects
+play together, as has been described by that excellent observer, P.
+Huber,[50] who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite each other, like
+so many puppies.
+
+The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions as
+ourselves is so well established, that it will not be necessary to weary
+the reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on
+us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the
+sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the
+offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild animals.
+Courage and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the
+individuals of the same species, as is plainly seen in our dogs. Some
+dogs and horses are ill-tempered and easily turn sulky; others are
+good-tempered; and these qualities are certainly inherited. Every one
+knows how liable animals are to furious rage, and how plainly they show
+it. Many anecdotes, probably true, have been published on the
+long-delayed and artful revenge of various animals. The accurate Rengger
+and Brehm[51] state that the American and African monkeys which they
+kept tame, certainly revenged themselves. The love of a dog for his
+master is notorious; in the agony of death he has been known to caress
+his master, and every one has heard of the dog suffering under
+vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; this man, unless he
+had a heart of stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his
+life. As Whewell[52] has remarked, "who that reads the touching
+instances of maternal affection, related so often of the women of all
+nations, and of the females of all animals, can doubt that the principle
+of action is the same in the two cases?"
+
+We see maternal affection exhibited in the most trifling details; thus
+Rengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the
+flies which plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates washing the
+faces of her young ones in a stream. So intense is the grief of female
+monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariably caused the death
+of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in N. Africa.
+Orphan-monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by the other
+monkeys, both males and females. One female baboon had so capacious a
+heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of other species, but
+stole young dogs and cats, which she continually carried about. Her
+kindness, however, did not go so far as to share her food with her
+adopted offspring, at which Brehm was surprised, as his monkeys always
+divided everything quite fairly with their own young ones. An adopted
+kitten scratched the above-mentioned affectionate baboon, who certainly
+had a fine intellect, for she was much astonished at being scratched,
+and immediately examined the kitten's feet, and without more ado bit off
+the claws. In the Zoological Gardens, I heard from the keeper that an
+old baboon (_C. chacma_) had adopted a Rhesus monkey; but when a young
+drill and mandrill were placed in the cage, she seemed to perceive that
+these monkeys, though distinct species, were her nearer relatives, for
+she at once rejected the Rhesus and adopted both of them. The young
+Rhesus, as I saw, was greatly discontented at being thus rejected, and
+it would, like a naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and
+mandrill whenever it could do so with safety; this conduct exciting
+great indignation in the old baboon. Monkeys will also, according to
+Brehm, defend their master when attacked by any one, as well as dogs to
+whom they are attached, from the attacks of other dogs. But we here
+trench on the subject of sympathy, to which I shall recur. Some of
+Brehm's monkeys took much delight in teasing, in various ingenious ways,
+a certain old dog whom they disliked, as well as other animals.
+
+Most of the more complex emotions are common to the higher animals and
+ourselves. Every one has seen how jealous a dog is of his master's
+affection, if lavished on any other creature; and I have observed the
+same fact with monkeys. This shews that animals not only love, but have
+the desire to be loved. Animals manifestly feel emulation. They love
+approbation or praise; and a dog carrying a basket for his master
+exhibits in a high degree self-complacency or pride. There can, I think,
+be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct from fear, and something
+very like modesty when begging too often for food. A great dog scorns
+the snarling of a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity.
+Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike being
+laughed at; and they sometimes invent imaginary offences. In the
+Zoological Gardens I saw a baboon who always got into a furious rage
+when his keeper took out a letter or book and read it aloud to him; and
+his rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on one occasion, he bit his
+own leg till the blood flowed.
+
+We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions and faculties, which
+are very important, as forming the basis for the development of the
+higher mental powers. Animals manifestly enjoy excitement and suffer
+from ennui, as may be seen with dogs, and, according to Rengger, with
+monkeys. All animals feel Wonder, and many exhibit Curiosity. They
+sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when the hunter plays
+antics and thus attracts them; I have witnessed this with deer, and so
+it is with the wary chamois, and with some kinds of wild-ducks. Brehm
+gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited towards snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they
+could not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most
+human fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were
+kept. I was so much surprised at his account, that I took a stuffed and
+coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens, and the
+excitement thus caused was one of the most curious spectacles which I
+ever beheld. Three species of Cercopithecus were the most alarmed; they
+dashed about their cages and uttered sharp signal-cries of danger, which
+were understood by the other monkeys. A few young monkeys and one old
+Anubis baboon alone took no notice of the snake. I then placed the
+stuffed specimen on the ground in one of the larger compartments. After
+a time all the monkeys collected round it in a large circle, and staring
+intently, presented a most ludicrous appearance. They became extremely
+nervous; so that when a wooden ball, with which they were familiar as a
+plaything, was accidently moved in the straw, under which it was partly
+hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys behaved very
+differently when a dead fish, a mouse, and some other new objects were
+placed in their cages; for though at first frightened, they soon
+approached, handled and examined them. I then placed a live snake in a
+paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger
+compartments. One of the monkeys immediately approached, cautiously
+opened the bag a little, peeped in, and instantly dashed away. Then I
+witnessed what Brehm has described, for monkey after monkey, with head
+raised high and turned on one side, could not resist taking momentary
+peeps into the upright bag, at the dreadful object lying quiet at the
+bottom. It would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of
+zoological affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited a strange,
+though mistaken, instinctive dread of innocent lizards and frogs. An
+orang, also, has been known to be much alarmed at the first sight of a
+turtle.[53]
+
+The principle of _Imitation_ is strong in man, and especially in man in
+a barbarous state. Desor[54] has remarked that no animal voluntarily
+imitates an action performed by man, until in the ascending scale we
+come to monkeys, which are well-known to be ridiculous mockers. Animals,
+however, sometimes imitate each others' actions: thus two species of
+wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does
+sometimes the jackal,[55] but whether this can be called voluntary
+imitation is another question. From one account which I have read, there
+is reason to believe that puppies nursed by cats sometimes learn to lick
+their feet and thus to clean their faces: it is at least certain, as I
+hear from a perfectly trustworthy friend, that some dogs behave in this
+manner. Birds imitate the songs of their parents, and sometimes those of
+other birds; and parrots are notorious imitators of any sound which they
+often hear.
+
+Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual progress of
+man than the power of _Attention_. Animals clearly manifest this power,
+as when a cat watches by a hole and prepares to spring on its prey. Wild
+animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus engaged, that they may be
+easily approached. Mr. Bartlett has given me a curious proof how
+variable this faculty is in monkeys. A man who trains monkeys to act
+used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the price
+of five pounds for each; but he offered to give double the price, if he
+might keep three or four of them for a few days, in order to select one.
+When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether a particular
+monkey would turn out a good actor, he answered that it all depended on
+their power of attention. If when he was talking and explaining anything
+to a monkey, its attention was easily distracted, as by a fly on the
+wall or other trifling object, the case was hopeless. If he tried by
+punishment to make an inattentive monkey act, it turned sulky. On the
+other hand, a monkey which carefully attended to him could always be
+trained.
+
+It is almost superfluous to state that animals have excellent _Memories_
+for persons and places. A baboon at the Cape of Good Hope, as I have
+been informed by Sir Andrew Smith, recognised him with joy after an
+absence of nine months. I had a dog who was savage and averse to all
+strangers, and I purposely tried his memory after an absence of five
+years and two days. I went near the stable where he lived, and shouted
+to him in my old manner; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out
+walking and obeyed me, exactly as if I had parted with him only
+half-an-hour before. A train of old associations, dormant during five
+years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in his mind. Even ants, as
+P. Huber[56] has clearly shewn, recognised their fellow-ants belonging
+to the same community after a separation of four months. Animals can
+certainly by some means judge of the intervals of time between recurrent
+events.
+
+The _Imagination_ is one of the highest prerogatives of man. By this
+faculty he unites, independently of the will, former images and ideas,
+and thus creates brilliant and novel results. A poet, as Jean Paul
+Richter remarks,[57] "who must reflect whether he shall make a
+character say yes or no--to the devil with him; he is only a stupid
+corpse." Dreaming gives us the best notion of this power; as Jean Paul
+again says, "The dream is an involuntary art of poetry." The value of
+the products of our imagination depends of course on the number,
+accuracy, and clearness of our impressions; on our judgment and taste in
+selecting or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a certain
+extent on our power of voluntarily combining them. As dogs, cats,
+horses, and probably all the higher animals, even birds, as is stated on
+good authority,[58] have vivid dreams, and this is shewn by their
+movements and voice, we must admit that they possess some power of
+imagination.
+
+Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I presume, be admitted
+that _Reason_ stands at the summit. Few persons any longer dispute that
+animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be seen
+to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant fact, that the
+more the habits of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist,
+the more he attributes to reason and the less to unlearnt instincts.[59]
+In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in the
+scale apparently display a certain amount of reason. No doubt it is
+often difficult to distinguish between the power of reason and that of
+instinct. Thus Dr. Hayes, in his work on 'The Open Polar Sea,'
+repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of continuing to draw the
+sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated when they came to thin
+ice, so that their weight might be more evenly distributed. This was
+often the first warning and notice which the travellers received that
+the ice was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, did the dogs act thus from
+the experience of each individual, or from the example of the older and
+wiser dogs, or from an inherited habit, that is from an instinct? This
+instinct might possibly have arisen since the time, long ago, when dogs
+were first employed by the natives in drawing their sledges; or the
+Arctic wolves, the parent-stock of the Esquimaux dog, may have acquired
+this instinct, impelling them not to attack their prey in a close pack
+when on thin ice. Questions of this kind are most difficult to answer.
+
+So many facts have been recorded in various works shewing that animals
+possess some degree of reason, that I will here give only two or three
+instances, authenticated by Rengger, and relating to American monkeys,
+which stand low in their order. He states that when he first gave eggs
+to his monkeys, they smashed them and thus lost much of their contents;
+afterwards they gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked
+off the bits of shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves only
+once with any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle
+it with the greatest care. Lumps of sugar were often given them wrapped
+up in paper; and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that
+in hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had once happened,
+they always first held the packet to their ears to detect any movement
+within. Any one who is not convinced by such facts as these, and by what
+he may observe with his own dogs, that animals can reason, would not be
+convinced by anything that I could add. Nevertheless I will give one
+case with respect to dogs, as it rests on two distinct observers, and
+can hardly depend on the modification of any instinct.
+
+Mr. Colquhoun[60] winged two wild-ducks, which fell on the opposite side
+of a stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could
+not succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Col. Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once, one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who on her return came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterwards brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game." Here we have reason, though not quite perfect, for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first and then returned for the dead
+one, as in the case of the two wild-ducks.
+
+The muleteers in S. America say, "I will not give you the mule whose
+step is easiest, but _la mas rational_,--the one that reasons best;" and
+Humboldt[61] adds, "this popular expression, dictated by long
+experience, combats the system of animated machines, better perhaps than
+all the arguments of speculative philosophy."
+
+
+It has, I think, now been shewn that man and the higher animals,
+especially the Primates, have some few instincts in common. All have the
+same senses, intuitions and sensations--similar passions, affections,
+and emotions, even the more complex ones; they feel wonder and
+curiosity; they possess the same faculties of imitation, attention,
+memory, imagination, and reason, though in very different degrees.
+Nevertheless many authors have insisted that man is separated through
+his mental faculties by an impassable barrier from all the lower
+animals. I formerly made a collection of above a score of such
+aphorisms, but they are not worth giving, as their wide difference and
+number prove the difficulty, if not the impossibility, of the attempt.
+It has been asserted that man alone is capable of progressive
+improvement; that he alone makes use of tools or fire, domesticates
+other animals, possesses property, or employs language; that no other
+animal is self-conscious, comprehends itself, has the power of
+abstraction, or possesses general ideas; that man alone has a sense of
+beauty, is liable to caprice, has the feeling of gratitude, mystery,
+&c.; believes in God, or is endowed with a conscience. I will hazard a
+few remarks on the more important and interesting of these points.
+
+Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained[62] that man alone is capable of
+progressive improvement. With animals, looking first to the individual,
+every one who has had any experience in setting traps knows that young
+animals can be caught much more easily than old ones; and they can be
+much more easily approached by an enemy. Even with respect to old
+animals, it is impossible to catch many in the same place and in the
+same kind of trap, or to destroy them by the same kind of poison; yet it
+is improbable that all should have partaken of the poison, and
+impossible that all should have been caught in the trap. They must learn
+caution by seeing their brethren caught or poisoned. In North America,
+where the fur-bearing animals have long been pursued, they exhibit,
+according to the unanimous testimony of all observers, an almost
+incredible amount of sagacity, caution, and cunning; but trapping has
+been there so long carried on that inheritance may have come into play.
+
+If we look to successive generations, or to the race, there is no doubt
+that birds and other animals gradually both acquire and lose caution in
+relation to man or other enemies;[63] and this caution is certainly in
+chief part an inherited habit or instinct, but in part the result of
+individual experience. A good observer, Leroy,[64] states that in
+districts where foxes are much hunted, the young when they first leave
+their burrows are incontestably much more wary than the old ones in
+districts where they are not much disturbed.
+
+Our domestic dogs are descended from wolves and jackals,[65] and though
+they may not have gained in cunning, and may have lost in waryness and
+suspicion, yet they have progressed in certain moral qualities, such as
+in affection, trust-worthiness, temper, and probably in general
+intelligence. The common rat has conquered and beaten several other
+species throughout Europe, in parts of North America, New Zealand, and
+recently in Formosa, as well as on the mainland of China. Mr.
+Swinhoe,[66] who describes these latter cases, attributes the victory of
+the common rat over the large _Mus coninga_ to its superior cunning; and
+this latter quality may be attributed to the habitual exercise of all
+its faculties in avoiding extirpation by man, as well as to nearly all
+the less cunning or weak-minded rats having been successively destroyed
+by him. To maintain, independently of any direct evidence, that no
+animal during the course of ages has progressed in intellect or other
+mental faculties, is to beg the question of the evolution of species.
+Hereafter we shall see that, according to Lartet, existing mammals
+belonging to several orders have larger brains than their ancient
+tertiary prototypes.
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool; but the chimpanzee
+in a state of nature cracks a native fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with
+a stone.[67] Rengger[68] easily taught an American monkey thus to break
+open hard palm-nuts, and afterwards of its own accord it used stones to
+open other kinds of nuts, as well as boxes. It thus also removed the
+soft rind of fruit that had a disagreeable flavour. Another monkey was
+taught to open the lid of a large box with a stick, and afterwards it
+used the stick as a lever to move heavy bodies; and I have myself seen a
+young orang put a stick into a crevice, slip his hand to the other end,
+and use it in the proper manner as a lever. In the cases just mentioned
+stones and sticks were employed as implements; but they are likewise
+used as weapons. Brehm[69] states, on the authority of the well-known
+traveller Schimper, that in Abyssinia when the baboons belonging to one
+species (_C. gelada_) descend in troops from the mountains to plunder
+the fields, they sometimes encounter troops of another species (_C.
+hamadryas_), and then a fight ensues. The Geladas roll down great
+stones, which the Hamadryas try to avoid, and then, both species,
+making a great uproar, rush furiously against each other. Brehm, when
+accompanying the Duke of Coburg-Gotha, aided in an attack with fire-arms
+on a troop of baboons in the pass of Mensa in Abyssinia. The baboons in
+return rolled so many stones down the mountain, some as large as a man's
+head, that the attackers had to beat a hasty retreat; and the pass was
+actually for a time closed against the caravan. It deserves notice that
+these baboons thus acted in concert. Mr. Wallace[70] on three occasions
+saw female orangs, accompanied by their young, "breaking off branches
+and the great spiny fruit of the Durian tree, with every appearance of
+rage; causing such a shower of missiles as effectually kept us from
+approaching too near the tree."
+
+In the Zoological Gardens a monkey which had weak teeth used to break
+open nuts with a stone; and I was assured by the keepers that this
+animal, after using the stone, hid it in the straw, and would not let
+any other monkey touch it. Here, then, we have the idea of property; but
+this idea is common to every dog with a bone, and to most or all birds
+with their nests.
+
+The Duke of Argyll[71] remarks, that the fashioning of an implement for
+a special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers that
+this forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. It is no
+doubt a very important distinction, but there appears to me much truth
+in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,[72] that when primeval man first used
+flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally splintered
+them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this step it
+would be a small one to intentionally break the flints, and not a very
+wide step to rudely fashion them. This latter advance, however, may have
+taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time which
+elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding and
+polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J. Lubbock
+likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in grinding them
+heat would have been evolved: "thus the two usual methods of obtaining
+fire may have originated." The nature of fire would have been known in
+the many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows through forests.
+The anthropomorphous apes, guided probably by instinct, build for
+themselves temporary platforms; but as many instincts are largely
+controlled by reason, the simpler ones, such as this of building a
+platform, might readily pass into a voluntary and conscious act. The
+orang is known to cover itself at night with the leaves of the Pandanus;
+and Brehm states that one of his baboons used to protect itself from the
+heat of the sun by throwing a straw-mat over its head. In these latter
+habits, we probably see the first steps towards some of the simpler
+arts; namely rude architecture and dress, as they arose amongst the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Language._--This faculty has justly been considered as one of the chief
+distinctions between man and the lower animals. But man, as a highly
+competent judge, Archbishop Whately remarks, "is not the only animal
+that can make use of language to express what is passing in his mind,
+and can understand, more or less, what is so expressed by another."[73]
+In Paraguay the _Cebus Azar�_ when excited utters at least six distinct
+sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar emotions.[74] The
+movements of the features and gestures of monkeys are understood by us,
+and they partly understand ours, as Rengger and others declare. It is a
+more remarkable fact that the dog, since being domesticated, has learnt
+to bark[75] in at least four or five distinct tones. Although barking is
+a new art, no doubt the wild species, the parents of the dog, expressed
+their feelings by cries of various kinds. With the domesticated dog we
+have the bark of eagerness, as in the chase; that of anger; the yelping
+or howling bark of despair, as when shut up; that of joy, as when
+starting on a walk with his master; and the very distinct one of demand
+or supplication, as when wishing for a door or window to be opened.
+
+Articulate language is, however, peculiar to man; but he uses in common
+with the lower animals inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided
+by gestures and the movements of the muscles of the face.[76] This
+especially holds good with the more simple and vivid feelings, which are
+but little connected with our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain,
+fear, surprise, anger, together with their appropriate actions, and the
+murmur of a mother to her beloved child, are more expressive than any
+words. It is not the mere power of articulation that distinguishes man
+from other animals, for as every one knows, parrots can talk; but it is
+his large power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas; and
+this obviously depends on the development of the mental faculties.
+
+As Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble science of philology,
+observes, language is an art, like brewing or baking; but writing would
+have been a much more appropriate simile. It certainly is not a true
+instinct, as every language has to be learnt. It differs, however,
+widely from all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency to
+speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; whilst no child
+has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write. Moreover, no
+philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately
+invented; each has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many
+steps. The sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest
+analogy to language, for all the members of the same species utter the
+same instinctive cries expressive of their emotions; and all the kinds
+that have the power of singing exert this power instinctively; but the
+actual song, and even the call-notes, are learnt from their parents or
+foster-parents. These sounds, as Daines Barrington[77] has proved, "are
+no more innate than language is in man." The first attempts to sing "may
+be compared to the imperfect endeavour in a child to babble." The young
+males continue practising, or, as the bird-catchers say, recording, for
+ten or eleven months. Their first essays show hardly a rudiment of the
+future song; but as they grow older we can perceive what they are aiming
+at; and at last they are said "to sing their song round." Nestlings
+which have learnt the song of a distinct species, as with the
+canary-birds educated in the Tyrol, teach and transmit their new song to
+their offspring. The slight natural differences of song in the same
+species inhabiting different districts may be appositely compared, as
+Barrington remarks, "to provincial dialects;" and the songs of allied,
+though distinct species may be compared with the languages of distinct
+races of man. I have given the foregoing details to shew that an
+instinctive tendency to acquire an art is not a peculiarity confined to
+man.
+
+With respect to the origin of articulate language, after having read on
+the one side the highly interesting works of Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, the
+Rev. F. Farrar, and Prof. Schleicher,[78] and the celebrated lectures of
+Prof. Max M�ller on the other side, I cannot doubt that language owes
+its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and
+gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and
+man's own instinctive cries. When we treat of sexual selection we shall
+see that primeval man, or rather some early progenitor of man, probably
+used his voice largely, as does one of the gibbon-apes at the present
+day, in producing true musical cadences, that is in singing; we may
+conclude from a widely-spread analogy that this power would have been
+especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes, serving to express
+various emotions, as love, jealousy, triumph, and serving as a challenge
+to their rivals. The imitation by articulate sounds of musical cries
+might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.
+As bearing on the subject of imitation, the strong tendency in our
+nearest allies, the monkeys, in microcephalous idiots,[79] and in the
+barbarous races of mankind, to imitate whatever they hear deserves
+notice. As monkeys certainly understand much that is said to them by
+man, and as in a state of nature they utter signal-cries of danger to
+their fellows,[80] it does not appear altogether incredible, that some
+unusually wise ape-like animal should have thought of imitating the
+growl of a beast of prey, so as to indicate to his fellow monkeys the
+nature of the expected danger. And this would have been a first step in
+the formation of a language.
+
+As the voice was used more and more, the vocal organs would have been
+strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited
+effects of use; and this would have reacted on the power of speech. But
+the relation between the continued use of language and the development
+of the brain has no doubt been far more important. The mental powers in
+some early progenitor of man must have been more highly developed than
+in any existing ape, before even the most imperfect form of speech could
+have come into use; but we may confidently believe that the continued
+use and advancement of this power would have reacted on the mind by
+enabling and encouraging it to carry on long trains of thought. A long
+and complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid
+of words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the
+use of figures or algebra. It appears, also, that even ordinary trains
+of thought almost require some form of language, for the dumb, deaf, and
+blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was observed to use her fingers whilst
+dreaming.[81] Nevertheless a long succession of vivid and connected
+ideas, may pass through the mind without the aid of any form of
+language, as we may infer from the prolonged dreams of dogs. We have,
+also, seen that retriever-dogs are able to reason to a certain extent;
+and this they manifestly do without the aid of language. The intimate
+connection between the brain, as it is now developed in us, and the
+faculty of speech, is well shewn by those curious cases of
+brain-disease, in which speech is specially affected, as when the power
+to remember substantives is lost, whilst other words can be correctly
+used.[82] There is no more improbability in the effects of the continued
+use of the vocal and mental organs being inherited, than in the case of
+handwriting, which depends partly on the structure of the hand and
+partly on the disposition of the mind; and handwriting is certainly
+inherited.[83]
+
+Why the organs now used for speech should have been originally perfected
+for this purpose, rather than any other organs, it is not difficult to
+see. Ants have considerable powers of intercommunication by means of
+their antenn�, as shewn by Huber, who devotes a whole chapter to their
+language. We might have used our fingers as efficient instruments, for a
+person with practice can report to a deaf man every word of a speech
+rapidly delivered at a public meeting; but the loss of our hands, whilst
+thus employed, would have been a serious inconvenience. As all the
+higher mammals possess vocal organs constructed on the same general
+plan with ours, and which are used as a means of communication, it was
+obviously probable, if the power of communication had to be improved,
+that these same organs would have been still further developed; and this
+has been effected by the aid of adjoining and well-adapted parts, namely
+the tongue and lips.[84] The fact of the higher apes not using their
+vocal organs for speech, no doubt depends on their intelligence not
+having been sufficiently advanced. The possession by them of organs,
+which with long-continued practice might have been used for speech,
+although not thus used, is paralleled by the case of many birds which
+possess organs fitted for singing, though they never sing. Thus, the
+nightingale and crow have vocal organs similarly constructed, these
+being used by the former for diversified song, and by the latter merely
+for croaking.[85]
+
+The formation of different languages and of distinct species, and the
+proofs that both have been developed through a gradual process, are
+curiously the same.[86] But we can trace the origin of many words
+further back than in the case of species, for we can perceive that they
+have arisen from the imitation of various sounds, as in alliterative
+poetry. We find in distinct languages striking homologies due to
+community of descent, and analogies due to a similar process of
+formation. The manner in which certain letters or sounds change when
+others change is very like correlated growth. We have in both cases the
+reduplication of parts, the effects of long-continued use, and so forth.
+The frequent presence of rudiments, both in languages and in species, is
+still more remarkable. The letter _m_ in the word _am_, means _I_; so
+that in the expression _I am_, a superfluous and useless rudiment has
+been retained. In the spelling also of words, letters often remain as
+the rudiments of ancient forms of pronunciation. Languages, like organic
+beings, can be classed in groups under groups; and they can be classed
+either naturally according to descent, or artificially by other
+characters. Dominant languages and dialects spread widely and lead to
+the gradual extinction of other tongues. A language, like a species,
+when once extinct, never, as Sir C. Lyell remarks, reappears. The same
+language never has two birthplaces. Distinct languages may be crossed
+or blended together.[87] We see variability in every tongue, and new
+words are continually cropping up; but as there is a limit to the powers
+of the memory, single words, like whole languages, gradually become
+extinct. As Max M�ller[88] has well remarked:--"A struggle for life is
+constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical forms in each
+language. The better, the shorter, the easier forms are constantly
+gaining the upper hand, and they owe their success to their own inherent
+virtue." To these more important causes of the survival of certain
+words, mere novelty may, I think, be added; for there is in the mind of
+man a strong love for slight changes in all things. The survival or
+preservation of certain favoured words in the struggle for existence is
+natural selection.
+
+The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction of the
+languages of many barbarous nations has often been advanced as a proof,
+either of the divine origin of these languages, or of the high art and
+former civilisation of their founders. Thus F. von Schlegel writes: "In
+those languages which appear to be at the lowest grade of intellectual
+culture, we frequently observe a very high and elaborate degree of art
+in their grammatical structure. This is especially the case with the
+Basque and the Lapponian, and many of the American languages."[89] But
+it is assuredly an error to speak of any language as an art in the sense
+of its having been elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists now
+admit that conjugations, declensions, &c., originally existed as
+distinct words, since joined together; and as such words express the
+most obvious relations between objects and persons, it is not surprising
+that they should have been used by the men of most races during the
+earliest ages. With respect to perfection, the following illustration
+will best shew how easily we may err: a Crinoid sometimes consists of no
+less than 150,000 pieces of shell,[90] all arranged with perfect
+symmetry in radiating lines; but a naturalist does not consider an
+animal of this kind as more perfect than a bilateral one with
+comparatively few parts, and with none of these alike, excepting on the
+opposite sides of the body. He justly considers the differentiation and
+specialisation of organs as the test of perfection. So with languages,
+the most symmetrical and complex ought not to be ranked above irregular,
+abbreviated, and bastardised languages, which have borrowed expressive
+words and useful forms of construction from various conquering, or
+conquered, or immigrant races.
+
+From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude that the extremely
+complex and regular construction of many barbarous languages, is no
+proof that they owe their origin to a special act of creation.[91] Nor,
+as we have seen, does the faculty of articulate speech in itself offer
+any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed from
+some lower form.
+
+
+_Self-consciousness, Individuality, Abstraction, General Ideas, &c._--It
+would be useless to attempt discussing these high faculties, which,
+according to several recent writers, make the sole and complete
+distinction between man and the brutes, for hardly two authors agree in
+their definitions. Such faculties could not have been fully developed in
+man until his mental powers had advanced to a high standard, and this
+implies the use of a perfect language. No one supposes that one of the
+lower animals reflects whence he comes or whither he goes,--what is
+death or what is life, and so forth. But can we feel sure that an old
+dog with an excellent memory and some power of imagination, as shewn by
+his dreams, never reflects on his past pleasures in the chase? and this
+would be a form of self-consciousness. On the other hand, as B�chner[92]
+has remarked, how little can the hard-worked wife of a degraded
+Australian savage, who uses hardly any abstract words and cannot count
+above four, exert her self-consciousness, or reflect on the nature of
+her own existence.
+
+That animals retain their mental individuality is unquestionable. When
+my voice awakened a train of old associations in the mind of the
+above-mentioned dog, he must have retained his mental individuality,
+although every atom of his brain had probably undergone change more than
+once during the interval of five years. This dog might have brought
+forward the argument lately advanced to crush all evolutionists, and
+said, "I abide amid all mental moods and all material changes.... The
+teaching that atoms leave their impressions as legacies to other atoms
+falling into the places they have vacated is contradictory of the
+utterance of consciousness, and is therefore false; but it is the
+teaching necessitated by evolutionism, consequently the hypothesis is a
+false one."[93]
+
+
+_Sense of Beauty._--This sense has been declared to be peculiar to man.
+But when we behold male birds elaborately displaying their plumes and
+splendid colours before the females, whilst other birds not thus
+decorated make no such display, it is impossible to doubt that the
+females admire the beauty of their male partners. As women everywhere
+deck themselves with these plumes, the beauty of such ornaments cannot
+be disputed. The Bower-birds by tastefully ornamenting their
+playing-passages with gaily-coloured objects, as do certain
+humming-birds their nests, offer additional evidence that they possess a
+sense of beauty. So with the song of birds, the sweet strains poured
+forth by the males during the season of love are certainly admired by
+the females, of which fact evidence will hereafter be given. If female
+birds had been incapable of appreciating the beautiful colours, the
+ornaments, and voices of their male partners, all the labour and
+anxiety exhibited by them in displaying their charms before the females
+would have been thrown away; and this it is impossible to admit. Why
+certain bright colours and certain sounds should excite pleasure, when
+in harmony, cannot, I presume, be explained any more than why certain
+flavours and scents are agreeable; but assuredly the same colours and
+the same sounds are admired by us and by many of the lower animals.
+
+The taste for the beautiful, at least as far as female beauty is
+concerned, is not of a special nature in the human mind; for it differs
+widely in the different races of man, as will hereafter be shewn, and is
+not quite the same even in the different nations of the same race.
+Judging from the hideous ornaments and the equally hideous music admired
+by most savages, it might be urged that their �sthetic faculty was not
+so highly developed as in certain animals, for instance, in birds.
+Obviously no animal would be capable of admiring such scenes as the
+heavens at night, a beautiful landscape, or refined music; but such high
+tastes, depending as they do on culture and complex associations, are
+not enjoyed by barbarians or by uneducated persons.
+
+Many of the faculties, which have been of inestimable service to man for
+his progressive advancement, such as the powers of the imagination,
+wonder, curiosity, an undefined sense of beauty, a tendency to
+imitation, and the love of excitement or novelty, could not fail to have
+led to the most capricious changes of customs and fashions. I have
+alluded to this point, because a recent writer[94] has oddly fixed on
+Caprice "as one of the most remarkable and typical differences between
+savages and brutes." But not only can we perceive how it is that roan is
+capricious, but the lower animals are, as we shall hereafter see,
+capricious in their affections, aversions, and sense of beauty. There is
+also good reason to suspect that they love novelty, for its own sake.
+
+
+_Belief in God--Religion._--There is no evidence that man was
+aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an
+Omnipotent God. On the contrary there is ample evidence, derived not
+from hasty travellers, but from men who have long resided with savages,
+that numerous races have existed and still exist, who have no idea of
+one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express
+such an idea.[95] The question is of course wholly distinct from that
+higher one, whether there exists a Creator and Ruler of the universe;
+and this has been answered in the affirmative by the highest intellects
+that have ever lived.
+
+If, however, we include under the term "religion" the belief in unseen
+or spiritual agencies, the case is wholly different; for this belief
+seems to be almost universal with the less civilised races. Nor is it
+difficult to comprehend how it arose. As soon as the important faculties
+of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity, together with some power of
+reasoning, had become partially developed, man would naturally have
+craved to understand what was passing around him, and have vaguely
+speculated on his own existence. As Mr. M'Lennan[96] has remarked,
+"Some explanation of the phenomena of life, a man must feign for
+himself; and to judge from the universality of it, the simplest
+hypothesis, and the first to occur to men, seems to have been that
+natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals, plants, and
+things, and in the forces of nature, of such spirits prompting to action
+as men are conscious they themselves possess." It is probable, as Mr.
+Tylor has clearly shewn, that dreams may have first given rise to the
+notion of spirits; for savages do not readily distinguish between
+subjective and objective impressions. When a savage dreams, the figures
+which appear before him are believed to have come from a distance and to
+stand over him; or "the soul of the dreamer goes out on its travels, and
+comes home with a remembrance of what it has seen."[97] But until the
+above-named faculties of imagination, curiosity, reason, &c., had been
+fairly well developed in the mind of man, his dreams would not have led
+him to believe in spirits, any more than in the case of a dog.
+
+The tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects and agencies
+are animated by spiritual or living essences, is perhaps illustrated by
+a little fact which I once noticed: my dog, a full-grown and very
+sensible animal, was lying on the lawn during a hot and still day; but
+at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally moved an open parasol,
+which would have been wholly disregarded by the dog, had any one stood
+near it. As it was, every time that the parasol slightly moved, the dog
+growled fiercely and barked. He must, I think, have reasoned to himself
+in a rapid and unconscious manner, that movement without any apparent
+cause indicated the presence of some strange living agent, and no
+stranger had a right to be on his territory.
+
+The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into the belief in
+the existence of one or more gods. For savages would naturally attribute
+to spirits the same passions, the same love of vengeance or simplest
+form of justice, and the same affections which they themselves
+experienced. The Fuegians appear to be in this respect in an
+intermediate condition, for when the surgeon on board the "Beagle" shot
+some young ducklings as specimens, York Minster declared in the most
+solemn manner, "Oh! Mr. Bynoe, much rain, much snow, blow much;" and
+this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food. So
+again he related how, when his brother killed a "wild man," storms long
+raged, much rain and snow fell. Yet we could never discover that the
+Fuegians believed in what we should call a God, or practised any
+religious rites; and Jemmy Button, with justifiable pride, stoutly
+maintained that there was no devil in his land. This latter assertion is
+the more remarkable, as with savages the belief in bad spirits is far
+more common than the belief in good spirits.
+
+The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex one, consisting of
+love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior, a
+strong sense of dependence,[98] fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the
+future, and perhaps other elements. No being could experience so complex
+an emotion until advanced in his intellectual and moral faculties to at
+least a moderately high level. Nevertheless we see some distant approach
+to this state of mind, in the deep love of a dog for his master,
+associated with complete submission, some fear, and perhaps other
+feelings. The behaviour of a dog when returning to his master after an
+absence, and, as I may add, of a monkey to his beloved keeper, is widely
+different from that towards their fellows. In the latter case the
+transports of joy appear to be somewhat less, and the sense of equality
+is shewn in every action. Professor Braubach[99] goes so far as to
+maintain that a dog looks on his master as on a god.
+
+The same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to various strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of--such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god; the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison or fire; witchcraft, &c.--yet it is well occasionally
+to reflect on these superstitions, for they shew us what an infinite
+debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to science,
+and our accumulated knowledge.[100] As Sir J. Lubbock has well
+observed, "it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of unknown
+evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters every
+pleasure." These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+ANIMALS--_continued_.
+
+
+  The moral sense--Fundamental proposition--The qualities of
+  social animals--Origin of sociability--Struggle between opposed
+  instincts--Man a social animal--The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts--The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages--The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development--The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct--Transmission of moral tendencies--Summary.
+
+
+I fully subscribe to the judgment of those writers[101] who maintain
+that of all the differences between man and the lower animals, the moral
+sense or conscience is by far the most important. This sense, as
+Mackintosh[102] remarks, "has a rightful supremacy over every other
+principle of human action;" it is summed up in that short but imperious
+word _ought_, so full of high significance. It is the most noble of all
+the attributes of man, leading him without a moment's hesitation to risk
+his life for that of a fellow-creature; or after due deliberation,
+impelled simply by the deep feeling of right or duty, to sacrifice it in
+some great cause. Immanuel Kant exclaims, "Duty! Wondrous thought, that
+workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor by any threat, but
+merely by holding up thy naked law in the soul, and so extorting for
+thyself always reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all
+appetites are dumb, however secretly they rebel; whence thy
+original?"[103]
+
+This great question has been discussed by many writers[104] of
+consummate ability; and my sole excuse for touching on it is the
+impossibility of here passing it over, and because, as far as I know, no
+one has approached it exclusively from the side of natural history. The
+investigation possesses, also, some independent interest, as an attempt
+to see how far the study of the lower animals can throw light on one of
+the highest psychical faculties of man.
+
+The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable--namely,
+that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social
+instincts,[105] would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as
+soon as its intellectual powers had become as well developed, or nearly
+as well developed, as in man. For, _firstly_, the social instincts lead
+an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a
+certain amount of sympathy with them, and to perform various services
+for them. The services may be of a definite and evidently instinctive
+nature; or there may be only a wish and readiness, as with most of the
+higher social animals, to aid their fellows in certain general ways. But
+these feelings and services are by no means extended to all the
+individuals of the same species, only to those of the same association.
+_Secondly_, as soon as the mental faculties had become highly developed,
+images of all past actions and motives would be incessantly passing
+through the brain of each individual; and that feeling of
+dissatisfaction which invariably results, as we shall hereafter see,
+from any unsatisfied instinct, would arise, as often as it was perceived
+that the enduring and always present social instinct had yielded to some
+other instinct, at the time stronger, but neither enduring in its
+nature, nor leaving behind it a very vivid impression. It is clear that
+many instinctive desires, such as that of hunger, are in their nature of
+short duration; and after being satisfied are not readily or vividly
+recalled. _Thirdly_, after the power of language had been acquired and
+the wishes of the members of the same community could be distinctly
+expressed, the common opinion how each member ought to act for the
+public good, would naturally become to a large extent the guide to
+action. But the social instincts would still give the impulse to act for
+the good of the community, this impulse being strengthened, directed,
+and sometimes even deflected by public opinion, the power of which
+rests, as we shall presently see, on instinctive sympathy. _Lastly_,
+habit in the individual would ultimately play a very important part in
+guiding the conduct of each member; for the social instincts and
+impulses, like all other instincts, would be greatly strengthened by
+habit, as would obedience to the wishes and judgment of the community.
+These several subordinate propositions must now be discussed; and some
+of them at considerable length.
+
+It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to maintain that any
+strictly social animal, if its intellectual faculties were to become as
+active and as highly developed as in man, would acquire exactly the same
+moral sense as ours. In the same manner as various animals have some
+sense of beauty, though they admire widely different objects, so they
+might have a sense of right and wrong, though led by it to follow widely
+different lines of conduct. If, for instance, to take an extreme case,
+men were reared under precisely the same conditions as hive-bees, there
+can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females would, like the
+worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and mothers
+would strive to kill their fertile daughters; and no one would think of
+interfering. Nevertheless the bee, or any other social animal, would in
+our supposed case gain, as it appears to me, some feeling of right and
+wrong, or a conscience. For each individual would have an inward sense
+of possessing certain stronger or more enduring instincts, and others
+less strong or enduring; so that there would often be a struggle which
+impulse should be followed; and satisfaction or dissatisfaction would be
+felt, as past impressions were compared during their incessant passage
+through the mind. In this case an inward monitor would tell the animal
+that it would have been better to have followed the one impulse rather
+than the other. The one course ought to have been followed: the one
+would have been right and the other wrong; but to these terms I shall
+have to recur.
+
+
+_Sociability._--Animals of many kinds are social; we find even distinct
+species living together, as with some American monkeys, and with the
+united flocks of rooks, jackdaws, and starlings. Man shows the same
+feeling in his strong love for the dog, which the dog returns with
+interest. Every one must have noticed how miserable horses, dogs, sheep,
+&c. are when separated from their companions; and what affection at
+least the two former kinds show on their reunion. It is curious to
+speculate on the feelings of a dog, who will rest peacefully for hours
+in a room with his master or any of the family, without the least notice
+being taken of him; but if left for a short time by himself, barks or
+howls dismally. We will confine our attention to the higher social
+animals, excluding insects, although these aid each other in many
+important ways. The most common service which the higher animals perform
+for each other, is the warning each other of danger by means of the
+united senses of all. Every sportsman knows, as Dr. Jaeger remarks,[106]
+how difficult it is to approach animals in a herd or troop. Wild horses
+and cattle do not, I believe, make any danger-signal; but the attitude
+of any one who first discovers an enemy, warns the others. Rabbits stamp
+loudly on the ground with their hind-feet as a signal: sheep and chamois
+do the same, but with their fore-feet, uttering likewise a whistle. Many
+birds and some mammals post sentinels, which in the case of seals are
+said[107] generally to be the females. The leader of a troop of monkeys
+acts as the sentinel, and utters cries expressive both of danger and of
+safety.[108] Social animals perform many little services for each
+other: horses nibble, and cows lick each other, on any spot which
+itches: monkeys search for each other's external parasites; and Brehm
+states that after a troop of the _Cercopithecus griseo-viridis_ has
+rushed through a thorny brake, each monkey stretches itself on a branch,
+and another monkey sitting by "conscientiously" examines its fur and
+extracts every thorn or burr.
+
+Animals also render more important services to each other: thus wolves
+and some other beasts of prey hunt in packs, and aid each other in
+attacking their victims. Pelicans fish in concert. The Hamadryas baboons
+turn over stones to find insects, &c.; and when they come to a large
+one, as many as can stand round, turn it over together and share the
+booty. Social animals mutually defend each other. The males of some
+ruminants come to the front when there is danger and defend the herd
+with their horns. I shall also in a future chapter give cases of two
+young wild bulls attacking an old one in concert, and of two stallions
+together trying to drive away a third stallion from a troop of mares.
+Brehm encountered in Abyssinia a great troop of baboons which were
+crossing a valley: some had already ascended the opposite mountain, and
+some were still in the valley: the latter were attacked by the dogs, but
+the old males immediately hurried down from the rocks, and with mouths
+widely opened roared so fearfully, that the dogs precipitately
+retreated. They were again encouraged to the attack; but by this time
+all the baboons had reascended the heights, excepting a young one, about
+six months old, who, loudly calling for aid, climbed on a block of rock
+and was surrounded. Now one of the largest males, a true hero, came down
+again from the mountain, slowly went to the young one, coaxed him, and
+triumphantly led him away--the dogs being too much astonished to make an
+attack. I cannot resist giving another scene which was witnessed by this
+same naturalist; an eagle seized a young Cercopithecus, which, by
+clinging to a branch, was not at once carried off; it cried loudly for
+assistance, upon which the other members of the troop with much uproar
+rushed to the rescue, surrounded the eagle, and pulled out so many
+feathers, that he no longer thought of his prey, but only how to escape.
+This eagle, as Brehm remarks, assuredly would never again attack a
+monkey in a troop.
+
+It is certain that associated animals have a feeling of love for each
+other which is not felt by adult and non-social animals. How far in most
+cases they actually sympathise with each other's pains and pleasures is
+more doubtful, especially with respect to the latter. Mr. Buxton,
+however, who had excellent means of observation,[109] states that his
+macaws, which lived free in Norfolk, took "an extravagant interest" in a
+pair with a nest, and whenever the female left it, she was surrounded by
+a troop "screaming horrible acclamations in her honour." It is often
+difficult to judge whether animals have any feeling for each other's
+sufferings. Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and stare
+intently on a dying or dead companion? That animals sometimes are far
+from feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel a wounded
+animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to death. This is almost the
+blackest fact in natural history, unless indeed the explanation which
+has been suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to
+expel an injured companion, lest beasts of prey, including man, should
+be tempted to follow the troop. In this case their conduct is not much
+worse than that of the North American Indians who leave their feeble
+comrades to perish on the plains, or the Feegeans, who, when their
+parents get old or fall ill, bury them alive.[110]
+
+Many animals, however, certainly sympathise with each other's distress
+or danger. This is the case even with birds; Capt. Stansbury[111] found
+on a salt lake in Utah an old and completely blind pelican, which was
+very fat, and must have been long and well fed by his companions. Mr.
+Blyth, as he informs me, saw Indian crows feeding two or three of their
+companions which were blind; and I have heard of an analogous case with
+the domestic cock. We may, if we choose, call these actions instinctive;
+but such cases are much too rare for the development of any special
+instinct.[112] I have myself seen a dog, who never passed a great friend
+of his, a cat which lay sick in a basket, without giving her a few licks
+with his tongue, the surest sign of kind feeling in a dog.
+
+It must be called sympathy that leads a courageous dog to fly at any one
+who strikes his master, as he certainly will. I saw a person pretending
+to beat a lady who had a very timid little dog on her lap, and the trial
+had never before been made. The little creature instantly jumped away,
+but after the pretended beating was over, it was really pathetic to see
+how perseveringly he tried to lick his mistress's face and comfort her.
+Brehm[113] states that when a baboon in confinement was pursued to be
+punished, the others tried to protect him. It must have been sympathy in
+the cases above given which led the baboons and Cercopitheci to defend
+their young comrades from the dogs and the eagle. I will give only one
+other instance of sympathetic and heroic conduct in a little American
+monkey. Several years ago a keeper at the Zoological Gardens, showed me
+some deep and scarcely healed wounds on the nape of his neck, inflicted
+on him whilst kneeling on the floor by a fierce baboon. The little
+American monkey, who was a warm friend of this keeper, lived in the same
+large compartment, and was dreadfully afraid of the great baboon.
+Nevertheless, as soon as he saw his friend the keeper in peril, he
+rushed to the rescue, and by screams and bites so distracted the baboon
+that the man was able to escape, after running great risk, as the
+surgeon who attended him thought, of his life.
+
+Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other qualities which in us
+would be called moral; and I agree with Agassiz[114] that dogs possess
+something very like a conscience. They certainly possess some power of
+self-command, and this does not appear to be wholly the result of fear.
+As Braubach[115] remarks, a dog will refrain from stealing food in the
+absence of his master. Dogs have long been accepted as the very type of
+fidelity and obedience. All animals living in a body which defend each
+other or attack their enemies in concert, must be in some degree
+faithful to each other; and those that follow a leader must be in some
+degree obedient. When the baboons in Abyssinia[116] plunder a garden,
+they silently follow their leader; and if an imprudent young animal
+makes a noise, he receives a slap from the others to teach him silence
+and obedience; but as soon as they are sure that there is no danger, all
+show their joy by much clamour.
+
+With respect to the impulse which leads certain animals to associate
+together, and to aid each other in many ways, we may infer that in most
+cases they are impelled by the same sense of satisfaction or pleasure
+which they experience in performing other instinctive actions; or by the
+same sense of dissatisfaction, as in other cases of prevented
+instinctive actions. We see this in innumerable instances, and it is
+illustrated in a striking manner by the acquired instincts of our
+domesticated animals; thus a young shepherd-dog delights in driving and
+running round a flock of sheep, but not in worrying them; a young
+foxhound delights in hunting a fox, whilst some other kinds of dogs as I
+have witnessed, utterly disregard foxes. What a strong feeling of inward
+satisfaction must impel a bird, so full of activity, to brood day after
+day over her eggs. Migratory birds are miserable if prevented from
+migrating, and perhaps they enjoy starting on their long flight. Some
+few instincts are determined solely by painful feelings, as by fear,
+which leads to self-preservation, or is specially directed against
+certain enemies. No one, I presume, can analyse the sensations of
+pleasure or pain. In many cases, however, it is probable that instincts
+are persistently followed from the mere force of inheritance, without
+the stimulus of either pleasure or pain. A young pointer, when it first
+scents game, apparently cannot help pointing. A squirrel in a cage who
+pats the nuts which it cannot eat, as if to bury them in the ground, can
+hardly be thought to act thus either from pleasure or pain. Hence the
+common assumption that men must be impelled to every action by
+experiencing some pleasure or pain may be erroneous. Although a habit
+may be blindly and implicitly followed, independently of any pleasure or
+pain felt at the moment, yet if it be forcibly and abruptly checked, a
+vague sense of dissatisfaction is generally experienced; and this is
+especially true in regard to persons of feeble intellect.
+
+It has often been assumed that animals were in the first place rendered
+social, and that they feel as a consequence uncomfortable when separated
+from each other, and comfortable whilst together; but it is a more
+probable view that these sensations were first developed, in order that
+those animals which would profit by living in society, should be induced
+to live together. In the same manner as the sense of hunger and the
+pleasure of eating were, no doubt, first acquired in order to induce
+animals to eat. The feeling of pleasure from society is probably an
+extension of the parental or filial affections; and this extension may
+be in chief part attributed to natural selection, but perhaps in part to
+mere habit. For with those animals which were benefited by living in
+close association, the individuals which took the greatest pleasure in
+society would best escape various dangers; whilst those that cared least
+for their comrades and lived solitary would perish in greater numbers.
+With respect to the origin of the parental and filial affections, which
+apparently lie at the basis of the social affections, it is hopeless to
+speculate; but we may infer that they have been to a large extent
+gained through natural selection. So it has almost certainly been with
+the unusual and opposite feeling of hatred between the nearest
+relations, as with the worker-bees which kill their brother-drones, and
+with the queen-bees which kill their daughter-queens; the desire to
+destroy, instead of loving, their nearest relations having been here of
+service to the community.
+
+The all-important emotion of sympathy is distinct from that of love. A
+mother may passionately love her sleeping and passive infant, but she
+can then hardly be said to feel sympathy for it. The love of a man for
+his dog is distinct from sympathy, and so is that of a dog for his
+master. Adam Smith formerly argued, as has Mr. Bain recently, that the
+basis of sympathy lies in our strong retentiveness of former states of
+pain or pleasure. Hence, "the sight of another person enduring hunger,
+cold, fatigue, revives in us some recollection of these states, which
+are painful even in idea." We are thus impelled to relieve the
+sufferings of another, in order that our own painful feelings may be at
+the same time relieved. In like manner we are led to participate in the
+pleasures of others.[117] But I cannot see how this view explains the
+fact that sympathy is excited in an immeasurably stronger degree by a
+beloved than by an indifferent person. The mere sight of suffering,
+independently of love, would suffice to call up in us vivid
+recollections and associations. Sympathy may at first have originated in
+the manner above suggested; but it seems now to have become an instinct,
+which is especially directed towards beloved objects, in the same manner
+as fear with animals is especially directed against certain enemies. As
+sympathy is thus directed, the mutual love of the members of the same
+community will extend its limits. No doubt a tiger or lion feels
+sympathy for the sufferings of its own young, but not for any other
+animal. With strictly social animals the feeling will be more or less
+extended to all the associated members, as we know to be the case. With
+mankind selfishness, experience, and imitation probably add, as Mr. Bain
+has shewn, to the power of sympathy; for we are led by the hope of
+receiving good in return to perform acts of sympathetic kindness to
+others; and there can be no doubt that the feeling of sympathy is much
+strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner this feeling may have
+originated, as it is one of high importance to all those animals which
+aid and defend each other, it will have been increased, through natural
+selection; for those communities, which included the greatest number of
+the most sympathetic members, would flourish best and rear the greatest
+number of offspring.
+
+In many cases it is impossible to decide whether certain social
+instincts have been acquired through natural selection, or are the
+indirect result of other instincts and faculties, such as sympathy,
+reason, experience, and a tendency to imitation; or again, whether they
+are simply the result of long-continued habit. So remarkable an instinct
+as the placing sentinels to warn the community of danger, can hardly
+have been the indirect result of any other faculty; it must therefore
+have been directly acquired. On the other hand, the habit followed by
+the males of some social animals, of defending the community and of
+attacking their enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps have
+originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and in most cases
+strength, must have been previously acquired, probably through natural
+selection.
+
+Of the various instincts and habits, some are much stronger than others,
+that is, some either give more pleasure in their performance and more
+distress in their prevention than others; or, which is probably quite as
+important, they are more persistently followed through inheritance
+without exciting any special feeling of pleasure or pain. We are
+ourselves conscious that some habits are much more difficult to cure or
+change than others. Hence a struggle may often be observed in animals
+between different instincts, or between an instinct and some habitual
+disposition; as when a dog rushes after a hare, is rebuked, pauses,
+hesitates, pursues again or returns ashamed to his master; or as between
+the love of a female dog for her young puppies and for her master, for
+she may be seen to slink away to them, as if half ashamed of not
+accompanying her master. But the most curious instance known to me of
+one instinct conquering another, is the migratory instinct conquering
+the maternal instinct. The former is wonderfully strong; a confined bird
+will at the proper season beat her breast against the wires of her cage,
+until it is bare and bloody. It causes young salmon to leap out of the
+fresh water, where they could still continue to live, and thus
+unintentionally to commit suicide. Every one knows how strong the
+maternal instinct is, leading even timid birds to face great danger,
+though with hesitation and in opposition to the instinct of
+self-preservation. Nevertheless the migratory instinct is so powerful
+that late in the autumn swallows and house-martins frequently desert
+their tender young, leaving them to perish miserably in their
+nests.[118]
+
+We can perceive that an instinctive impulse, if it be in any way more
+beneficial to a species than some other or opposed instinct, would be
+rendered the more potent of the two through natural selection; for the
+individuals which had it most strongly developed would survive in larger
+numbers. Whether this is the case with the migratory in comparison with
+the maternal instinct, may well be doubted. The great persistence or
+steady action of the former at certain seasons of the year during the
+whole day, may give it for a time paramount force.
+
+
+_Man a social animal._--Most persons admit that man is a social being.
+We see this in his dislike of solitude, and in his wish for society
+beyond that of his own family. Solitary confinement is one of the
+severest punishments which can be inflicted. Some authors suppose that
+man primevally lived in single families; but at the present day, though
+single families, or only two or three together, roam the solitudes of
+some savage lands, they are always, as far as I can discover, friendly
+with other families inhabiting the same district. Such families
+occasionally meet in council, and they unite for their common defence.
+It is no argument against savage man being a social animal, that the
+tribes inhabiting adjacent districts are almost always at war with each
+other; for the social instincts never extend to all the individuals of
+the same species. Judging from the analogy of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, it is probable that the early ape-like progenitors of man
+were likewise social; but this is not of much importance for us.
+Although man, as he now exists, has few special instincts, having lost
+any which his early progenitors may have possessed, this is no reason
+why he should not have retained from an extremely remote period some
+degree of instinctive love and sympathy for his fellows. We are indeed
+all conscious that we do possess such sympathetic feelings;[119] but our
+consciousness does not tell us whether they are instinctive, having
+originated long ago in the same manner as with the lower animals, or
+whether they have been acquired by each of us during our early years. As
+man is a social animal, it is also probable that he would inherit a
+tendency to be faithful to his comrades, for this quality is common to
+most social animals. He would in like manner possess some capacity for
+self-command, and perhaps of obedience to the leader of the community.
+He would from an inherited tendency still be willing to defend, in
+concert with others, his fellow-men, and would be ready to aid them in
+any way which did not too greatly interfere with his own welfare or his
+own strong desires.
+
+The social animals which stand at the bottom of the scale are guided
+almost exclusively, and those which stand higher in the scale are
+largely guided, in the aid which they give to the members of the same
+community, by special instincts; but they are likewise in part impelled
+by mutual love and sympathy, assisted apparently by some amount of
+reason. Although man, as just remarked, has no special instincts to tell
+him how to aid his fellow-men, he still has the impulse, and with his
+improved intellectual faculties would naturally be much guided in this
+respect by reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would, also,
+cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellow-men; for, as Mr.
+Bain has clearly shewn,[120] the love of praise and the strong feeling
+of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn and infamy, "are due to
+the workings of sympathy." Consequently man would be greatly influenced
+by the wishes, approbation, and blame of his fellow-men, as expressed by
+their gestures and language. Thus the social instincts, which must have
+been acquired by man in a very rude state, and probably even by his
+early ape-like progenitors, still give the impulse to many of his best
+actions; but his actions are largely determined by the expressed wishes
+and judgment of his fellow-men, and unfortunately still oftener by his
+own strong, selfish desires. But as the feelings of love and sympathy
+and the power of self-command become strengthened by habit, and as the
+power of reasoning becomes clearer so that man can appreciate the
+justice of the judgments of his fellow-men, he will feel himself
+impelled, independently of any pleasure or pain felt at the moment, to
+certain lines of conduct. He may then say, I am the supreme judge of my
+own conduct, and in the words of Kant, I will not in my own person
+violate the dignity of humanity.
+
+
+_The more enduring Social Instincts conquer the less Persistent
+Instincts._--We have, however, not as yet considered the main point, on
+which the whole question of the moral sense hinges. Why should a man
+feel that he ought to obey one instinctive desire rather than another?
+Why does he bitterly regret if he has yielded to the strong sense of
+self-preservation, and has not risked his life to save that of a
+fellow-creature; or why does he regret having stolen food from severe
+hunger?
+
+It is evident in the first place, that with mankind the instinctive
+impulses have different degrees of strength; a young and timid mother
+urged by the maternal instinct will, without a moment's hesitation, run
+the greatest danger for her infant, but not for a mere fellow-creature.
+Many a man, or even boy, who never before risked his life for another,
+but in whom courage and sympathy were well developed, has, disregarding
+the instinct of self-preservation, instantaneously plunged into a
+torrent to save a drowning fellow-creature. In this case man is impelled
+by the same instinctive motive, which caused the heroic little American
+monkey, formerly described, to attack the great and dreaded baboon, to
+save his keeper. Such actions as the above appear to be the simple
+result of the greater strength of the social or maternal instincts than
+of any other instinct or motive; for they are performed too
+instantaneously for reflection, or for the sensation of pleasure or
+pain; though if prevented distress would be caused.
+
+I am aware that some persons maintain that actions performed
+impulsively, as in the above cases, do not come under the dominion of
+the moral sense, and cannot be called moral. They confine this term to
+actions done deliberately, after a victory over opposing desires, or to
+actions prompted by some lofty motive. But it appears scarcely possible
+to draw any clear line of distinction of this kind; though the
+distinction may be real. As far as exalted motives are concerned, many
+instances have been recorded of barbarians, destitute of any feeling of
+general benevolence towards mankind, and not guided by any religious
+motive, who have deliberately as prisoners sacrificed their lives,[121]
+rather than betray their comrades; and surely their conduct ought to be
+considered as moral. As far as deliberation and the victory over
+opposing motives are concerned, animals may be seen doubting between
+opposed instincts, as in rescuing their offspring or comrades from
+danger; yet their actions, though done for the good of others, are not
+called moral. Moreover, an action repeatedly performed by us, will at
+last be done without deliberation or hesitation, and can then hardly be
+distinguished from an instinct; yet surely no one will pretend that an
+action thus done ceases to be moral. On the contrary, we all feel that
+an act cannot be considered as perfect, or as performed in the most
+noble manner, unless it be done impulsively, without deliberation or
+effort, in the same manner as by a man in whom the requisite qualities
+are innate. He who is forced to overcome his fear or want of sympathy
+before he acts, deserves, however, in one way higher credit than the man
+whose innate disposition leads him to a good act without effort. As we
+cannot distinguish between motives, we rank all actions of a certain
+class as moral, when they are performed by a moral being. A moral being
+is one who is capable of comparing his past and future actions or
+motives, and of approving or disapproving of them. We have no reason to
+suppose that any of the lower animals have this capacity; therefore
+when a monkey faces danger to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an
+orphan-monkey, we do not call its conduct moral. But in the case of man,
+who alone can with certainty be ranked as a moral being, actions of a
+certain class are called moral, whether performed deliberately after a
+struggle with opposing motives, or from the effects of slowly-gained
+habit, or impulsively through instinct.
+
+But to return to our more immediate subject; although some instincts are
+more powerful than others, thus leading to corresponding actions, yet it
+cannot be maintained that the social instincts are ordinarily stronger
+in man, or have become stronger through long-continued habit, than the
+instincts, for instance, of self-preservation, hunger, lust, vengeance,
+&c. Why then does man regret, even though he may endeavour to banish any
+such regret, that he has followed the one natural impulse, rather than
+the other; and why does he further feel that he ought to regret his
+conduct? Man in this respect differs profoundly from the lower animals.
+Nevertheless we can, I think, see with some degree of clearness the
+reason of this difference.
+
+Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, cannot avoid reflection:
+past impressions and images are incessantly passing through his mind
+with distinctness. Now with those animals which live permanently in a
+body, the social instincts are ever present and persistent. Such animals
+are always ready to utter the danger-signal, to defend the community,
+and to give aid to their fellows in accordance with their habits; they
+feel at all times, without the stimulus of any special passion or
+desire, some degree of love and sympathy for them; they are unhappy if
+long separated from them, and always happy to be in their company. So it
+is with ourselves. A man who possessed no trace of such feelings would
+be an unnatural monster. On the other hand, the desire to satisfy
+hunger, or any passion, such as vengeance, is in its nature temporary,
+and can for a time be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy, perhaps hardly
+possible, to call up with complete vividness the feeling, for instance,
+of hunger; nor indeed, as has often been remarked, of any suffering. The
+instinct of self-preservation is not felt except in the presence of
+danger; and many a coward has thought himself brave until he has met his
+enemy face to face. The wish for another man's property is perhaps as
+persistent a desire as any that can be named; but even in this case the
+satisfaction of actual possession is generally a weaker feeling than the
+desire: many a thief, if not an habitual one, after success has wondered
+why he stole some article.
+
+Thus, as man cannot prevent old impressions continually repassing
+through his mind, he will be compelled to compare the weaker impressions
+of, for instance, past hunger, or of vengeance satisfied or danger
+avoided at the cost of other men, with the instinct of sympathy and
+good-will to his fellows, which is still present and ever in some degree
+active in his mind. He will then feel in his imagination that a stronger
+instinct has yielded to one which now seems comparatively weak; and then
+that sense of dissatisfaction will inevitably be felt with which man is
+endowed, like every other animal, in order that his instincts may be
+obeyed. The case before given, of the swallow, affords an illustration,
+though of a reversed nature, of a temporary though for the time strongly
+persistent instinct conquering another instinct which is usually
+dominant over all others. At the proper season these birds seem all day
+long to be impressed with the desire to migrate; their habits change;
+they become restless, are noisy, and congregate in flocks. Whilst the
+mother-bird is feeding or brooding over her nestlings, the maternal
+instinct is probably stronger than the migratory; but the instinct which
+is more persistent gains the victory, and at last, at a moment when her
+young ones are not in sight, she takes flight and deserts them. When
+arrived at the end of her long journey, and the migratory instinct
+ceases to act, what an agony of remorse each bird would feel, if, from
+being endowed with great mental activity, she could not prevent the
+image continually passing before her mind of her young ones perishing in
+the bleak north from cold and hunger.
+
+At the moment of action, man will no doubt be apt to follow the stronger
+impulse; and though this may occasionally prompt him to the noblest
+deeds, it will far more commonly lead him to gratify his own desires at
+the expense of other men. But after their gratification, when past and
+weaker impressions are contrasted with the ever-enduring social
+instincts, retribution will surely come. Man will then feel dissatisfied
+with himself, and will resolve with more or less force to act
+differently for the future. This is conscience; for conscience looks
+backwards and judges past actions, inducing that kind of
+dissatisfaction, which if weak we call regret, and if severe remorse.
+
+These sensations are, no doubt, different from those experienced when
+other instincts or desires are left unsatisfied; but every unsatisfied
+instinct has its own proper prompting sensation, as we recognise with
+hunger, thirst, &c. Man thus prompted, will through long habit acquire
+such perfect self-command, that his desires and passions will at last
+instantly yield to his social sympathies, and there will no longer be a
+struggle between them. The still hungry, or the still revengeful man
+will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his vengeance. It is
+possible, or, as we shall hereafter see, even probable, that the habit
+of self-command may, like other habits, be inherited. Thus at last man
+comes to feel, through acquired and perhaps inherited habit, that it is
+best for him to obey his more persistent instincts. The imperious word
+_ought_ seems merely to imply the consciousness of the existence of a
+persistent instinct, either innate or partly acquired, serving him as a
+guide, though liable to be disobeyed. We hardly use the word _ought_ in
+a metaphorical sense, when we say hounds ought to hunt, pointers to
+point, and retrievers to retrieve their game. If they fail thus to act,
+they fail in their duty and act wrongly.
+
+If any desire or instinct, leading to an action opposed to the good of
+others, still appears to a man, when recalled to mind, as strong as, or
+stronger than, his social instinct, he will feel no keen regret at
+having followed it; but he will be conscious that if his conduct were
+known to his fellows, it would meet with their disapprobation; and few
+are so destitute of sympathy as not to feel discomfort when this is
+realised. If he has no such sympathy, and if his desires leading to bad
+actions are at the time strong, and when recalled are not overmastered
+by the persistent social instincts, then he is essentially a bad
+man;[122] and the sole restraining motive left is the fear of
+punishment, and the conviction that in the long run it would be best for
+his own selfish interests to regard the good of others rather than his
+own.
+
+It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience gratify his own
+desires, if they do not interfere with his social instincts, that is
+with the good of others; but in order to be quite free from
+self-reproach, or at least of anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to
+avoid the disapprobation, whether reasonable or not, of his fellow men.
+Nor must he break through the fixed habits of his life, especially if
+these are supported by reason; for if he does, he will assuredly feel
+dissatisfaction. He must likewise avoid the reprobation of the one God
+or gods, in whom according to his knowledge or superstition he may
+believe; but in this case the additional fear of divine punishment often
+supervenes.
+
+
+_The strictly Social Virtues at first alone regarded._--The above view
+of the first origin and nature of the moral sense, which tells us what
+we ought to do, and of the conscience which reproves us if we disobey
+it, accords well with what we see of the early and undeveloped condition
+of this faculty in mankind. The virtues which must be practised, at
+least generally, by rude men, so that they may associate in a body, are
+those which are still recognised as the most important. But they are
+practised almost exclusively in relation to the men of the same tribe;
+and their opposites are not regarded as crimes in relation to the men of
+other tribes. No tribe could hold together if murder, robbery,
+treachery, &c., were common; consequently such crimes within the limits
+of the same tribe "are branded with everlasting infamy;"[123] but excite
+no such sentiment beyond these limits. A North-American Indian is well
+pleased with himself, and is honoured by others, when he scalps a man of
+another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending person
+and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on the
+largest scale throughout the world,[124] and has met with no reproach;
+but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be good for
+the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former times was
+not generally considered as a crime,[125] but rather from the courage
+displayed as an honourable act; and it is still largely practised by
+some semi-civilised nations without reproach, for the loss to a nation
+of a single individual is not felt: whatever the explanation may be,
+suicide, as I hear from Sir J. Lubbock, is rarely practised by the
+lowest barbarians. It has been recorded that an Indian Thug
+conscientiously regretted that he had not strangled and robbed as many
+travellers as did his father before him. In a rude state of civilisation
+the robbery of strangers is, indeed, generally considered as honourable.
+
+The great sin of Slavery has been almost universal, and slaves have
+often been treated in an infamous manner. As barbarians do not regard
+the opinion of their women, wives are commonly treated like slaves. Most
+savages are utterly indifferent to the sufferings of strangers, or even
+delight in witnessing them. It is well known that the women and children
+of the North-American Indians aided in torturing their enemies. Some
+savages take a horrid pleasure in cruelty to animals,[126] and humanity
+with them is an unknown virtue. Nevertheless, feelings of sympathy and
+kindness are common, especially during sickness, between the members of
+the same tribe, and are sometimes extended beyond the limits of the
+tribe. Mungo Park's touching account of the kindness of the negro women
+of the interior to him is well known. Many instances could be given of
+the noble fidelity of savages towards each other, but not to strangers;
+common experience justifies the maxim of the Spaniard, "Never, never
+trust an Indian." There cannot be fidelity without truth; and this
+fundamental virtue is not rare between the members of the same tribe:
+thus Mungo Park heard the negro women teaching their young children to
+love the truth. This, again, is one of the virtues which becomes so
+deeply rooted in the mind that it is sometimes practised by savages even
+at a high cost, towards strangers; but to lie to your enemy has rarely
+been thought a sin, as the history of modern diplomacy too plainly
+shews. As soon as a tribe has a recognised leader, disobedience becomes
+a crime, and even abject submission is looked at as a sacred virtue.
+
+As during rude times no man can be useful or faithful to his tribe
+without courage, this quality has universally been placed in the highest
+rank; and although, in civilised countries, a good, yet timid, man may
+be far more useful to the community than a brave one, we cannot help
+instinctively honouring the latter above a coward, however benevolent.
+Prudence, on the other hand, which does not concern the welfare of
+others, though a very useful virtue, has never been highly esteemed. As
+no man can practise the virtues necessary for the welfare of his tribe
+without self-sacrifice, self-command, and the power of endurance, these
+qualities have been at all times highly and most justly valued. The
+American savage voluntarily submits without a groan to the most horrid
+tortures to prove and strengthen his fortitude and courage; and we
+cannot help admiring him, or even an Indian Fakir, who, from a foolish
+religious motive, swings suspended by a hook buried in his flesh.
+
+The other self-regarding virtues, which do not obviously, though they
+may really, affect the welfare of the tribe, have never been esteemed by
+savages, though now highly appreciated by civilised nations. The
+greatest intemperance with savages is no reproach. Their utter
+licentiousness, not to mention unnatural crimes, is something
+astounding.[127] As soon, however, as marriage, whether polygamous or
+monogamous, becomes common, jealousy will lead to the inculcation of
+female virtue; and this being honoured will tend to spread to the
+unmarried females. How slowly it spreads to the male sex we see at the
+present day. Chastity eminently requires self-command; therefore it has
+been honoured from a very early period in the moral history of civilised
+man. As a consequence of this, the senseless practice of celibacy has
+been ranked from a remote period as a virtue.[128] The hatred of
+indecency, which appears to us so natural as to be thought innate, and
+which is so valuable an aid to chastity, is a modern virtue,
+appertaining exclusively, as Sir G. Staunton remarks,[129] to civilised
+life. This is shewn by the ancient religious rites of various nations,
+by the drawings on the walls of Pompeii, and by the practices of many
+savages.
+
+We have now seen that actions are regarded by savages, and were probably
+so regarded by primeval man, as good or bad, solely as they affect in an
+obvious manner the welfare of the tribe,--not that of the species, nor
+that of man as an individual member of the tribe. This conclusion
+agrees well with the belief that the so-called moral sense is
+aboriginally derived from the social instincts, for both relate at first
+exclusively to the community. The chief causes of the low morality of
+savages, as judged by our standard, are, firstly, the confinement of
+sympathy to the same tribe. Secondly, insufficient powers of reasoning,
+so that the bearing of many virtues, especially of the self-regarding
+virtues, on the general welfare of the tribe is not recognised. Savages,
+for instance, fail to trace the multiplied evils consequent on a want of
+temperance, chastity, &c. And, thirdly, weak power of self-command; for
+this power has not been strengthened through long-continued, perhaps
+inherited, habit, instruction and religion.
+
+I have entered into the above details on the immorality of savages,[130]
+because some authors have recently taken a high view of their moral
+nature, or have attributed most of their crimes to mistaken
+benevolence.[131] These authors appear to rest their conclusion on
+savages possessing, as they undoubtedly do possess, and often in a high
+degree, those virtues which are serviceable, or even necessary, for the
+existence of a tribal community.
+
+
+_Concluding Remarks._--Philosophers of the derivative[132] school of
+morals formerly assumed that the foundation of morality lay in a form of
+Selfishness; but more recently in the "Greatest Happiness principle."
+According to the view given above, the moral sense is fundamentally
+identical with the social instincts; and in the case of the lower
+animals it would be absurd to speak of these instincts as having been
+developed from selfishness, or for the happiness of the community. They
+have, however, certainly been developed for the general good of the
+community. The term, general good, may be defined as the means by which
+the greatest possible number of individuals can be reared in full vigour
+and health, with all their faculties perfect, under the conditions to
+which they are exposed. As the social instincts both of man and the
+lower animals have no doubt been developed by the same steps, it would
+be advisable, if found practicable, to use the same definition in both
+cases, and to take as the test of morality, the general good or welfare
+of the community, rather than the general happiness; but this definition
+would perhaps require some limitation on account of political ethics.
+
+When a man risks his life to save that of a fellow-creature, it seems
+more appropriate to say that he acts for the general good or welfare,
+rather than for the general happiness of mankind. No doubt the welfare
+and the happiness of the individual usually coincide; and a contented,
+happy tribe will flourish better than one that is discontented and
+unhappy. We have seen that at an early period in the history of man, the
+expressed wishes of the community will have naturally influenced to a
+large extent the conduct of each member; and as all wish for happiness,
+the "greatest happiness principle" will have become a most important
+secondary guide and object; the social instincts, including sympathy,
+always serving as the primary impulse and guide. Thus the reproach of
+laying the foundation of the most noble part of our nature in the base
+principle of selfishness is removed; unless indeed the satisfaction
+which every animal feels when it follows its proper instincts, and the
+dissatisfaction felt when prevented, be called selfish.
+
+The expression of the wishes and judgment of the members of the same
+community, at first by oral and afterwards by written language, serves,
+as just remarked, as a most important secondary guide of conduct, in aid
+of the social instincts, but sometimes in opposition to them. This
+latter fact is well exemplified by the _Law of Honour_, that is the law
+of the opinion of our equals, and not of all our countrymen. The breach
+of this law, even when the breach is known to be strictly accordant with
+true morality, has caused many a man more agony than a real crime. We
+recognise the same influence in the burning sense of shame which most of
+us have felt even after the interval of years, when calling to mind some
+accidental breach of a trifling though fixed rule of etiquette. The
+judgment of the community will generally be guided by some rude
+experience of what is best in the long run for all the members; but this
+judgment will not rarely err from ignorance and from weak powers of
+reasoning. Hence the strangest customs and superstitions, in complete
+opposition to the true welfare and happiness of mankind, have become
+all-powerful throughout the world. We see this in the horror felt by a
+Hindoo who breaks his caste, in the shame of a Mahometan woman who
+exposes her face, and in innumerable other instances. It would be
+difficult to distinguish between the remorse felt by a Hindoo who has
+eaten unclean food, from that felt after committing a theft; but the
+former would probably be the more severe.
+
+How so many absurd rules of conduct, as well as so many absurd religious
+beliefs, have originated we do not know; nor how it is that they have
+become, in all quarters of the world, so deeply impressed on the mind
+of men; but it is worthy of remark that a belief constantly inculcated
+during the early years of life, whilst the brain is impressible, appears
+to acquire almost the nature of an instinct; and the very essence of an
+instinct is that it is followed independently of reason. Neither can we
+say why certain admirable virtues, such as the love of truth, are much
+more highly appreciated by some savage tribes than by others;[133] nor,
+again, why similar differences prevail even amongst civilised nations.
+Knowing how firmly fixed many strange customs and superstitions have
+become, we need feel no surprise that the self-regarding virtues should
+now appear to us so natural, supported as they are by reason, as to be
+thought innate, although they were not valued by man in his early
+condition.
+
+Notwithstanding many sources of doubt, man can generally and readily
+distinguish between the higher and lower moral rules. The higher are
+founded on the social instincts, and relate to the welfare of others.
+They are supported by the approbation of our fellow-men and by reason.
+The lower rules, though some of them when implying self-sacrifice hardly
+deserve to be called lower, relate chiefly to self, and owe their origin
+to public opinion, when matured by experience and cultivated; for they
+are not practised by rude tribes.
+
+As man advances in civilisation, and small tribes are united into larger
+communities, the simplest reason would tell each individual that he
+ought to extend his social instincts and sympathies to all the members
+of the same nation, though personally unknown to him. This point being
+once reached, there is only an artificial barrier to prevent his
+sympathies extending to the men of all nations and races. If, indeed,
+such men are separated from him by great differences in appearance or
+habits, experience unfortunately shews us how long it is before we look
+at them as our fellow-creatures. Sympathy beyond the confines of man,
+that is humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest
+moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages, except towards
+their pets. How little the old Romans knew of it is shewn by their
+abhorrent gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as
+I could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos of the Pampas. This
+virtue, one of the noblest with which man is endowed, seems to arise
+incidentally from our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely
+diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings. As soon as
+this virtue is honoured and practised by some few men, it spreads
+through instruction and example to the young, and eventually through
+public opinion.
+
+The highest stage in moral culture at which we can arrive, is when we
+recognise that we ought to control our thoughts, and "not even in inmost
+thought to think again the sins that made the past so pleasant to
+us."[134] Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind, renders
+its performance by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago said,
+"Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will be the character of
+thy mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts."[135]
+
+Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently explained his views
+on the moral sense. He says,[136] "I believe that the experiences of
+utility organised and consolidated through all past generations of the
+human race, have been producing corresponding modifications, which, by
+continued transmission and accumulation, have become in us certain
+faculties of moral intuition--certain emotions responding to right and
+wrong conduct, which have no apparent basis in the individual
+experiences of utility." There is not the least inherent improbability,
+as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies being more or less strongly
+inherited; for, not to mention the various dispositions and habits
+transmitted by many of our domestic animals, I have heard of cases in
+which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie appeared to run in
+families of the upper ranks; and as stealing is so rare a crime in the
+wealthy classes, we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the
+tendency occurring in two or three members of the same family. If bad
+tendencies are transmitted, it is probable that good ones are likewise
+transmitted. Excepting through the principle of the transmission of
+moral tendencies, we cannot understand the differences believed to exist
+in this respect between the various races of mankind. We have, however,
+as yet, hardly sufficient evidence on this head.
+
+Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies would be an immense
+assistance to the primary impulse derived directly from the social
+instincts, and indirectly from the approbation of our fellow-men.
+Admitting for the moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited, it
+appears probable, at least in such cases as chastity, temperance,
+humanity to animals, &c., that they become first impressed on the mental
+organisation through habit, instruction, and example, continued during
+several generations in the same family, and in a quite subordinate
+degree, or not at all, by the individuals possessing such virtues,
+having succeeded best in the struggle for life. My chief source of doubt
+with respect to any such inheritance, is that senseless customs,
+superstitions, and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for unclean
+food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted. Although this in
+itself is perhaps not less probable than that animals should acquire
+inherited tastes for certain kinds of food or fear of certain foes, I
+have not met with any evidence in support of the transmission of
+superstitious customs or senseless habits.
+
+
+Finally, the social instincts which no doubt were acquired by man, as by
+the lower animals, for the good of the community, will from the first
+have given to him some wish to aid his fellows, and some feeling of
+sympathy. Such impulses will have served him at a very early period as a
+rude rule of right and wrong. But as man gradually advanced in
+intellectual power and was enabled to trace the more remote consequences
+of his actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to reject baneful
+customs and superstitions; as he regarded more and more not only the
+welfare but the happiness of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on
+beneficial experience, instruction, and example, his sympathies became
+more tender and widely diffused, so as to extend to the men of all
+races, to the imbecile, the maimed, and other useless members of
+society, and finally to the lower animals,--so would the standard of his
+morality rise higher and higher. And it is admitted by moralists of the
+derivative school and by some intuitionists, that the standard of
+morality has risen since an early period in the history of man.[137]
+
+As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on between the various
+instincts of the lower animals, it is not surprising that there should
+be a struggle in man between his social instincts, with their derived
+virtues, and his lower, though at the moment, stronger impulses or
+desires. This, as Mr. Galton[138] has remarked, is all the less
+surprising, as man has emerged from a state of barbarism within a
+comparatively recent period. After having yielded to some temptation we
+feel a sense of dissatisfaction, analogous to that felt from other
+unsatisfied instincts, called in this case conscience; for we cannot
+prevent past images and impressions continually passing through our
+minds, and these in their weakened state we compare with the
+ever-present social instincts, or with habits gained in early youth and
+strengthened during our whole lives, perhaps inherited, so that they are
+at last rendered almost as strong as instincts. Looking to future
+generations, there is no cause to fear that the social instincts will
+grow weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow stronger,
+becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle between
+our higher and lower impulses will be less severe, and virtue will be
+triumphant.
+
+
+_Summary of the two last Chapters._--There can be no doubt that the
+difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest
+animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a
+dispassionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could
+form an artful plan to plunder a garden--though he could use stones for
+fighting or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning
+a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would
+admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a
+mathematical problem, or reflect on God, or admire a grand natural
+scene. Some apes, however, would probably declare that they could and
+did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of their partners in
+marriage. They would admit, that though they could make other apes
+understand by cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the
+notion of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had never crossed
+their minds. They might insist that they were ready to aid their
+fellow-apes of the same troop in many ways, to risk their lives for
+them, and to take charge of their orphans; but they would be forced to
+acknowledge that disinterested love for all living creatures, the most
+noble attribute of man, was quite beyond their comprehension.
+
+Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals,
+great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind. We have seen
+that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such
+as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, &c., of which
+man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a
+well-developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of
+some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic dog compared with
+the wolf or jackal. If it be maintained that certain powers, such as
+self-consciousness, abstraction, &c., are peculiar to man, it may well
+be that these are the incidental results of other highly-advanced
+intellectual faculties; and these again are mainly the result of the
+continued use of a highly developed language. At what age does the
+new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become
+self-conscious and reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor
+can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale. The half-art and
+half-instinct of language still bears the stamp of its gradual
+evolution. The ennobling belief in God is not universal with man; and
+the belief in active spiritual agencies naturally follows from his other
+mental powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and highest
+distinction between man and the lower animals; but I need not say
+anything on this head, as I have so lately endeavoured to shew
+that the social instincts,--the prime principle of man's moral
+constitution[139]--with the aid of active intellectual powers and the
+effects of habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, "As ye would that
+men should do to you, do ye to them likewise;" and this lies at the
+foundation of morality.
+
+In a future chapter I shall make some few remarks on the probable steps
+and means by which the several mental and moral faculties of man have
+been gradually evolved. That this at least is possible ought not to be
+denied, when we daily see their development in every infant; and when we
+may trace a perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower
+than that of the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man--Inheritance--Causes of
+  variability--Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals--Direct action of the conditions of life--Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts--Arrested
+  development--Reversion--Correlated variation--Rate of
+  increase--Checks to increase--Natural selection--Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world--Importance of his corporeal
+  structure--The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect--Consequent changes of structure--Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth--Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull--Nakedness--Absence of a tail--Defenceless condition of
+  man.
+
+
+We have seen in the first chapter that the homological structure of man,
+his embryological development and the rudiments which he still retains,
+all declare in the plainest manner that he is descended from some lower
+form. The possession of exalted mental powers is no insuperable
+objection to this conclusion. In order that an ape-like creature should
+have been transformed into man, it is necessary that this early form, as
+well as many successive links, should all have varied in mind and body.
+It is impossible to obtain direct evidence on this head; but if it can
+be shewn that man now varies--that his variations are induced by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws, as in the case of
+the lower animals--there can be little doubt that the preceding
+intermediate links varied in a like manner. The variations at each
+successive stage of descent must, also, have been in some manner
+accumulated and fixed.
+
+The facts and conclusions to be given in this chapter relate almost
+exclusively to the probable means by which the transformation of man has
+been effected, as far as his bodily structure is concerned. The
+following chapter will be devoted to the development of his intellectual
+and moral faculties. But the present discussion likewise bears on the
+origin of the different races or species of mankind, whichever term may
+be preferred.
+
+It is manifest that man is now subject to much variability. No two
+individuals of the same race are quite alike. We may compare millions of
+faces, and each will be distinct. There is an equally great amount of
+diversity in the proportions and dimensions of the various parts of the
+body; the length of the legs being one of the most variable points.[140]
+Although in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in other
+quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great diversity of shape
+even within the limits of the same race, as with the aborigines of
+America and South Australia,--the latter a race "probably as pure and
+homogeneous in blood, customs, and language as any in existence"--and
+even with the inhabitants of so confined an area as the Sandwich
+Islands.[141] An eminent dentist assures me that there is nearly as much
+diversity in the teeth, as in the features. The chief arteries so
+frequently run in abnormal courses, that it has been found useful for
+surgical purposes to calculate from 12,000 corpses how often each
+course prevails.[142] The muscles are eminently variable: thus those of
+the foot were found by Prof. Turner[143] not to be strictly alike in any
+two out of fifty bodies; and in some the deviations were considerable.
+Prof. Turner adds that the power of performing the appropriate movements
+must have been modified in accordance with the several deviations. Mr.
+J. Wood has recorded[144] the occurrence of 295 muscular variations in
+thirty-six subjects, and in another set of the same number no less than
+558 variations, reckoning both sides of the body as one. In the last
+set, not one body out of the thirty-six was "found totally wanting in
+departures from the standard descriptions of the muscular system given
+in anatomical text-books." A single body presented the extraordinary
+number of twenty-five distinct abnormalities. The same muscle sometimes
+varies in many ways: thus Prof. Macalister describes[145] no less than
+twenty distinct variations in the _palmaris accessorius_.
+
+The famous old anatomist, Wolff,[146] insists that the internal viscera
+are more variable than the external parts: _Nulla particula est qu� non
+aliter et aliter in aliis se habeat hominibus._ He has even written a
+treatise on the choice of typical examples of the viscera for
+representation. A discussion on the beau-ideal of the liver, lungs,
+kidneys, &c., as of the human face divine, sounds strange in our ears.
+
+The variability or diversity of the mental faculties in men of the same
+race, not to mention the greater differences between the men of
+distinct races, is so notorious that not a word need here be said. So it
+is with the lower animals, as has been illustrated by a few examples in
+the last chapter. All who have had charge of menageries admit this fact,
+and we see it plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Brehm
+especially insists that each individual monkey of those which he kept
+under confinement in Africa had its own peculiar disposition and temper:
+he mentions one baboon remarkable for its high intelligence; and the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey, belonging
+to the New World division, equally remarkable for intelligence. Rengger,
+also, insists on the diversity in the various mental characters of the
+monkeys of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and this
+diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly the result of the
+manner in which they have been treated or educated.[147]
+
+I have elsewhere[148] so fully discussed the subject of Inheritance that
+I need here add hardly anything. A greater number of facts have been
+collected with respect to the transmission of the most trifling, as well
+as of the most important characters in man than in any of the lower
+animals; though the facts are copious enough with respect to the latter.
+So in regard to mental qualities, their transmission is manifest in our
+dogs, horses, and other domestic animals. Besides special tastes and
+habits, general intelligence, courage, bad and good temper, &c., are
+certainly transmitted. With man we see similar facts in almost every
+family; and we now know through the admirable labours of Mr. Galton[149]
+that genius, which implies a wonderfully complex combination of high
+faculties, tends to be inherited; and, on the other hand, it is too
+certain that insanity and deteriorated mental powers likewise run in the
+same families.
+
+With respect to the causes of variability we are in all cases very
+ignorant; but we can see that in man as in the lower animals, they stand
+in some relation with the conditions to which each species has been
+exposed during several generations. Domesticated animals vary more than
+those in a state of nature; and this is apparently due to the
+diversified and changing nature of their conditions. The different races
+of man resemble in this respect domesticated animals, and so do the
+individuals of the same race when inhabiting a very wide area, like that
+of America. We see the influence of diversified conditions in the more
+civilised nations, the members of which belong to different grades of
+rank and follow different occupations, presenting a greater range of
+character than the members of barbarous nations. But the uniformity of
+savages has often been exaggerated, and in some cases can hardly be said
+to exist.[150] It is nevertheless an error to speak of man, even if we
+look only to the conditions to which he has been subjected, as "far more
+domesticated"[151] than any other animal. Some savage races, such as
+the Australians, are not exposed to more diversified conditions than are
+many species which have very wide ranges. In another and much more
+important respect, man differs widely from any strictly domesticated
+animal; for his breeding has not been controlled, either through
+methodical or unconscious selection. No race or body of men has been so
+completely subjugated by other men, that certain individuals have been
+preserved and thus unconsciously selected, from being in some way more
+useful to their masters. Nor have certain male and female individuals
+been intentionally picked out and matched, except in the well-known case
+of the Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man obeyed, as might have
+been expected, the law of methodical selection; for it is asserted that
+many tall men were reared in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers
+with their tall wives.
+
+If we consider all the races of man, as forming a single species, his
+range is enormous; but some separate races, as the Americans and
+Polynesians, have very wide ranges. It is a well-known law that
+widely-ranging species are much more variable than species with
+restricted ranges; and the variability of man may with more truth be
+compared with that of widely-ranging species, than with that of
+domesticated animals.
+
+Not only does variability appear to be induced in man and the lower
+animals by the same general causes, but in both the same characters are
+affected in a closely analogous manner. This has been proved in such
+full detail by Godron and Quatrefages, that I need here only refer to
+their works.[152] Monstrosities, which graduate into slight variations,
+are likewise so similar in man and the lower animals, that the same
+classification and the same terms can be used for both, as may be seen
+in Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire's great work.[153] This is a necessary
+consequence of the same laws of change prevailing throughout the animal
+kingdom. In my work on the variation of domestic animals, I have
+attempted to arrange in a rude fashion the laws of variation under the
+following heads:--The direct and definite action of changed conditions,
+as shewn by all or nearly all the individuals of the same species
+varying in the same manner under the same circumstances. The effects of
+the long-continued use or disuse of parts. The cohesion of homologous
+parts. The variability of multiple parts. Compensation of growth; but of
+this law I have found no good instances in the case of man. The effects
+of the mechanical pressure of one part on another; as of the pelvis on
+the cranium of the infant in the womb. Arrests of development, leading
+to the diminution or suppression of parts. The reappearance of long-lost
+characters through reversion. And lastly, correlated variation. All
+these so-called laws apply equally to man and the lower animals; and
+most of them even to plants. It would be superfluous here to discuss all
+of them;[154] but several are so important for us, that they must be
+treated at considerable length.
+
+
+_The direct and definite action of changed conditions._--This is a most
+perplexing subject. It cannot be denied that changed conditions produce
+some effect, and occasionally a considerable effect, on organisms of all
+kinds; and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time were
+allowed this would be the invariable result. But I have failed to obtain
+clear evidence in favour of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be
+urged on the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures
+are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. There can, however,
+be no doubt that changed conditions induce an almost indefinite amount
+of fluctuating variability, by which the whole organisation is rendered
+in some degree plastic.
+
+In the United States, above 1,000,000 soldiers, who served in the late
+war, were measured, and the States in which they were born and reared
+recorded.[155] From this astonishing number of observations it is proved
+that local influences of some kind act directly on stature; and we
+further learn that "the State where the physical growth has in great
+measure taken place, and the State of birth, which indicates the
+ancestry, seem to exert a marked influence on the stature." For instance
+it is established, "that residence in the Western States, during the
+years of growth, tends to produce increase of stature." On the other
+hand, it is certain that with sailors, their manner of life delays
+growth, as shewn "by the great difference between the statures of
+soldiers and sailors at the ages of 17 and 18 years." Mr. B. A. Gould
+endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the influences which thus act on
+stature; but he arrived only at negative results, namely, that they did
+not relate to climate, the elevation of the land, soil, nor even "in any
+controlling degree" to the abundance or need of the comforts of life.
+This latter conclusion is directly opposed to that arrived at by
+Villerm� from the statistics of the height of the conscripts in
+different parts of France. When we compare the differences in stature
+between the Polynesian chiefs and the lower orders within the same
+islands, or between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic and low
+barren coral islands of the same ocean,[156] or again between the
+Fuegians on the eastern and western shores of their country, where the
+means of subsistence are very different, it is scarcely possible to
+avoid the conclusion that better food and greater comfort do influence
+stature. But the preceding statements shew how difficult it is to arrive
+at any precise result. Dr. Beddoe has lately proved that, with the
+inhabitants of Britain, residence in towns and certain occupations have
+a deteriorating influence on height; and he infers that the result is to
+a certain extent inherited, as is likewise the case in the United
+States. Dr. Beddoe further believes that wherever a "race attains its
+maximum of physical development, it rises highest in energy and moral
+vigour."[157]
+
+Whether external conditions produce any other direct effect on man is
+not known. It might have been expected that differences of climate would
+have had a marked influence, as the lungs and kidneys are brought into
+fuller activity under a low temperature, and the liver and skin under a
+high one.[158] It was formerly thought that the colour of the skin and
+the character of the hair were determined by light or heat; and
+although it can hardly be denied that some effect is thus produced,
+almost all observers now agree that the effect has been very small, even
+after exposure during many ages. But this subject will be more properly
+discussed when we treat of the different races of mankind. With our
+domestic animals there are grounds for believing that cold and damp
+directly affect the growth of the hair; but I have not met with any
+evidence on this head in the case of man.
+
+
+_Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts._--It is well known
+that use strengthens the muscles in the individual, and complete disuse,
+or the destruction of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye is
+destroyed the optic nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is
+tied, the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in the
+thickness and strength of their coats. When one kidney ceases acting
+from disease, the other increases in size and does double work. Bones
+increase not only in thickness, but in length, from carrying a greater
+weight.[159] Different occupations habitually followed lead to changed
+proportions in various parts of the body. Thus it was clearly
+ascertained by the United States Commission[160] that the legs of the
+sailors employed in the late war were longer by 0.217 of an inch than
+those of the soldiers, though the sailors were on an average shorter
+men; whilst their arms were shorter by 1.09 of an inch, and therefore
+out of proportion shorter in relation to their lesser height. This
+shortness of the arms is apparently due to their greater use, and is an
+unexpected result; but sailors chiefly use their arms in pulling and not
+in supporting weights. The girth of the neck and the depth of the instep
+are greater, whilst the circumference of the chest, waist, and hips is
+less in sailors than in soldiers.
+
+Whether the several foregoing modifications would become hereditary, if
+the same habits of life were followed during many generations, is not
+known, but is probable. Rengger[161] attributes the thin legs and thick
+arms of the Payaguas Indians to successive generations having passed
+nearly their whole lives in canoes, with their lower extremities
+motionless. Other writers have come to a similar conclusion in other
+analogous cases. According to Cranz,[162] who lived for a long time with
+the Esquimaux, "the natives believe that ingenuity and dexterity in
+seal-catching (their highest art and virtue) is hereditary; there is
+really something in it, for the son of a celebrated seal-catcher will
+distinguish himself though he lost his father in childhood." But in this
+case it is mental aptitude, quite as much as bodily structure, which
+appears to be inherited. It is asserted that the hands of English
+labourers are at birth larger than those of the gentry.[163] From the
+correlation which exists, at least in some cases,[164] between the
+development of the extremities and of the jaws, it is possible that in
+those classes which do not labour much with their hands and feet, the
+jaws would be reduced in size from this cause. That they are generally
+smaller in refined and civilised men than in hard-working men or
+savages, is certain. But with savages, as Mr. Herbert Spencer[165] has
+remarked, the greater use of the jaws in chewing coarse, uncooked food,
+would act in a direct manner on the masticatory muscles and on the bones
+to which they are attached. In infants long before birth, the skin on
+the soles of the feet is thicker than on any other part of the
+body;[166] and it can hardly be doubted that this is due to the
+inherited effects of pressure during a long series of generations.
+
+It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and engravers are liable to
+become short-sighted, whilst sailors and especially savages are
+generally long-sighted. Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend to be
+inherited.[167] The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison with
+savages, in eyesight and in the other senses, is no doubt the
+accumulated and transmitted effect of lessened use during many
+generations; for Rengger[168] states that he has repeatedly observed
+Europeans, who had been brought up and spent their whole lives with the
+wild Indians, who nevertheless did not equal them in the sharpness of
+their senses. The same naturalist observes that the cavities in the
+skull for the reception of the several sense-organs are larger in the
+American aborigines than in Europeans; and this no doubt indicates a
+corresponding difference in the dimensions of the organs themselves.
+Blumenbach has also remarked on the large size of the nasal cavities in
+the skulls of the American aborigines, and connects this fact with their
+remarkably acute power of smell. The Mongolians of the plains of
+Northern Asia, according to Pallas, have wonderfully perfect senses; and
+Prichard believes that the great breadth of their skulls across the
+zygomas follows from their highly-developed sense-organs.[169]
+
+The Quechua Indians inhabit the lofty plateaux of Peru, and Alcide
+d'Orbigny states[170] that from continually breathing a highly rarefied
+atmosphere they have acquired chests and lungs of extraordinary
+dimensions. The cells, also, of the lungs are larger and more numerous
+than in Europeans. These observations have been doubted; but Mr. D.
+Forbes carefully measured many Aymaras, an allied race, living at the
+height of between ten and fifteen thousand feet; and he informs me[171]
+that they differ conspicuously from the men of all other races seen by
+him, in the circumference and length of their bodies. In his table of
+measurements, the stature of each man is taken at 1000, and the other
+measurements are reduced to this standard. It is here seen that the
+extended arms of the Aymaras are shorter than those of Europeans, and
+much shorter than those of Negroes. The legs are likewise shorter, and
+they present this remarkable peculiarity, that in every Aymara measured
+the femur is actually shorter than the tibia. On an average the length
+of the femur to that of the tibia is as 211 to 252; whilst in two
+Europeans measured at the same time, the femora to the tibi� were as
+244 to 230; and in three Negroes as 258 to 241. The humerus is likewise
+shorter relatively to the fore-arm. This shortening of that part of the
+limb which is nearest to the body, appears to be, as suggested to me by
+Mr. Forbes, a case of compensation in relation with the greatly
+increased length of the trunk. The Aymaras present some other singular
+points of structure, for instance, the very small projection of the
+heel.
+
+These men are so thoroughly acclimatised to their cold and lofty abode,
+that when formerly carried down by the Spaniards to the low Eastern
+plains, and when now tempted down by high wages to the gold-washings,
+they suffer a frightful rate of mortality. Nevertheless Mr. Forbes found
+a few pure families which had survived during two generations; and he
+observed that they still inherited their characteristic peculiarities.
+But it was manifest, even without measurement, that these peculiarities
+had all decreased; and on measurement their bodies were found not to be
+so much elongated as those of the men on the high plateau; whilst their
+femora had become somewhat lengthened, as had their tibi� but in a less
+degree. The actual measurements may be seen by consulting Mr. Forbes'
+memoir. From these valuable observations, there can, I think, be no
+doubt that residence during many generations at a great elevation tends,
+both directly and indirectly, to induce inherited modifications in the
+proportions of the body.[172]
+
+Although man may not have been much modified during the latter stages of
+his existence through the increased or decreased use of parts, the
+facts now given shew that his liability in this respect has not been
+lost; and we positively know that the same law holds good with the lower
+animals. Consequently we may infer, that when at a remote epoch the
+progenitors of man were in a transitional state, and were changing from
+quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would probably have been
+greatly aided by the inherited effects of the increased or diminished
+use of the different parts of the body.
+
+
+_Arrests of Development._--Arrested development differs from arrested
+growth, as parts in the former state continue to grow whilst still
+retaining their early condition. Various monstrosities come under this
+head, and some are known to be occasionally inherited, as a
+cleft-palate. It will suffice for our purpose to refer to the arrested
+brain-development of microcephalous idiots, as described in Vogt's great
+memoir.[173] Their skulls are smaller, and the convolutions of the brain
+are less complex than in normal men. The frontal sinus, or the
+projection over the eyebrows, is largely developed, and the jaws are
+prognathous to an "_effrayant_" degree; so that these idiots somewhat
+resemble the lower types of mankind. Their intelligence and most of
+their mental faculties are extremely feeble. They cannot acquire the
+power of speech, and are wholly incapable of prolonged attention, but
+are much given to imitation. They are strong and remarkably active,
+continually gamboling and jumping about, and making grimaces. They often
+ascend stairs on all-fours; and are curiously fond of climbing up
+furniture or trees. We are thus reminded of the delight shewn by almost
+all boys in climbing trees; and this again reminds us how lambs and
+kids, originally alpine animals, delight to frisk on any hillock,
+however small.
+
+
+_Reversion._--Many of the cases to be here given might have been
+introduced under the last heading. Whenever a structure is arrested in
+its development, but still continues growing until it closely resembles
+a corresponding structure in some lower and adult member of the same
+group, we may in one sense consider it as a case of reversion. The lower
+members in a group give us some idea how the common progenitor of the
+group was probably constructed; and it is hardly credible that a part
+arrested at an early phase of embryonic development should be enabled to
+continue growing so as ultimately to perform its proper function, unless
+it had acquired this power of continued growth during some earlier state
+of existence, when the present exceptional or arrested structure was
+normal. The simple brain of a microcephalous idiot, in as far as it
+resembles that of an ape, may in this sense be said to offer a case of
+reversion. There are other cases which come more strictly under our
+present heading of reversion. Certain structures, regularly occurring in
+the lower members of the group to which man belongs, occasionally make
+their appearance in him, though not found in the normal human embryo;
+or, if present in the normal human embryo, they become developed in an
+abnormal manner, though this manner of development is proper to the
+lower members of the same group. These remarks will be rendered clearer
+by the following illustrations.
+
+In various mammals the uterus graduates from a double organ with two
+distinct orifices and two passages, as in the marsupials, into a single
+organ, showing no signs of doubleness except a slight internal fold, as
+in the higher apes and man. The rodents exhibit a perfect series of
+gradations between these two extreme states. In all mammals the uterus
+is developed from two simple primitive tubes, the inferior portions of
+which form the cornua; and it is in the words of Dr. Farre "by the
+coalescence of the two cornua at their lower extremities that the body
+of the uterus is formed in man; while in those animals in which no
+middle portion or body exists, the cornua remain ununited. As the
+development of the uterus proceeds, the two cornua become gradually
+shorter, until at length they are lost, or, as it were, absorbed into
+the body of the uterus." The angles of the uterus are still produced
+into cornua, even so high in the scale as in the lower apes, and their
+allies the lemurs.
+
+Now in women anomalous cases are not very infrequent, in which the
+mature uterus is furnished with cornua, or is partially divided into two
+organs; and such cases, according to Owen, repeat "the grade of
+concentrative development," attained by certain rodents. Here perhaps we
+have an instance of a simple arrest of embryonic development, with
+subsequent growth and perfect functional development, for either side of
+the partially double uterus is capable of performing the proper office
+of gestation. In other and rarer cases, two distinct uterine cavities
+are formed, each having its proper orifice and passage.[174] No such
+stage is passed through during the ordinary development of the embryo,
+and it is difficult to believe, though perhaps not impossible, that the
+two simple, minute, primitive tubes could know how (if such an
+expression may be used) to grow into two distinct uteri, each with a
+well-constructed orifice and passage, and each furnished with numerous
+muscles, nerves, glands and vessels, if they had not formerly passed
+through a similar course of development, as in the case of existing
+marsupials. No one will pretend that so perfect a structure as the
+abnormal double uterus in woman could be the result of mere chance. But
+the principle of reversion, by which long-lost dormant structures are
+called back into existence, might serve as the guide for the full
+development of the organ, even after the lapse of an enormous interval
+of time.
+
+Professor Canestrini,[175] after discussing the foregoing and various
+analogous cases, arrives at the same conclusion as that just given. He
+adduces, as another instance, the malar bone, which, in some of the
+Quadrumana and other mammals, normally consists of two portions. This is
+its condition in the two-months-old human foetus; and thus it
+sometimes remains, through arrested development, in man when adult, more
+especially in the lower prognathous races. Hence Canestrini concludes
+that some ancient progenitor of man must have possessed this bone
+normally divided into two portions, which subsequently became fused
+together. In man the frontal bone consists of a single piece, but in the
+embryo and in children, and in almost all the lower mammals, it consists
+of two pieces separated by a distinct suture. This suture occasionally
+persists, more or less distinctly, in man after maturity, and more
+frequently in ancient than in recent crania, especially as Canestrini
+has observed in those exhumed from the Drift and belonging to the
+brachycephalic type. Here again he comes to the same conclusion as in
+the analogous case of the malar bones. In this and other instances
+presently to be given, the cause of ancient races approaching the lower
+animals in certain characters more frequently than do the modern races,
+appears to be that the latter stand at a somewhat greater distance in
+the long line of descent from their early semi-human progenitors.
+
+Various other anomalies in man, more or less analogous with the
+foregoing, have been advanced by different authors[176] as cases of
+reversion; but these seem not a little doubtful, for we have to descend
+extremely low in the mammalian series before we find such structures
+normally present.[177]
+
+In man the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for
+mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen[178] remarks, "is
+indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates in an
+obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the
+base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is
+best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The
+canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the
+incisors." Nevertheless this tooth no longer serves man as a special
+weapon for tearing his enemies or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its
+proper function is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every
+large collection of human skulls some may be found, as H�ckel[179]
+observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably beyond the
+others in the same manner, but in a less degree, as in the
+anthropomorphous apes. In these cases, open spaces between the teeth in
+the one jaw are left for the reception of the canines belonging to the
+opposite jaw. An interspace of this kind in a Kaffir skull, figured by
+Wagner, is surprisingly wide.[180] Considering how few ancient skulls
+have been examined in comparison with recent skulls, it is an
+interesting fact that in at least three cases the canines project
+largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as enormous.[181]
+
+The males alone of the anthropomorphous apes have their canines fully
+developed; but in the female gorilla, and in a less degree in the female
+orang, these teeth project considerably beyond the others; therefore the
+fact that women sometimes have, as I have been assured, considerably
+projecting canines, is no serious objection to the belief that their
+occasional great development in man is a case of reversion to an
+ape-like progenitor. He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape
+of his own canines, and their occasional great development in other men,
+are due to our early progenitors having been provided with these
+formidable weapons, will probably reveal by sneering the line of his
+descent. For though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use
+these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his "snarling
+muscles" (thus named by Sir C. Bell)[182] so as to expose them ready for
+action, like a dog prepared to fight.
+
+Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, which are proper to the
+Quadrumana or other mammals. Professor Vlacovich[183] examined forty
+male subjects, and found a muscle, called by him the ischiopubic, in
+nineteen of them; in three others there was a ligament which represented
+this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen no trace of it. Out of thirty
+female subjects this muscle was developed on both sides in only two, but
+in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. This muscle,
+therefore, appears to be much more common in the male than in the female
+sex; and on the principle of the descent of man from some lower form,
+its presence can be understood; for it has been detected in several of
+the lower animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the
+male in the act of reproduction.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, in his valuable series of papers,[184] has minutely
+described a vast number of muscular variations in man, which resemble
+normal structures in the lower animals. Looking only to the muscles
+which closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest allies,
+the Quadrumana, they are too numerous to be here even specified. In a
+single male subject, having a strong bodily frame and well-formed skull,
+no less than seven muscular variations were observed, all of which
+plainly represented muscles proper to various kinds of apes. This man,
+for instance, had on both sides of his neck a true and powerful
+"_levator clavicul�_," such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which
+is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects.[185] Again,
+this man had "a special abductor of the metatarsal bone of the fifth
+digit, such as Professor Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn to exist
+uniformly in the higher and lower apes." The hands and arms of man are
+eminently characteristic structures, but their muscles are extremely
+liable to vary, so as to resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower
+animals.[186] Such resemblances are either complete and perfect or
+imperfect, yet in this latter case manifestly of a transitional nature.
+Certain variations are more common in man, and others in woman, without
+our being able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing numerous
+cases, makes the following pregnant remark: "Notable departures from the
+ordinary type of the muscular structures run in grooves or directions,
+which must be taken to indicate some unknown factor, of much importance
+to a comprehensive knowledge of general and scientific anatomy."[187]
+
+That this unknown factor is reversion to a former state of existence may
+be admitted as in the highest degree probable. It is quite incredible
+that a man should through mere accident abnormally resemble, in no less
+than seven of his muscles, certain apes, if there had been no genetic
+connection between them. On the other hand, if man is descended from
+some ape-like creature, no valid reason can be assigned why certain
+muscles should not suddenly reappear after an interval of many thousand
+generations, in the same manner as with horses, asses, and mules,
+dark-coloured stripes suddenly reappear on the legs and shoulders, after
+an interval of hundreds, or more probably thousands, of generations.
+
+These various cases of reversion are so closely related to those of
+rudimentary organs given in the first chapter, that many of them might
+have been indifferently introduced in either chapter. Thus a human
+uterus furnished with cornua may be said to represent in a rudimentary
+condition the same organ in its normal state in certain mammals. Some
+parts which are rudimental in man, as the os coccyx in both sexes and
+the mamm� in the male sex, are always present; whilst others, such as
+the supra-condyloid foramen, only occasionally appear, and therefore
+might have been introduced under the head of reversion. These several
+reversionary, as well as the strictly rudimentary, structures reveal the
+descent of man from some lower form in an unmistakeable manner.
+
+
+_Correlated Variation._--In man, as in the lower animals, many
+structures are so intimately related, that when one part varies so does
+another, without our being able, in most cases, to assign any reason. We
+cannot say whether the one part governs the other, or whether both are
+governed by some earlier developed part. Various monstrosities, as I.
+Geoffroy repeatedly insists, are thus intimately connected. Homologous
+structures are particularly liable to change together, as we see on the
+opposite sides of the body, and in the upper and lower extremities.
+Meckel long ago remarked that when the muscles of the arm depart from
+their proper type, they almost always imitate those of the leg; and so
+conversely with the muscles of the legs. The organs of sight and
+hearing, the teeth and hair, the colour of the skin and hair, colour and
+constitution, are more or less correlated.[188] Professor Schaaffhausen
+first drew attention to the relation apparently existing between a
+muscular frame and strongly-pronounced supra-orbital ridges, which are
+so characteristic of the lower races of man.
+
+Besides the variations which can be grouped with more or less
+probability under the foregoing heads, there is a large class of
+variations which may be provisionally called spontaneous, for they
+appear, owing to our ignorance, to arise without any exciting cause. It
+can, however, be shewn that such variations, whether consisting of
+slight individual differences, or of strongly-marked and abrupt
+deviations of structure, depend much more on the constitution of the
+organism than on the nature of the conditions to which it has been
+subjected.[189]
+
+
+_Rate of Increase._--Civilised populations have been known under
+favourable conditions, as in the United States, to double their number
+in twenty-five years; and according to a calculation by Euler, this
+might occur in a little over twelve years.[190] At the former rate the
+present population of the United States, namely, thirty millions, would
+in 657 years cover the whole terraqueous globe so thickly, that four men
+would have to stand on each square yard of surface. The primary or
+fundamental check to the continued increase of man is the difficulty of
+gaining subsistence and of living in comfort. We may infer that this is
+the case from what we see, for instance, in the United States, where
+subsistence is easy and there is plenty of room. If such means were
+suddenly doubled in Great Britain, our number would be quickly doubled.
+With civilised nations the above primary check acts chiefly by
+restraining marriages. The greater death-rate of infants in the poorest
+classes is also very important; as well as the greater mortality at all
+ages, and from various diseases, of the inhabitants of crowded and
+miserable houses. The effects of severe epidemics and wars are soon
+counterbalanced, and more than counterbalanced, in nations placed under
+favourable conditions. Emigration also comes in aid as a temporary
+check, but not to any great extent with the extremely poor classes.
+
+There is reason to suspect, as Malthus has remarked, that the
+reproductive power is actually less in barbarous than in civilised
+races. We know nothing positively on this head, for with savages no
+census has been taken; but from the concurrent testimony of
+missionaries, and of others who have long resided with such people, it
+appears that their families are usually small, and large ones rare. This
+may be partly accounted for, as it is believed, by the women suckling
+their infants for a prolonged period; but it is highly probable that
+savages, who often suffer much hardship, and who do not obtain so much
+nutritious food as civilised men, would be actually less prolific. I
+have shewn in a former work,[191] that all our domesticated quadrupeds
+and birds, and all our cultivated plants, are more fertile than the
+corresponding species in a state of nature. It is no valid objection to
+this conclusion that animals suddenly supplied with an excess of food,
+or when rendered very fat, and that most plants when suddenly removed
+from very poor to very rich soil, are rendered more or less sterile. We
+might, therefore, expect that civilised men, who in one sense are highly
+domesticated, would be more prolific than wild men. It is also probable
+that the increased fertility of civilised nations would become, as with
+our domestic animals, an inherited character: it is at least known that
+with mankind a tendency to produce twins runs in families.[192]
+
+Notwithstanding that savages appear to be less prolific than civilised
+people, they would no doubt rapidly increase if their numbers were not
+by some means rigidly kept down. The Santali, or hill-tribes of India,
+have recently afforded a good illustration of this fact; for they have
+increased, as shewn by Mr. Hunter,[193] at an extraordinary rate since
+vaccination has been introduced, other pestilences mitigated, and war
+sternly repressed. This increase, however, would not have been possible
+had not these rude people spread into the adjoining districts and worked
+for hire. Savages almost always marry; yet there is some prudential
+restraint, for they do not commonly marry at the earliest possible age.
+The young men are often required to show that they can support a wife,
+and they generally have first to earn the price with which to purchase
+her from her parents. With savages the difficulty of obtaining
+subsistence occasionally limits their number in a much more direct
+manner than with civilised people, for all tribes periodically suffer
+from severe famines. At such times savages are forced to devour much bad
+food, and their health can hardly fail to be injured. Many accounts have
+been published of their protruding stomachs and emaciated limbs after
+and during famines. They are then, also, compelled to wander much about,
+and their infants, as I was assured in Australia, perish in large
+numbers. As famines are periodical, depending chiefly on extreme
+seasons, all tribes must fluctuate in number. They cannot steadily and
+regularly increase, as there is no artificial increase in the supply of
+food. Savages when hardly pressed encroach on each other's territories,
+and war is the result; but they are indeed almost always at war with
+their neighbours. They are liable to many accidents on land and water in
+their search for food; and in some countries they must suffer much from
+the larger beasts of prey. Even in India, districts have been
+depopulated by the ravages of tigers.
+
+Malthus has discussed these several checks, but he does not lay stress
+enough on what is probably the most important of all, namely
+infanticide, especially of female infants, and the habit of procuring
+abortion. These practices now prevail in many quarters of the world, and
+infanticide seems formerly to have prevailed, as Mr. M'Lennan[194] has
+shewn, on a still more extensive scale. These practices appear to have
+originated in savages recognising the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility of supporting all the infants that are born.
+Licentiousness may also be added to the foregoing checks; but this does
+not follow from failing means of subsistence; though there is reason to
+believe that in some cases (as in Japan) it has been intentionally
+encouraged as a means of keeping down the population.
+
+If we look back to an extremely remote epoch, before man had arrived at
+the dignity of manhood, he would have been guided more by instinct and
+less by reason than are savages at the present time. Our early
+semi-human progenitors would not have practised infanticide, for the
+instincts of the lower animals are never so perverted as to lead them
+regularly to destroy their own offspring. There would have been no
+prudential restraint from marriage, and the sexes would have freely
+united at an early age. Hence the progenitors of man would have tended
+to increase rapidly, but checks of some kind, either periodical or
+constant, must have kept down their numbers, even more severely than
+with existing savages. What the precise nature of these checks may have
+been, we cannot say, any more than with most other animals. We know that
+horses and cattle, which are not highly prolific animals, when first
+turned loose in South America, increased at an enormous rate. The
+slowest breeder of all known animals, namely the elephant, would in a
+few thousand years stock the whole world. The increase of every species
+of monkey must be checked by some means; but not, as Brehm remarks, by
+the attacks of beasts of prey. No one will assume that the actual power
+of reproduction in the wild horses and cattle of America, was at first
+in any sensible degree increased; or that, as each district became fully
+stocked, this same power was diminished. No doubt in this case and in
+all others, many checks concur, and different checks under different
+circumstances; periodical dearths, depending on unfavourable seasons,
+being probably the most important of all. So it will have been with the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Natural Selection._--We have now seen that man is variable in body and
+mind; and that the variations are induced, either directly or
+indirectly, by the same general causes, and obey the same general laws,
+as with the lower animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the
+earth, and must have been exposed, during his incessant migrations,[195]
+to the most diversified conditions. The inhabitants of Tierra del
+Fuego, the Cape of Good Hope, and Tasmania in the one hemisphere, and of
+the Arctic regions in the other, must have passed through many climates
+and changed their habits many times, before they reached their present
+homes.[196] The early progenitors of man must also have tended, like all
+other animals, to have increased beyond their means of subsistence; they
+must therefore occasionally have been exposed to a struggle for
+existence, and consequently to the rigid law of natural selection.
+Beneficial variations of all kinds will thus, either occasionally or
+habitually, have been preserved, and injurious ones eliminated. I do not
+refer to strongly-marked deviations of structure, which occur only at
+long intervals of time, but to mere individual differences. We know, for
+instance, that the muscles of our hands and feet, which determine our
+powers of movement, are liable, like those of the lower animals,[197] to
+incessant variability. If then the ape-like progenitors of man which
+inhabited any district, especially one undergoing some change in its
+conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the one half which
+included all the individuals best adapted by their powers of movement
+for gaining subsistence or for defending themselves, would on an average
+survive in greater number and procreate more offspring than the other
+and less well endowed half.
+
+Man in the rudest state in which he now exists is the most dominant
+animal that has ever appeared on the earth. He has spread more widely
+than any other highly organised form; and all others have yielded
+before him. He manifestly owes this immense superiority to his
+intellectual faculties, his social habits, which lead him to aid and
+defend his fellows, and to his corporeal structure. The supreme
+importance of these characters has been proved by the final arbitrament
+of the battle for life. Through his powers of intellect, articulate
+language has been evolved; and on this his wonderful advancement has
+mainly depended. He has invented and is able to use various weapons,
+tools, traps, &c., with which he defends himself, kills or catches prey,
+and otherwise obtains food. He has made rafts or canoes on which to fish
+or cross over to neighbouring fertile islands. He has discovered the art
+of making fire, by which hard and stringy roots can be rendered
+digestible, and poisonous roots or herbs innocuous. This last discovery,
+probably the greatest, excepting language, ever made by man, dates from
+before the dawn of history. These several inventions, by which man in
+the rudest state has become so preeminent, are the direct result of the
+development of his powers of observation, memory, curiosity,
+imagination, and reason. I cannot, therefore, understand how it is that
+Mr. Wallace[198] maintains, that "natural selection could only have
+endowed the savage with a brain a little superior to that of an ape."
+
+Although the intellectual powers and social habits of man are of
+paramount importance to him, we must not underrate the importance of his
+bodily structure, to which subject the remainder of this chapter will be
+devoted. The development of the intellectual and social or moral
+faculties will be discussed in the following chapter.
+
+Even to hammer with precision is no easy matter, as every one who has
+tried to learn carpentry will admit. To throw a stone with as true an
+aim as can a Fuegian in defending himself, or in killing birds, requires
+the most consummate perfection in the correlated action of the muscles
+of the hand, arm, and shoulder, not to mention a fine sense of touch. In
+throwing a stone or spear, and in many other actions, a man must stand
+firmly on his feet; and this again demands the perfect coadaptation of
+numerous muscles. To chip a flint into the rudest tool, or to form a
+barbed spear or hook from a bone, demands the use of a perfect hand;
+for, as a most capable judge, Mr. Schoolcraft,[199] remarks, the shaping
+fragments of stone into knives, lances, or arrow-heads, shews
+"extraordinary ability and long practice." We have evidence of this in
+primeval men having practised a division of labour; each man did not
+manufacture his own flint tools or rude pottery; but certain individuals
+appear to have devoted themselves to such work, no doubt receiving in
+exchange the produce of the chase. Arch�ologists are convinced that an
+enormous interval of time elapsed before our ancestors thought of
+grinding chipped flints into smooth tools. A man-like animal who
+possessed a hand and arm sufficiently perfect to throw a stone with
+precision or to form a flint into a rude tool, could, it can hardly be
+doubted, with sufficient practice make almost anything, as far as
+mechanical skill alone is concerned, which a civilised man can make. The
+structure of the hand in this respect may be compared with that of the
+vocal organs, which in the apes are used for uttering various
+signal-cries, or, as in one species, musical cadences; but in man
+closely similar vocal organs have become adapted through the inherited
+effects of use for the utterance of articulate language.
+
+Turning now to the nearest allies of man, and therefore to the best
+representatives of our early progenitors, we find that the hands in the
+Quadrumana are constructed on the same general pattern as in us, but are
+far less perfectly adapted for diversified uses. Their hands do not
+serve so well as the feet of a dog for locomotion; as may be seen in
+those monkeys which walk on the outer margins of the palms, or on the
+backs of their bent fingers, as in the chimpanzee and orang.[200] Their
+hands, however, are admirably adapted for climbing trees. Monkeys seize
+thin branches or ropes, with the thumb on one side and the fingers and
+palm on the other side, in the same manner as we do. They can thus also
+carry rather large objects, such as the neck of a bottle, to their
+mouths. Baboons turn over stones and scratch up roots with their hands.
+They seize nuts, insects, or other small objects with the thumb in
+opposition to the fingers, and no doubt they thus extract eggs and the
+young from the nests of birds. American monkeys beat the wild oranges on
+the branches until the rind is cracked, and then tear it off with the
+fingers of the two hands. Other monkeys open mussel-shells with the two
+thumbs. With their fingers they pull out thorns and burrs, and hunt for
+each other's parasites. In a state of nature they break open hard fruits
+with the aid of stones. They roll down stones or throw them at their
+enemies; nevertheless, they perform these various actions clumsily, and
+they are quite unable, as I have myself seen, to throw a stone with
+precision.
+
+It seems to me far from true that because "objects are grasped clumsily"
+by monkeys, "a much less specialised organ of prehension" would have
+served them[201] as well as their present hands. On the contrary, I see
+no reason to doubt that a more perfectly constructed hand would have
+been an advantage to them, provided, and it is important to note this,
+that their hands had not thus been rendered less well adapted for
+climbing trees. We may suspect that a perfect hand would have been
+disadvantageous for climbing; as the most arboreal monkeys in the world,
+namely Ateles in America and Hylobates in Asia, either have their thumbs
+much reduced in size and even rudimentary, or their fingers
+partially coherent, so that their hands are converted into mere
+grasping-hooks.[202]
+
+As soon as some ancient member in the great series of the Primates came,
+owing to a change in its manner of procuring subsistence, or to a change
+in the conditions of its native country, to live somewhat less on trees
+and more on the ground, its manner of progression would have been
+modified; and in this case it would have had to become either more
+strictly quadrupedal or bipedal. Baboons frequent hilly and rocky
+districts, and only from necessity climb up high trees;[203] and they
+have acquired almost the gait of a dog. Man alone has become a biped;
+and we can, I think, partly see how he has come to assume his erect
+attitude, which forms one of the most conspicuous differences between
+him and his nearest allies. Man could not have attained his present
+dominant position in the world without the use of his hands which are so
+admirably adapted to act in obedience to his will. As Sir C. Bell[204]
+insists "the hand supplies all instruments, and by its correspondence
+with the intellect gives him universal dominion." But the hands and arms
+could hardly have become perfect enough to have manufactured weapons, or
+to have hurled stones and spears with a true aim, as long as they were
+habitually used for locomotion and for supporting the whole weight of
+the body, or as long as they were especially well adapted, as previously
+remarked, for climbing trees. Such rough treatment would also have
+blunted the sense of touch, on which their delicate use largely depends.
+From these causes alone it would have been an advantage to man to have
+become a biped; but for many actions it is almost necessary that both
+arms and the whole upper part of the body should be free; and he must
+for this end stand firmly on his feet. To gain this great advantage, the
+feet have been rendered flat, and the great toe peculiarly modified,
+though this has entailed the loss of the power of prehension. It accords
+with the principle of the division of physiological labour, which
+prevails throughout the animal kingdom, that as the hands became
+perfected for prehension, the feet should have become perfected for
+support and locomotion. With some savages, however, the foot has not
+altogether lost its prehensile power, as shewn by their manner of
+climbing trees and of using them in other ways.[205]
+
+If it be an advantage to man to have his hands and arms free and to
+stand firmly on his feet, of which there can be no doubt from his
+preeminent success in the battle of life, then I can see no reason why
+it should not have been advantageous to the progenitors of man to have
+become more and more erect or bipedal. They would thus have been better
+able to have defended themselves with stones or clubs, or to have
+attacked their prey, or otherwise obtained food. The best constructed
+individuals would in the long run have succeeded best, and have survived
+in larger numbers. If the gorilla and a few allied forms had become
+extinct, it might have been argued with great force and apparent truth,
+that an animal could not have been gradually converted from a quadruped
+into a biped; as all the individuals in an intermediate condition would
+have been miserably ill-fitted for progression. But we know (and this is
+well worthy of reflection) that several kinds of apes are now actually
+in this intermediate condition; and no one doubts that they are on the
+whole well adapted for their conditions of life. Thus the gorilla runs
+with a sidelong shambling gait, but more commonly progresses by resting
+on its bent hands. The long-armed apes occasionally use their arms like
+crutches, swinging their bodies forward between them, and some kinds of
+Hylobates, without having been taught, can walk or run upright with
+tolerable quickness; yet they move awkwardly, and much less securely
+than man. We see, in short, with existing monkeys various gradations
+between a form of progression strictly like that of a quadruped and that
+of a biped or man.
+
+As the progenitors of man became more and more erect, with their hands
+and arms more and more modified for prehension and other purposes, with
+their feet and legs at the same time modified for firm support and
+progression, endless other changes of structure would have been
+necessary. The pelvis would have had to be made broader, the spine
+peculiarly curved and the head fixed in an altered position, and all
+these changes have been attained by man. Prof. Schaaffhausen[206]
+maintains that "the powerful mastoid processes of the human skull are
+the result of his erect position;" and these processes are absent in the
+orang, chimpanzee, &c., and are smaller in the gorilla than in man.
+Various other structures might here have been specified, which appear
+connected with man's erect position. It is very difficult to decide how
+far all these correlated modifications are the result of natural
+selection, and how far of the inherited effects of the increased use of
+certain parts, or of the action of one part on another. No doubt these
+means of change act and react on each other: thus when certain muscles,
+and the crests of bone to which they are attached, become enlarged by
+habitual use, this shews that certain fictions are habitually performed
+and must be serviceable. Hence the individuals which performed them
+best, would tend to survive in greater numbers.
+
+The free use of the arms and hands, partly the cause and partly the
+result of man's erect position, appears to have led in an indirect
+manner to other modifications of structure. The early male progenitors
+of man were, as previously stated, probably furnished with great canine
+teeth; but as they gradually acquired the habit of using stones, clubs,
+or other weapons, for fighting with their enemies, they would have used
+their jaws and teeth less and less. In this case, the jaws, together
+with the teeth, would have become reduced in size, as we may feel sure
+from innumerable analogous cases. In a future chapter we shall meet with
+a closely-parallel case, in the reduction or complete disappearance of
+the canine teeth in male ruminants, apparently in relation with the
+development of their horns; and in horses, in relation with their habit
+of fighting with their incisor teeth and hoofs.
+
+In the adult male anthropomorphous apes, as R�timeyer,[207] and others
+have insisted, it is precisely the effect which the jaw-muscles by their
+great development have produced on the skull, that causes it to differ
+so greatly in many respects from that of man, and has given to it "a
+truly frightful physiognomy." Therefore as the jaws and teeth in the
+progenitors of man gradually become reduced in size, the adult skull
+would have presented nearly the same characters which it offers in the
+young of the anthropomorphous apes, and would thus have come to resemble
+more nearly that of existing man. A great reduction of the canine teeth
+in the males would almost certainly, as we shall hereafter see, have
+affected through inheritance the teeth of the females.
+
+As the various mental faculties were gradually developed, the brain
+would almost certainly have become larger. No one, I presume, doubts
+that the large size of the brain in man, relatively to his body, in
+comparison with that of the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with
+his higher mental powers. We meet with closely analogous facts with
+insects, in which the cerebral ganglia are of extraordinary dimensions
+in ants; these ganglia in all the Hymenoptera being many times larger
+than in the less intelligent orders, such as beetles.[208] On the other
+hand, no one supposes that the intellect of any two animals or of any
+two men can be accurately gauged by the cubic contents of their skulls.
+It is certain that there may be extraordinary mental activity with an
+extremely small absolute mass of nervous matter: thus the wonderfully
+diversified instincts, mental powers, and affections of ants are
+generally known, yet their cerebral ganglia are not so large as the
+quarter of a small pin's head. Under this latter point of view, the
+brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms of matter in the
+world, perhaps more marvellous than the brain of man.
+
+The belief that there exists in man some close relation between the size
+of the brain and the development of the intellectual faculties is
+supported by the comparison of the skulls of savage and civilised races,
+of ancient and modern people, and by the analogy of the whole
+vertebrate series. Dr. J. Barnard Davis has proved[209] by many careful
+measurements, that the mean internal capacity of the skull in Europeans
+is 92�3 cubic inches; in Americans 87�5; in Asiatics 87�1; and in
+Australians only 81�9 inches. Professor Broca[210] found that skulls
+from graves in Paris of the nineteenth century, were larger than those
+from vaults of the twelfth century, in the proportion of 1484 to 1426;
+and Prichard is persuaded that the present inhabitants of Britain have
+"much more capacious brain-cases" than the ancient inhabitants.
+Nevertheless it must be admitted that some skulls of very high
+antiquity, such as the famous one of Neanderthal, are well developed and
+capacious. With respect to the lower animals, M. E. Lartet,[211] by
+comparing the crania of tertiary and recent mammals, belonging to the
+same groups, has come to the remarkable conclusion that the brain is
+generally larger and the convolutions more complex in the more recent
+form. On the other hand I have shewn[212] that the brains of domestic
+rabbits are considerably reduced in bulk, in comparison with those of
+the wild rabbit or hare; and this may be attributed to their having been
+closely confined during many generations, so that they have exerted but
+little their intellect, instincts, senses, and voluntary movements.
+
+The gradually increasing weight of the brain and skull in man must have
+influenced the development of the supporting spinal column, more
+especially whilst he was becoming erect. As this change of position was
+being brought about, the internal pressure of the brain, will, also,
+have influenced the form of the skull; for many facts shew how easily
+the skull is thus affected. Ethnologists believe that it is modified by
+the kind of cradle in which infants sleep. Habitual spasms of the
+muscles and a cicatrix from a severe burn have permanently modified the
+facial bones. In young persons whose heads from disease have become
+fixed either sideways or backwards, one of the eyes has changed its
+position, and the bones of the skull have been modified; and this
+apparently results from the brain pressing in a new direction.[213] I
+have shewn that with long-eared rabbits, even so trifling a cause as the
+lopping forward of one ear drags forward on that side almost every bone
+of the skull; so that the bones on the opposite sides no longer strictly
+correspond. Lastly, if any animal were to increase or diminish much in
+general size, without any change in its mental powers; or if the mental
+powers were to be much increased or diminished without any great change
+in the size of the body; the shape of the skull would almost certainly
+be altered. I infer this from my observations on domestic rabbits, some
+kinds of which have become very much larger than the wild animal, whilst
+others have retained nearly the same size, but in both cases the brain
+has been much reduced relatively to the size of the body. Now I was at
+first much surprised by finding that in all these rabbits the skull had
+become elongated or dolichocephalic; for instance, of two skulls of
+nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild rabbit and the other from a
+large domestic kind, the former was only 3�15 and the latter 4�3 inches
+in length.[214] One of the most marked distinctions in different races
+of man is that the skull in some is elongated, and in others rounded;
+and here the explanation suggested by the case of the rabbits may
+partially hold good; for Welcker finds that short "men incline more to
+brachycephaly, and tall men to dolichocephaly;"[215] and tall men may be
+compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have
+elongated skulls, or are dolichocephalic.
+
+From these several facts we can to a certain extent understand the means
+through which the great size and more or less rounded form of the skull
+has been acquired by man; and these are characters eminently distinctive
+of him in comparison with the lower animals.
+
+Another most conspicuous difference between man and the lower animals is
+the nakedness of his skin. Whales and dolphins (Cetacea), dugongs
+(Sirenia) and the hippopotamus are naked; and this may be advantageous
+to them for gliding through the water; nor would it be injurious to them
+from the loss of warmth, as the species which inhabit the colder regions
+are protected by a thick layer of blubber, serving the same purpose as
+the fur of seals and otters. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost
+hairless; and as certain extinct species which formerly lived under an
+arctic climate were covered with long wool or hair, it would almost
+appear as if the existing species of both genera had lost their hairy
+covering from exposure to heat. This appears the more probable, as the
+elephants in India which live on elevated and cool districts are more
+hairy[216] than those on the lowlands. May we then infer that man became
+divested of hair from having aboriginally inhabited some tropical land?
+The fact of the hair being chiefly retained in the male sex on the chest
+and face, and in both sexes at the junction of all four limbs with the
+trunk, favours this inference, assuming that the hair was lost before
+man became erect; for the parts which now retain most hair would then
+have been most protected from the heat of the sun. The crown of the
+head, however, offers a curious exception, for at all times it must have
+been one of the most exposed parts, yet it is thickly clothed with hair.
+In this respect man agrees with the great majority of quadrupeds, which
+generally have their upper and exposed surfaces more thickly clothed
+than the lower surface. Nevertheless, the fact that the other members of
+the order of Primates, to which man belongs, although inhabiting various
+hot regions, are well clothed with hair, generally thickest on the upper
+surface,[217] is strongly opposed to the supposition that man became
+naked through the action of the sun. I am inclined to believe, as we
+shall see under sexual selection, that man, or rather primarily woman,
+became divested of hair for ornamental purposes; and according to this
+belief it is not surprising that man should differ so greatly in
+hairiness from all his lower brethren, for characters gained through
+sexual selection often differ in closely-related forms to an
+extraordinary degree.
+
+According to a popular impression, the absence of a tail is eminently
+distinctive of man; but as those apes which come nearest to man are
+destitute of this organ, its disappearance does not especially concern
+us. Nevertheless it may be well to own that no explanation, as far as I
+am aware, has ever been given of the loss of the tail by certain apes
+and man. Its loss, however, is not surprising, for it sometimes differs
+remarkably in length in species of the same genera: thus in some species
+of Macacus the tail is longer than the whole body, consisting of
+twenty-four vertebr�; in others it consists of a scarcely visible stump,
+containing only three or four vertebr�. In some kinds of baboons there
+are twenty-five, whilst in the mandrill there are ten very small stunted
+caudal vertebr�, or, according to Cuvier,[218] sometimes only five. This
+great diversity in the structure and length of the tail in animals
+belonging to the same genera, and following nearly the same habits of
+life, renders it probable that the tail is not of much importance to
+them; and if so, we might have expected that it would sometimes have
+become more or less rudimentary, in accordance with what we incessantly
+see with other structures. The tail almost always tapers towards the end
+whether it be long or short; and this, I presume, results from the
+atrophy, through disuse, of the terminal muscles together with their
+arteries and nerves, leading to the atrophy of the terminal bones. With
+respect to the os coccyx, which in man and the higher apes manifestly
+consists of the few basal and tapering segments of an ordinary tail, I
+have heard it asked how could these have become completely embedded
+within the body; but there is no difficulty in this respect, for in many
+monkeys the basal segments of the true tail are thus embedded. For
+instance, Mr. Murie informs me that in the skeleton of a not full-grown
+_Macacus inornatus_, he counted nine or ten caudal vertebr�, which
+altogether were only 1�8 inch in length. Of these the three basal ones
+appeared to have been embedded; the remainder forming the free part of
+the tail, which was only one inch in length, and half an inch in
+diameter. Here, then, the three embedded caudal vertebr� plainly
+correspond with the four coalesced vertebr� of the human os coccyx.
+
+
+I have now endeavoured to shew that some of the most distinctive
+characters of man have in all probability been acquired, either
+directly, or more commonly indirectly, through natural selection. We
+should bear in mind that modifications in structure or constitution,
+which are of no service to an organism in adapting it to its habits of
+life, to the food which it consumes, or passively to the surrounding
+conditions, cannot have been thus acquired. We must not, however, be too
+confident in deciding what modifications are of service to each being:
+we should remember how little we know about the use of many parts, or
+what changes in the blood or tissues may serve to fit an organism for a
+new climate or some new kind of food. Nor must we forget the principle
+of correlation, by which, as Isidore Geoffroy has shewn in the case of
+man, many fit-range deviations of structure are tied together.
+Independently of correlation, a change in one part often leads through
+the increased or decreased use of other parts, to other changes of a
+quite unexpected nature. It is also well to reflect on such facts, as
+the wonderful growth of galls on plants caused by the poison of an
+insect, and on the remarkable changes of colour in the plumage of
+parrots when fed on certain fishes, or inoculated with the poison of
+toads;[219] for we can thus see that the fluids of the system, if
+altered for some special purpose, might induce other strange changes. We
+should especially bear in mind that modifications acquired and
+continually used during past ages for some useful purpose would probably
+become firmly fixed and might be long inherited.
+
+Thus a very large yet undefined extension may safely be given to the
+direct and indirect results of natural selection; but I now admit, after
+reading the essay by N�geli on plants, and the remarks by various
+authors with respect to animals, more especially those recently made by
+Professor Broca, that in the earlier editions of my 'Origin of Species'
+I probably attributed too much to the action of natural selection or the
+survival of the fittest. I have altered the fifth edition of the Origin
+so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of structure. I had not
+formerly sufficiently considered the existence of many structures which
+appear to be, as far as we can judge, neither beneficial nor injurious;
+and this I believe to be one of the greatest oversights as yet detected
+in my work. I may be permitted to say as some excuse, that I had two
+distinct objects in view, firstly, to shew that species had not been
+separately created, and secondly, that natural selection had been the
+chief agent of change, though largely aided by the inherited effects of
+habit, and slightly by the direct action of the surrounding conditions.
+Nevertheless I was not able to annul the influence of my former belief,
+then widely prevalent, that each species had been purposely created; and
+this led to my tacitly assuming that every detail of structure,
+excepting rudiments, was of some special, though unrecognised, service.
+Any one with this assumption in his mind would naturally extend the
+action of natural selection, either during past or present times, too
+far. Some of those who admit the principle of evolution, but reject
+natural selection, seem to forget, when criticising my book, that I had
+the above two objects in view; hence if I have erred in giving to
+natural selection great power, which I am far from admitting, or in
+having exaggerated its power, which is in itself probable, I have at
+least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of
+separate creations.
+
+That all organic beings, including man, present many modifications of
+structure which are of no service to them at present, nor have been
+formerly, is, as I can now see, probable. We know not what produces the
+numberless slight differences between the individuals of each species,
+for reversion only carries the problem a few steps backwards; but each
+peculiarity must have had its own efficient cause. If these causes,
+whatever they may be, were to act more uniformly and energetically
+during a lengthened period (and no reason can be assigned why this
+should not sometimes occur), the result would probably be not mere
+slight individual differences, but well-marked, constant modifications.
+Modifications which are in no way beneficial cannot have been kept
+uniform through natural selection, though any which were injurious would
+have been thus eliminated. Uniformity of character would, however,
+naturally follow from, the assumed uniformity of the exciting causes,
+and likewise from the free intercrossing of many individuals. The same
+organism might acquire in this manner during successive periods
+successive modifications, and these would be transmitted in a nearly
+uniform state as long as the exciting causes remained the same and there
+was free intercrossing. With respect to the exciting causes we can only
+say, as when speaking of so-called spontaneous variations, that they
+relate much more closely to the constitution of the varying organism,
+than to the nature of the conditions to which it has been subjected.
+
+
+_Conclusion._--In this chapter we have seen that as man at the present
+day is liable, like every other animal, to multiform individual
+differences or slight variations, so no doubt were the early progenitors
+of man; the variations being then as now induced by the same general
+causes, and governed by the same general and complex laws. As all
+animals tend to multiply beyond their means of subsistence, so it must
+have been with the progenitors of man; and this will inevitably have led
+to a struggle for existence and to natural selection. This latter
+process will have been greatly aided by the inherited effects of the
+increased use of parts; these two processes incessantly reacting on each
+other. It appears, also, as we shall hereafter see, that various
+unimportant characters have been acquired by man through sexual
+selection. An unexplained residuum of change, perhaps a large one, must
+be left to the assumed uniform action of those unknown agencies, which
+occasionally induce strongly-marked and abrupt deviations of structure
+in our domestic productions.
+
+Judging from the habits of savages and of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, primeval men, and even the ape-like progenitors of man,
+probably lived in society. With strictly social animals, natural
+selection sometimes acts indirectly on the individual, through the
+preservation of variations which are beneficial only to the community. A
+community including a large number of well-endowed individuals increases
+in number and is victorious over other and less well-endowed
+communities; although each separate member may gain no advantage over
+the other members of the same community. With associated insects many
+remarkable structures, which are of little or no service to the
+individual or its own offspring, such as the pollen-collecting
+apparatus, or the sting of the worker-bee, or the great jaws of
+soldier-ants, have been thus acquired. With the higher social animals, I
+am not aware that any structure has been modified solely for the good of
+the community, though some are of secondary service to it. For instance,
+the horns of ruminants and the great canine teeth of baboons appear to
+have been acquired by the males as weapons for sexual strife, but they
+are used in defence of the herd or troop. In regard to certain mental
+faculties the case, as we shall see in the following chapter, is wholly
+different; for these faculties have been chiefly, or even exclusively,
+gained for the benefit of the community; the individuals composing the
+community being at the same time indirectly benefited.
+
+It has often been objected to such views as the foregoing, that man is
+one of the most helpless and defenceless creatures in the world; and
+that during his early and less well-developed condition he would have
+been still more helpless. The Duke of Argyll, for instance, insists[220]
+that "the human frame has diverged from the structure of brutes, in the
+direction of greater physical helplessness and weakness. That is to say,
+it is a divergence which of all others it is most impossible to ascribe
+to mere natural selection." He adduces the naked and unprotected state
+of the body, the absence of great teeth or claws for defence, the little
+strength of man, his small speed in running, and his slight power of
+smell, by which to discover food or to avoid danger. To these
+deficiencies there might have been added the still more serious loss of
+the power of quickly climbing trees, so as to escape from enemies.
+Seeing that the unclothed Fuegians can exist under their wretched
+climate, the loss of hair would not have been a great injury to primeval
+man, if he inhabited a warm country. When we compare defenceless man
+with the apes, many of which are provided with formidable canine teeth,
+we must remember that these in their fully-developed condition are
+possessed by the males alone, being chiefly used by them for fighting
+with their rivals; yet the females which are not thus provided, are able
+to survive.
+
+In regard to bodily size or strength, we do not know whether man is
+descended from some comparatively small species, like the chimpanzee, or
+from one as powerful as the gorilla; and, therefore, we cannot say
+whether man has become larger and stronger, or smaller and weaker, in
+comparison with his progenitors. We should, however, bear in mind that
+an animal possessing great size, strength, and ferocity, and which, like
+the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies, would probably,
+though not necessarily, have failed to become social; and this would
+most effectually have checked the acquirement by man of his higher
+mental qualities, such as sympathy and the love of his fellow-creatures.
+Hence it might have been an immense advantage to man to have sprung
+from some comparatively weak creature.
+
+The slight corporeal strength of man, his little speed, his want of
+natural weapons, &c., are more than counterbalanced, firstly by his
+intellectual powers, through which he has, whilst still remaining in a
+barbarous state, formed for himself weapons, tools, &c., and secondly by
+his social qualities which lead him to give aid to his fellow-men and to
+receive it in return. No country in the world abounds in a greater
+degree with dangerous beasts than Southern Africa; no country presents
+more fearful physical hardships than the Arctic regions; yet one of the
+puniest races, namely, the Bushmen, maintain themselves in Southern
+Africa, as do the dwarfed Esquimaux in the Arctic regions. The early
+progenitors of man were, no doubt, inferior in intellect, and probably
+in social disposition, to the lowest existing savages; but it is quite
+conceivable that they might have existed, or even flourished, if, whilst
+they gradually lost their brute-like powers, such as climbing trees,
+&c., they at the same time advanced in intellect. But granting that the
+progenitors of man were far more helpless and defenceless than any
+existing savages, if they had inhabited some warm continent or large
+island, such as Australia or New Guinea, or Borneo (the latter island
+being now tenanted by the orang), they would not have been exposed to
+any special danger. In an area as large as one of these islands, the
+competition between tribe and tribe would have been sufficient, under
+favourable conditions, to have raised man, through the survival of the
+fittest, combined with the inherited effects of habit, to his present
+high position in the organic scale.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES DURING
+PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection--Importance of imitation--Social and moral
+  faculties--Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe--Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations--Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous.
+
+
+The subjects to be discussed in this chapter are of the highest
+interest, but are treated by me in a most imperfect and fragmentary
+manner. Mr. Wallace, in an admirable paper before referred to,[221]
+argues that man after he had partially acquired those intellectual and
+moral faculties which distinguish him from the lower animals, would have
+been but little liable to have had his bodily structure modified through
+natural selection or any other means. For man is enabled through his
+mental faculties "to keep with an unchanged body in harmony with the
+changing universe." He has great power of adapting his habits to new
+conditions of life. He invents weapons, tools and various stratagems, by
+which he procures food and defends himself. When he migrates into a
+colder climate he uses clothes, builds sheds, and makes fires; and, by
+the aid of fire, cooks food otherwise indigestible. He aids his
+fellow-men in many ways, and anticipates future events. Even at a remote
+period he practised some subdivision of labour.
+
+The lower animals, on the other hand, must have their bodily structure
+modified in order to survive under greatly changed conditions. They must
+be rendered stronger, or acquire more effective teeth or claws, in order
+to defend themselves from new enemies; or they must be reduced in size
+so as to escape detection and danger. When they migrate into a colder
+climate they must become clothed with thicker fur, or have their
+constitutions altered. If they fail to be thus modified, they will cease
+to exist.
+
+The case, however, is widely different, as Mr. Wallace has with justice
+insisted, in relation to the intellectual and moral faculties of man.
+These faculties are variable; and we have every reason to believe that
+the variations tend to be inherited. Therefore, if they were formerly of
+high importance to primeval man and to his ape-like progenitors, they
+would have been perfected or advanced through natural selection. Of the
+high importance of the intellectual faculties there can be no doubt, for
+man mainly owes to them his preeminent position in the world. We can
+see that, in the rudest state of society, the individuals who were the
+most sagacious, who invented and used the best weapons or traps, and who
+were best able to defend themselves, would rear the greatest number of
+offspring. The tribes which included the largest number of men thus
+endowed would increase in number and supplant other tribes. Numbers
+depend primarily on the means of subsistence, and this, partly on the
+physical nature of the country, but in a much higher degree on the arts
+which are there practised. As a tribe increases and is victorious, it is
+often still further increased by the absorption of other tribes.[222]
+The stature and strength of the men of a tribe are likewise of some
+importance for its success, and these depend in part on the nature and
+amount of the food which can be obtained. In Europe the men of the
+Bronze period were supplanted by a more powerful and, judging from their
+sword-handles, larger-handed race;[223] but their success was probably
+due in a much higher degree to their superiority in the arts.
+
+All that we know about savages, or may infer from their traditions and
+from old monuments, the history of which is quite forgotten by the
+present inhabitants, shew that from the remotest times successful tribes
+have supplanted other tribes. Relics of extinct or forgotten tribes have
+been discovered throughout the civilised regions of the earth, on the
+wild plains of America, and on the isolated islands in the Pacific
+Ocean. At the present day civilised nations are everywhere supplanting
+barbarous nations, excepting where the climate opposes a deadly barrier;
+and they succeed mainly, though not exclusively, through their arts,
+which are the products of the intellect. It is, therefore, highly
+probable that with mankind the intellectual faculties have been
+gradually perfected through natural selection; and this conclusion is
+sufficient for our purpose. Undoubtedly it would have been very
+interesting to have traced the development of each separate faculty from
+the state in which it exists in the lower animals to that in which it
+exists in man; but neither my ability nor knowledge permit the attempt.
+
+It deserves notice that as soon as the progenitors of man became social
+(and this probably occurred at a very early period), the advancement of
+the intellectual faculties will have been aided and modified in an
+important manner, of which we see only traces in the lower animals,
+namely, through the principle of imitation, together with reason and
+experience. Apes are much given to imitation, as are the lowest savages;
+and the simple fact previously referred to, that after a time no animal
+can be caught in the same place by the same sort of trap, shews that
+animals learn by experience, and imitate each others' caution. Now, if
+some one man in a tribe, more sagacious than the others, invented a new
+snare or weapon, or other means of attack or defence, the plainest
+self-interest, without the assistance of much reasoning power, would
+prompt the other members to imitate him; and all would thus profit. The
+habitual practice of each new art must likewise in some slight degree
+strengthen the intellect. If the new invention were an important one,
+the tribe would increase in number, spread, and supplant other tribes.
+In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there would always be a rather
+better chance of the birth of other superior and inventive members. If
+such men left children to inherit their mental superiority, the chance
+of the birth of still more ingenious members would be somewhat better,
+and in a very small tribe decidedly better. Even if they left no
+children, the tribe would still include their blood-relations; and it
+has been ascertained by agriculturists[224] that by preserving and
+breeding from the family of an animal, which when slaughtered was found
+to be valuable, the desired character has been obtained.
+
+
+Turning now to the social and moral faculties. In order that primeval
+men, or the ape-like progenitors of man, should have become social, they
+must have acquired the same instinctive feelings which impel other
+animals to live in a body; and they no doubt exhibited the same general
+disposition. They would have felt uneasy when separated from their
+comrades, for whom they would have felt some degree of love; they would
+have warned each other of danger, and have given mutual aid in attack or
+defence. All this implies some degree of sympathy, fidelity, and
+courage. Such social qualities, the paramount importance of which to the
+lower animals is disputed by no one, were no doubt acquired by the
+progenitors of man in a similar manner, namely, through natural
+selection, aided by inherited habit. When two tribes of primeval man,
+living in the same country, came into competition, if the one tribe
+included (other circumstances being equal) a greater number of
+courageous, sympathetic, and faithful members, who were always ready to
+warn each other of danger, to aid and defend each other, this tribe
+would without doubt succeed best and conquer the other. Let it be borne
+in mind how all-important, in the never-ceasing wars of savages,
+fidelity and courage must be. The advantage which disciplined soldiers
+have over undisciplined hordes follows chiefly from the confidence which
+each man feels in his comrades. Obedience, as Mr. Bagehot has well
+shewn,[225] is of the highest value, for any form of government is
+better than none. Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and
+without coherence nothing can be effected. A tribe possessing the above
+qualities in a high degree would spread and be victorious over other
+tribes; but in the course of time it would, judging from all past
+history, be in its turn overcome by some other and still more highly
+endowed tribe. Thus the social and moral qualities would tend slowly to
+advance and be diffused throughout the world.
+
+But it may be asked, how within the limits of the same tribe did a large
+number of members first become endowed with these social and moral
+qualities, and how was the standard of excellence raised? It is
+extremely doubtful whether the offspring of the more sympathetic and
+benevolent parents, or of those which were the most faithful to their
+comrades, would be reared in greater number than the children of selfish
+and treacherous parents of the same tribe. He who was ready to sacrifice
+his life, as many a savage has been, rather than betray his comrades,
+would often leave no offspring to inherit his noble nature. The bravest
+men, who were always willing to come to the front in war, and who freely
+risked their lives for others, would on an average perish in larger
+number than other men. Therefore it seems scarcely possible (bearing in
+mind that we are not here speaking of one tribe being victorious over
+another) that the number of men gifted with such virtues, or that the
+standard of their excellence, could be increased through natural
+selection, that is, by the survival of the fittest.
+
+Although the circumstances which lead to an increase in the number of
+men thus endowed within the same tribe are too complex to be clearly
+followed out, we can trace some of the probable steps. In the first
+place, as the reasoning powers and foresight of the members became
+improved, each man would soon learn from experience that if he aided his
+fellow-men, he would commonly receive aid in return. From this low
+motive he might acquire the habit of aiding his fellows; and the habit
+of performing benevolent actions certainly strengthens the feeling of
+sympathy, which gives the first impulse to benevolent actions. Habits,
+moreover, followed during many generations probably tend to be
+inherited.
+
+But there is another and much more powerful stimulus to the development
+of the social virtues, namely, the praise and the blame of our
+fellow-men. The love of approbation and the dread of infamy, as well as
+the bestowal of praise or blame, are primarily due, as we have seen in
+the third chapter, to the instinct of sympathy; and this instinct no
+doubt was originally acquired, like all the other social instincts,
+through natural selection. At how early a period the progenitors of man,
+in the course of their development, became capable of feeling and being
+impelled by the praise or blame of their fellow-creatures, we cannot, of
+course, say. But it appears that even dogs appreciate encouragement,
+praise, and blame. The rudest savages feel the sentiment of glory, as
+they clearly show by preserving the trophies of their prowess, by their
+habit of excessive boasting, and even by the extreme care which they
+take of their personal appearance and decorations; for unless they
+regarded the opinion of their comrades, such habits would be senseless.
+
+They certainly feel shame at the breach of some of their lesser rules;
+but how far they experience remorse is doubtful. I was at first
+surprised that I could not recollect any recorded instances of this
+feeling in savages; and Sir J. Lubbock[226] states that he knows of
+none. But if we banish from our minds all cases given in novels and
+plays and in death-bed confessions made to priests, I doubt whether many
+of us have actually witnessed remorse; though we may have often seen
+shame and contrition for smaller offences. Remorse is a deeply hidden
+feeling. It is incredible that a savage, who will sacrifice his life
+rather than betray his tribe, or one who will deliver himself up as a
+prisoner rather than break his parole,[227] would not feel remorse in
+his inmost soul, though he might conceal it, if he had failed in a duty
+which he held sacred.
+
+We may therefore conclude that primeval man, at a very remote period,
+would have been influenced by the praise and blame of his fellows. It is
+obvious, that the members of the same tribe would approve of conduct
+which appeared to them to be for the general good, and would reprobate
+that which appeared evil. To do good unto others--to do unto others as
+ye would they should do unto you,--is the foundation-stone of morality.
+It is, therefore, hardly possible to exaggerate the importance during
+rude times of the love of praise and the dread of blame. A man who was
+not impelled by any deep, instinctive feeling, to sacrifice his life for
+the good of others, yet was roused to such actions by a sense of glory,
+would by his example excite the same wish for glory in other men, and
+would strengthen by exercise the noble feeling of admiration. He might
+thus do far more good to his tribe than by begetting offspring with a
+tendency to inherit his own high character.
+
+With increased experience and reason, man perceives the more remote
+consequences of his actions, and the self-regarding virtues, such as
+temperance, chastity, &c., which during early times are, as we have
+before seen, utterly disregarded, come to be highly esteemed or even
+held sacred. I need not, however, repeat what I have said on this head
+in the third chapter. Ultimately a highly complex sentiment, having its
+first origin in the social instincts, largely guided by the approbation
+of our fellow-men, ruled by reason, self-interest, and in later times by
+deep religious feelings, confirmed by instruction and habit, all
+combined, constitute our moral sense or conscience.
+
+It must not be forgotten that although a high standard of morality gives
+but a slight or no advantage to each individual man and his children
+over the other men of the same tribe, yet that an advancement in the
+standard of morality and an increase in the number of well-endowed men
+will certainly give an immense advantage to one tribe over another.
+There can be no doubt that a tribe including many members who, from
+possessing in a high degree the spirit of patriotism, fidelity,
+obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always ready to give aid to each
+other and to sacrifice themselves for the common good, would be
+victorious over most other tribes; and this would be natural selection.
+At all times throughout the world tribes have supplanted other tribes;
+and as morality is one element in their success, the standard of
+morality and the number of well-endowed men will thus everywhere tend to
+rise and increase.
+
+It is, however, very difficult to form any judgment why one particular
+tribe and not another has been successful and has risen in the scale of
+civilisation. Many savages are in the same condition as when first
+discovered several centuries ago. As Mr. Bagehot has remarked, we are
+apt to look at progress as the normal rule in human society; but history
+refutes this. The ancients did not even entertain the idea; nor do the
+oriental nations at the present day. According to another high
+authority, Mr. Maine,[228] "the greatest part of mankind has never
+shewn a particle of desire that its civil institutions should be
+improved." Progress seems to depend on many concurrent favourable
+conditions, far too complex to be followed out. But it has often been
+remarked, that a cool climate from leading to industry and the various
+arts has been highly favourable, or even indispensable for this end. The
+Esquimaux, pressed by hard necessity, have succeeded in many ingenious
+inventions, but their climate has been too severe for continued
+progress. Nomadic habits, whether over wide plains, or through the dense
+forests of the tropics, or along the shores of the sea, have in every
+case been highly detrimental. Whilst observing the barbarous inhabitants
+of Tierra del Fuego, it struck me that the possession of some property,
+a fixed abode, and the union of many families under a chief, were the
+indispensable requisites for civilisation. Such habits almost
+necessitate the cultivation of the ground; and the first steps in
+cultivation would probably result, as I have elsewhere shewn,[229] from
+some such accident as the seeds of a fruit-tree falling on a heap of
+refuse and producing an unusually fine variety. The problem, however, of
+the first advance of savages towards civilisation is at present much too
+difficult to be solved.
+
+
+_Natural Selection as affecting Civilised Nations._--In the last and
+present chapters I have considered the advancement of man from a former
+semi-human condition to his present state as a barbarian. But some
+remarks on the agency of natural selection on civilised nations may be
+here worth adding. This subject has been ably discussed by Mr. W. R.
+Greg,[230] and previously by Mr. Wallace and Mr. Galton.[231] Most of
+my remarks are taken from these three authors. With savages, the weak in
+body or mind are soon eliminated; and those that survive commonly
+exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilised men, on the other hand,
+do our utmost to check the process of elimination; we build asylums for
+the imbecile, the maimed, and the sick; we institute poor-laws; and our
+medical men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to
+the last moment. There is reason to believe that vaccination has
+preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution would formerly have
+succumbed to small-pox. Thus the weak members of civilised societies
+propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of
+domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the
+race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care, or care wrongly
+directed, leads to the degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in
+the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his
+worst animals to breed.
+
+The aid which we feel impelled to give to the helpless is mainly an
+incidental result of the instinct of sympathy, which was originally
+acquired as part of the social instincts, but subsequently rendered, in
+the manner previously indicated, more tender and more widely diffused.
+Nor could we check our sympathy, if so urged by hard reason, without
+deterioration in the noblest part of our nature. The surgeon may harden
+himself whilst performing an operation, for he knows that he is acting
+for the good of his patient; but if we were intentionally to neglect the
+weak and helpless, it could only be for a contingent benefit, with a
+certain and great present evil. Hence we must bear without complaining
+the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their
+kind; but there appears to be at least one check in steady action,
+namely the weaker and inferior members of society not marrying so freely
+as the sound; and this check might be indefinitely increased, though
+this is more to be hoped for than expected, by the weak in body or mind
+refraining from marriage.
+
+In all civilised countries man accumulates property and bequeaths it to
+his children. So that the children in the same country do not by any
+means start fair in the race for success. But this is far from an
+unmixed evil; for without the accumulation of capital the arts could not
+progress; and it is chiefly through their power that the civilised races
+have extended, and are now everywhere extending, their range, so as to
+take the place of the lower races. Nor does the moderate accumulation of
+wealth interfere with the process of selection. When a poor man becomes
+rich, his children enter trades or professions in which there is
+struggle enough, so that the able in body and mind succeed best. The
+presence of a body of well-instructed men, who have not to labour for
+their daily bread, is important to a degree which cannot be
+over-estimated; as all high intellectual work is carried on by them, and
+on such work material progress of all kinds mainly depends, not to
+mention other and higher advantages. No doubt wealth when very great
+tends to convert men into useless drones, but their number is never
+large; and some degree of elimination here occurs, as we daily see rich
+men, who happen to be fools or profligate, squandering away all their
+wealth.
+
+Primogeniture with entailed estates is a more direct evil, though it may
+formerly have been a great advantage by the creation of a dominant
+class, and any government is better than anarchy. The eldest sons,
+though they may be weak in body or mind, generally marry, whilst the
+younger sons, however superior in these respects, do not so generally
+marry. Nor can worthless eldest sons with entailed estates squander
+their wealth. But here, as elsewhere, the relations of civilised life
+are so complex that some compensatory checks intervene. The men who are
+rich through primogeniture are able to select generation after
+generation the more beautiful and charming women; and these must
+generally be healthy in body and active in mind. The evil consequences,
+such as they may be, of the continued preservation of the same line of
+descent, without any selection, are checked by men of rank always
+wishing to increase their wealth and power; and this they effect by
+marrying heiresses. But the daughters of parents who have produced
+single children, are themselves, as Mr. Galton has shewn,[232] apt to be
+sterile; and thus noble families are continually cut off in the direct
+line, and their wealth flows into some side channel; but unfortunately
+this channel is not determined by superiority of any kind.
+
+Although civilisation thus checks in many ways the action of natural
+selection, it apparently favours, by means of improved food and the
+freedom from occasional hardships, the better development of the body.
+This may be inferred from civilised men having been found, wherever
+compared, to be physically stronger than savages. They appear also to
+have equal powers of endurance, as has been proved in many adventurous
+expeditions. Even the great luxury of the rich can be but little
+detrimental; for the expectation of life of our aristocracy, at all ages
+and of both sexes, is very little inferior to that of healthy English
+lives in the lower classes.[233]
+
+We will now look to the intellectual faculties alone. If in each grade
+of society the members were divided into two equal bodies, the one
+including the intellectually superior and the other the inferior, there
+can be little doubt that the former would succeed best in all
+occupations and rear a greater number of children. Even in the lowest
+walks of life, skill and ability must be of some advantage, though in
+many occupations, owing to the great division of labour, a very small
+one. Hence in civilised nations there will be some tendency to an
+increase both in the number and in the standard of the intellectually
+able. But I do not wish to assert that this tendency may not be more
+than counterbalanced in other ways, as by the multiplication of the
+reckless and improvident; but even to such as these, ability must be
+some advantage.
+
+It has often been objected to views like the foregoing, that the most
+eminent men who have ever lived have left no offspring to inherit their
+great intellect. Mr. Galton says,[234] "I regret I am unable to solve
+the simple question whether, and how far, men and women who are
+prodigies of genius are infertile. I have, however, shewn that men of
+eminence are by no means so."
+
+Great lawgivers, the founders of beneficent religions, great
+philosophers and discoverers in science, aid the progress of mankind in
+a far higher degree by their works than by leaving a numerous progeny.
+In the case of corporeal structures, it is the selection of the slightly
+better-endowed and the elimination of the slightly less well-endowed
+individuals, and not the preservation of strongly-marked and rare
+anomalies, that leads to the advancement of a species.[235] So it will
+be with the intellectual faculties, namely from the somewhat more able
+men in each grade of society succeeding rather better than the less
+able, and consequently increasing in number, if not otherwise prevented.
+When in any nation the standard of intellect and the number of
+intellectual men have increased, we may expect from the law of the
+deviation from an average, as shewn by Mr. Galton, that prodigies of
+genius will appear somewhat more frequently than before.
+
+In regard to the moral qualities, some elimination of the worst
+dispositions is always in progress even in the most civilised nations.
+Malefactors are executed, or imprisoned for long periods, so that they
+cannot freely transmit their bad qualities. Melancholic and insane
+persons are confined, or commit suicide. Violent and quarrelsome men
+often come to a bloody end. Restless men who will not follow any steady
+occupation--and this relic of barbarism is a great check to
+civilisation[236]--emigrate to newly-settled countries, where they prove
+useful pioneers. Intemperance is so highly destructive, that the
+expectation of life of the intemperate, at the age, for instance, of
+thirty, is only 13.8 years; whilst for the rural labourers of England at
+the same age it is 40�59 years.[237] Profligate women bear few children,
+and profligate men rarely marry; both suffer from disease. In the
+breeding of domestic animals, the elimination of those individuals,
+though few in number, which are in any marked manner inferior, is by no
+means an unimportant element towards success. This especially holds good
+with injurious characters which tend to reappear through reversion, such
+as blackness in sheep; and with mankind some of the worst dispositions,
+which occasionally without any assignable cause make their appearance in
+families, may perhaps be reversions to a savage state, from which we are
+not removed by very many generations. This view seems indeed recognised
+in the common expression that such men are the black sheep of the
+family.
+
+With civilised nations, as far as an advanced standard of morality, and
+an increased number of fairly well-endowed men are concerned, natural
+selection apparently effects but little; though the fundamental social
+instincts were originally thus gained. But I have already said enough,
+whilst treating of the lower races, on the causes which lead to the
+advance of morality, namely, the approbation of our fellow-men--the
+strengthening of our sympathies by habit--example and imitation--
+reason--experience and even self-interest--instruction during
+youth, and religious feelings.
+
+A most important obstacle in civilised countries to an increase in the
+number of men of a superior class has been strongly urged by Mr. Greg
+and Mr. Galton,[238] namely, the fact that the very poor and reckless,
+who are often degraded by vice, almost invariably marry early, whilst
+the careful and frugal, who are generally otherwise virtuous, marry late
+in life, so that they may be able to support themselves and their
+children in comfort. Those who marry early produce within a given period
+not only a greater number of generations, but, as shewn by Dr.
+Duncan,[239] they produce many more children. The children, moreover,
+that are born by mothers during the prime of life are heavier and
+larger, and therefore probably more vigorous, than those born at other
+periods. Thus the reckless, degraded, and often vicious members of
+society, tend to increase at a quicker rate than the provident and
+generally virtuous members. Or as Mr. Greg puts the case: "The careless,
+squalid, unaspiring Irishman multiplies like rabbits: the frugal,
+foreseeing, self-respecting, ambitious Scot, stern in his morality,
+spiritual in his faith, sagacious and disciplined in his intelligence,
+passes his best years in struggle and in celibacy, marries late, and
+leaves few behind him. Given a land originally peopled by a thousand
+Saxons and a thousand Celts--and in a dozen generations five-sixths of
+the population would be Celts, but five-sixths of the property, of the
+power, of the intellect, would belong to the one-sixth of Saxons that
+remained. In the eternal 'struggle for existence,' it would be the
+inferior and _less_ favoured race that had prevailed--and prevailed by
+virtue not of its good qualities but of its faults."
+
+There are, however, some checks to this downward tendency. We have seen
+that the intemperate suffer from a high rate of mortality, and the
+extremely profligate leave few offspring. The poorest classes crowd into
+towns, and it has been proved by Dr. Stark from the statistics of ten
+years in Scotland,[240] that at all ages the death-rate is higher in
+towns than in rural districts, "and during the first five years of life
+the town death-rate is almost exactly double that of the rural
+districts." As these returns include both the rich and the poor, no
+doubt more than double the number of births would be requisite to keep
+up the number of the very poor inhabitants in the towns, relatively to
+those in the country. With women, marriage at too early an age is highly
+injurious; for it has been found in France that, "twice as many wives
+under twenty die in the year, as died out of the same number of the
+unmarried." The mortality, also, of husbands under twenty is
+"excessively high,"[241] but what the cause of this may be seems
+doubtful. Lastly, if the men who prudently delay marrying until they can
+bring up their families in comfort, were to select, as they often do,
+women in the prime of life, the rate of increase in the better class
+would be only slightly lessened.
+
+It was established from an enormous body of statistics, taken during
+1853, that the unmarried men throughout France, between the ages of
+twenty and eighty, die in a much larger proportion than the married: for
+instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the ages of twenty
+and thirty, 11�3 annually died, whilst of the married only 6�5
+died.[242] A similar law was proved to hold good, during the years 1863
+and 1864, with the entire population above the age of twenty in
+Scotland: for instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the
+ages of twenty and thirty, 14�97 annually died, whilst of the married
+only 7�24 died, that is less than half.[243] Dr. Stark remarks on this,
+"Bachelorhood is more destructive to life than the most unwholesome
+trades, or than residence in an unwholesome house or district where
+there has never been the most distant attempt at sanitary improvement."
+He considers that the lessened mortality is the direct result of
+"marriage, and the more regular domestic habits which attend that
+state." He admits, however, that the intemperate, profligate, and
+criminal classes, whose duration of life is low, do not commonly marry;
+and it must likewise be admitted that men with a weak constitution,
+ill health, or any great infirmity in body or mind, will often not wish
+to marry, or will be rejected. Dr. Stark seems to have come to the
+conclusion that marriage in itself is a main cause of prolonged life,
+from finding that aged married men still have a considerable advantage
+in this respect over the unmarried of the same advanced age; but every
+one must have known instances of men, who with weak health during youth
+did not marry, and yet have survived to old age, though remaining weak
+and therefore always with a lessened chance of life. There is another
+remarkable circumstance which seems to support Dr. Stark's conclusion,
+namely, that widows and widowers in France suffer in comparison with the
+married a very heavy rate of mortality; but Dr. Farr attributes this to
+the poverty and evil habits consequent on the disruption of the family,
+and to grief. On the whole we may conclude with Dr. Farr that the lesser
+mortality of married than of unmarried men, which seems to be a general
+law, "is mainly due to the constant elimination of imperfect types, and
+to the skilful selection of the finest individuals out of each
+successive generation;" the selection relating only to the marriage
+state, and acting on all corporeal, intellectual, and moral qualities.
+We may, therefore, infer that sound and good men who out of prudence
+remain for a time unmarried do not suffer a high rate of mortality.
+
+If the various checks specified in the two last paragraphs, and perhaps
+others as yet unknown, do not prevent the reckless, the vicious and
+otherwise inferior members of society from increasing at a quicker rate
+than the better class of men, the nation will retrograde, as has
+occurred too often in the history of the world. We must remember that
+progress is no invariable rule. It is most difficult to say why one
+civilised nation rises, becomes more powerful, and spreads more widely,
+than another; or why the same nation progresses more at one time than at
+another. We can only say that it depends on an increase in the actual
+number of the population, on the number of the men endowed with high
+intellectual and moral faculties, as well as on their standard of
+excellence. Corporeal structure, except so far as vigour of body leads
+to vigour of mind, appears to have little influence.
+
+It has been urged by several writers that as high intellectual powers
+are advantageous to a nation, the old Greeks, who stood some grades
+higher in intellect than any race that has ever existed,[244] ought to
+have risen, if the power of natural selection were real, still higher
+in the scale, increased in number, and stocked the whole of Europe. Here
+we have the tacit assumption, so often made with respect to corporeal
+structures, that there is some innate tendency towards continued
+development in mind and body. But development of all kinds depends on
+many concurrent favourable circumstances. Natural selection acts only in
+a tentative manner. Individuals and races may have acquired certain
+indisputable advantages, and yet have perished from failing in other
+characters. The Greeks may have retrograded from a want of coherence
+between the many small states, from the small size of their whole
+country, from the practice of slavery, or from extreme sensuality; for
+they did not succumb until "they were enervated and corrupt to the very
+core."[245] The western nations of Europe, who now so immeasurably
+surpass their former savage progenitors and stand at the summit of
+civilisation, owe little or none of their superiority to direct
+inheritance from the old Greeks; though they owe much to the written
+works of this wonderful people.
+
+Who can positively say why the Spanish nation, so dominant at one time,
+has been distanced in the race. The awakening of the nations of Europe
+from the dark ages is a still more perplexing problem. At this early
+period, as Mr. Galton[246] has remarked, almost all the men of a gentle
+nature, those given to meditation or culture of the mind, had no refuge
+except in the bosom of the Church which demanded celibacy; and this
+could hardly fail to have had a deteriorating influence on each
+successive generation. During this same period the Holy Inquisition
+selected with extreme care the freest and boldest men in order to burn
+or imprison them. In Spain alone some of the best men--those who doubted
+and questioned, and without doubting there can be no progress--were
+eliminated during three centuries at the rate of a thousand a year. The
+evil which the Catholic Church has thus effected, though no doubt
+counterbalanced to a certain, perhaps large extent in other ways, is
+incalculable; nevertheless, Europe has progressed at an unparalleled
+rate.
+
+The remarkable success of the English as colonists over other European
+nations, which is well illustrated by comparing the progress of the
+Canadians of English and French extraction, has been ascribed to their
+"daring and persistent energy;" but who can say how the English gained
+their energy. There is apparently much truth in the belief that the
+wonderful progress of the United States, as well as the character of the
+people, are the results of natural selection; the more energetic,
+restless, and courageous men from all parts of Europe having emigrated
+during the last ten or twelve generations to that great country, and
+having there succeeded best.[247] Looking to the distant future, I do
+not think that the Rev. Mr. Zincke takes an exaggerated view when he
+says:[248] "All other series of events--as that which resulted in the
+culture of mind in Greece, and that which resulted in the empire of
+Rome--only appear to have purpose and value when viewed in connection
+with, or rather as subsidiary to ... the great stream of Anglo-Saxon
+emigration to the west."
+
+Obscure as is the problem of the advance of civilisation, we can at
+least see that a nation which produced during a lengthened period the
+greatest number of highly intellectual, energetic, brave, patriotic, and
+benevolent men, would generally prevail over less favoured nations.
+
+Natural selection follows from the struggle for existence; and this from
+a rapid rate of increase. It is impossible not bitterly to regret, but
+whether wisely is another question, the rate at which man tends to
+increase; for this leads in barbarous tribes to infanticide and many
+other evils, and in civilised nations to abject poverty, celibacy, and
+to the late marriages of the prudent. But as man suffers from the same
+physical evils with the lower animals, he has no right to expect an
+immunity from the evils consequent on the struggle for existence. Had he
+not been subjected to natural selection, assuredly he would never have
+attained to the rank of manhood. When we see in many parts of the world
+enormous areas of the most fertile land peopled by a few wandering
+savages, but which are capable of supporting numerous happy homes, it
+might be argued that the struggle for existence had not been
+sufficiently severe to force man upwards to his highest standard.
+Judging from all that we know of man and the lower animals, there has
+always been sufficient variability in the intellectual and moral
+faculties, for their steady advancement through natural selection. No
+doubt such advancement demands many favourable concurrent circumstances;
+but it may well be doubted whether the most favourable would have
+sufficed, had not the rate of increase been rapid, and the consequent
+struggle for existence severe to an extreme degree.
+
+
+_On the evidence that all civilised nations were once barbarous._--As we
+have had to consider the steps by which some semi-human creature has
+been gradually raised to the rank of man in his most perfect state, the
+present subject cannot be quite passed over. But it has been treated in
+so full and admirable a manner by Sir J. Lubbock,[249] Mr. Tylor, Mr.
+M'Lennan, and others, that I need here give only the briefest summary of
+their results. The arguments recently advanced by the Duke of
+Argyll[250] and formerly by Archbishop Whately, in favour of the belief
+that man came into the world as a civilised being and that all savages
+have since undergone degradation, seem to me weak in comparison with
+those advanced on the other side. Many nations, no doubt, have fallen
+away in civilisation, and some may have lapsed into utter barbarism,
+though on this latter head I have not met with any evidence. The
+Fuegians were probably compelled by other conquering hordes to settle in
+their inhospitable country, and they may have become in consequence
+somewhat more degraded; but it would be difficult to prove that they
+have fallen much below the Botocudos who inhabit the finest parts of
+Brazil.
+
+The evidence that all civilised nations are the descendants of
+barbarians, consists, on the one side, of clear traces of their former
+low condition in still-existing customs, beliefs, language, &c.; and on
+the other side, of proofs that savages are independently able to raise
+themselves a few steps in the scale of civilisation, and have actually
+thus risen. The evidence on the first head is extremely curious, but
+cannot be here given: I refer to such cases as that, for instance, of
+the art of enumeration, which, as Mr. Tylor clearly shews by the words
+still used in some places, originated in counting the fingers, first of
+one hand and then of the other, and lastly of the toes. We have traces
+of this in our own decimal system, and in the Roman numerals, which
+after reaching to the number V., change into VI., &c., when the other
+hand no doubt was used. So again, "when we speak of three-score and ten,
+we are counting by the vigesimal system, each score thus ideally made,
+standing for 20--for 'one man' as a Mexican or Carib would put it."[251]
+According to a large and increasing school of philologists, every
+language bears the marks of its slow and gradual evolution. So it is
+with the art of writing, as letters are rudiments of pictorial
+representations. It is hardly possible to read Mr. M'Lennan's work[252]
+and not admit that almost all civilised nations still retain some traces
+of such rude habits as the forcible capture of wives. What ancient
+nation, as the same author asks, can be named that was originally
+monogamous? The primitive idea of justice, as shewn by the law of battle
+and other customs of which traces still remain, was likewise most rude.
+Many existing superstitions are the remnants of former false religious
+beliefs. The highest form of religion--the grand idea of God hating sin
+and loving righteousness--was unknown during primeval times.
+
+Turning to the other kind of evidence: Sir J. Lubbock has shewn that
+some savages have recently improved a little in some of their simpler
+arts. From the extremely curious account which he gives of the weapons,
+tools, and arts, used or practised by savages in various parts of the
+world, it cannot be doubted that these have nearly all been independent
+discoveries, excepting perhaps the art of making fire.[253] The
+Australian boomerang is a good instance of one such independent
+discovery. The Tahitians when first visited had advanced in many
+respects beyond the inhabitants of most of the other Polynesian islands.
+There are no just grounds for the belief that the high culture of the
+native Peruvians and Mexicans was derived from any foreign source;[254]
+many native plants were there cultivated, and a few native animals
+domesticated. We should bear in mind that a wandering crew from some
+semi-civilised land, if washed to the shores of America, would not,
+judging from the small influence of most missionaries, have produced any
+marked effect on the natives, unless they had already become somewhat
+advanced. Looking to a very remote period in the history of the world,
+we find, to use Sir J. Lubbock's well-known terms, a paleolithic and
+neolithic period; and no one will pretend that the art of grinding rough
+flint tools was a borrowed one. In all parts of Europe, as far east as
+Greece, in Palestine, India, Japan, New Zealand, and Africa, including
+Egypt, flint tools have been discovered in abundance; and of their use
+the existing inhabitants retain no tradition. There is also indirect
+evidence of their former use by the Chinese and ancient Jews. Hence
+there can hardly be a doubt that the inhabitants of these many
+countries, which include nearly the whole civilised world, were once in
+a barbarous condition. To believe that man was aboriginally civilised
+and then suffered utter degradation in so many regions, is to take a
+pitiably low view of human nature. It is apparently a truer and more
+cheerful view that progress has been much more general than
+retrogression; that man has risen, though by slow and interrupted steps,
+from a lowly condition to the highest standard as yet attained by him in
+knowledge, morals, and religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+
+  Position of man in the animal series--The natural system
+  genealogical--Adaptive characters of slight value--Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana--Rank of man in the natural system--Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man--Absence of fossil connecting-links--Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure--Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata--Conclusion.
+
+
+Even if it be granted that the difference between man and his nearest
+allies is as great in corporeal structure as some naturalists maintain,
+and although we must grant that the difference between them is immense
+in mental power, yet the facts given in the previous chapters declare,
+as it appears to me, in the plainest manner, that man is descended from
+some lower form, notwithstanding that connecting-links have not hitherto
+been discovered.
+
+Man is liable to numerous, slight, and diversified variations, which are
+induced by the same general causes, are governed and transmitted in
+accordance with the same general laws, as in the lower animals. Man
+tends to multiply at so rapid a rate that his offspring are necessarily
+exposed to a struggle for existence, and consequently to natural
+selection. He has given rise to many races, some of which are so
+different that they have often been ranked by naturalists as distinct
+species. His body is constructed on the same homological plan as that of
+other mammals, independently of the uses to which the several parts may
+be put. He passes through the same phases of embryological development.
+He retains many rudimentary and useless structures, which no doubt were
+once serviceable. Characters occasionally make their reappearance in
+him, which we have every reason to believe were possessed by his early
+progenitors. If the origin of man had been wholly different from that of
+all other animals, these various appearances would be mere empty
+deceptions; but such an admission is incredible. These appearances, on
+the other hand, are intelligible, at least to a large extent, if man is
+the co-descendant with other mammals of some unknown and lower form.
+
+Some naturalists, from being deeply impressed with the mental and
+spiritual powers of man, have divided the whole organic world into three
+kingdoms, the Human, the Animal, and the Vegetable, thus giving to man a
+separate kingdom.[255] Spiritual powers cannot be compared or classed by
+the naturalist; but he may endeavour to shew, as I have done, that the
+mental faculties of man and the lower animals do not differ in kind,
+although immensely in degree. A difference in degree, however great,
+does not justify us in placing man in a distinct kingdom, as will
+perhaps be best illustrated by comparing the mental powers of two
+insects, namely, a coccus or scale-insect and an ant, which undoubtedly
+belong to the same class. The difference is here greater, though of a
+somewhat different kind, than that between man and the highest mammal.
+The female coccus, whilst young, attaches itself by its proboscis to a
+plant; sucks the sap but never moves again; is fertilised and lays eggs;
+and this is its whole history. On the other hand, to describe the habits
+and mental powers of a female ant, would require, as Pierre Huber has
+shewn, a large volume; I may, however, briefly specify a few points.
+Ants communicate information to each other, and several unite for the
+same work, or games of play. They recognise their fellow-ants after
+months of absence. They build great edifices, keep them clean, close the
+doors in the evening, and post sentries. They make roads, and even
+tunnels under rivers. They collect food for the community, and when an
+object, too large for entrance, is brought to the nest, they enlarge the
+door, and afterwards build it up again.[256] They go out to battle in
+regular bands, and freely sacrifice their lives for the common weal.
+They emigrate in accordance with a preconcerted plan. They capture
+slaves. They keep Aphides as milch-cows. They move the eggs of their
+aphides, as well as their own eggs and cocoons, into warm parts of the
+nest, in order that they may be quickly hatched; and endless similar
+facts could be given. On the whole, the difference in mental power
+between an ant and a coccus is immense; yet no one has ever dreamed of
+placing them in distinct classes, much less in distinct kingdoms. No
+doubt this interval is bridged over by the intermediate mental powers of
+many other insects; and this is not the case with man and the higher
+apes. But we have every reason to believe that breaks in the series are
+simply the result of many forms having become extinct.
+
+Professor Owen, relying chiefly on the structure of the brain, has
+divided the mammalian series into four sub-classes. One of these he
+devotes to man; in another he places both the marsupials and the
+monotremata; so that he makes man as distinct from all other mammals as
+are these two latter groups conjoined. This view has not been accepted,
+as far as I am aware, by any naturalist capable of forming an
+independent judgment, and therefore need not here be further considered.
+
+We can understand why a classification founded on any single character
+or organ--even an organ so wonderfully complex and important as the
+brain--or on the high development of the mental faculties, is almost
+sure to prove unsatisfactory. This principle has indeed been tried with
+hymenopterous insects; but when thus classed by their habits or
+instincts, the arrangement proved thoroughly artificial.[257]
+Classifications may, of course, be based on any character whatever, as
+on size, colour, or the element inhabited; but naturalists have long
+felt a profound conviction that there is a natural system. This system,
+it is now generally admitted, must be, as far as possible, genealogical
+in arrangement,--that is, the co-descendants of the same form must be
+kept together in one group, separate from the co-descendants of any
+other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will be their
+descendants, and the two groups together will form a larger group. The
+amount of difference between the several groups--that is the amount of
+modification which each has undergone--will be expressed by such terms
+as genera, families, orders, and classes. As we have no record of the
+lines of descent, these lines can be discovered only by observing the
+degrees of resemblance between the beings which are to be classed. For
+this object numerous points of resemblance are of much more importance
+than the amount of similarity or dissimilarity in a few points. If two
+languages were found to resemble each other in a multitude of words and
+points of construction, they would be universally recognised as having
+sprung from a common source, notwithstanding that they differed greatly
+in some few words or points of construction. But with organic beings the
+points of resemblance must not consist of adaptations to similar habits
+of life: two animals may, for instance, have had their whole frames
+modified for living in the water, and yet they will not be brought any
+nearer to each other in the natural system. Hence we can see how it is
+that resemblances in unimportant structures, in useless and rudimentary
+organs, and in parts not as yet fully developed or functionally active,
+are by far the most serviceable for classification; for they can hardly
+be due to adaptations within a late period; and thus they reveal the old
+lines of descent or of true affinity.
+
+We can further see why a great amount of modification in some one
+character ought not to lead us to separate widely any two organisms. A
+part which already differs much from the same part in other allied forms
+has already, according to the theory of evolution, varied much;
+consequently it would (as long as the organism remained exposed to the
+same exciting conditions) be liable to further variations of the same
+kind; and these, if beneficial, would be preserved, and thus continually
+augmented. In many cases the continued development of a part, for
+instance, of the beak of a bird, or of the teeth of a mammal, would not
+be advantageous to the species for gaining its food, or for any other
+object; but with man we can see no definite limit, as far as advantage
+is concerned, to the continued development of the brain and mental
+faculties. Therefore in determining the position of man in the natural
+or genealogical system, the extreme development of his brain ought not
+to outweigh a multitude of resemblances in other less important or
+quite unimportant points.
+
+The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the
+whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed
+Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under
+the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the Orders of
+the Quadrumana, Carnivora, &c. Recently many of our best naturalists
+have recurred to the view first propounded by Linn�us, so remarkable for
+his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana,
+under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be
+admitted if, in the first place, we bear in mind the remarks just made
+on the comparatively small importance for classification of the great
+development of the brain in man; bearing, also, in mind that the
+strongly-marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana
+(lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others) apparently follow
+from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must
+remember that nearly all the other and more important differences
+between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature,
+and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure
+of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the
+position of his head. The family of seals offers a good illustration of
+the small importance of adaptive characters for classification. These
+animals differ from all other Carnivora in the form of their bodies and
+in the structure of their limbs, far more than does man from the higher
+apes; yet in every system, from that of Cuvier to the most recent one by
+Mr. Flower,[258] seals are ranked as a mere family in the Order of the
+Carnivora. If man had not been his own classifier, he would never have
+thought of founding a separate order for his own reception.
+
+It would be beyond my limits, and quite beyond my knowledge, even to
+name the innumerable points of structure in which man agrees with the
+other Primates. Our great anatomist and philosopher, Prof. Huxley, has
+fully discussed this subject,[259] and has come to the conclusion that
+man in all parts of his organisation differs less from the higher apes,
+than these do from the lower members of the same group. Consequently
+there "is no justification for placing man in a distinct order."
+
+In an early part of this volume I brought forward various facts, shewing
+how closely man agrees in constitution with the higher mammals; and this
+agreement, no doubt, depends on our close similarity in minute structure
+and chemical composition. I gave, as instances, our liability to the
+same diseases, and to the attacks of allied parasites; our tastes in
+common for the same stimulants, and the similar effects thus produced,
+as well as by various drugs; and other such facts.
+
+As small unimportant points of resemblance between man and the higher
+apes are not commonly noticed in systematic works, and as, when
+numerous, they clearly reveal our relationship, I will specify a few
+such points. The relative position of the features are manifestly the
+same in man and the Quadrumana; and the various emotions are displayed
+by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the
+eyebrows and round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed, almost
+the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of monkeys, and in the
+laughing noise made by others, during which the corners of the mouth are
+drawn backwards, and the lower eyelids wrinkled. The external ears are
+curiously alike. In man the nose is much more prominent than in most
+monkeys; but we may trace the commencement of an aquiline curvature in
+the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon; and this in the _Semnopithecus nasica_
+is carried to a ridiculous extreme.
+
+The faces of many monkeys are ornamented with beards, whiskers, or
+moustaches. The hair on the head grows to a great length in some species
+of Semnopithecus;[260] and in the Bonnet monkey (_Macacus radiatus_) it
+radiates from a point on the crown, with a parting down the middle, as
+in man. It is commonly said that the forehead gives to man his noble and
+intellectual appearance; but the thick hair on the head of the Bonnet
+monkey terminates abruptly downwards, and is succeeded by such short and
+fine hair, or down, that at a little distance the forehead, with the
+exception of the eyebrows, appears quite naked. It has been erroneously
+asserted that eyebrows are not present in any monkey. In the species
+just named the degree of nakedness of the forehead differs in different
+individuals; and Eschricht states[261] that in our children the limit
+between the hairy scalp and the naked forehead is sometimes not well
+defined; so that here we seem to have a trifling case of reversion to a
+progenitor, in whom the forehead had not as yet become quite naked.
+
+It is well known that the hair on our arms tends to converge from above
+and below to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, so unlike
+that in most of the lower mammals, is common to the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some few American monkeys.
+But in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the fore-arm is directed
+downwards or towards the wrist in the ordinary manner; and in _H. lar_
+it is nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclination; so that
+in this latter species it is in a transitional state. It can hardly be
+doubted that with most mammals the thickness of the hair and its
+direction on the back is adapted to throw off the rain; even the
+transverse hairs on the fore-legs of a dog may serve for this end when
+he is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the
+hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang (whose habits he has so
+carefully studied) serves to throw off the rain, when, as is the custom
+of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped round a branch
+or over its own head. We should, however, bear in mind that the attitude
+of an animal may perhaps be in part determined by the direction of the
+hair; and not the direction of the hair by the attitude. If the above
+explanation is correct in the case of the orang, the hair on our
+fore-arms offers a curious record of our former state; for no one
+supposes that it is now of any use in throwing off the rain, nor in our
+present erect condition is it properly directed for this purpose.
+
+It would, however, be rash to trust too much to the principle of
+adaptation in regard to the direction of the hair in man or his early
+progenitors; for it is impossible to study the figures given by
+Eschricht of the arrangement of the hair on the human foetus (this
+being the same as in the adult) and not agree with this excellent
+observer that other and more complex causes have intervened. The points
+of convergence seem to stand in some relation to those points in the
+embryo which are last closed in during development. There appears, also,
+to exist some relation between the arrangement of the hair on the
+limbs, and the course of the medullary arteries.[262]
+
+It must not be supposed that the resemblances between man and certain
+apes in the above and many other points--such as in having a naked
+forehead, long tresses on the head, &c.--are all necessarily the result
+of unbroken inheritance from a common progenitor thus characterised, or
+of subsequent reversion. Many of these resemblances are more probably
+due to analogous variation, which follows, as I have elsewhere attempted
+to shew,[263] from co-descended organisms having a similar constitution
+and having been acted on by similar causes inducing variability. With
+respect to the similar direction of the hair on the fore-arms of man and
+certain monkeys, as this character is common to almost all the
+anthropomorphous apes, it may probably be attributed to inheritance; but
+not certainly so, as some very distinct American monkeys are thus
+characterised. The same remark is applicable to the tailless condition
+of man; for the tail is absent in all the anthropomorphous apes.
+Nevertheless this character cannot with certainty be attributed to
+inheritance, as the tail, though not absent, is rudimentary in several
+other Old World and in some New World species, and is quite absent in
+several species belonging to the allied group of Lemurs.
+
+Although, as we have now seen, man has no just right to form a separate
+Order for his own reception, he may perhaps claim a distinct Sub-order
+or Family. Prof. Huxley, in his last work,[264] divides the Primates
+into three Sub-orders; namely, the Anthropid� with man alone, the
+Simiad� including monkeys of all kinds, and the Lemurid� with the
+diversified genera of lemurs. As far as differences in certain important
+points of structure are concerned, man may no doubt rightly claim the
+rank of a Sub-order; and this rank is too low, if we look chiefly to his
+mental faculties. Nevertheless, under a genealogical point of view it
+appears that this rank is too high, and that man ought to form merely a
+Family, or possibly even only a Sub-family. If we imagine three lines of
+descent proceeding from a common source, it is quite conceivable that
+two of them might after the lapse of ages be so slightly changed as
+still to remain as species of the same genus; whilst the third line
+might become so greatly modified as to deserve to rank as a distinct
+Sub-family, Family, or even Order. But in this case it is almost certain
+that the third line would still retain through inheritance numerous
+small points of resemblance with the other two lines. Here then would
+occur the difficulty, at present insoluble, how much weight we ought to
+assign in our classifications to strongly-marked differences in some few
+points,--that is to the amount of modification undergone; and how much
+to close resemblance in numerous unimportant points, as indicating the
+lines of descent or genealogy. The former alternative is the most
+obvious, and perhaps the safest, though the latter appears the most
+correct as giving a truly natural classification.
+
+To form a judgment on this head, with reference to man we must glance at
+the classification of the Simiad�. This family is divided by almost all
+naturalists into the Catarhine group, or Old World monkeys, all of which
+are characterised (as their name expresses) by the peculiar structure of
+their nostrils and by having four premolars in each jaw; and into the
+Platyrhine group or New World monkeys (including two very distinct
+sub-groups), all of which are characterised by differently-constructed
+nostrils and by having six premolars in each jaw. Some other small
+differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably belongs in his
+dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and some other respects, to
+the Catarhine or Old World division; nor does he resemble the
+Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any characters,
+excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently of an adaptive
+nature. Therefore it would be against all probability to suppose that
+some ancient New World species had varied, and had thus produced a
+man-like creature with all the distinctive characters proper to the Old
+World division; losing at the same time all its own distinctive
+characters. There can consequently hardly be a doubt that man is an
+offshoot from the Old World Simian stem; and that under a genealogical
+point of view, he must be classed with the Catarhine division.[265]
+
+The anthropomorphous apes, namely the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and
+hylobates, are separated as a distinct sub-group from the other Old
+World monkeys by most naturalists. I am aware that Gratiolet, relying on
+the structure of the brain, does not admit the existence of this
+sub-group, and no doubt it is a broken one; thus the orang, as Mr. St.
+G. Mivart remarks,[266] "is one of the most peculiar and aberrant forms
+to be found in the Order." The remaining, non-anthropomorphous, Old
+World monkeys, are again divided by some naturalists into two or three
+smaller sub-groups; the genus Semnopithecus, with its peculiar
+sacculated stomach, being the type of one such sub-group. But it appears
+from M. Gaudry's wonderful discoveries in Attica, that during the
+Miocene period a form existed there, which connected Semnopithecus and
+Macacus; and this probably illustrates the manner in which the other and
+higher groups were once blended together.
+
+If the anthropomorphous apes be admitted to form a natural sub-group,
+then as man agrees with them, not only in all those characters which he
+possesses in common with the whole Catarhine group, but in other
+peculiar characters, such as the absence of a tail and of callosities
+and in general appearance, we may infer that some ancient member of the
+anthropomorphous sub-group gave birth to man. It is not probable that a
+member of one of the other lower sub-groups should, through the law of
+analogous variation, have given rise to a man-like creature, resembling
+the higher anthropomorphous apes in so many respects. No doubt man, in
+comparison with most of his allies, has undergone an extraordinary
+amount of modification, chiefly in consequence of his greatly developed
+brain and erect position; nevertheless we should bear in mind that he
+"is but one of several exceptional forms of Primates."[267]
+
+Every naturalist, who believes in the principle of evolution, will
+grant that the two main divisions of the Simiad�, namely the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine monkeys, with their sub-groups, have all proceeded from
+some one extremely ancient progenitor. The early descendants of this
+progenitor, before they had diverged to any considerable extent from
+each other, would still have formed a single natural group; but some of
+the species or incipient genera would have already begun to indicate by
+their diverging characters the future distinctive marks of the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine divisions. Hence the members of this supposed ancient
+group would not have been so uniform in their dentition or in the
+structure of their nostrils, as are the existing Catarhine monkeys in
+one way and the Platyrhines in another way, but would have resembled in
+this respect the allied Lemurid� which differ greatly from each other in
+the form of their muzzles,[268] and to an extraordinary degree in their
+dentition.
+
+The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of characters,
+as is shewn by their unquestionably belonging to one and the same Order.
+The many characters which they possess in common can hardly have been
+independently acquired by so many distinct species; so that these
+characters must have been inherited. But an ancient form which possessed
+many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys, and
+others in an intermediate condition, and some few perhaps distinct from
+those now present in either group, would undoubtedly have been ranked,
+if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or monkey. And as man under a
+genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or Old World stock,
+we must conclude, however much the conclusion may revolt our pride,
+that our early progenitors would have been properly thus
+designated.[269] But we must not fall into the error of supposing that
+the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man, was
+identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or monkey.
+
+
+_On the Birthplace and Antiquity of Man._--We are naturally led to
+enquire where was the birthplace of man at that stage of descent when
+our progenitors diverged from the Catarhine stock. The fact that they
+belonged to this stock clearly shews that they inhabited the Old World;
+but not Australia nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws
+of geographical distribution. In each great region of the world the
+living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same
+region. It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by
+extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these
+two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable
+that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than
+elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape
+nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was
+closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe
+during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth
+has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample
+time for migration on the largest scale.
+
+At the period and place, whenever and wherever it may have been, when
+man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a hot country;
+and this would have been favourable for a frugiferous diet, on which,
+judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago
+it was when man first diverged from the Catarhine stock; but this may
+have occurred at an epoch as remote as the Eocene period; for the higher
+apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene
+period, as shewn by the existence of the Dryopithecus. We are also quite
+ignorant at how rapid a rate organisms, whether high or low in the
+scale, may under favourable circumstances be modified: we know, however,
+that some have retained the same form during an enormous lapse of time.
+From what we see going on under domestication, we learn that within the
+same period some of the co-descendants of the same species may be not at
+all changed, some a little, and some greatly changed. Thus it may have
+been with man, who has undergone a great amount of modification in
+certain characters in comparison with the higher apes.
+
+The great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies,
+which cannot be bridged over by any extinct or living species, has often
+been advanced as a grave objection to the belief that man is descended
+from some lower form; but this objection will not appear of much weight
+to those who, convinced by general reasons, believe in the general
+principle of evolution. Breaks incessantly occur in all parts of the
+series, some being wide, sharp and defined, others less so in various
+degrees; as between the orang and its nearest allies--between the
+Tarsius and the other Lemurid�--between the elephant and in a more
+striking manner between the Ornithorhynchus or Echidna, and other
+mammals. But all these breaks depend merely on the number of related
+forms which have become extinct. At some future period, not very distant
+as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost
+certainly exterminate and replace throughout the world the savage races.
+At the same time the anthropomorphous apes, as Professor Schaaffhausen
+has remarked,[270] will no doubt be exterminated. The break will then be
+rendered wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilised
+state, as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a
+baboon, instead of as at present between the negro or Australian and the
+gorilla.
+
+With respect to the absence of fossil remains, serving to connect man
+with his ape-like progenitors, no one will lay much stress on this fact,
+who will read Sir C. Lyell's discussion,[271] in which he shews that in
+all the vertebrate classes the discovery of fossil remains has been an
+extremely slow and fortuitous process. Nor should it be forgotten that
+those regions which are the most likely to afford remains connecting man
+with some extinct ape-like creature, have not as yet been searched by
+geologists.
+
+
+_Lower Stages in the Genealogy of Man._--We have seen that man appears
+to have diverged from the Catarhine or Old World division of the
+Simiad�, after these had diverged from the New World division. We will
+now endeavour to follow the more remote traces of his genealogy,
+trusting in the first place to the mutual affinities between the various
+classes and orders, with some slight aid from the periods, as far as
+ascertained, of their successive appearance on the earth. The Lemurid�
+stand below and close to the Simiad�, constituting a very distinct
+family of the Primates, or, according to H�ckel, a distinct Order. This
+group is diversified and broken to an extraordinary degree, and includes
+many aberrant forms. It has, therefore, probably suffered much
+extinction. Most of the remnants survive on islands, namely in
+Madagascar and in the islands of the Malayan archipelago, where they
+have not been exposed to such severe competition as they would have been
+on well-stocked continents. This group likewise presents many
+gradations, leading, as Huxley remarks,[272] "insensibly from the crown
+and summit of the animal creation down to creatures from which there is
+but a step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent
+of the placental mammalia." From these various considerations it is
+probable that the Simiad� were originally developed from the progenitors
+of the existing Lemurid�; and these in their turn from forms standing
+very low in the mammalian series.
+
+The Marsupials stand in many important characters below the placental
+mammals. They appeared at an earlier geological period, and their range
+was formerly much more extensive than what it now is. Hence the
+Placentata are generally supposed to have been derived from the
+Implacentata or Marsupials; not, however, from forms closely like the
+existing Marsupials, but from their early progenitors. The Monotremata
+are plainly allied to the Marsupials; forming a third and still lower
+division in the great mammalian series. They are represented at the
+present day solely by the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna; and these two
+forms may be safely considered as relics of a much larger group which
+have been preserved in Australia through some favourable concurrence of
+circumstances. The Monotremata are eminently interesting, as in several
+important points of structure they lead towards the class of reptiles.
+
+In attempting to trace the genealogy of the Mammalia, and therefore of
+man, lower down in the series, we become involved in greater and greater
+obscurity. He who wishes to see what ingenuity and knowledge can effect,
+may consult Prof. H�ckel's works.[273] I will content myself with a few
+general remarks. Every evolutionist will admit that the five great
+vertebrate classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and
+fishes, are all descended from some one prototype; for they have much in
+common, especially during their embryonic state. As the class of fishes
+is the most lowly organised and appeared before the others, we may
+conclude that all the members of the vertebrate kingdom are derived from
+some fish-like animal, less highly organised than any as yet found in
+the lowest known formations. The belief that animals so distinct as a
+monkey or elephant and a humming-bird, a snake, frog, and fish, &c.,
+could all have sprung from the same parents, will appear monstrous to
+those who have not attended to the recent progress of natural history.
+For this belief implies the former existence of links closely binding
+together all these forms, now so utterly unlike.
+
+Nevertheless it is certain that groups of animals have existed, or do
+now exist, which serve to connect more or less closely the several great
+vertebrate classes. We have seen that the Ornithorhynchus graduates
+towards reptiles; and Prof. Huxley has made the remarkable discovery,
+confirmed by Mr. Cope and others, that the old Dinosaurians are
+intermediate in many important respects between certain reptiles and
+certain birds--the latter consisting of the ostrich-tribe (itself
+evidently a widely-diffused remnant of a larger group) and of the
+Archeopteryx, that strange Secondary bird having a long tail like that
+of the lizard. Again, according to Prof. Owen,[274] the
+Ichthyosaurians--great sea-lizards furnished with paddles--present many
+affinities with fishes, or rather, according to Huxley, with amphibians.
+This latter class (including in its highest division frogs and toads) is
+plainly allied to the Ganoid fishes. These latter fishes swarmed during
+the earlier geological periods, and were constructed on what is called a
+highly generalised type, that is they presented diversified affinities
+with other groups of organisms. The amphibians and fishes are also so
+closely united by the Lepidosiren, that naturalists long disputed in
+which of these two classes it ought to be placed. The Lepidosiren and
+some few Ganoid fishes have been preserved from utter extinction by
+inhabiting our rivers, which are harbours of refuge, bearing the same
+relation to the great waters of the ocean that islands bear to
+continents.
+
+Lastly, one single member of the immense and diversified class of
+fishes, namely the lancelet or amphioxus, is so different from all other
+fishes, that H�ckel maintains that it ought to form a distinct class in
+the vertebrate kingdom. This fish is remarkable for its negative
+characters; it can hardly be said to possess a brain, vertebral column,
+or heart, &c.; so that it was classed by the older naturalists amongst
+the worms. Many years ago Prof. Goodsir perceived that the lancelet
+presented some affinities with the Ascidians, which are invertebrate,
+hermaphrodite, marine creatures permanently attached to a support. They
+hardly appear like animals, and consist of a simple, tough, leathery
+sack, with two small projecting orifices. They belong to the Molluscoida
+of Huxley--a lower division of the great kingdom of the Mollusca; but
+they have recently been placed by some naturalists amongst the Vermes or
+worms. Their larv� somewhat resemble tadpoles in shape,[275] and have
+the power of swimming freely about. Some observations lately made by M.
+Kowalevsky,[276] since confirmed by Prof. Kuppfer, will form a discovery
+of extraordinary interest, if still further extended, as I hear from M.
+Kowalevsky in Naples he has now effected. The discovery is that the
+larv� of Ascidians are related to the Vertebrata, in their manner of
+development, in the relative position of the nervous system, and in
+possessing a structure closely like the _chorda dorsalis_ of vertebrate
+animals. It thus appears, if we may rely on embryology, which has always
+proved the safest guide in classification, that we have at last gained a
+clue to the source whence the Vertebrata have been derived. We should
+thus be justified in believing that at an extremely remote period a
+group of animals existed, resembling in many respects the larv� of our
+present Ascidians, which diverged into two great branches--the one
+retrograding in development and producing the present class of
+Ascidians, the other rising to the crown and summit of the animal
+kingdom by giving birth to the Vertebrata.
+
+
+We have thus far endeavoured rudely to trace the genealogy of the
+Vertebrata by the aid of their mutual affinities. We will now look to
+man as he exists; and we shall, I think, be able partially to restore
+during successive periods, but not in due order of time, the structure
+of our early progenitors. This can be effected by means of the rudiments
+which man still retains, by the characters which occasionally make their
+appearance in him through reversion, and by the aid of the principles of
+morphology and embryology. The various facts, to which I shall here
+allude, have been given in the previous chapters. The early progenitors
+of man were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes having beards;
+their ears were pointed and capable of movement; and their bodies were
+provided with a tail, having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies
+were also acted on by many muscles which now only occasionally reappear,
+but are normally present in the Quadrumana. The great artery and nerve
+of the humerus ran through a supra-condyloid foramen. At this or some
+earlier period, the intestine gave forth a much larger diverticulum or
+c�cum than that now existing. The foot, judging from the condition of
+the great toe in the foetus, was then prehensile; and our progenitors,
+no doubt, were arboreal in their habits, frequenting some warm,
+forest-clad land. The males were provided with great canine teeth,
+which served them as formidable weapons.
+
+At a much earlier period the uterus was double; the excreta were voided
+through a cloaca; and the eye was protected by a third eyelid or
+nictitating membrane. At a still earlier period the progenitors of man
+must have been aquatic in their habits; for morphology plainly tells us
+that our lungs consist of a modified swim-bladder, which once served as
+a float. The clefts on the neck in the embryo of man show where the
+branchi� once existed. At about this period the true kidneys were
+replaced by the corpora Wolffiana. The heart existed as a simple
+pulsating vessel; and the chorda dorsalis took the place of a vertebral
+column. These early predecessors of man, thus seen in the dim recesses
+of time, must have been as lowly organised as the lancelet or amphioxus,
+or even still more lowly organised.
+
+There is one other point deserving a fuller notice. It has long been
+known that in the vertebrate kingdom one sex bears rudiments of various
+accessory parts, appertaining to the reproductive system, which properly
+belong to the opposite sex; and it has now been ascertained that at a
+very early embryonic period both sexes possess true male and female
+glands. Hence some extremely remote progenitor of the whole vertebrate
+kingdom appears to have been hermaphrodite or androgynous.[277] But here
+we encounter a singular difficulty. In the mammalian class the males
+possess in their vesicul� prostatic� rudiments of a uterus with the
+adjacent passage; they bear also rudiments of mamm�, and some male
+marsupials have rudiments of a marsupial sack.[278] Other analogous
+facts could be added. Are we, then, to suppose that some extremely
+ancient mammal possessed organs proper to both sexes, that is, continued
+androgynous after it had acquired the chief distinctions of its proper
+class, and therefore after it had diverged from the lower classes of the
+vertebrate kingdom? This seems improbable in the highest degree; for had
+this been the case, we might have expected that some few members of the
+two lower classes, namely fishes[279] and amphibians, would still have
+remained androgynous. We must, on the contrary, believe that when the
+five vertebrate classes diverged from their common progenitor the sexes
+had already become separated. To account, however, for male mammals
+possessing rudiments of the accessory female organs, and for female
+mammals possessing rudiments of the masculine organs, we need not
+suppose that their early progenitors were still androgynous after they
+had assumed their chief mammalian characters. It is quite possible that
+as the one sex gradually acquired the accessory organs proper to it,
+some of the successive steps or modifications were transmitted to the
+opposite sex. When we treat of sexual selection, we shall meet with
+innumerable instances of this form of transmission,--as in the case of
+the spurs, plumes, and brilliant colours, acquired by male birds for
+battle or ornament, and transferred to the females in an imperfect or
+rudimentary condition.
+
+The possession by male mammals of functionally imperfect mammary organs
+is, in some respects, especially curious. The Monotremata have the
+proper milk-secreting glands with orifices, but no nipples; and as these
+animals stand at the very base of the mammalian series, it is probable
+that the progenitors of the class possessed, in like manner, the
+milk-secreting glands, but no nipples. This conclusion is supported by
+what is known of their manner of development; for Professor Turner
+informs me, on the authority of K�lliker and Lauger, that in the embryo
+the mammary glands can be distinctly traced before the nipples are in
+the least visible; and it should be borne in mind that the development
+of successive parts in the individual generally seems to represent and
+accord with the development of successive beings in the same line of
+descent. The Marsupials differ from the Monotremata by possessing
+nipples; so that these organs were probably first acquired by the
+Marsupials after they had diverged from, and risen above, the
+Monotremata, and were then transmitted to the placental mammals. No one
+will suppose that after the Marsupials had approximately acquired their
+present structure, and therefore at a rather late period in the
+development of the mammalian series, any of its members still remained
+androgynous. We seem, therefore, compelled to recur to the foregoing
+view, and to conclude that the nipples were first developed in the
+females of some very early marsupial form, and were then, in accordance
+with a common law of inheritance, transferred in a functionally
+imperfect condition to the males.
+
+Nevertheless a suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that long after
+the progenitors of the whole mammalian class had ceased to be
+androgynous, both sexes might have yielded milk and thus nourished their
+young; and in the case of the Marsupials, that both sexes might have
+carried their young in marsupial sacks. This will not appear utterly
+incredible, if we reflect that the males of syngnathous fishes receive
+the eggs of the females in their abdominal pouches, hatch them, and
+afterwards, as some believe, nourish the young;[280]--that certain other
+male fishes hatch the eggs within their mouths or branchial
+cavities;--that certain male toads take the chaplets of eggs from the
+females and wind them round their own thighs, keeping them there until
+the tadpoles are born;--that certain male birds undertake the whole duty
+of incubation, and that male pigeons, as well as the females, feed their
+nestlings with a secretion from their crops. But the above suspicion
+first occurred to me from the mammary glands in male mammals being
+developed so much more perfectly than the rudiments of those other
+accessory reproductive parts, which are found in the one sex though
+proper to the other. The mammary glands and nipples, as they exist in
+male mammals, can indeed hardly be called rudimentary; they are simply
+not fully developed and not functionally active. They are
+sympathetically affected under the influence of certain diseases, like
+the same organs in the female. At birth they often secrete a few drops
+of milk; and they have been known occasionally in man and other mammals
+to become well developed, and to yield a fair supply of milk. Now if we
+suppose that during a former prolonged period male mammals aided the
+females in nursing their offspring, and that afterwards from some cause,
+as from a smaller number of young being produced, the males ceased
+giving this aid, disuse of the organs during maturity would lead to
+their becoming inactive; and from two well-known principles of
+inheritance this state of inactivity would probably be transmitted to
+the males at the corresponding age of maturity. But at all earlier ages
+these organs would be left unaffected, so that they would be equally
+well developed in the young of both sexes.
+
+
+_Conclusion._--The best definition of advancement or progress in the
+organic scale ever given, is that by Von Baer; and this rests on the
+amount of differentiation and specialisation of the several parts of the
+same being, when arrived, as I should be inclined to add, at maturity.
+Now as organisms have become slowly adapted by means of natural
+selection for diversified lines of life, their parts will have become,
+from the advantage gained by the division of physiological labour, more
+and more differentiated and specialised for various functions. The same
+part appears often to have been modified first for one purpose, and then
+long afterwards for some other and quite distinct purpose; and thus all
+the parts are rendered more and more complex. But each organism will
+still retain the general type of structure of the progenitor from which
+it was aboriginally derived. In accordance with this view it seems, if
+we turn to geological evidence, that organisation on the whole has
+advanced throughout the world by slow and interrupted steps. In the
+great kingdom of the Vertebrata it has culminated in man. It must not,
+however, be supposed that groups of organic beings are always supplanted
+and disappear as soon as they have given birth to other and more perfect
+groups. The latter, though victorious over their predecessors, may not
+have become better adapted for all places in the economy of nature. Some
+old forms appear to have survived from inhabiting protected sites, where
+they have not been exposed to very severe competition; and these often
+aid us in constructing our genealogies, by giving us a fair idea of
+former and lost populations. But we must not fall into the error of
+looking at the existing members of any lowly-organised group as perfect
+representatives of their ancient predecessors.
+
+The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata, at which
+we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a group
+of marine animals,[281] resembling the larv� of existing Ascidians.
+These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes, as lowly
+organised as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes
+like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very
+small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
+birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the
+Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But
+no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and
+related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from
+either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely amphibians and
+fishes. In the class of mammals the steps are not difficult to conceive
+which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials; and
+from these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals. We may
+thus ascend to the Lemurid�; and the interval is not wide from these to
+the Simiad�. The Simiad� then branched off into two great stems, the New
+World and Old World monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
+Man, the wonder and glory of the Universe, proceeded.
+
+Thus we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it
+may be said, of noble quality. The world, it has often been remarked,
+appears as if it had long been preparing for the advent of man; and
+this, in one sense is strictly true, for he owes his birth to a long
+line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain had never existed,
+man would not have been exactly what he now is. Unless we wilfully close
+our eyes, we may, with our present knowledge, approximately recognise
+our parentage; nor need we feel ashamed of it. The most humble organism
+is something much higher than the inorganic dust under our feet; and no
+one with an unbiassed mind can study any living creature, however
+humble, without being struck with enthusiasm at its marvellous structure
+and properties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters--Application to the
+  races of man--Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct
+  species--Sub-species--Monogenists and polygenists--Convergence
+  of character--Numerous points of resemblance in body and mind
+  between the most distinct races of man--The state of man when
+  he first spread over the earth--Each race not descended from a
+  single pair--The extinction of races--The formation of
+  races--The effects of crossing--Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life--Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection--Sexual selection.
+
+
+It is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of
+men; but to inquire what is the value of the differences between them
+under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated. In
+determining whether two or more allied forms ought to be ranked as
+species or varieties, naturalists are practically guided by the
+following considerations; namely, the amount of difference between them,
+and whether such differences relate to few or many points of structure,
+and whether they are of physiological importance; but more especially
+whether they are constant. Constancy of character is what is chiefly
+valued and sought for by naturalists. Whenever it can be shewn, or
+rendered probable, that the forms in question have remained distinct for
+a long period, this becomes an argument of much weight in favour of
+treating them as species. Even a slight degree of sterility between any
+two forms when first crossed, or in their offspring, is generally
+considered as a decisive test of their specific distinctness; and their
+continued persistence without blending within the same area, is usually
+accepted as sufficient evidence, either of some degree of mutual
+sterility, or in the case of animals of some repugnance to mutual
+pairing.
+
+Independently of blending from intercrossing, the complete absence, in a
+well-investigated region, of varieties linking together any two
+closely-allied forms, is probably the most important of all the
+criterions of their specific distinctness; and this is a somewhat
+different consideration from mere constancy of character, for two forms
+may be highly variable and yet not yield intermediate varieties.
+Geographical distribution is often unconsciously and sometimes
+consciously brought into play; so that forms living in two widely
+separated areas, in which most of the other inhabitants are specifically
+distinct, are themselves usually looked at as distinct; but in truth
+this affords no aid in distinguishing geographical races from so-called
+good or true species.
+
+Now let us apply these generally-admitted principles to the races of
+man, viewing him in the same spirit as a naturalist would any other
+animal. In regard to the amount of difference between the races, we must
+make some allowance for our nice powers of discrimination gained by the
+long habit of observing ourselves. In India, as Elphinstone
+remarks,[282] although a newly-arrived European cannot at first
+distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him
+extremely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any
+difference between the several European nations. Even the most distinct
+races of man, with the exception of certain negro tribes, are much more
+like each other in form than would at first be supposed. This is well
+shewn by the French photographs in the Collection Anthropologique du
+Mus�um of the men belonging to various races, the greater number of
+which, as many persons to whom I have shown them have remarked, might
+pass for Europeans. Nevertheless, these men if seen alive would
+undoubtedly appear very distinct, so that we are clearly much influenced
+in our judgment by the mere colour of the skin and hair, by slight
+differences in the features, and by expression.
+
+There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully
+compared and measured, differ much from each other,--as in the texture
+of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body,[283] the
+capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in
+the convolutions of the brain.[284] But it would be an endless task to
+specify the numerous points of structural difference. The races differ
+also in constitution, in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain
+diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct;
+chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their
+intellectual, faculties. Every one who has had the opportunity of
+comparison, must have been struck with the contrast between the
+taciturn, even morose, aborigines of S. America and the light-hearted,
+talkative negroes. There is a nearly similar contrast between the Malays
+and the Papuans,[285] who live under the same physical conditions, and
+are separated from each other only by a narrow space of sea.
+
+We will first consider the arguments which may be advanced in favour of
+classing the races of man as distinct species, and then those on the
+other side. If a naturalist, who had never before seen such beings, were
+to compare a Negro, Hottentot, Australian, or Mongolian, he would at
+once perceive that they differed in a multitude of characters, some of
+slight and some of considerable importance. On inquiry he would find
+that they were adapted to live under widely different climates, and that
+they differed somewhat in bodily constitution and mental disposition. If
+he were then told that hundreds of similar specimens could be brought
+from the same countries, he would assuredly declare that they were as
+good species as many to which he had been in the habit of affixing
+specific names. This conclusion would be greatly strengthened as soon as
+he had ascertained that these forms had all retained the same character
+for many centuries; and that negroes, apparently identical with existing
+negroes, had lived at least 4000 years ago.[286] He would also hear from
+an excellent observer, Dr. Lund,[287] that the human skulls found in
+the caves of Brazil, entombed with many extinct mammals, belonged to the
+same type as that now prevailing throughout the American Continent.
+
+Our naturalist would then perhaps turn to geographical distribution, and
+he would probably declare that forms differing not only in appearance,
+but fitted for the hottest and dampest or driest countries, as well as
+for the arctic regions, must be distinct species. He might appeal to the
+fact that no one species in the group next to man, namely the
+Quadrumana, can resist a low temperature or any considerable change of
+climate; and that those species which come nearest to man have never
+been reared to maturity, even under the temperate climate of Europe. He
+would be deeply impressed with the fact, first noticed by Agassiz,[288]
+that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the
+same zoological provinces, as those inhabited by undoubtedly distinct
+species and genera of mammals. This is manifestly the case with the
+Australian, Mongolian, and Negro races of man; in a less well-marked
+manner with the Hottentots; but plainly with the Papuans and Malays, who
+are separated, as Mr. Wallace has shewn, by nearly the same line which
+divides the great Malayan and Australian zoological provinces. The
+aborigines of America range throughout the Continent; and this at first
+appears opposed to the above rule, for most of the productions of the
+Southern and Northern halves differ widely; yet some few living forms,
+as the opossum, range from the one into the other, as did formerly some
+of the gigantic Edentata. The Esquimaux, like other Arctic animals,
+extend round the whole polar regions. It should be observed that the
+mammalian forms which inhabit the several zoological provinces, do not
+differ from each other in the same degree; so that it can hardly be
+considered as an anomaly that the Negro differs more, and the American
+much less, from the other races of man than do the mammals of the same
+continents from those of the other provinces. Man, it may be added, does
+not appear to have aboriginally inhabited any oceanic island; and in
+this respect he resembles the other members of his class.
+
+In determining whether the varieties of the same kind of domestic animal
+should be ranked as specifically distinct, that is, whether any of them
+are descended from distinct wild species, every naturalist would lay
+much stress on the fact, if established, of their external parasites
+being specifically distinct. All the more stress would be laid on this
+fact, as it would be an exceptional one, for I am informed by Mr. Denny
+that the most different kinds of dogs, fowls, and pigeons, in England,
+are infested by the same species of Pediculi or lice. Now Mr. A. Murray
+has carefully examined the Pediculi collected in different countries
+from the different races of man;[289] and he finds that they differ, not
+only in colour, but in the structure of their claws and limbs. In every
+case in which numerous specimens were obtained the differences were
+constant. The surgeon of a whaling ship in the Pacific assured me that
+when the Pediculi, with which some Sandwich Islanders on board swarmed,
+strayed on to the bodies of the English sailors, they died in the course
+of three or four days. These Pediculi were darker coloured and appeared
+different from those proper to the natives of Chiloe in South America,
+of which he gave me specimens. These, again, appeared larger and much
+softer than European lice. Mr. Murray procured four kinds from Africa,
+namely from the Negroes of the Eastern and Western coasts, from the
+Hottentots and Caffres; two kinds from the natives of Australia; two
+from North, and two from South America. In these latter cases it may be
+presumed that the Pediculi came from natives inhabiting different
+districts. With insects slight structural differences, if constant, are
+generally esteemed of specific value: and the fact of the races of man
+being infested by parasites, which appear to be specifically distinct,
+might fairly be urged as an argument that the races themselves ought to
+be classed as distinct species.
+
+Our supposed naturalist having proceeded thus far in his investigation,
+would next inquire whether the races of men, when crossed, were in any
+degree sterile. He might consult the work[290] of a cautious and
+philosophical observer, Professor Broca; and in this he would find good,
+evidence that some races were quite fertile together; but evidence of an
+opposite nature in regard to other races. Thus it has been asserted that
+the native women of Australia and Tasmania rarely produce children to
+European men; the evidence, however, on this head has now been shewn to
+be almost valueless. The half-castes are killed by the pure blacks; and
+an account has lately been published of eleven half-caste youths
+murdered and burnt at the same time, whose remains were found by the
+police.[291] Again, it has often been said that when mulattoes
+intermarry they produce few children; on the other hand, Dr. Bachman of
+Charlestown[292] positively asserts that he has known mulatto families
+which have intermarried for several generations, and have continued on
+an average as fertile as either pure whites or pure blacks. Inquiries
+formerly made by Sir C. Lyell on this subject led him, as he informs me,
+to the same conclusion. In the United States the census for the year
+1854 included, according to Dr. Bachman, 405,751 mulattoes; and this
+number, considering all the circumstances of the case, seems small; but
+it may partly be accounted for by the degraded and anomalous position of
+the class, and by the profligacy of the women. A certain amount of
+absorption of mulattoes into negroes must always be in progress; and
+this would lead to an apparent diminution of the former. The inferior
+vitality of mulattoes is spoken of in a trustworthy work[293] as a
+well-known phenomenon; but this is a different consideration from their
+lessened fertility; and can hardly be advanced as a proof of the
+specific distinctness of the parent races. No doubt both animal and
+vegetable hybrids, when produced from extremely distinct species, are
+liable to premature death; but the parents of mulattoes cannot be put
+under the category of extremely distinct species. The common Mule, so
+notorious for long life and vigour, and yet so sterile, shews how little
+necessary connection there is in hybrids between lessened fertility and
+vitality: other analogous cases could be added.
+
+Even if it should hereafter be proved that all the races of men were
+perfectly fertile together, he who was inclined from other reasons to
+rank them as distinct species, might with justice argue that fertility
+and sterility are not safe criterions of specific distinctness. We know
+that these qualities are easily affected by changed conditions of life
+or by close inter-breeding, and that they are governed by highly complex
+laws, for instance that of the unequal fertility of reciprocal crosses
+between the same two species. With forms which must be ranked as
+undoubted species, a perfect series exists from those which are
+absolutely sterile when crossed, to those which are almost or quite
+fertile. The degrees of sterility do not coincide strictly with the
+degrees of difference in external structure or habits of life. Man in
+many respects may be compared with those animals which have long been
+domesticated, and a large body of evidence can be advanced in favour of
+the Pallasian doctrine[294] that domestication tends to eliminate the
+sterility which is so general a result of the crossing of species in a
+state of nature. From these several considerations, it may be justly
+urged that the perfect fertility of the intercrossed races of man, if
+established, would not absolutely preclude us from ranking them as
+distinct species.
+
+Independently of fertility, the character of the offspring from a cross
+has sometimes been thought to afford evidence whether the parent-forms
+ought to be ranked as species or varieties; but after carefully studying
+the evidence, I have come to the conclusion that no general rules of
+this kind can be trusted. Thus with mankind the offspring of distinct
+races resemble in all respects the offspring of true species and of
+varieties. This is shewn, for instance, by the manner in which the
+characters of both parents are blended, and by one form absorbing
+another through repeated crosses. In this latter case the progeny both
+of crossed species and varieties retain for a long period a tendency to
+revert to their ancestors, especially to that one which is prepotent in
+transmission. When any character has suddenly appeared in a race or
+species as the result of a single act of variation, as is general with
+monstrosities,[295] and this race is crossed with another not thus
+characterised, the characters in question do not commonly appear in a
+blended condition in the young, but are transmitted to them either
+perfectly developed or not at all. As with the crossed races of man
+cases of this kind rarely or never occur, this may be used as an
+argument against the view suggested by some ethnologists, namely that
+certain characters, for instance the blackness of the negro, first
+appeared as a sudden variation or sport. Had this occurred, it is
+probable that mulattoes would often have been born, either completely
+black or completely white.
+
+We have now seen that a naturalist might feel himself fully justified in
+ranking the races of man as distinct species; for he has found that they
+are distinguished by many differences in structure and constitution,
+some being of importance. These differences have, also, remained nearly
+constant for very long periods of time. He will have been in some degree
+influenced by the enormous range of man, which is a great anomaly in the
+class of mammals, if mankind be viewed as a single species. He will have
+been struck with the distribution of the several so-called races, in
+accordance with that of other undoubtedly distinct species of mammals.
+Finally he might urge that the mutual fertility of all the races has not
+as yet been fully proved; and even if proved would not be an absolute
+proof of their specific identity.
+
+
+On the other side of the question, if our supposed naturalist were to
+enquire whether the forms of man kept distinct like ordinary species,
+when mingled together in large numbers in the same country, he would
+immediately discover that this was by no means the case. In Brazil he
+would behold an immense mongrel population of Negroes and Portuguese; in
+Chiloe and other parts of South America, he would behold the whole
+population consisting of Indians and Spaniards blended in various
+degrees.[296] In many parts of the same continent he would meet with the
+most complex crosses between Negroes, Indians, and Europeans; and such
+triple crosses afford the severest test, judging from the vegetable
+kingdom, of the mutual fertility of the parent-forms. In one island of
+the Pacific he would find a small population of mingled Polynesian and
+English blood; and in the Viti Archipelago a population of Polynesians
+and Negritos crossed in all degrees. Many analogous cases could be
+added, for instance, in South Africa. Hence the races of man are not
+sufficiently distinct to co-exist without fusion; and this it is, which
+in all ordinary cases affords the usual test of specific distinctness.
+
+Our naturalist would likewise be much disturbed as soon as he perceived
+that the distinctive characters of every race of man were highly
+variable. This strikes every one when he first beholds the negro-slaves
+in Brazil, who have been imported from all parts of Africa. The same
+remark holds good with the Polynesians, and with many other races. It
+may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive
+of a race and is constant. Savages, even within the limits of the same
+tribe, are not nearly so uniform in character, as has often been said.
+Hottentot women offer certain peculiarities, more strongly marked than
+those occurring in any other race, but these are known not to be of
+constant occurrence. In the several American tribes, colour and
+hairyness differ considerably; as does colour to a certain degree, and
+the shape of the features greatly, in the Negroes of Africa. The shape
+of the skull varies much in some races;[297] and so it is with every
+other character. Now all naturalists have learnt by dearly-bought
+experience, how rash it is to attempt to define species by the aid of
+inconstant characters.
+
+But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of
+man as distinct species, is that they graduate into each other,
+independently in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having
+intercrossed. Man has been studied more carefully than any other organic
+being, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity amongst capable
+judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as
+two (Virey), as three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach),
+six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering),
+fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two (Morton),
+sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according to Burke.[298] This
+diversity of judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be
+ranked as species, but it shews that they graduate into each other, and
+that it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters
+between them.
+
+Every naturalist who has had the misfortune to undertake the
+description of a group of highly varying organisms, has encountered
+cases (I speak after experience) precisely like that of man; and if of a
+cautious disposition, he will end by uniting all the forms which
+graduate into each other as a single species; for he will say to himself
+that he has no right to give names to objects which he cannot define.
+Cases of this kind occur in the Order which includes man, namely in
+certain genera of monkeys; whilst in other genera, as in Cercopithecus,
+most of the species can be determined with certainty. In the American
+genus Cebus, the various forms are ranked by some naturalists as
+species, by others as mere geographical races. Now if numerous specimens
+of Cebus were collected from all parts of South America, and those forms
+which at present appear to be specifically distinct, were found to
+graduate into each other by close steps, they would be ranked by most
+naturalists as mere varieties or races; and thus the greater number of
+naturalists have acted with respect to the races of man. Nevertheless it
+must be confessed that there are forms, at least in the vegetable
+kingdom,[299] which we cannot avoid naming as species, but which are
+connected together, independently of intercrossing, by numberless
+gradations.
+
+Some naturalists have lately employed the term "sub-species" to
+designate forms which possess many of the characteristics of true
+species, but which hardly deserve so high a rank. Now if we reflect on
+the weighty arguments, above given, for raising the races of man to the
+dignity of species, and the insuperable difficulties on the other side
+in defining them, the term "sub-species" might here be used with much
+propriety. But from long habit the term "race" will perhaps always be
+employed. The choice of terms is only so far important as it is highly
+desirable to use, as far as that may be possible, the same terms for the
+same degrees of difference. Unfortunately this is rarely possible; for
+within the same family the larger genera generally include
+closely-allied forms, which can be distinguished only with much
+difficulty, whilst the smaller genera include forms that are perfectly
+distinct; yet all must equally be ranked as species. So again the
+species within the same large genus by no means resemble each other to
+the same degree: on the contrary, in most cases some of them can be
+arranged in little groups round other species, like satellites round
+planets.[300]
+
+
+The question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of
+late years been much agitated by anthropologists, who are divided into
+two schools of monogenists and polygenists. Those who do not admit the
+principle of evolution, must look at species either as separate
+creations or as in some manner distinct entities; and they must decide
+what forms to rank as species by the analogy of other organic beings
+which are commonly thus received. But it is a hopeless endeavour to
+decide this point on sound grounds, until some definition of the term
+"species" is generally accepted; and the definition must not include an
+element which cannot possibly be ascertained, such as an act of
+creation. We might as well attempt without any definition to decide
+whether a certain number of houses should be called a village, or town,
+or city. We have a practical illustration of the difficulty in the
+never-ending doubts whether many closely-allied mammals, birds,
+insects, and plants, which represent each other in North America and
+Europe, should be ranked species or geographical races; and so it is
+with the productions of many islands situated at some little distance
+from the nearest continent.
+
+Those naturalists, on the other hand, who admit the principle of
+evolution, and this is now admitted by the greater number of rising men,
+will feel no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single
+primitive stock; whether or not they think fit to designate them as
+distinct species, for the sake of expressing their amount of
+difference.[301] With our domestic animals the question whether the
+various races have arisen from one or more species is different.
+Although all such races, as well as all the natural species within the
+same genus, have undoubtedly sprung from the same primitive stock, yet
+it is a fit subject for discussion, whether, for instance, all the
+domestic races of the dog have acquired their present differences since
+some one species was first domesticated and bred by man; or whether they
+owe some of their characters to inheritance from distinct species, which
+had already been modified in a state of nature. With mankind no such
+question can arise, for he cannot be said to have been domesticated at
+any particular period.
+
+When the races of man diverged at an extremely remote epoch from their
+common progenitor, they will have differed but little from each other,
+and been few in number; consequently they will then, as far as their
+distinguishing characters are concerned, have had less claim to rank as
+distinct species, than the existing so-called races. Nevertheless such
+early races would perhaps have been ranked by some naturalists as
+distinct species, so arbitrary is the term, if their differences,
+although extremely slight, had been more constant than at present, and
+had not graduated into each other.
+
+It is, however, possible, though far from probable, that the early
+progenitors of man might at first have diverged much in character, until
+they became more unlike each other than are any existing races; but that
+subsequently, as suggested by Vogt,[302] they converged in character.
+When man selects for the same object the offspring of two distinct
+species, he sometimes induces, as far as general appearance is
+concerned, a considerable amount of convergence. This is the case, as
+shewn by Von Nathusius,[303] with the improved breeds of pigs, which are
+descended from two distinct species; and in a less well-marked manner
+with the improved breeds of cattle. A great anatomist, Gratiolet,
+maintains that the anthropomorphous apes do not form a natural
+sub-group; but that the orang is a highly developed gibbon or
+semnopithecus; the chimpanzee a highly developed macacus; and the
+gorilla a highly developed mandrill. If this conclusion, which rests
+almost exclusively on brain-characters, be admitted, we should have a
+case of convergence at least in external characters, for the
+anthropomorphous apes are certainly more like each other in many points
+than they are to other apes. All analogical resemblances, as of a whale
+to a fish, may indeed be said to be cases of convergence; but this term
+has never been applied to superficial and adaptive resemblances. It
+would be extremely rash in most cases to attribute to convergence close
+similarity in many points of structure in beings which had once been
+widely different. The form of a crystal is determined solely by the
+molecular forces, and it is not surprising that dissimilar substances
+should sometimes assume the same form; but with organic beings we should
+bear in mind that the form of each depends on an infinitude of complex
+relations, namely on the variations which have arisen, these being due
+to causes far too intricate to be followed out,--on the nature of the
+variations which have been preserved, and this depends on the
+surrounding physical conditions, and in a still higher degree on the
+surrounding organisms with which each has come into competition,--and
+lastly, on inheritance (in itself a fluctuating element) from
+innumerable progenitors, all of which have had their forms determined
+through equally complex relations. It appears utterly incredible that
+two organisms, if differing in a marked manner, should ever afterwards
+converge so closely as to lead to a near approach to identity throughout
+their whole organisation. In the case of the convergent pigs above
+referred to, evidence of their descent from two primitive stocks is
+still plainly retained, according to Von Nathusius, in certain bones of
+their skulls. If the races of man were descended, as supposed by some
+naturalists, from two or more distinct species, which had differed as
+much, or nearly as much, from each other, as the orang differs from the
+gorilla, it can hardly be doubted that marked differences in the
+structure of certain bones would still have been discoverable in man as
+he now exists.
+
+
+Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in
+colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if their
+whole organisation be taken into consideration they are found to
+resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these
+points are of so unimportant or of so singular a nature, that it is
+extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired
+by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark holds good
+with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous points of
+mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American
+aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind
+as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck,
+whilst living with the Fuegians on board the "Beagle," with the many
+little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to
+ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once
+to be intimate.
+
+He who will carefully read Mr. Tylor's and Sir J. Lubbock's interesting
+works[304] can hardly fail to be deeply impressed with the close
+similarity between the men of all races in tastes, dispositions and
+habits. This is shewn by the pleasure which they all take in dancing,
+rude music, acting, painting, tattooing, and otherwise decorating
+themselves,--in their mutual comprehension of gesture-language--and, as
+I shall be able to shew in a future essay, by the same expression in
+their features, and by the same inarticulate cries, when they are
+excited by various emotions. This similarity, or rather identity, is
+striking, when contrasted with the different expressions which may be
+observed in distinct species of monkeys. There is good evidence that the
+art of shooting with bows and arrows has not been handed down from any
+common progenitor of mankind, yet the stone arrow-heads, brought from
+the most distant parts of the world and manufactured at the most remote
+periods, are, as Nilsson has shewn,[305] almost identical; and this fact
+can only be accounted for by the various races having similar inventive
+or mental powers. The same observation has been made by
+arch�ologists[306] with respect to certain widely-prevalent ornaments,
+such as zigzags, &c.; and with respect to various simple beliefs and
+customs, such as the burying of the dead under megalithic structures. I
+remember observing in South America,[307] that there, as in so many
+other parts of the world, man has generally chosen the summits of lofty
+hills, on which to throw up piles of stones, either for the sake of
+recording some remarkable event, or for burying his dead.
+
+Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous small details
+of habits, tastes and dispositions between two or more domestic races,
+or between nearly-allied natural forms, they use this fact as an
+argument that all are descended from a common progenitor who was thus
+endowed; and consequently that all should be classed under the same
+species. The same argument may be applied with much force to the races
+of man.
+
+As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of
+resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and
+mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all
+have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from
+progenitors who were thus characterised. We thus gain some insight into
+the early state of man, before he had spread step by step over the face
+of the earth. The spreading of man to regions widely separated by the
+sea, no doubt, preceded any considerable amount of divergence of
+character in the several races; for otherwise we should sometimes meet
+with the same race in distinct continents; and this is never the case.
+Sir J. Lubbock, after comparing the arts now practised by savages in all
+parts of the world, specifies those which man could not have known, when
+he first wandered from his original birthplace; for if once learnt they
+would never have been forgotten.[308] He thus shews that "the spear,
+which is but a development of the knife-point, and the club, which is
+but a long hammer, are the only things left." He admits, however, that
+the art of making fire probably had already been discovered, for it is
+common to all the races now existing, and was known to the ancient
+cave-inhabitants of Europe. Perhaps the art of making rude canoes or
+rafts was likewise known; but as man existed at a remote epoch, when the
+land in many places stood at a very different level, he would have been
+able, without the aid of canoes, to have spread widely. Sir J. Lubbock
+further remarks how improbable it is that our earliest ancestors could
+have "counted as high as ten, considering that so many races now in
+existence cannot get beyond four." Nevertheless, at this early period,
+the intellectual and social faculties of man could hardly have been
+inferior in any extreme degree to those now possessed by the lowest
+savages; otherwise primeval man could not have been so eminently
+successful in the struggle for life, as proved by his early and wide
+diffusion.
+
+From the fundamental differences between certain languages, some
+philologists have inferred that when man first became widely diffused he
+was not a speaking animal; but it may be suspected that languages, far
+less perfect than any now spoken, aided by gestures, might have been
+used, and yet have left no traces on subsequent and more
+highly-developed tongues. Without the use of some language, however
+imperfect, it appears doubtful whether man's intellect could have risen
+to the standard implied by his dominant position at an early period.
+
+Whether primeval man, when he possessed very few arts of the rudest
+kind, and when his power of language was extremely imperfect, would have
+deserved to be called man, must depend on the definition which we
+employ. In a series of forms graduating insensibly from some ape-like
+creature to man as he now exists, it would be impossible to fix on any
+definite point when the term "man" ought to be used. But this is a
+matter of very little importance. So again it is almost a matter of
+indifference whether the so-called races of man are thus designated, or
+are ranked as species or sub-species; but the latter term appears the
+most appropriate. Finally, we may conclude that when the principles of
+evolution are generally accepted, as they surely will be before long,
+the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a
+silent and unobserved death.
+
+
+One other question ought not to be passed over without notice, namely,
+whether, as is sometimes assumed, each sub-species or race of man has
+sprung from a single pair of progenitors. With our domestic animals a
+new race can readily be formed from a single pair possessing some new
+character, or even from a single individual thus characterised, by
+carefully matching the varying offspring; but most of our races have
+been formed, not intentionally from a selected pair, but unconsciously
+by the preservation of many individuals which have varied, however
+slightly, in some useful or desired manner. If in one country stronger
+and heavier horses, and in another country lighter and fleeter horses,
+were habitually preferred, we may feel sure that two distinct sub-breeds
+would, in the course of time, be produced, without any particular pairs
+or individuals having been separated and bred from in either country.
+Many races have been thus formed, and their manner of formation is
+closely analogous with that of natural species. We know, also, that the
+horses which have been brought to the Falkland Islands have become,
+during successive generations, smaller and weaker, whilst those which
+have run wild on the Pampas have acquired larger and coarser heads; and
+such changes are manifestly due, not to any one pair, but to all the
+individuals having been subjected to the same conditions, aided,
+perhaps, by the principle of reversion. The new sub-breeds in none of
+these cases are descended from any single pair, but from many
+individuals which have varied in different degrees, but in the same
+general manner; and we may conclude that the races of man have been
+similarly produced, the modifications being either the direct result of
+exposure to different conditions, or the indirect result of some form of
+selection. But to this latter subject we shall presently return.
+
+
+_On the Extinction of the Races of Man._--The partial and complete
+extinction of many races and sub-races of man are historically known
+events. Humboldt saw in South America a parrot which was the sole living
+creature that could speak the language of a lost tribe. Ancient
+monuments and stone implements found in all parts of the world, of which
+no tradition is preserved by the present inhabitants, indicate much
+extinction. Some small and broken tribes, remnants of former races,
+still survive in isolated and generally mountainous districts. In Europe
+the ancient races were all, according to Schaaffhausen,[309] "lower in
+the scale than the rudest living savages;" they must therefore have
+differed, to a certain extent, from any existing race. The remains
+described by Professor Broca[310] from Les Eyzies, though they
+unfortunately appear to have belonged to a single family, indicate a
+race with a most singular combination of low or simious and high
+characteristics, and is "entirely different from any other race, ancient
+or modern, that we have ever heard of." It differed, therefore, from the
+quaternary race of the caverns of Belgium.
+
+Unfavourable physical conditions appear to have had but little effect in
+the extinction of races.[311] Man has long lived in the extreme regions
+of the North, with no wood wherewith to make his canoes or other
+implements, and with blubber alone for burning and giving him warmth,
+but more especially for melting the snow. In the Southern extremity of
+America the Fuegians survive without the protection of clothes, or of
+any building worthy to be called a hovel. In South Africa the aborigines
+wander over the most arid plains, where dangerous beasts abound. Man can
+withstand the deadly influence of the Terai at the foot of the Himalaya,
+and the pestilential shores of tropical Africa.
+
+Extinction follows chiefly from the competition of tribe with tribe,
+and race with race. Various checks are always in action, as specified in
+a former chapter, which serve to keep down the numbers of each savage
+tribe,--such as periodical famines, the wandering of the parents and the
+consequent deaths of infants, prolonged suckling, the stealing of women,
+wars, accidents, sickness, licentiousness, especially infanticide, and,
+perhaps, lessened fertility from less nutritious food, and many
+hardships. If from any cause any one of these checks is lessened, even
+in a slight degree, the tribe thus favoured will tend to increase; and
+when one of two adjoining tribes becomes more numerous and powerful than
+the other, the contest is soon settled by war, slaughter, cannibalism,
+slavery, and absorption. Even when a weaker tribe is not thus abruptly
+swept away, if it once begins to decrease, it generally goes on
+decreasing until it is extinct.[312]
+
+When civilised nations come into contact with barbarians the struggle is
+short, except where a deadly climate gives its aid to the native race.
+Of the causes which lead to the victory of civilised nations, some are
+plain and some very obscure. We can see that the cultivation of the land
+will be fatal in many ways to savages, for they cannot, or will not,
+change their habits. New diseases and vices are highly destructive; and
+it appears that in every nation a new disease causes much death, until
+those who are most susceptible to its destructive influence are
+gradually weeded out;[313] and so it may be with the evil effects from
+spirituous liquors, as well as with the unconquerably strong taste for
+them shewn by so many savages. It further appears, mysterious as is the
+fact, that the first meeting of distinct and separated people generates
+disease.[314] Mr. Sproat, who in Vancouver Island closely attended to
+the subject of extinction, believes that changed habits of life, which
+always follow from the advent of Europeans, induces much ill-health. He
+lays, also, great stress on so trifling a cause as that the natives
+become "bewildered and dull by the new life around them; they lose the
+motives for exertion, and get no new ones in their place."[315]
+
+The grade of civilisation seems a most important element in the success
+of nations which come in competition. A few centuries ago Europe feared
+the inroads of Eastern barbarians; now, any such fear would be
+ridiculous. It is a more curious fact, that savages did not formerly
+waste away, as Mr. Bagehot has remarked, before the classical nations,
+as they now do before modern civilised nations; had they done so, the
+old moralists would have mused over the event; but there is no lament in
+any writer of that period over the perishing barbarians.[316]
+
+Although the gradual decrease and final extinction of the races of man
+is an obscure problem, we can see that it depends on many causes,
+differing in different places and at different times. It is the same
+difficult problem as that presented by the extinction of one of the
+higher animals--of the fossil horse, for instance, which disappeared
+from South America, soon afterwards to be replaced, within the same
+districts, by countless troops of the Spanish horse. The New Zealander
+seems conscious of this parallelism, for he compares his future fate
+with that of the native rat almost exterminated by the European rat. The
+difficulty, though great to our imagination, and really great if we wish
+to ascertain the precise causes, ought not to be so to our reason, as
+long as we keep steadily in mind that the increase of each species and
+each race is constantly hindered by various checks; so that if any new
+check, or cause of destruction, even a slight one, be superadded, the
+race will surely decrease in number; and as it has everywhere been
+observed that savages are much opposed to any change of habits, by which
+means injurious checks could be counterbalanced, decreasing numbers will
+sooner or later lead to extinction; the end, in most cases, being
+promptly determined by the inroads of increasing and conquering tribes.
+
+
+_On the Formation of the Races of Man._--It may be premised that when we
+find the same race, though broken up into distinct tribes, ranging over
+a great area, as over America, we may attribute their general
+resemblance to descent from a common stock. In some cases the crossing
+of races already, distinct has led to the formation of new races. The
+singular fact that Europeans and Hindoos, who belong to the same Aryan
+stock and speak a language fundamentally the same, differ widely in
+appearance, whilst Europeans differ but little from Jews, who belong to
+the Semitic stock and speak quite another language, has been accounted
+for by Broca[317] through the Aryan branches having been largely crossed
+during their wide diffusion by various indigenous tribes. When two races
+in close contact cross, the first result is a heterogeneous mixture:
+thus Mr. Hunter, in describing the Santali or hill-tribes of India, says
+that hundreds of imperceptible gradations may be traced "from the black,
+squat tribes of the mountains to the tall olive-coloured Brahman, with
+his intellectual brow, calm eyes, and high but narrow head;" so that it
+is necessary in courts of justice to ask the witnesses whether they are
+Santalis or Hindoos.[318] Whether a heterogeneous people, such as the
+inhabitants of some of the Polynesian islands, formed by the crossing of
+two distinct races, with few or no pure members left, would ever become
+homogeneous, is not known from direct evidence. But as with our
+domesticated animals, a crossed breed can certainly, in the course of a
+few generations, be fixed and made uniform by careful selection,[319] we
+may infer that the free and prolonged intercrossing during many
+generations of a heterogeneous mixture would supply the place of
+selection, and overcome any tendency to reversion, so that a crossed
+race would ultimately become homogeneous, though it might not partake in
+an equal degree of the characters of the two parent-races.
+
+Of all the differences between the races of man, the colour of the skin
+is the most conspicuous and one of the best marked. Differences of this
+kind, it was formerly thought, could be accounted for by long exposure
+under different climates; but Pallas first shewed that this view is not
+tenable, and he has been followed by almost all anthropologists.[320]
+The view has been rejected chiefly because the distribution of the
+variously coloured races, most of whom must have long inhabited their
+present homes, does not coincide with corresponding differences of
+climate. Weight must also be given to such cases as that of the Dutch
+families, who, as we hear on excellent authority,[321] have not
+undergone the least change of colour, after residing for three centuries
+in South Africa. The uniform appearance in various parts of the world of
+gypsies and Jews, though the uniformity of the latter has been somewhat
+exaggerated,[322] is likewise an argument on the same side. A very damp
+or a very dry atmosphere has been supposed to be more influential in
+modifying the colour of the skin than mere heat; but as D'Orbigny in
+South America, and Livingstone in Africa, arrived at diametrically
+opposite conclusions with respect to dampness and dryness, any
+conclusion on this head must be considered as very doubtful.[323]
+
+Various facts, which I have elsewhere given, prove that the colour of
+the skin and hair is sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a
+complete immunity from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from
+the attacks of certain parasites. Hence it occurred to me, that negroes
+and other dark races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker
+individuals escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly
+influence of the miasmas of their native countries.
+
+I afterwards found that the same idea had long ago occurred to Dr.
+Wells.[324] That negroes, and even mulattoes, are almost completely
+exempt from the yellow-fever, which is so destructive in tropical
+America, has long been known.[325] They likewise escape to a large
+extent the fatal intermittent fevers that prevail along, at least, 2600
+miles of the shores of Africa, and which annually cause one-fifth of the
+white settlers to die, and another fifth to return home invalided.[326]
+This immunity in the negro seems to be partly inherent, depending on
+some unknown peculiarity of constitution, and partly the result of
+acclimatisation. Pouchet[327] states that the negro regiments, borrowed
+from the Viceroy of Egypt for the Mexican war, which had been recruited
+near the Soudan, escaped the yellow-fever almost equally well with the
+negroes originally brought from various parts of Africa, and accustomed
+to the climate of the West Indies. That acclimatisation plays a part is
+shewn by the many cases in which negroes, after having resided for some
+time in a colder climate, have become to a certain extent liable to
+tropical fevers.[328] The nature of the climate under which the white
+races have long resided, likewise has some influence on them; for during
+the fearful epidemic of yellow-fever in Demerara during 1837, Dr. Blair
+found that the death-rate of the immigrants was proportional to the
+latitude of the country whence they had come. With the negro the
+immunity, as far as it is the result of acclimatisation, implies
+exposure during a prodigious length of time; for the aborigines of
+tropical America, who have resided there from time immemorial, are not
+exempt from yellow-fever; and the Rev. B. Tristram states, that there
+are districts in Northern Africa which the native inhabitants are
+compelled annually to leave, though the negroes can remain with safety.
+
+That the immunity of the negro is in any degree correlated with the
+colour of his skin is a mere conjecture: it may be correlated with some
+difference in his blood, nervous system, or other tissues. Nevertheless,
+from the facts above alluded to, and from some connection apparently
+existing between complexion and a tendency to consumption, the
+conjecture seemed to me not improbable. Consequently I endeavoured, with
+but little success,[329] to ascertain how far it held good. The late
+Dr. Daniell, who had long lived on the West Coast of Africa, told me
+that he did not believe in any such relation. He was himself unusually
+fair, and had withstood the climate in a wonderful manner. When he first
+arrived as a boy on the coast, an old and experienced negro chief
+predicted from his appearance that this would prove the case. Dr.
+Nicholson, of Antigua, after having attended to this subject, wrote to
+me that he did not think that dark-coloured Europeans escaped the
+yellow-fever better than those that were light-coloured. Mr. J. M.
+Harris altogether denies[330] that Europeans with dark hair withstand a
+hot climate better than other men; on the contrary, experience has
+taught him in making a selection of men for service on the coast of
+Africa, to choose those with red hair. As far, therefore, as these
+slight indications serve, there seems no foundation for the hypothesis,
+which has been accepted by several writers, that the colour of the black
+races may have resulted from darker and darker individuals having
+survived in greater numbers, during their exposure to the
+fever-generating miasmas of their native countries.
+
+Although with our present knowledge we cannot account for the
+strongly-marked differences in colour between the races of man, either
+through correlation with constitutional peculiarities, or through the
+direct action of climate; yet we must not quite ignore the latter
+agency, for there is good reason to believe that some inherited effect
+is thus produced.[331]
+
+We have seen in our third chapter that the conditions of life, such as
+abundant food and general comfort, affect in a direct manner the
+development of the bodily frame, the effects being transmitted. Through
+the combined influences of climate and changed habits of life, European
+settlers, in the United States undergo, as is generally admitted, a
+slight but extraordinarily rapid change of appearance. There is, also, a
+considerable body of evidence shewing that in the Southern States the
+house-slaves of the third generation present a markedly different
+appearance from the field-slaves.[332]
+
+If, however, we look to the races of man, as distributed over the world,
+we must infer that their characteristic differences cannot be accounted
+for by the direct action of different conditions of life, even after
+exposure to them for an enormous period of time. The Esquimaux live
+exclusively on animal food; they are clothed in thick fur, and are
+exposed to intense cold and to prolonged darkness; yet they do not
+differ in any extreme degree from the inhabitants of Southern China, who
+live entirely on vegetable food and are exposed almost naked to a hot,
+glaring climate. The unclothed Fuegians live on the marine productions
+of their inhospitable shores; the Botocudos of Brazil wander about the
+hot forests of the interior and live chiefly on vegetable productions;
+yet these tribes resemble each other so closely that the Fuegians on
+board the "Beagle" were mistaken by some Brazilians for Botocudos. The
+Botocudos again, as well as the other inhabitants of tropical America,
+are wholly different from the Negroes who inhabit the opposite shores of
+the Atlantic, are exposed to a nearly similar climate, and follow nearly
+the same habits of life.
+
+Nor can the differences between the races of man be accounted for,
+except to a quite insignificant degree, by the inherited effects of the
+increased or decreased use of parts. Men who habitually live in canoes,
+may have their legs somewhat stunted; those who inhabit lofty regions
+have their chests enlarged; and those who constantly use certain
+sense-organs have the cavities in which they are lodged somewhat
+increased in size, and their features consequently a little modified.
+With civilised nations, the reduced size of the jaws from lessened use,
+the habitual play of different muscles serving to express different
+emotions, and the increased size of the brain from greater intellectual
+activity, have together produced a considerable effect on their general
+appearance in comparison with savages.[333] It is also possible that
+increased bodily stature, with no corresponding increase in the size of
+the brain, may have given to some races (judging from the previously
+adduced cases of the rabbits) an elongated skull of the dolichocephalic
+type.
+
+Lastly, the little-understood principle of correlation will almost
+certainly have come into action, as in the case of great muscular
+development and strongly projecting supra-orbital ridges. It is not
+improbable that the texture of the hair, which differs much in the
+different races, may stand in some kind of correlation with the
+structure of the skin; for the colour of the hair and skin are certainly
+correlated, as is its colour and texture with the Mandans.[334] The
+colour of the skin and the odour emitted by it are likewise in some
+manner connected. With the breeds of sheep the number of hairs within a
+given space and the number of the excretory pores stand in some relation
+to each other.[335] If we may judge from the analogy of our domesticated
+animals, many modifications of structure in man probably come under this
+principle of correlated growth.
+
+
+We have now seen that the characteristic differences between the races
+of man cannot be accounted for in a satisfactory manner by the direct
+action of the conditions of life, nor by the effects of the continued
+use of parts, nor through the principle of correlation. We are therefore
+led to inquire whether slight individual differences, to which man is
+eminently liable, may not have been preserved and augmented during a
+long series of generations through natural selection. But here we are at
+once met by the objection that beneficial variations alone can be thus
+preserved; and as far as we are enabled to judge (although always liable
+to error on this head) not one of the external differences between the
+races of man are of any direct or special service to him. The
+intellectual and moral or social faculties must of course be excepted
+from this remark; but differences in these faculties can have had little
+or no influence on external characters. The variability of all the
+characteristic differences between the races, before referred to,
+likewise indicates that these differences cannot be of much importance;
+for, had they been important, they would long ago have been either fixed
+and preserved, or eliminated. In this respect man resembles those forms,
+called by naturalists protean or polymorphic, which have remained
+extremely variable, owing, as it seems, to their variations being of an
+indifferent nature, and consequently to their having escaped the action
+of natural selection.
+
+We have thus far been baffled in all our attempts to account for the
+differences between the races of man; but there remains one important
+agency, namely Sexual Selection, which appears to have acted as
+powerfully on man, as on many other animals. I do not intend to assert
+that sexual selection will account for all the differences between the
+races. An unexplained residuum is left, about which we can in our
+ignorance only say, that as individuals are continually born with, for
+instance, heads a little rounder or narrower, and with noses a little
+longer or shorter, such slight differences might become fixed and
+uniform, if the unknown agencies which induced them were to act in a
+more constant manner, aided by long-continued intercrossing. Such
+modifications come under the provisional class, alluded to in our fourth
+chapter, which for the want of a better term have been called
+spontaneous variations. Nor do I pretend that the effects of sexual
+selection can be indicated with scientific precision; but it can be
+shewn that it would be an inexplicable fact if man had not been modified
+by this agency, which has acted so powerfully on innumerable animals,
+both high and low in the scale. It can further be shewn that the
+differences between the races of man, as in colour, hairyness, form of
+features, &c., are of the nature which it might have been expected would
+have been acted on by sexual selection. But in order to treat this
+subject in a fitting manner, I have found it necessary to pass the whole
+animal kingdom in review; I have therefore devoted to it the Second Part
+of this work. At the close I shall return to man, and, after attempting
+to shew how far he has been modified through sexual selection, will give
+a brief summary of the chapters in this First Part.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.--SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+  Secondary sexual characters--Sexual selection--Manner of
+  action--Excess of males--Polygamy--The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection--Eagerness of the
+  male--Variability of the male--Choice exerted by the
+  female--Sexual compared with natural selection--Inheritance, at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex--Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance--Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection--Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom--On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection.
+
+
+With animals which have their sexes separated, the males necessarily
+differ from the females in their organs of reproduction; and these
+afford the primary sexual characters. But the sexes often differ in what
+Hunter has called secondary sexual characters, which are not directly
+connected with the act of reproduction; for instance, in the male
+possessing certain organs of sense or locomotion, of which the female is
+quite destitute, or in having them more highly-developed, in order that
+he may readily find or reach her; or again, in the male having special
+organs of prehension so as to hold her securely. These latter organs of
+infinitely diversified kinds graduate into, and in some cases can hardly
+be distinguished from, those which are commonly ranked as primary, such
+as the complex appendages at the apex of the abdomen in male insects.
+Unless indeed we confine the term "primary" to the reproductive glands,
+it is scarcely possible to decide, as far as the organs of prehension
+are concerned, which ought to be called primary and which secondary.
+
+The female often differs from the male in having organs for the
+nourishment or protection of her young, as the mammary glands of
+mammals, and the abdominal sacks of the marsupials. The male, also, in
+some few cases differs from the female in possessing analogous organs,
+as the receptacles for the ova possessed by the males of certain fishes,
+and those temporarily developed in certain male frogs. Female bees have
+a special apparatus for collecting and carrying pollen, and their
+ovipositor is modified into a sting for the defence of their larv� and
+the community. In the females of many insects the ovipositor is modified
+in the most complex manner for the safe placing of the eggs. Numerous
+similar cases could be given, but they do not here concern us. There
+are, however, other sexual differences quite disconnected with the
+primary organs with which we are more especially concerned--such as the
+greater size, strength, and pugnacity of the male, his weapons of
+offence or means of defence against rivals, his gaudy colouring and
+various ornaments, his power of song, and other such characters.
+
+Besides the foregoing primary and secondary sexual differences, the male
+and female sometimes differ in structures connected with different
+habits of life, and not at all, or only indirectly, related to the
+reproductive functions. Thus the females of certain flies (Culicid� and
+Tabanid�) are blood-suckers, whilst the males live on flowers and have
+their mouths destitute of mandibles.[336] The males alone of certain
+moths and of some crustaceans (_e.g._ Tanais) have imperfect, closed
+mouths, and cannot feed. The Complemental males of certain cirripedes
+live like epiphytic plants either on the female or hermaphrodite form,
+and are destitute of a mouth and prehensile limbs. In these cases it is
+the male which has been modified and has lost certain important organs,
+which the other members of the same group possess. In other cases it is
+the female which has lost such parts; for instance, the female glow-worm
+is destitute of wings, as are many female moths, some of which never
+leave their cocoons. Many female parasitic crustaceans have lost their
+natatory legs. In some weevil-beetles (Curculionid�) there is a great
+difference between the male and female in the length of the rostrum or
+snout;[337] but the meaning of this and of many analogous differences,
+is not at all understood. Differences of structure between the two sexes
+in relation to different habits of life are generally confined to the
+lower animals; but with some few birds the beak of the male differs from
+that of the female. No doubt in most, but apparently not in all these
+cases, the differences are indirectly connected with the propagation of
+the species: thus a female which has to nourish a multitude of ova will
+require more food than the male, and consequently will require special
+means for procuring it. A male animal which lived for a very short time
+might without detriment lose through disuse its organs for procuring
+food; but he would retain his locomotive organs in a perfect state, so
+that he might reach the female. The female, on the other hand, might
+safely lose her organs for flying, swimming, or walking, if she
+gradually acquired habits which rendered such powers useless.
+
+We are, however, here concerned only with that kind of selection, which
+I have called sexual selection. This depends on the advantage which
+certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and
+species, in exclusive relation to reproduction. When the two sexes
+differ in structure in relation to different habits of life, as in the
+cases above mentioned, they have no doubt been modified through natural
+selection, accompanied by inheritance limited to one and the same sex.
+So again the primary sexual organs, and those for nourishing or
+protecting the young, come under this same head; for those individuals
+which generated or nourished their offspring best, would leave, _c�teris
+paribus_, the greatest number to inherit their superiority; whilst those
+which generated or nourished their offspring badly, would leave but few
+to inherit their weaker powers. As the male has to search for the
+female, he requires for this purpose organs of sense and locomotion, but
+if these organs are necessary for the other purposes of life, as is
+generally the case, they will have been developed through natural
+selection. When the male has found the female he sometimes absolutely
+requires prehensile organs to hold her; thus Dr. Wallace informs me that
+the males of certain moths cannot unite with the females if their tarsi
+or feet are broken. The males of many oceanic crustaceans have their
+legs and antenn� modified in an extraordinary manner for the prehension
+of the female; hence we may suspect that owing to these animals being
+washed about by the waves of the open sea, they absolutely require these
+organs in order to propagate their kind, and if so their development
+will have been the result of ordinary or natural selection.
+
+When the two sexes follow exactly the same habits of life, and the male
+has more highly developed sense or locomotive organs than the female, it
+may be that these in their perfected state are indispensable to the male
+for finding the female; but in the vast majority of cases, they serve
+only to give one male an advantage over another, for the less
+well-endowed males, if time were allowed them, would succeed in pairing
+with the females; and they would in all other respects, judging from the
+structure of the female, be equally well adapted for their ordinary
+habits of life. In such cases sexual selection must have come into
+action, for the males have acquired their present structure, not from
+being better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, but from
+having gained an advantage over other males, and from having transmitted
+this advantage to their male offspring alone. It was the importance of
+this distinction which led me to designate this form of selection as
+sexual selection. So again, if the chief service rendered to the male by
+his prehensile organs is to prevent the escape of the female before the
+arrival of other males, or when assaulted by them, these organs will
+have been perfected through sexual selection, that is by the advantage
+acquired by certain males over their rivals. But in most cases it is
+scarcely possible to distinguish between the effects of natural and
+sexual selection. Whole chapters could easily be filled with details on
+the differences between the sexes in their sensory, locomotive, and
+prehensile organs. As, however, these structures are not more
+interesting than others adapted for the ordinary purposes of life, I
+shall almost pass them over, giving only a few instances under each
+class.
+
+There are many other structures and instincts which must have been
+developed through sexual selection--such as the weapons of offence and
+the means of defence possessed by the males for fighting with and
+driving away their rivals--their courage and pugnacity--their ornaments
+of many kinds--their organs for producing vocal or instrumental
+music--and their glands for emitting odours; most of these latter
+structures serving only to allure or excite the female. That these
+characters are the result of sexual and not of ordinary selection is
+clear, as unarmed, unornamented, or unattractive males would succeed
+equally well in the battle for life and in leaving a numerous progeny,
+if better endowed males were not present. We may infer that this would
+be the case, for the females, which are unarmed and unornamented, are
+able to survive and procreate their kind. Secondary sexual characters of
+the kind just referred to, will be fully discussed in the following
+chapters, as they are in many respects interesting, but more especially
+as they depend on the will, choice, and rivalry of the individuals of
+either sex. When we behold two males fighting for the possession of the
+female, or several male birds displaying their gorgeous plumage, and
+performing the strangest antics before an assembled body of females, we
+cannot doubt that, though led by instinct, they know what they are
+about, and consciously exert their mental and bodily powers.
+
+In the same manner as man can improve the breed of his game-cocks by the
+selection of those birds which are victorious in the cockpit, so it
+appears that the strongest and most vigorous males, or those provided
+with the best weapons, have prevailed under nature, and have led to the
+improvement of the natural breed or species. Through repeated deadly
+contests, a slight degree of variability, if it led to some advantage,
+however slight, would suffice for the work of sexual selection; and it
+is certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently variable. In
+the same manner as man can give beauty, according to his standard of
+taste, to his male poultry--can give to the Sebright bantam a new and
+elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar carriage--so it appears that in a
+state of nature female birds, by having long selected the more
+attractive males, have added to their beauty. No doubt this implies
+powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female which will
+at first appear extremely improbable; but I hope hereafter to shew that
+this is not the case.
+
+From our ignorance on several points, the precise manner in which sexual
+selection acts is to a certain extent uncertain. Nevertheless if those
+naturalists who already believe in the mutability of species, will read
+the following chapters, they will, I think, agree with me that sexual
+selection has played an important part in the history of the organic
+world. It is certain that with almost all animals there is a struggle
+between the males for the possession of the female. This fact is so
+notorious that it would be superfluous to give instances. Hence the
+females, supposing that their mental capacity sufficed for the exertion
+of a choice, could select one out of several males. But in numerous
+cases it appears as if it had been specially arranged that there should
+be a struggle between many males. Thus with migratory birds, the males
+generally arrive before the females at their place of breeding, so that
+many males are ready to contend for each female. The bird-catchers
+assert that this is invariably the case with the nightingale and
+blackcap, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, who confirms the
+statement with respect to the latter species.
+
+Mr. Swaysland of Brighton, who has been in the habit, during the last
+forty years, of catching our migratory birds on their first arrival,
+writes to me that he has never known the females of any species to
+arrive before their males. During one spring he shot thirty-nine males
+of Ray's wagtail (_Budytes Raii_) before he saw a single female. Mr.
+Gould has ascertained by dissection, as he informs me, that male snipes
+arrive in this country before the females. In the case of fish, at the
+period when the salmon ascend our rivers, the males in large numbers are
+ready to breed before the females. So it apparently is with frogs and
+toads. Throughout the great class of insects the males almost always
+emerge from the pupal state before the other sex, so that they generally
+swarm for a time before any females can be seen.[338] The cause of this
+difference between the males and females in their periods of arrival and
+maturity is sufficiently obvious. Those males which annually first
+migrated into any country, or which in the spring were first ready to
+breed, or were the most eager, would leave the largest number of
+offspring; and these would tend to inherit similar instincts and
+constitutions. On the whole there can be no doubt that with almost all
+animals, in which the sexes are separate, there is a constantly
+recurrent struggle between the males for the possession of the females.
+
+Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding how
+it is that the males which conquer other males, or those which prove the
+most attractive to the females, leave a greater number of offspring to
+inherit their superiority than the beaten and less attractive males.
+Unless this result followed, the characters which gave to certain males
+an advantage over others, could not be perfected and augmented through
+sexual selection. When the sexes exist in exactly equal numbers, the
+worst-endowed males will ultimately find females (excepting where
+polygamy prevails), and leave as many offspring, equally well fitted for
+their general habits of life, as the best-endowed males. From various
+facts and considerations, I formerly inferred that with most animals, in
+which secondary sexual characters were well developed, the males
+considerably exceeded the females in number; and this does hold good in
+some few cases. If the males were to the females as two to one, or as
+three to two, or even in a somewhat lower ratio, the whole affair would
+be simple; for the better-armed or more attractive males would leave the
+largest number of offspring. But after investigating, as far as
+possible, the numerical proportions of the sexes, I do not believe that
+any great inequality in number commonly exists. In most cases sexual
+selection appears to have been effective in the following manner.
+
+Let us take any species, a bird for instance, and divide the females
+inhabiting a district into two equal bodies: the one consisting of the
+more vigorous and better-nourished individuals, and the other of the
+less vigorous and healthy. The former, there can be little doubt, would
+be ready to breed in the spring before the others; and this is the
+opinion of Mr. Jenner Weir, who has during many years carefully attended
+to the habits of birds. There can also be no doubt that the most
+vigorous, healthy, and best-nourished females would on an average
+succeed in rearing the largest number of offspring. The males, as we
+have seen, are generally ready to breed before the females; of the males
+the strongest, and with some species the best armed, drive away the
+weaker males; and the former would then unite with the more vigorous and
+best-nourished females, as these are the first to breed. Such vigorous
+pairs would surely rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded
+females, which would be compelled, supposing the sexes to be numerically
+equal, to unite with the conquered and less powerful males; and this is
+all that is wanted to add, in the course of successive generations, to
+the size, strength and courage of the males, or to improve their
+weapons.
+
+But in a multitude of cases the males which conquer other males, do not
+obtain possession of the females, independently of choice on the part of
+the latter. The courtship of animals is by no means so simple and short
+an affair as might be thought. The females are most excited by, or
+prefer pairing with, the more ornamented males, or those which are the
+best songsters, or play the best antics; but it is obviously probable,
+as has been actually observed in some cases, that they would at the same
+time prefer the more vigorous and lively males.[339] Thus the more
+vigorous females, which are the first to breed, will have the choice of
+many males; and though they may not always select the strongest or best
+armed, they will select those which are vigorous and well armed, and in
+other respects the most attractive. Such early pairs would have the same
+advantage in rearing offspring on the female side as above explained,
+and nearly the same advantage on the male side. And this apparently has
+sufficed during a long course of generations to add not only to the
+strength and fighting-powers of the males, but likewise to their
+various ornaments or other attractions.
+
+In the converse and much rarer case of the males selecting particular
+females, it is plain that those which were the most vigorous and had
+conquered others, would have the freest choice; and it is almost certain
+that they would select vigorous as well as attractive females. Such
+pairs would have an advantage in rearing offspring, more especially if
+the male had the power to defend the female during the pairing-season,
+as occurs with some of the higher animals, or aided in providing for the
+young. The same principles would apply if both sexes mutually preferred
+and selected certain individuals of the opposite sex; supposing that
+they selected not only the more attractive, but likewise the more
+vigorous individuals.
+
+
+_Numerical Proportion of the Two Sexes._--I have remarked that sexual
+selection would be a simple affair if the males considerably exceeded in
+number the females. Hence I was led to investigate, as far as I could,
+the proportions between the two sexes of as many animals as possible;
+but the materials are scanty. I will here give only a brief abstract of
+the results, retaining the details for a supplementary discussion, so as
+not to interfere with the course of my argument. Domesticated animals
+alone afford the opportunity of ascertaining the proportional numbers at
+birth; but no records have been specially kept for this purpose. By
+indirect means, however, I have collected a considerable body of
+statistical data, from which it appears that with most of our domestic
+animals the sexes are nearly equal at birth. Thus with race-horses,
+25,560 births have been recorded during twenty-one years, and the male
+births have been to the female births as 99�7 to 100. With greyhounds
+the inequality is greater than with any other animal, for during twelve
+years, out of 6878 births, the male births have been as 110�1 to 100
+female births. It is, however, in some degree doubtful whether it is
+safe to infer that the same proportional numbers would hold good under
+natural conditions as under domestication; for slight and unknown
+differences in the conditions affect to a certain extent the proportion
+of the sexes. Thus with mankind, the male births in England are as
+104�5, in Russia as 108�9, and with the Jews of Livornia as 120 _to_ 100
+females. The proportion is also mysteriously affected by the
+circumstance of the births being legitimate or illegitimate.
+
+For our present purpose we are concerned with the proportion of the
+sexes, not at birth, but at maturity, and this adds another element of
+doubt; for it is a well ascertained fact that with man a considerably
+larger proportion of males than of females die before or during birth,
+and during the first few years of infancy. So it almost certainly is
+with male lambs, and so it may be with the males of other animals. The
+males of some animals kill each other by fighting; or they drive each
+other about until they become greatly emaciated. They must, also, whilst
+wandering about in eager search for the females, be often exposed to
+various dangers. With many kinds of fish the males are much smaller than
+the females, and they are believed often to be devoured by the latter or
+by other fishes. With some birds the females appear to die in larger
+proportion than the males: they are also liable to be destroyed on their
+nests, or whilst in charge of their young. With insects the female larv�
+are often larger than those of the males, and would consequently be more
+likely to be devoured: in some cases the mature females are less active
+and less rapid in their movements than the males, and would not be so
+well able to escape from danger. Hence, with animals in a state of
+nature, in order to judge of the proportions of the sexes at maturity,
+we must rely on mere estimation; and this, except perhaps when the
+inequality is strongly marked, is but little trustworthy. Nevertheless,
+as far as a judgment can be formed, we may conclude from the facts given
+in the supplement, that the males of some few mammals, of many birds, of
+some fish and insects, considerably exceed in number the females.
+
+The proportion between the sexes fluctuates slightly during successive
+years: thus with race-horses, for every 100 females born, the males
+varied from 107.1 in one year to 92.6 in another year, and with
+greyhounds from 116.3 to 95.3. But had larger numbers been tabulated
+throughout a more extensive area than England, these fluctuations would
+probably have disappeared; and such as they are, they would hardly
+suffice to lead under a state of nature to the effective action of
+sexual selection. Nevertheless with some few wild animals, the
+proportions seem, as shewn in the supplement, to fluctuate either during
+different seasons or in different localities in a sufficient degree to
+lead to such action. For it should be observed that any advantage gained
+during certain years or in certain localities by those males which were
+able to conquer other males, or were the most attractive to the females,
+would probably be transmitted to the offspring and would not
+subsequently be eliminated. During the succeeding seasons, when from the
+equality of the sexes every male was everywhere able to procure a
+female, the stronger or more attractive males previously produced would
+still have at least as good a chance of leaving offspring as the less
+strong or less attractive.
+
+
+_Polygamy._--The practice of polygamy leads to the same results as
+would follow from an actual inequality in the number of the sexes; for
+if each male secures two or more females, many males will not be able to
+pair; and the latter assuredly will be the weaker or less attractive
+individuals. Many mammals and some few birds are polygamous, but with
+animals belonging to the lower classes I have found no evidence of this
+habit. The intellectual powers of such animals are, perhaps, not
+sufficient to lead them to collect and guard a harem of females. That
+some relation exists between polygamy and the development of secondary
+sexual characters, appears nearly certain; and this supports the view
+that a numerical preponderance of males would be eminently favourable to
+the action of sexual selection. Nevertheless many animals, especially
+birds, which are strictly monogamous, display strongly-marked secondary
+sexual characters; whilst some few animals, which are polygamous, are
+not thus characterised.
+
+We will first briefly run through the class of mammals, and then turn to
+birds. The gorilla seems to be a polygamist, and the male differs
+considerably from the female; so it is with some baboons which live in
+herds containing twice as many adult females as males. In South America
+the _Mycetes caraya_ presents well-marked sexual differences in colour,
+beard, and vocal organs, and the male generally lives with two or three
+wives: the male of the _Cebus capucinus_ differs somewhat from the
+female, and appears to be polygamous.[340] Little is known on this head
+with respect to most other monkeys, but some species are strictly
+monogamous. The ruminants are eminently polygamous, and they more
+frequently present sexual differences than almost any other group of
+mammals, especially in their weapons, but likewise in other characters.
+Most deer, cattle, and sheep are polygamous; as are most antelopes,
+though some of the latter are monogamous. Sir Andrew Smith, in speaking
+of the antelopes of South Africa, says that in herds of about a dozen
+there was rarely more than one mature male. The Asiatic _Antilope saiga_
+appears to be the most inordinate polygamist in the world; for
+Pallas[341] states that the male drives away all rivals, and collects a
+herd of about a hundred, consisting of females and kids: the female is
+hornless and has softer hair, but does not otherwise differ much from
+the male. The horse is polygamous, but, except in his greater size and
+in the proportions of his body, differs but little from the mare. The
+wild boar, in his great tusks and some other characters, presents
+well-marked sexual characters; in Europe and in India he leads a
+solitary life, except during the breeding-season; but at this season he
+consorts in India with several females, as Sir W. Elliot, who has had
+large experience in observing this animal, believes: whether this holds
+good in Europe is doubtful, but is supported by some statements. The
+adult male Indian elephant, like the boar, passes much of his time in
+solitude; but when associating with others, "it is rare to find," as Dr.
+Campbell states, "more than one male with a whole herd of females." The
+larger males expel or kill the smaller and weaker ones. The male differs
+from the female by his immense tusks and greater size, strength, and
+endurance; so great is the difference in these latter respects, that
+the males when caught are valued at twenty per cent. above the
+females.[342] With other pachydermatous animals the sexes differ very
+little or not at all, and they are not, as far as known, polygamists.
+Hardly a single species amongst the Cheiroptera and Edentata, or in the
+great Orders of the Rodents and Insectivora, presents well-developed
+secondary sexual differences; and I can find no account of any species
+being polygamous, excepting, perhaps, the common rat, the males of
+which, as some rat-catchers affirm, live with several females.
+
+The lion in South Africa, as I hear from Sir Andrew Smith, sometimes
+lives with a single female, but generally with more than one, and, in
+one case, was found with as many as five females, so that he is
+polygamous. He is, as far as I can discover, the sole polygamist in the
+whole group of the terrestrial Carnivora, and he alone presents
+well-marked sexual characters. If, however, we turn to the marine
+Carnivora, the case is widely different; for many species of seals
+offer, as we shall hereafter see, extraordinary sexual differences, and
+they are eminently polygamous. Thus the male sea-elephant of the
+Southern Ocean, always possesses, according to P�ron, several females,
+and the sea-lion of Forster is said to be surrounded by from twenty to
+thirty females. In the North, the male sea-bear of Steller is
+accompanied by even a greater number of females.
+
+With respect to birds, many species, the sexes of which differ greatly
+from each other, are certainly monogamous. In Great Britain we see
+well-marked sexual differences in, for instance, the wild-duck which
+pairs with a single female, with the common blackbird, and with the
+bullfinch which is said to pair for life. So it is, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, with the Chatterers or Cotingid� of South America, and
+numerous other birds. In several groups I have not been able to discover
+whether the species are polygamous or monogamous. Lesson says that birds
+of paradise, so remarkable for their sexual differences, are polygamous,
+but Mr. Wallace doubts whether he had sufficient evidence. Mr. Salvin
+informs me that he has been led to believe that humming-birds are
+polygamous. The male widow-bird; remarkable for his caudal plumes,
+certainly seems to be a polygamist.[343] I have been assured by Mr.
+Jenner Weir and by others, that three starlings not rarely frequent the
+same nest; but whether this is a case of polygamy or polyandry has not
+been ascertained.
+
+The Gallinace� present almost as strongly marked sexual differences as
+birds of paradise or humming-birds, and many of the species are, as is
+well known, polygamous; others being strictly monogamous. What a
+contrast is presented between the sexes by the polygamous peacock or
+pheasant, and the monogamous guinea-fowl or partridge! Many similar
+cases could be given, as in the grouse tribe, in which the males of the
+polygamous capercailzie and black-cock differ greatly from the females;
+whilst the sexes of the monogamous red grouse and ptarmigan differ very
+little. Amongst the Cursores, no great number of species offer
+strongly-marked sexual differences, except the bustards, and the great
+bustard (_Otis tarda_), is said to be polygamous. With the Grallatores,
+extremely few species differ sexually, but the ruff (_Machetes pugnax_)
+affords a strong exception, and this species is believed by Montagu to
+be a polygamist. Hence it appears that with birds there often exists a
+close relation between polygamy and the development of strongly-marked
+sexual differences. On asking Mr. Bartlett, at the Zoological Gardens,
+who has had such large experience with birds, whether the male tragopan
+(one of the Gallinace�) was polygamous, I was struck by his answering,
+"I do not know, but should think so from his splendid colours."
+
+It deserves notice that the instinct of pairing with a single female is
+easily lost under domestication. The wild-duck is strictly monogamous,
+the domestic-duck highly polygamous. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+with some half-tamed wild-ducks, kept on a large pond in his
+neighbourhood, so many mallards were shot by the gamekeeper that only
+one was left for every seven or eight females; yet unusually large
+broods were reared. The guinea-fowl is strictly monogamous; but Mr. Fox
+finds that his birds succeed best when he keeps one cock to two or three
+hens.[344] Canary-birds pair in a state of nature, but the breeders in
+England successfully put one male to four or five females; nevertheless
+the first female, as Mr. Fox has been assured, is alone treated as the
+wife, she and her young ones being fed by him; the others are treated as
+concubines. I have noticed these cases, as it renders it in some degree
+probable that monogamous species, in a state of nature, might readily
+become either temporarily or permanently polygamous.
+
+With respect to reptiles and fishes, too little is known of their habits
+to enable us to speak of their marriage arrangements. The stickle-back
+Gasterosteus, however, is said to be a polygamist;[345] and the male
+during the breeding-season differs conspicuously from the female.
+
+To sum up on the means through which, as far as we can judge, sexual
+selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters. It
+has been shewn that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be
+reared from the pairing of the strongest and best-armed males, which
+have conquered other males, with the most vigorous and best-nourished
+females, which are the first to breed in the spring. Such females, if
+they select the more attractive, and at the same time vigorous, males,
+will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded females, which
+must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive males. So it will
+be if the more vigorous males select the more attractive and at the same
+time healthy and vigorous females; and this will especially hold good if
+the male defends the female, and aids in providing food for the young.
+The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in rearing a larger
+number of offspring has apparently sufficed to render sexual selection
+efficient. But a large preponderance in number of the males over the
+females would be still more efficient; whether the preponderance was
+only occasional and local, or permanent; whether it occurred at birth,
+or subsequently from the greater destruction of the females; or whether
+it indirectly followed from the practice of polygamy.
+
+
+_The Male generally more modified than the Female._--Throughout the
+animal kingdom, when the sexes differ from each other in external
+appearance, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, has been chiefly
+modified; for the female still remains more like the young of her own
+species, and more like the other members of the same group. The cause of
+this seems to lie in the males of almost all animals having stronger
+passions than the females. Hence it is the males that fight together and
+sedulously display their charms before the females; and those which are
+victorious transmit their superiority to their male offspring. Why the
+males do not transmit their characters to both sexes will hereafter be
+considered. That the males of all mammals eagerly pursue the females is
+notorious to every one. So it is with birds; but many male birds do not
+so much pursue the female, as display their plumage, perform strange
+antics, and pour forth their song, in her presence. With the few fish
+which have been observed, the male seems much more eager than the
+female; and so it is with alligators, and apparently with Batrachians.
+Throughout the enormous class of insects, as Kirby remarks,[346] "the
+law is, that the male shall seek the female." With spiders and
+crustaceans, as I hear from two great authorities, Mr. Blackwall and Mr.
+C. Spence Bate, the males are more active and more erratic in their
+habits than the females. With insects and crustaceans, when the organs
+of sense or locomotion are present in the one sex and absent in the
+other, or when, as is frequently the case, they are more highly
+developed in the one than the other, it is almost invariably the male,
+as far as I can discover, which retains such organs, or has them most
+developed; and this shews that the male is the more active member in the
+courtship of the sexes.[347]
+
+The female, on the other hand, with the rarest exception, is less eager
+than the male. As the illustrious Hunter[348] long ago observed, she
+generally "requires to be courted;" she is coy, and may often be seen
+endeavouring for a long time to escape from the male. Every one who has
+attended to the habits of animals will be able to call to mind instances
+of this kind. Judging from various facts, hereafter to be given, and
+from the results which may fairly be attributed to sexual selection, the
+female, though comparatively passive, generally exerts some choice and
+accepts one male in preference to others. Or she may accept, as
+appearances would sometimes lead us to believe, not the male which is
+the most attractive to her, but the one which is the least distasteful.
+The exertion of some choice on the part of the female seems almost as
+general a law as the eagerness of the male.
+
+We are naturally led to enquire why the male in so many and such widely
+distinct classes has been rendered more eager than the female, so that
+he searches for her and plays the more active part in courtship. It
+would be no advantage and some loss of power if both sexes were mutually
+to search for each other; but why should the male almost always be the
+seeker? With plants, the ovules after fertilisation have to be nourished
+for a time; hence the pollen is necessarily brought to the female
+organs--being placed on the stigma, through the agency of insects or of
+the wind, or by the spontaneous movements of the stamens; and with the
+Alg�, &c., by the locomotive power of the antherozooids. With
+lowly-organised animals permanently affixed to the same spot and having
+their sexes separate, the male element is invariably brought to the
+female; and we can see the reason; for the ova, even if detached before
+being fertilised and not requiring subsequent nourishment or protection,
+would be, from their larger relative size, less easily transported than
+the male element. Hence plants[349] and many of the lower animals are,
+in this respect, analogous. In the case of animals not affixed to the
+same spot, but enclosed within a shell with no power of protruding any
+part of their bodies, and in the case of animals having little power of
+locomotion, the males must trust the fertilising element to the risk of
+at least a short transit through the waters of the sea. It would,
+therefore, be a great advantage to such animals, as their organisation
+became perfected, if the males when ready to emit the fertilising
+element, were to acquire the habit of approaching the female as closely
+as possible. The males of various lowly-organised animals having thus
+aboriginally acquired the habit of approaching and seeking the females,
+the same habit would naturally be transmitted to their more highly
+developed male descendants; and in order that they should become
+efficient seekers, they would have to be endowed with strong passions.
+The acquirement of such passions would naturally follow from the more
+eager males leaving a larger number of offspring than the less eager.
+
+The great eagerness of the male has thus indirectly led to the much
+more frequent development of secondary sexual characters in the male
+than in the female. But the development of such characters will have
+been much aided, if the conclusion at which I arrived after studying
+domesticated animals, can be trusted, namely, that the male is more
+liable to vary than the female. I am aware how difficult it is to verify
+a conclusion of this kind. Some slight evidence, however, can be gained
+by comparing the two sexes in mankind, as man has been more carefully
+observed than any other animal. During the Novara Expedition[350] a vast
+number of measurements of various parts of the body in different races
+were made, and the men were found in almost every case to present a
+greater range of variation than the women; but I shall have to recur to
+this subject in a future chapter. Mr. J. Wood,[351] who has carefully
+attended to the variation of the muscles in man, puts in italics the
+conclusion that "the greatest number of abnormalities in each subject is
+found in the males." He had previously remarked that "altogether in 102
+subjects the varieties of redundancy were found to be half as many again
+as in females, contrasting widely with the greater frequency of
+deficiency in females before described." Professor Macalister like wise
+remarks[352] that variations in the muscles "are probably more common in
+males than females." Certain muscles which are not normally present in
+mankind are also more frequently developed in the male than in the
+female sex, although exceptions to this rule are said to occur. Dr.
+Burt Wilder[353] has tabulated the cases of 152 individuals with
+supernumerary digits, of which 86 were males, and 39, or less than half,
+females; the remaining 27 being of unknown sex. It should not, however,
+be overlooked that women would more frequently endeavour to conceal a
+deformity of this kind than men. Whether the large proportional number
+of deaths of the male offspring of man and apparently of sheep, compared
+with the female offspring, before, during, and shortly after birth (see
+supplement), has any relation to a stronger tendency in the organs of
+the male to vary and thus to become abnormal in structure or function, I
+will not pretend to conjecture.
+
+In various classes of animals a few exceptional cases occur, in which
+the female instead of the male has acquired well pronounced secondary
+sexual characters, such as brighter colours, greater size, strength, or
+pugnacity. With birds, as we shall hereafter see, there has sometimes
+been a complete transposition of the ordinary characters proper to each
+sex; the females having become the more eager in courtship, the males
+remaining comparatively passive, but apparently selecting, as we may
+infer from the results, the more attractive females. Certain female
+birds have thus been rendered more highly coloured or otherwise
+ornamented, as well as more powerful and pugnacious than the males,
+these characters being transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+It may be suggested that in some cases a double process of selection has
+been carried on; the males having selected the more attractive females,
+and the latter the more attractive males. This process however, though
+it might lead to the modification of both sexes, would not make the one
+sex different from the other, unless indeed their taste for the
+beautiful differed; but this is a supposition too improbable in the case
+of any animal, excepting man, to be worth considering. There are,
+however, many animals, in which the sexes resemble each other, both
+being furnished with the same ornaments, which analogy would lead us to
+attribute to the agency of sexual selection. In such cases it may be
+suggested with more plausibility, that there has been a double or mutual
+process of sexual selection; the more vigorous and precocious females
+having selected the more attractive and vigorous males, the latter
+having rejected all except the more attractive females. But from what we
+know of the habits of animals, this view is hardly probable, the male
+being generally eager to pair with any female. It is more probable that
+the ornaments common to both sexes were acquired by one sex, generally
+the male, and then transmitted to the offspring of both sexes. If,
+indeed, during a lengthened period the males of any species were greatly
+to exceed the females in number, and then during another lengthened
+period under different conditions the reverse were to occur, a double,
+but not simultaneous, process of sexual selection might easily be
+carried on, by which the two sexes might be rendered widely different.
+
+We shall hereafter see that many animals exist, of which neither sex is
+brilliantly coloured or provided with special ornaments, and yet the
+members of both sexes or of one alone have probably been modified
+through sexual selection. The absence of bright tints or other ornaments
+may be the result of variations of the right kind never having occurred,
+or of the animals themselves preferring simple colours, such as plain
+black or white. Obscure colours have often been acquired through natural
+selection for the sake of protection, and the acquirement through
+sexual selection of conspicuous colours, may have been checked from the
+danger thus incurred. But in other cases the males have probably
+struggled together during long ages, through brute force, or by the
+display of their charms, or by both means combined, and yet no effect
+will have been produced unless a larger number of offspring were left by
+the more successful males to inherit their superiority, than by the less
+successful males; and this, as previously shewn, depends on various
+complex contingencies.
+
+Sexual selection acts in a less rigorous manner than natural selection.
+The latter produces its effects by the life or death at all ages of the
+more or less successful individuals. Death, indeed, not rarely ensues
+from the conflicts of rival males. But generally the less successful
+male merely fails to obtain a female, or obtains later in the season a
+retarded and less vigorous female, or, if polygamous, obtains fewer
+females; so that they leave fewer, or less vigorous, or no offspring. In
+regard to structures acquired through ordinary or natural selection,
+there is in most cases, as long as the conditions of life remain the
+same, a limit to the amount of advantageous modification in relation to
+certain special ends; but in regard to structures adapted to make one
+male victorious over another, either in fighting or in charming the
+female, there is no definite limit to the amount of advantageous
+modification; so that as long as the proper variations arise the work of
+sexual selection will go on. This circumstance may partly account for
+the frequent and extraordinary amount of variability presented by
+secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless, natural selection will
+determine that characters of this kind shall not be acquired by the
+victorious males, which would be injurious to them in any high degree,
+either by expending too much of their vital powers, or by exposing them
+to any great danger. The development, however, of certain structures--of
+the horns, for instance, in certain stags--has been carried to a
+wonderful extreme; and in some instances to an extreme which, as far as
+the general conditions of life are concerned, must be slightly injurious
+to the male. From this fact we learn that the advantages which favoured
+males have derived from conquering other males in battle or courtship,
+and thus leaving a numerous progeny, have been in the long run greater
+than those derived from rather more perfect adaptation to the external
+conditions of life. We shall further see, and this could never have been
+anticipated, that the power to charm the female has been in some few
+instances more important than the power to conquer other males in
+battle.
+
+
+LAWS OF INHERITANCE.
+
+In order to understand how sexual selection has acted, and in the course
+of ages has produced conspicuous results with many animals of many
+classes, it is necessary to bear in mind the laws of inheritance, as far
+as they are known. Two distinct elements are included under the term
+"inheritance," namely the transmission and the development of
+characters; but as these generally go together, the distinction is often
+overlooked. We see this distinction in those characters which are
+transmitted through the early years of life, but are developed only at
+maturity or during old age. We see the same distinction more clearly
+with secondary sexual characters, for these are transmitted through both
+sexes, though developed in one alone. That they are present in both
+sexes, is manifest when two species, having strongly-marked sexual
+characters, are crossed, for each transmits the characters proper to
+its own male and female sex to the hybrid offspring of both sexes. The
+same fact is likewise manifest, when characters proper to the male are
+occasionally developed in the female when she grows old or becomes
+diseased; and so conversely with the male. Again, characters
+occasionally appear, as if transferred from the male to the female, as
+when, in certain breeds of the fowl, spurs regularly appear in the young
+and healthy females; but in truth they are simply developed in the
+female; for in every breed each detail in the structure of the spur is
+transmitted through the female to her male offspring. In all cases of
+reversion, characters are transmitted through two, three, or many
+generations, and are then under certain unknown favourable conditions
+developed. This important distinction between transmission and
+development will be easiest kept in mind by the aid of the hypothesis of
+pangenesis, whether or not it be accepted as true. According to this
+hypothesis, every unit or cell of the body throws off gemmules or
+undeveloped atoms, which are transmitted to the offspring of both sexes,
+and are multiplied by self-division. They may remain undeveloped during
+the early years of life or during successive generations; their
+development into units or cells, like those from which they were
+derived, depending on their affinity for, and union with, other units or
+cells previously developed in the due order of growth.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Periods of Life._--This tendency is well
+established. If a new character appears in an animal whilst young,
+whether it endures throughout life or lasts only for a time, it will
+reappear, as a general rule, at the same age and in the same manner in
+the offspring. If, on the other hand, a new character appears at
+maturity, or even during old age, it tends to reappear in the offspring
+at the same advanced age. When deviations from this rule occur, the
+transmitted characters much oftener appear before than after the
+corresponding age. As I have discussed this subject at sufficient length
+in another work,[354] I will here merely give two or three instances,
+for the sake of recalling the subject to the reader's mind. In several
+breeds of the Fowl, the chickens whilst covered with down, in their
+first true plumage, and in their adult plumage, differ greatly from each
+other, as well as from their common parent-form, the _Gallus bankiva_;
+and these characters are faithfully transmitted by each breed to their
+offspring at the corresponding period of life. For instance, the
+chickens of spangled Hamburghs, whilst covered with down, have a few
+dark spots on the head and rump, but are not longitudinally striped, as
+in many other breeds; in their first true plumage, "they are beautifully
+pencilled," that is each feather is transversely marked by numerous dark
+bars; but in their second plumage the feathers all become spangled or
+tipped with a dark round spot.[355] Hence in this breed variations have
+occurred and have been transmitted at three distinct periods of life.
+The Pigeon offers a more remarkable case, because the aboriginal
+parent-species does not undergo with advancing age any change of
+plumage, excepting that at maturity the breast becomes more iridescent;
+yet there are breeds which do not acquire their characteristic colours
+until they have moulted two, three, or four times; and these
+modifications of plumage are regularly transmitted.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Seasons of the Year._--With animals in a
+state of nature innumerable instances occur of characters periodically
+appearing at different seasons. We see this with the horns of the stag,
+and with the fur of arctic animals which becomes thick and white during
+the winter. Numerous birds acquire bright colours and other decorations
+during the breeding-season alone. I can throw but little light on this
+form of inheritance from facts observed under domestication. Pallas
+states,[356] that in Siberia domestic cattle and horses periodically
+become lighter-coloured during the winter; and I have observed a similar
+marked change of colour in certain ponies in England. Although I do not
+know that this tendency to assume a differently coloured coat during
+different seasons of the year is transmitted, yet it probably is so, as
+all shades of colour are strongly inherited by the horse. Nor is this
+form of inheritance, as limited by season, more remarkable than
+inheritance as limited by age or sex.
+
+
+_Inheritance as Limited by Sex._--The equal transmission of characters
+to both, sexes is the commonest form of inheritance, at least with those
+animals which do not present strongly-marked sexual differences, and
+indeed with many of these. But characters are not rarely transferred
+exclusively to that sex, in which they first appeared. Ample evidence on
+this head has been advanced in my work on Variation under
+Domestication; but a few instances may here be given. There are breeds
+of the sheep and goat, in which the horns of the male differ greatly in
+shape from those of the female; and these differences, acquired under
+domestication, are regularly transmitted to the same sex. With
+tortoise-shell cats the females alone, as a general rule, are thus
+coloured, the males being rusty-red. With most breeds of the fowl, the
+characters proper to each sex are transmitted to the same sex alone. So
+general is this form of transmission that it is an anomaly when we see
+in certain breeds variations transmitted equally to both sexes. There
+are also certain sub-breeds of the fowl in which the males can hardly be
+distinguished from each other, whilst the females differ considerably in
+colour. With the pigeon the sexes of the parent-species do not differ in
+any external character; nevertheless in certain domesticated breeds the
+male is differently coloured from the female.[357] The wattle in the
+English Carrier pigeon and the crop in the Pouter are more highly
+developed in the male than in the female; and although these characters
+have been gained through long-continued selection by man, the difference
+between the two sexes is wholly due to the form of inheritance which has
+prevailed; for it has arisen, not from, but rather in opposition to, the
+wishes of the breeder.
+
+Most of our domestic races have been formed by the accumulation of many
+slight variations; and as some of the successive steps have been
+transmitted to one sex alone, and some to both sexes, we find in the
+different breeds of the same species all gradations between great sexual
+dissimilarity and complete similarity. Instances have already been
+given with the breeds of the fowl and pigeon; and under nature analogous
+cases are of frequent occurrence. With animals under domestication, but
+whether under nature I will not venture to say, one sex may lose
+characters proper to it, and may thus come to resemble to a certain
+extent the opposite sex; for instance, the males of some breeds of the
+fowl have lost their masculine plumes and hackles. On the other hand the
+differences between the sexes may be increased under domestication, as
+with merino sheep, in which the ewes have lost their horns. Again,
+characters proper to one sex may suddenly appear in the other sex; as
+with those sub-breeds of the fowl in which the hens whilst young acquire
+spurs; or, as in certain Polish sub-breeds, in which the females, as
+there is reason to believe, originally acquired a crest, and
+subsequently transferred it to the males. All these cases are
+intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis; for they depend on the
+gemmules of certain units of the body, although present in both sexes,
+becoming through the influence of domestication dormant in the one sex;
+or if naturally dormant, becoming developed.
+
+There is one difficult question which it will be convenient to defer to
+a future chapter; namely, whether a character at first developed in both
+sexes, can be rendered through selection limited in its development to
+one sex alone. If, for instance, a breeder observed that some of his
+pigeons (in which species characters are usually transferred in an equal
+degree to both sexes) varied into pale blue; could he by long-continued
+selection make a breed, in which the males alone should be of this tint,
+whilst the females remained unchanged? I will here only say, that this,
+though perhaps not impossible, would be extremely difficult; for the
+natural result of breeding from the pale-blue males would be to change
+his whole stock, including both sexes, into this tint. If, however,
+variations of the desired tint appeared, which were from the first
+limited in their development to the male sex, there would not be the
+least difficulty in making a breed characterised by the two sexes being
+of a different colour, as indeed has been effected with a Belgian breed,
+in which the males alone are streaked with black. In a similar manner,
+if any variation appeared in a female pigeon, which was from the first
+sexually limited in its development, it would be easy to make a breed
+with the females alone thus characterised; but if the variation was not
+thus originally limited, the process would be extremely difficult,
+perhaps impossible.
+
+
+_On the Relation between the period of Development of a Character and
+its transmission to one sex or to both sexes._--Why certain characters
+should be inherited by both sexes, and other characters by one sex
+alone, namely by that sex in which the character first appeared, is in
+most cases quite unknown. We cannot even conjecture why with certain
+sub-breeds of the pigeon, black stri�, though transmitted through the
+female, should be developed in the male alone, whilst every other
+character is equally transferred to both sexes. Why, again, with cats,
+the tortoise-shell colour should, with rare exceptions, be developed in
+the female alone. The very same characters, such as deficient or
+supernumerary digits, colour-blindness, &c., may with mankind be
+inherited by the males alone of one family, and in another family by the
+females alone, though in both cases transmitted through the opposite as
+well as the same sex.[358] Although we are thus ignorant, two rules
+often hold good, namely that variations which, first appear in either
+sex at a late period of life, tend to be developed in the same sex
+alone; whilst variations which first appear early in life in either sex
+tend to be developed in both sexes. I am, however, far from supposing
+that this is the sole determining cause. As I have not elsewhere
+discussed this subject, and as it has an important bearing on sexual
+selection, I must here enter into lengthy and somewhat intricate
+details.
+
+It is in itself probable that any character appearing at an early age
+would tend to be inherited equally by both sexes, for the sexes do not
+differ much in constitution, before the power of reproduction is gained.
+On the other hand, after this power has been gained and the sexes have
+come to differ in constitution, the gemmules (if I may again use the
+language of pangenesis) which are cast off from each varying part in the
+one sex would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities for
+uniting with the tissues of the same sex, and thus becoming developed,
+than with those of the opposite sex.
+
+I was first led to infer that a relation of this kind exists, from the
+fact that whenever and in whatever manner the adult male has come to
+differ from the adult female, he differs in the same manner from the
+young of both sexes. The generality of this fact is quite remarkable: it
+holds good with almost all mammals, birds, amphibians, and fishes; also
+with many crustaceans, spiders and some few insects, namely certain
+orthoptera and libellul�. In all these cases the variations, through the
+accumulation of which the male acquired his proper masculine characters,
+must have occurred at a somewhat late period of life; otherwise the
+young males would have been similarly characterised; and conformably
+with our rule, they are transmitted to and developed in the adult males
+alone. When, on the other hand, the adult male closely resembles the
+young of both sexes (these, with rare exceptions, being alike), he
+generally resembles the adult female; and in most of these cases the
+variations through which the young and old acquired their present
+characters, probably occurred in conformity with our rule during youth.
+But there is here room for doubt, as characters are sometimes
+transferred to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which they
+first appeared in the parents, so that the parents may have varied when
+adult, and have transferred their characters to their offspring whilst
+young. There are, moreover, many animals, in which the two sexes closely
+resemble each other, and yet both differ from their young; and here the
+characters of the adults must have been acquired late in life;
+nevertheless, these characters in apparent contradiction to our rule,
+are transferred to both sexes. We must not, however, overlook the
+possibility or even probability of successive variations of the same
+nature sometimes occurring, under exposure to similar conditions,
+simultaneously in both sexes at a rather late period of life; and in
+this case the variations would be transferred to the offspring of both
+sexes at a corresponding late age; and there would be no real
+contradiction to our rule of the variations which occur late in life
+being transferred exclusively to the sex in which they first appeared.
+This latter rule seems to hold true more generally than the second rule,
+namely, that variations which occur in either sex early in life tend to
+be transferred to both sexes. As it was obviously impossible even to
+estimate in how large a number of cases throughout the animal kingdom
+these two propositions hold good, it occurred to me to investigate some
+striking or crucial instances, and to rely on the result.
+
+An excellent case for investigation is afforded by the Deer Family. In
+all the species, excepting one, the horns are developed in the male
+alone, though certainly transmitted through the female, and capable of
+occasional abnormal development in her. In the reindeer, on the other
+hand, the female is provided with horns; so that in this species, the
+horns ought, according to our rule, to appear early in life, long before
+the two sexes had arrived at maturity and had come to differ much in
+constitution. In all the other species of deer the horns ought to appear
+later in life, leading to their development in that sex alone, in which
+they first appeared in the progenitor of the whole Family. Now in seven
+species, belonging to distinct sections of the family and inhabiting
+different regions, in which the stags alone bear horns, I find that the
+horns first appear at periods varying from nine months after birth in
+the roebuck to ten or twelve or even more months in the stags of the six
+other larger species.[359] But with the reindeer the case is widely
+different, for as I hear from Prof. Nilsson, who kindly made special
+enquiries for me in Lapland, the horns appear in the young animals
+within four or five weeks after birth, and at the same time in both
+sexes. So that here we have a structure, developed at a most unusually
+early age in one species of the family, and common to both sexes in this
+one species.
+
+In several kinds of antelopes the males alone are provided with horns,
+whilst in the greater number both sexes have horns. With respect to the
+period of development, Mr. Blyth informs me that there lived at one time
+in the Zoological Gardens a young koodoo (_Ant. strepsiceros_), in which
+species the males alone are horned, and the young of a closely-allied
+species, viz. the eland (_Ant. oreas_), in which both sexes are horned.
+Now in strict conformity with our rule, in the young male koodoo,
+although arrived at the age of ten months, the horns were remarkably
+small considering the size ultimately attained by them: whilst in the
+young male eland, although only three months old, the horns were already
+very much larger than in the koodoo. It is also worth notice that in the
+prong-horned antelope,[360] in which species the horns, though present
+in both sexes, are almost rudimentary in the female, they do not appear
+until about five or six months after birth. With sheep, goats, and
+cattle, in which the horns are well developed in both sexes, though not
+quite equal in size, they can be felt, or even seen, at birth or soon
+afterwards.[361] Our rule, however, fails in regard to some breeds of
+sheep, for instance merinos, in which the rams alone are horned; for I
+cannot find on enquiry,[362] that the horns are developed later in life
+in this breed than in ordinary sheep in which both sexes are horned. But
+with domesticated sheep the presence or absence of horns is not a firmly
+fixed character; a certain proportion of the merino ewes bearing small
+horns, and some of the rams being hornless; whilst with ordinary sheep
+hornless ewes are occasionally produced.
+
+In most of the species of the splendid family of the Pheasants, the
+males differ conspicuously from the females, and they acquire their
+ornaments at a rather late period of life. The eared pheasant
+(_Crossoptilon auritum_), however, offers a remarkable exception, for
+both sexes possess the fine caudal plumes, the large ear-tufts and the
+crimson velvet about the head; and I find on enquiry in the Zoological
+Gardens that all these characters, in accordance with our rule, appear
+very early in life. The adult male can, however, be distinguished from
+the adult female by one character, namely by the presence of spurs; and
+conformably with our rule, these do not begin to be developed, as I am
+assured by Mr. Bartlett, before the age of six months, and even at this
+age, can hardly be distinguished in the two sexes.[363] The male and
+female Peacock differ conspicuously from each other in almost every
+part of their plumage, except in the elegant head-crest, which is common
+to both sexes; and this is developed very early in life, long before the
+other ornaments which are confined to the male. The wild-duck offers an
+analogous case, for the beautiful green speculum on the wings is common
+to both sexes, though duller and somewhat smaller in the female, and it
+is developed early in life, whilst the curled tail-feathers and other
+ornaments peculiar to the male are developed later.[364] Between such
+extreme cases of close sexual resemblance and wide dissimilarity, as
+those of the Crossoptilon and peacock, many intermediate ones could be
+given, in which the characters follow in their order of development our
+two rules.
+
+As most insects emerge from their pupal state in a mature condition, it
+is doubtful whether the period of development determines the
+transference of their characters to one or both sexes. But we do not
+know that the coloured scales, for instance, in two species of
+butterflies, in one of which the sexes differ in colour, whilst in the
+other they are alike, are developed at the same relative age in the
+cocoon. Nor do we know whether all the scales are simultaneously
+developed on the wings of the same species of butterfly, in which
+certain coloured marks are confined to one sex, whilst other marks are
+common to both sexes. A difference of this kind in the period of
+development is not so improbable as it may at first appear; for with the
+Orthoptera, which assume their adult state, not by a single
+metamorphosis, but by a succession of moults, the young males of some
+species at first resemble the females, and acquire their distinctive
+masculine characters only during a later moult. Strictly analogous cases
+occur during the successive moults of certain male crustaceans.
+
+We have as yet only considered the transference of characters,
+relatively to their period of development, with species in a natural
+state; we will now turn to domesticated animals; first touching on
+monstrosities and diseases. The presence of supernumerary digits, and
+the absence of certain phalanges, must be determined at an early
+embryonic period--the tendency to profuse bleeding is at least
+congenital, as is probably colour-blindness--yet these peculiarities,
+and other similar ones, are often limited in their transmission to one
+sex; so that the rule that characters which are developed at an early
+period tend to be transmitted to both sexes, here wholly fails. But this
+rule, as before remarked, does not appear to be nearly so generally true
+as the converse proposition, namely, that characters which appear late
+in life in one sex are transmitted exclusively to the same sex. From the
+fact of the above abnormal peculiarities becoming attached to one sex,
+long before the sexual functions are active, we may infer that there
+must be a difference of some kind between the sexes at an extremely
+early age. With respect to sexually-limited diseases, we know too little
+of the period at which they originate, to draw any fair conclusion.
+Gout, however, seems to fall under our rule; for it is generally caused
+by intemperance after early youth, and is transmitted from the father to
+his sons in a much more marked manner than to his daughters.
+
+In the various domestic breeds of sheep, goats, and cattle, the males
+differ from their respective females in the shape or development of
+their horns, forehead, mane, dewlap, tail, and hump on the shoulders;
+and these peculiarities, in accordance with our rule, are not fully
+developed until rather late in life. With dogs, the sexes do not differ,
+except that in certain breeds, especially in the Scotch deer-hound, the
+male is much larger and heavier than the female; and as we shall see in
+a future chapter, the male goes on increasing in size to an unusually
+late period of life, which will account, according to our rule, for his
+increased size being transmitted to his male offspring alone. On the
+other hand, the tortoise-shell colour of the hair, which is confined to
+female cats, is quite distinct at birth, and this case violates our
+rule. There is a breed of pigeons in which the males alone are streaked
+with black, and the streaks can be detected even in the nestlings; but
+they become more conspicuous at each successive moult, so that this case
+partly opposes and partly supports the rule. With the English Carrier
+and Pouter pigeon the full development of the wattle and the crop occurs
+rather late in life, and these characters, conformably with our rule,
+are transmitted in full perfection to the males alone. The following
+cases perhaps come within the class previously alluded to, in which the
+two sexes have varied in the same manner at a rather late period of
+life, and have consequently transferred their new characters to both
+sexes at a corresponding late period; and if so, such cases are not
+opposed to our rule. Thus there are sub-breeds of the pigeon, described
+by Neumeister,[365] both sexes of which change colour after moulting
+twice or thrice, as does likewise the Almond Tumbler; nevertheless these
+changes, though occurring rather late in life, are common to both sexes.
+One variety of the Canary-bird, namely the London Prize, offers a nearly
+analogous case.
+
+With the breeds of the Fowl the inheritance of various characters by one
+sex or by both sexes, seems generally determined by the period at which
+such characters are developed. Thus in all the many breeds in which the
+adult male differs greatly in colour from the female and from the adult
+male parent-species, he differs from the young male, so that the newly
+acquired characters must have appeared at a rather late period of life.
+On the other hand with most of the breeds in which the two sexes
+resemble each other, the young are coloured in nearly the same manner as
+their parents, and this renders it probable that their colours first
+appeared early in life. We have instances of this fact in all black and
+white breeds, in which the young and old of both sexes are alike; nor
+can it be maintained that there is something peculiar in a black or
+white plumage, leading to its transference to both sexes; for the males
+alone of many natural species are either black or white, the females
+being very differently coloured. With the so-called Cuckoo sub-breeds of
+the fowl, in which the feathers are transversely pencilled with dark
+stripes, both sexes and the chickens are coloured in nearly the same
+manner. The laced plumage of the Sebright bantam is the same in both
+sexes, and in the chickens the feathers are tipped with black, which
+makes a near approach to lacing. Spangled Hamburghs, however, offer a
+partial exception, for the two sexes, though not quite alike, resemble
+each other more closely than do the sexes of the aboriginal
+parent-species, yet they acquire their characteristic plumage late in
+life, for the chickens are distinctly pencilled. Turning to other
+characters besides colour: the males alone of the wild parent-species
+and of most domestic breeds possess a fairly well developed comb, but in
+the young of the Spanish fowl it is largely developed at a very early
+age, and apparently in consequence of this it is of unusual size in the
+adult females. In the Game breeds pugnacity is developed at a
+wonderfully early age, of which curious proofs could be given; and this
+character is transmitted to both sexes, so that the hens, from their
+extreme pugnacity, are now generally exhibited in separate pens. With
+the Polish breeds the bony protuberance of the skull which supports the
+crest is partially developed even before the chickens are hatched, and
+the crest itself soon begins to grow, though at first feebly;[366] and
+in this breed a great bony protuberance and an immense crest
+characterise the adults of both sexes.
+
+Finally, from what we have now seen of the relation which exists in many
+natural species and domesticated races, between the period of the
+development of their characters and the manner of their
+transmission--for example the striking fact of the early growth of the
+horns in the reindeer, in which both sexes have horns, in comparison
+with their much later growth in the other species in which the male
+alone bears horns--we may conclude that one cause, though not the sole
+cause, of characters being exclusively inherited by one sex, is their
+development at a late age. And secondly, that one, though apparently a
+less efficient, cause of characters being inherited by both sexes is
+their development at an early age, whilst the sexes differ but little in
+constitution. It appears, however, that some difference must exist
+between the sexes even during an early embryonic period, for characters
+developed at this age not rarely become attached to one sex.
+
+
+_Summary and concluding remarks._--From the foregoing discussion on the
+various laws of inheritance, we learn that characters often or even
+generally tend to become developed in the same sex, at the same age, and
+periodically at the same season of the year, in which they first
+appeared in the parents. But these laws, from unknown causes, are very
+liable to change. Hence the successive steps in the modification of a
+species might readily be transmitted in different ways; some of the
+steps being transmitted to one sex, and some to both; some to the
+offspring at one age, and some at all ages. Not only are the laws of
+inheritance extremely complex, but so are the causes which induce and
+govern variability. The variations thus caused are preserved and
+accumulated by sexual selection, which is in itself an extremely complex
+affair, depending, as it does, on ardour in love, courage, and the
+rivalry of the males, and on the powers of perception, taste, and will
+of the female. Sexual selection will also be dominated by natural
+selection for the general welfare of the species. Hence the manner in
+which the individuals of either sex or of both sexes are affected
+through sexual selection cannot fail to be complex in the highest
+degree.
+
+When variations occur late in life in one sex, and are transmitted to
+the same sex at the same age, the other sex and the young are
+necessarily left unmodified. When they occur late in life, but are
+transmitted to both sexes at the same age, the young alone are left
+unmodified. Variations, however, may occur at any period of life in one
+sex or in both, and be transmitted to both sexes at all ages, and then
+all the individuals of the species will be similarly modified. In the
+following chapters it will be seen that all these cases frequently occur
+under nature.
+
+Sexual selection can never act on any animal whilst young, before the
+age for reproduction has arrived. From the great eagerness of the male
+it has generally acted on this sex and not on the females. The males
+have thus become provided with weapons for fighting with their rivals,
+or with organs for discovering and securely holding the female, or for
+exciting and charming her. When the sexes differ in these respects, it
+is also, as we have seen, an extremely general law that the adult male
+differs more or less from the young male; and we may conclude from this
+fact that the successive variations, by which the adult male became
+modified, cannot have occurred much before the age for reproduction. How
+then are we to account for this general and remarkable coincidence
+between the period of variability and that of sexual selection,--
+principles which are quite independent of each other? I
+think we can see the cause: it is not that the males have never varied
+at an early age, but that such variations have commonly been lost,
+whilst those occurring at a later age have been preserved.
+
+All animals produce more offspring than can survive to maturity; and we
+have every reason to believe that death falls heavily on the weak and
+inexperienced young. If then a certain proportion of the offspring were
+to vary at birth or soon afterwards, in some manner which at this age
+was of no service to them, the chance of the preservation of such
+variations would be small. We have good evidence under domestication how
+soon variations of all kinds are lost, if not selected. But variations
+which occurred at or near maturity, and which were of immediate service
+to either sex, would probably be preserved; as would similar variations
+occurring at an earlier period in any individuals which happened to
+survive. As this principle has an important bearing on sexual selection,
+it may be advisable to give an imaginary illustration. We will take a
+pair of animals, neither very fertile nor the reverse, and assume that
+after arriving at maturity they live on an average for five years,
+producing each year five young. They would thus produce 25 offspring;
+and it would not, I think, be an unfair estimate to assume that 18 or 20
+out of the 25 would perish before maturity, whilst still young and
+inexperienced; the remaining seven or five sufficing to keep up the
+stock of mature individuals. If so, we can see that variations which
+occurred during youth, for instance in brightness, and which were not of
+the least service to the young, would run a good chance of being utterly
+lost. Whilst similar variations, which occurring at or near maturity in
+the comparatively few individuals surviving to this age, and which
+immediately gave an advantage to certain males, by rendering them more
+attractive to the females, would be likely to be preserved. No doubt
+some of the variations in brightness which occurred at an earlier age
+would by chance be preserved, and eventually give to the male the same
+advantage as those which appeared later; and this will account for the
+young males commonly partaking to a certain extent (as may be observed
+with many birds) of the bright colours of their adult male parents. If
+only a few of the successive variations in brightness were to occur at a
+late age, the adult male would be only a little brighter than the young
+male; and such cases are common.
+
+In this illustration I have assumed that the young varied in a manner
+which was of no service to them; but many characters proper to the adult
+male would be actually injurious to the young,--as bright colours from
+making them conspicuous, or horns of large size from expending much
+vital force. Such variations in the young would promptly be eliminated
+through natural selection. With the adult and experienced males, on the
+other hand, the advantage thus derived in their rivalry with other males
+would often more than counterbalance exposure to some degree of danger.
+Thus we can understand how it is that variations which must originally
+have appeared rather late in life have alone or in chief part been
+preserved for the development of secondary sexual characters; and the
+remarkable coincidence between the periods of variability and of sexual
+selection is intelligible.
+
+As variations which give to the male an advantage in lighting with other
+males, or in finding, securing, or charming the female, would be of no
+use to the female, they will not have been preserved in this sex either
+during youth or maturity. Consequently such variations would be
+extremely liable to be lost; and the female, as far as these characters
+are concerned, would be left unmodified, excepting in so far as she may
+have received them by transference from the male. No doubt if the female
+varied and transferred serviceable characters to her male offspring,
+these would be favoured through sexual selection; and then both sexes
+would thus far be modified in the same manner. But I shall hereafter
+have to recur to these more intricate contingencies.
+
+In the following chapters, I shall treat of the secondary sexual
+characters in animals of all classes, and shall endeavour in each case
+to apply the principles explained in the present chapter. The lowest
+classes will detain us for a very short time, but the higher animals,
+especially birds, must be treated at considerable length. It should be
+borne in mind that for reasons already assigned, I intend to give only a
+few illustrative instances of the innumerable structures by the aid of
+which the male finds the female, or, when found, holds her. On the other
+hand, all structures and instincts by which the male conquers other
+males, and by which he allures or excites the female, will be fully
+discussed, as these are in many ways the most interesting.
+
+
+_Supplement on the proportional numbers of the two sexes in animals
+belonging to various classes._
+
+
+As no one, as far as I can discover, has paid attention to the relative
+numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal kingdom, I will here give
+such materials as I have been able to collect, although they are
+extremely imperfect. They consist in only a few instances of actual
+enumeration, and the numbers are not very large. As the proportions are
+known with certainty on a large scale in the case of man alone, I will
+first give them, as a standard of comparison.
+
+
+_Man._--In England during ten years (from 1857 to 1866) 707,120 children
+on an annual average have been born alive, in the proportion of 104.5
+males to 100 females. But in 1857 the male births throughout England
+were as 105.2, and in 1865 as 104.0 to 100. Looking to separate
+districts, in Buckinghamshire (where on an average 5000 children are
+annually born) the _mean_ proportion of male to female births, during
+the whole period of the above ten years, was as 102.8 to 100; whilst in
+N. Wales (where the average annual births are 12,873) it was as high as
+106.2 to 100. Taking a still smaller district, viz., Rutlandshire (where
+the annual births average only 739), in 1864 the male births were as
+114.6, and in 1862 as 97.0 to 100; but even in this small district the
+average of the 7385 births during the whole ten years was as 104.5 to
+100; that is in the same ratio as throughout England.[367] The
+proportions are sometimes slightly disturbed by unknown causes; thus
+Prof. Faye states "that in some districts of Norway there has been
+during a decennial period a steady deficiency of boys, whilst in others
+the opposite condition has existed." In France during forty-four years
+the male to the female births have been as 106.2 to 100; but during this
+period it has occurred five times in one department, and six times in
+another, that the female births have exceeded the males. In Russia the
+average proportion is as high as 108.9 to 100.[368] It is a singular
+fact that with Jews the proportion of male births is decidedly larger
+than with Christians: thus in Prussia the proportion is as 113, in
+Breslau as 114, and in Livonia as 120 to 100; the Christian births in
+these countries being the same as usual, for instance, in Livonia as 104
+to 100.[369] It is a still more singular fact that in different nations,
+under different conditions and climates, in Naples, Prussia, Westphalia,
+France and England, the excess of male over female births is less when
+they are illegitimate than when legitimate.[370]
+
+In various parts of Europe, according to Prof. Faye and other authors,
+"a still greater preponderance of males would be met with, if death
+struck both sexes in equal proportion in the womb and during birth. But
+the fact is, that for every 100 still-born females, we have in several
+countries from 134.6 to 144.9 still-born males." Moreover during the
+first four or five years of life more male children die than females;
+"for example in England, during the first year, 126 boys die
+for every 100 girls,--a proportion which in France is still more
+unfavourable."[371] As a consequence of this excess in the death-rate of
+male children, and of the exposure of men when adult to various dangers,
+and of their tendency to emigrate, the females in all old-settled
+countries, where statistical records have been kept,[372] are found to
+preponderate considerably over the males.
+
+It has often been supposed that the relative ages of the parents
+determine the sex of the offspring; and Prof. Leuckart[373] has advanced
+what he considers sufficient evidence, with respect to man and certain
+domesticated animals, to shew that this is one important factor in the
+result. So again the period of impregnation has been thought to be the
+efficient cause; but recent observations discountenance this belief.
+Again, with mankind polygamy has been supposed to lead to the birth of a
+greater proportion of female infants; but Dr. J. Campbell[374] carefully
+attended to this subject in the harems of Siam, and he concludes that
+the proportion of male to female births is the same as from monogamous
+unions. Hardly any animal has been rendered so highly polygamous as our
+English race-horses, and we shall immediately see that their male and
+female offspring are almost exactly equal in number.
+
+
+  _Horses._--Mr. Tegetmeier has been so kind as to tabulate for
+  me from the 'Racing Calendar' the births of race-horses during
+  a period of twenty-one years, viz. from 1846 to 1867; 1849
+  being omitted, as no returns were that year published. The
+  total births have been 25,560,[375] consisting of 12,763 males
+  and 12,797 females, or in the proportion of 99.7 males to 100
+  females. As these numbers are tolerably large, and as they are
+  drawn from all parts of England, during several years, we may
+  with much confidence conclude that with the domestic horse, or
+  at least with the race-horse, the two sexes are produced in
+  almost equal numbers. The fluctuations in the proportions
+  during successive years are closely like those which occur with
+  mankind, when a small and thinly-populated area is considered:
+  thus in 1856 the male horses were as 107.1, and in 1867 as only
+  92.6 to 100 females. In the tabulated returns the proportions
+  vary in cycles, for the males exceeded the females during six
+  successive years; and the females exceeded the males during two
+  periods each of four years: this, however, may be accidental;
+  at least I can detect nothing of the kind with man in the
+  decennial table in the Registrar's Report for 1866. I may add
+  that certain, mares, and this holds good with certain cows and
+  with women, tend to produce more of one sex than of the other;
+  Mr. Wright of Yeldersley House, informs me that one of his Arab
+  mares, though put seven times to different horses, produced
+  seven fillies.
+
+
+  _Dogs._--During a period of twelve years, from 1857 to 1868,
+  the births of a large number of greyhounds, throughout England,
+  have been sent to the 'Field' newspaper; and I am again
+  indebted to Mr. Tegetmeier for carefully tabulating the
+  results. The recorded, births have been 6878, consisting of
+  3605 males and 3273 females, that is, in the proportion of
+  110.1 males to 100 females. The greatest fluctuations occurred
+  in 1864, when the proportion was as 95.3 males, and in 1867, as
+  116.3 males to 100 females. The above average proportion of
+  110.1 to 100 is probably nearly correct in the case of the
+  greyhound, but whether it would hold with other domesticated
+  breeds is in some degree doubtful. Mr. Cupples has enquired
+  from several great breeders of dogs, and finds that all without
+  exception believe that females are produced in excess; he
+  suggests that this belief may have arisen from females being
+  less valued and the consequent disappointment producing a
+  stronger impression on the mind.
+
+
+  _Sheep._--The sexes of sheep are not ascertained by
+  agriculturists until several months after birth, at the period
+  when the males are castrated; so that the following returns do
+  not give the proportions at birth. Moreover, I find that
+  several great breeders in Scotland, who annually raise some
+  thousand sheep, are firmly convinced that a larger proportion
+  of males than of females die during the first one or two years;
+  therefore the proportion of males would be somewhat greater at
+  birth than at the age of castration. This is a remarkable
+  coincidence with what occurs, as we have seen, with mankind,
+  and both cases probably depend on some common cause. I have
+  received returns from four gentlemen in England who have bred
+  lowland sheep, chiefly Leicesters, during the last ten or
+  sixteen years; they amount altogether to 8965 births,
+  consisting of 4407 males and 4558 females; that is in the
+  proportion of 96.7 males to 100 females. With respect to
+  Cheviot and black-faced sheep bred in Scotland, I have received
+  returns from six breeders, two of them on a large scale,
+  chiefly for the years 1867-1869, but some of the returns
+  extending back to 1862. The total number recorded amounts to
+  50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 females, or in
+  the proportion of 97.9 males to 100 females. If we take the
+  English and Scotch returns together, the total number amounts
+  to 59,650, consisting of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or
+  as 97�7 to 100. So that with sheep at the age of castration the
+  females are certainly in excess of the males; but whether this
+  would hold good at birth is doubtful, owing to the greater
+  liability in the males to early death.[376]
+
+  Of _Cattle_ I have received returns from nine gentlemen of 982
+  births, too few to be trusted; these consisted of 477
+  bull-calves and 505 cow-calves; _i.e._ in the proportion of
+  94�4 males to 100 females. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+  in 1867 out of 34 calves born on a farm in Derbyshire only one
+  was a bull. Mr. Harrison Weir writes to me that he has enquired
+  from several breeders of _Pigs_, and most of them estimate the
+  male to the female births as about 7 to 6. This same gentleman
+  has bred _Rabbits_ for many years, and has noticed that a far
+  greater number of bucks are produced than does.
+
+  Of mammalia in a state of nature I have been able to learn very
+  little. In regard to the common rat, I have received
+  conflicting statements. Mr. R. Elliot of Laighwood, informs me
+  that a rat-catcher assured him that he had always found the
+  males in great excess, even with the young in the nest. In
+  consequence of this, Mr. Elliot himself subsequently examined
+  some hundred old ones, and found the statement true. Mr. F.
+  Buckland has bred a large number of white rats, and he also
+  believes that the males greatly exceed the females. In regard
+  to Moles, it is said that "the males are much more numerous
+  than the females;"[377] and as the catching of these animals is
+  a special occupation, the statement may perhaps be trusted. Sir
+  A. Smith, in describing an antelope of S. Africa[378] (_Kobus
+  ellipsiprymnus_), remarks, that in the herds of this and other
+  species, the males are few in number compared with the females:
+  the natives believe that they are born in this proportion;
+  others believe that the younger males are expelled from the
+  herds, and Sir A. Smith says, that though he has himself never
+  seen herds consisting of young males alone, others affirm that
+  this does occur. It appears probable that the young males when
+  expelled from the herd, would be likely to fell a prey to the
+  many beasts of prey of the country.
+
+
+  BIRDS.
+
+  With respect to the _Fowl_, I have received only one account,
+  namely, that out of 1001 chickens of a highly-bred stock of
+  Cochins, reared during eight years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved
+  males and 514 females: _i.e._ as 94.7 to 100. In regard to
+  domestic pigeons there is good evidence that the males are
+  produced in excess, or that their lives are longer; for these
+  birds invariably pair, and single males, as Mr. Tegetmeier
+  informs me, can always be purchased cheaper than females.
+  Usually the two birds reared from the two eggs laid in the same
+  nest consist of a male and female; but Mr. Harrison Weir, who
+  has been so large a breeder, says that he has often bred two
+  cocks from the same nest, and seldom two hens; moreover the hen
+  is generally the weaker of the two, and more liable to perish.
+
+  With respect to birds in a state of nature, Mr. Gould and
+  others[379] are convinced that the males are generally the more
+  numerous; and as the young males of many species resemble the
+  females, the latter would naturally appear to be the most
+  numerous. Large numbers of pheasants are reared by Mr. Baker of
+  Leadenhall from eggs laid by wild birds, and he informs Mr.
+  Jenner Weir that four or five males to one female are generally
+  produced. An experienced observer remarks[380] that in
+  Scandinavia the broods of the capercailzie and black-cock
+  contain more males than females; and that with the Dal-ripa (a
+  kind of ptarmigan) more males than females attend the _leks_ or
+  places of courtship; but this latter circumstance is accounted
+  for by some observers by a greater number of hen birds being
+  killed by vermin. From various facts given by White of
+  Selbourne,[381] it seems clear that the males of the partridge
+  must be in considerable excess in the south of England; and I
+  have been assured that this is the case in Scotland. Mr. Weir
+  on enquiring from the dealers who receive at certain seasons
+  large numbers of ruffs (_Machetes pugnax_) was told that the
+  males are much the most numerous. This same naturalist has also
+  enquired for me from the bird-catchers, who annually catch an
+  astonishing number of various small species alive for the
+  London market, and he was unhesitatingly answered by an old and
+  trustworthy man, that with the chaffinch the males are in large
+  excess; he thought as high as 2 males to 1 female, or at least
+  as high as 5 to 3.[382] The males of the blackbird, he likewise
+  maintained, were by far the most numerous, whether caught by
+  traps or by netting at night. These statements may apparently
+  be trusted, because the same man said that the sexes are about
+  equal with the lark, the twite (_Linaria montana_), and
+  goldfinch. On the other hand he is certain that with the common
+  linnet, the females preponderate greatly, but unequally during
+  different years; during some years he has found the females to
+  the males as four to one. It should, however, be borne in mind,
+  that the chief season for catching birds does not begin till
+  September, so that with some species partial migrations may
+  have begun, and the flocks at this period often consist of hens
+  alone. Mr. Salvin paid particular attention to the sexes of the
+  humming-birds in Central America, and he is convinced that with
+  most of the species the males are in excess; thus one year he
+  procured 204 specimens belonging to ten species, and these
+  consisted of 166 males and of 38 females. With two other
+  species the females were in excess: but the proportions
+  apparently vary either during different seasons or in different
+  localities; for on one occasion the males of _Campylopterus
+  hemileucurus_ were to the females as five to two, and on
+  another occasion[383] in exactly the reversed ratio. As bearing
+  on this latter point, I may add, that Mr. Powys found in Corfu
+  and Epirus the sexes of the chaffinch keeping apart, and "the
+  females by far the most numerous;" whilst in Palestine Mr.
+  Tristram found "the male flocks appearing greatly to exceed the
+  female in number."[384] So again with the _Quiscalus major_,
+  Mr. G. Taylor[385] says, that in Florida there were "very few
+  females in proportion to the males," whilst in Honduras the
+  proportion was the other way, the species there having the
+  character of a polygamist.
+
+
+  FISH.
+
+  With Fish the proportional numbers of the sexes can be
+  ascertained only by catching them in the adult or nearly adult
+  state; and there are many difficulties in arriving at any just
+  conclusion.[386] Infertile females might readily be mistaken
+  for males, as Dr. G�nther has remarked to me in regard to
+  trout. With some species the males are believed to die soon
+  after fertilising the ova. With many species the males are of
+  much smaller size than the females, so that a large number of
+  males would escape from the same net by which the females were
+  caught. M. Carbonnier,[387] who has especially attended to the
+  natural history of the pike (_Esox lucius_) states that many
+  males, owing to their small size, are devoured by the larger
+  females; and he believes that the males of almost all fish are
+  exposed from the same cause to greater danger than the females.
+  Nevertheless in the few cases in which the proportional numbers
+  have been actually observed, the males appear to be largely in
+  excess. Thus Mr. R. Buist, the superintendent of the
+  Stormontfield experiments, says that in 1865, out of 70 salmon
+  first landed for the purpose of obtaining the ova, upwards of
+  60 were males. In 1867 he again "calls attention to the vast
+  disproportion of the males to the females. We had at the outset
+  at least ten males to one female." Afterwards sufficient
+  females for obtaining ova were procured. He adds, "from the
+  great proportion of the males, they are constantly fighting and
+  tearing each other on the spawning-beds."[388] This
+  disproportion, no doubt, can be accounted for in part, but
+  whether wholly is very doubtful, by the males ascending the
+  rivers before the females. Mr. F. Buckland remarks in regard to
+  trout, that "it is a curious fact that the males preponderate
+  very largely in number over the females. It _invariably_
+  happens that when the first rush of fish is made to the net,
+  there will be at least seven or eight males to one female found
+  captive. I cannot quite account for this; either the males are
+  more numerous than the females, or the latter seek safety by
+  concealment rather than flight." He then adds, that by
+  carefully searching the banks, sufficient females for obtaining
+  ova can be found.[389] Mr. H. Lee informs me that out of 212
+  trout, taken for this purpose in Lord Portsmouth's park, 150
+  were males and 62 females.
+
+  With the Cyprinid� the males likewise seem to be in excess; but
+  several members of this Family, viz., the carp, tench, bream
+  and minnow, appear regularly to follow the practice, rare in
+  the animal kingdom, of polyandry; for the female whilst
+  spawning is always attended by two males, one on each side, and
+  in the case of the bream by three or four males. This fact is
+  so well known, that it is always recommended to stock a pond
+  with two male tenches to one female, or at least with three
+  males to two females. With the minnow, an excellent observer
+  states, that on the spawning-beds the males are ten times as
+  numerous as the females; when a female comes amongst the males,
+  "she is immediately pressed closely by a male on each side; and
+  when they have been in that situation for a time, are
+  superseded by other two males."[390]
+
+
+  INSECTS.
+
+  In this class, the Lepidoptera alone afford the means of
+  judging of the proportional numbers of the sexes; for they have
+  been collected with special care by many good observers, and
+  have been largely bred from the egg or caterpillar state. I had
+  hoped that some breeders of silk-moths might have kept an exact
+  record, but after writing to France and Italy, and consulting
+  various treatises, I cannot find that this has ever been done.
+  The general opinion appears to be that the sexes are nearly
+  equal, but in Italy as I hear from Professor Canestrini, many
+  breeders are convinced that the females are produced in excess.
+  The same naturalist, however, informs me, that in the two
+  yearly broods of the Ailanthus silk-moth (_Bombyx cynthia_),
+  the males greatly preponderate in the first, whilst in the
+  second the two sexes are nearly equal, or the females rather in
+  excess.
+
+  In regard to Butterflies in a state of nature, several
+  observers have been much struck by the apparently enormous
+  preponderance of the males.[391] Thus Mr. Bates,[392] in
+  speaking of the species, no less than about a hundred in
+  number, which inhabit the Upper Amazons, says that the males
+  are much more numerous than the females, even in the proportion
+  of a hundred to one. In North America, Edwards, who had great
+  experience, estimates in the genus Papilio the males to the
+  females as four to one; and Mr. Walsh, who informed me of this
+  statement, says that with _P. turnus_ this is certainly the
+  case. In South Africa, Mr. R. Trimen found the males in excess
+  in 19 species;[393] and in one of these, which swarms in open
+  places, he estimated the number of males as fifty to one
+  female. With another species, in which the males are numerous
+  in certain localities, he collected during seven years only
+  five females. In the island of Bourbon, M. Maillard states that
+  the males of one species of Papilio are twenty times as
+  numerous as the females.[394] Mr. Trimen informs me that as far
+  as he has himself seen, or heard from others, it is rare for
+  the females of any butterfly to exceed in number the males; but
+  this is perhaps the case with three South African species. Mr.
+  Wallace[395] states that the females of _Ornithoptera
+  croesus_, in the Malay archipelago, are more common and more
+  easily caught than the males; but this is a rare butterfly. I
+  may here add, that in Hyperythra, a genus of moths, Guen�e
+  says, that from four to five females are sent in collections
+  from India for one male.
+
+  When this subject of the proportional numbers of the sexes of
+  insects was brought before the Entomological Society,[396] it
+  was generally admitted that the males of most Lepidoptera, in
+  the adult or imago state, are caught in greater numbers than
+  the females; but this fact was attributed by various observers
+  to the more retiring habits of the females, and to the males
+  emerging earlier from the cocoon. This latter circumstance is
+  well known to occur with most Lepidoptera, as well as with
+  other insects. So that, as M. Personnat remarks, the males of
+  the domesticated _Bombyx yamamai_, are lost at the beginning of
+  the season, and the females at the end, from the want of
+  mates.[397] I cannot however persuade myself that these causes
+  suffice to explain the great excess of males in the cases,
+  above given, of butterflies which are extremely common in their
+  native countries. Mr. Stainton, who has paid such close
+  attention during many years to the smaller moths, informs me
+  that when he collected them in the imago state, he thought that
+  the males were ten times as numerous as the females, but that
+  since he has reared them on a large scale from the caterpillar
+  state, he is convinced that the females are the most numerous.
+  Several entomologists concur in this view. Mr. Doubleday,
+  however, and some others, take an opposite view, and are
+  convinced that they have reared from the egg and caterpillar
+  states a larger proportion of males than of females.
+
+  Besides the more active habits of the males, their earlier
+  emergence from the cocoon, and their frequenting in some cases
+  more open stations, other causes may be assigned for an
+  apparent or real difference in the proportional numbers of the
+  sexes of Lepidoptera, when captured in the imago state, and
+  when reared from the egg or caterpillar state. It is believed
+  by many breeders in Italy, as I hear from Professor Canestrini,
+  that the female caterpillar of the silk-moth suffers more from
+  the recent disease than the male; and Dr. Staudinger informs me
+  that in rearing Lepidoptera more females die in the cocoon than
+  males. With many species the female caterpillar is larger than
+  the male, and a collector would naturally choose the finest
+  specimens, and thus unintentionally collect a larger number of
+  females. Three collectors have told me that this was their
+  practice; but Dr. Wallace is sure that most collectors take all
+  the specimens which they can find of the rarer kinds, which
+  alone are worth the trouble of rearing. Birds when surrounded
+  by caterpillars would probably devour the largest; and
+  Professor Canestrini informs me that in Italy some breeders
+  believe, though on insufficient evidence, that in the first
+  brood of the Ailanthus silk-moth, the wasps destroy a larger
+  number of the female than of the male caterpillars. Dr. Wallace
+  further remarks that female caterpillars, from being larger
+  than the males, require more time for their development and
+  consume more food and moisture; and thus they would be exposed
+  during a longer time to danger from ichneumons, birds, &c., and
+  in times of scarcity would perish in greater numbers. Hence it
+  appears quite possible that, in a state of nature, fewer female
+  Lepidoptera may reach maturity than males; and for our special
+  object we are concerned with the numbers at maturity, when the
+  sexes are ready to propagate their kind.
+
+  The manner in which the males of certain moths congregate in
+  extraordinary numbers round a single female, apparently
+  indicates a great excess of males, though this fact may perhaps
+  be accounted for by the earlier emergence of the males from
+  their cocoons. Mr. Stainton informs me that from twelve to
+  twenty males may often be seen congregated round a female
+  _Elachista rufocinerea_. It is well known that if a virgin
+  _Lasiocampa quercus_ or _Saturnia carpini_ be exposed in a
+  cage, vast numbers of males collect round her, and if confined
+  in a room will even come down the chimney to her. Mr.
+  Doubleday believes that he has seen from fifty to a hundred
+  males of both these species attracted in the course of a single
+  day by a female under confinement. Mr. Trimen exposed in the
+  Isle of Wight a box in which a female of the Lasiocampa had
+  been confined on the previous day, and five males soon
+  endeavoured to gain admittance. M. Verreaux, in Australia,
+  having placed the female of a small Bombyx in a box in his
+  pocket, was followed by a crowd of males, so that about 200
+  entered the house with him.[398]
+
+  Mr. Doubleday has called my attention to Dr. Staudinger's[399]
+  list of Lepidoptera, which gives the prices of the males and
+  females of 300 species or well-marked varieties of
+  (Rhopalocera) butterflies. The prices for both sexes of the
+  very common species are of course the same; but with 114 of the
+  rarer species they differ; the males being in all cases,
+  excepting one, the cheapest. On an average of the prices of the
+  113 species, the price of the male to that of the female is as
+  100 to 149; and this apparently indicates that inversely the
+  males exceed the females in number in the same proportion.
+  About 2000 species or varieties of moths (Heterocera) are
+  catalogued, those with wingless females being here excluded on
+  account of the difference in habits of the two sexes: of these
+  2000 species, 141 differ in price according to sex, the males
+  of 130 being cheaper, and the males of only 11 being dearer
+  than the females. The average price of the males of the 130
+  species, to that of the females, is as 100 to 143. With respect
+  to the butterflies in this priced list, Mr. Doubleday thinks
+  (and no man in England has had more experience), that there is
+  nothing in the habits of the species which can account for the
+  difference in the prices of the two sexes, and that it can be
+  accounted for only by an excess in the numbers of the males.
+  But I am bound to add that Dr. Staudinger himself, as he
+  informs me, is of a different opinion. He thinks that the less
+  active habits of the females and the earlier emergence of the
+  males will account for his collectors securing a larger number
+  of males than of females, and consequently for the lower prices
+  of the former With respect to specimens reared from the
+  caterpillar-state, Dr. Staudinger believes, as previously
+  stated, that a greater number of females than of males die
+  under confinement in the cocoons. He adds that with certain
+  species one sex seems to preponderate over the other during
+  certain years.
+
+  Of direct observations on the sexes of Lepidoptera, reared
+  either from eggs or caterpillars, I have received only the few
+  following cases:--
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                                    Males. | Females.
+  The Rev. J. Hellins[400] of Exeter reared, during        |
+    1868, imagos of 73 species, which consisted of   153   |   137
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Albert Jones of Eltham reared, during 1868,          |
+    imagos of 9 species, which, consisted of         159   |   126
+                                                           |
+  During 1869 he reared imagos from 4 species,             |
+    consisting of                                    114   |   112
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Buckler of Emsworth, Hants, during 1869,             |
+    reared imagos from 74 species, consisting of     180   |   169
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace of Colchester reared from one brood          |
+    of Bombyx cynthia                                 52   |    48
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, from cocoons of Bombyx               |
+    Pernyi sent from China, during 1869              224   |   123
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, during 1868 and 1869,                |
+    from two lots of cocoons of Bombyx yamamai        52   |    46
+                                                    --------------+------------
+                        Total                        934   |   761
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------
+
+  So that in these eight lots of cocoons and eggs, males were
+  produced in excess. Taken together the proportion of males is
+  as 122.7 to 100 females. But the numbers are hardly large
+  enough to be trustworthy.
+
+  On the whole, from the above various sources of evidence, all
+  pointing to the same direction, I infer that with most species
+  of Lepidoptera, the males in the imago state generally exceed
+  the females in number, whatever the proportions may be at their
+  first emergence from the egg.
+
+  With reference to the other Orders of insects, I have been able
+  to collect very little reliable information. With the
+  stag-beetle (_Lucanus cervus_) "the males appear to be much
+  more numerous than the females;" but when, as Cornelius
+  remarked during 1867, an unusual number of these beetles
+  appeared in one part of Germany, the females appeared to exceed
+  the males as six so one. With one of the Elaterid�, the males
+  are said to be much more numerous than the females, and "two or
+  three are often found united with one female;"[401] so that here
+  polyandry seems to prevail. With Siagonium (Staphylinid�), in
+  which the males are furnished with horns, "the females are far
+  more numerous than the opposite sex." Mr. Janson stated at the
+  Entomological Society that the females of the bark-feeding
+  _Tomicus villosus_ are so common as to be a plague, whilst the
+  males are so rare as to be hardly known. In other Orders, from
+  unknown causes, but apparently in some instances owing to
+  parthenogenesis, the males of certain species have never been
+  discovered or are excessively rare, as with several of the
+  Cynipid�.[402] In all the gall-making Cynipid� known to Mr.
+  Walsh, the females are four or five times as numerous as the
+  males; and so it is, as he informs me, with the gall-making
+  Cecidomyii� (Diptera). With some common species of Saw-flies
+  (Tenthredin�) Mr. F. Smith has reared hundreds of specimens
+  from larv� of all sizes, but has never reared a single male: on
+  the other hand Curtis says,[403] that with certain species
+  (Athalia), bred by him, the males to the females were as six to
+  one; whilst exactly the reverse occurred with the mature
+  insects of the same species caught in the fields. With the
+  Neuroptera, Mr. Walsh states that in many, but by no means in
+  all, the species of the Odonatous groups (Ephemerina), there is
+  a great overplus of males: in the genus Het�rina, also, the
+  males are generally at least four times as numerous as the
+  females. In certain species in the genus Gomphus the males are
+  equally numerous, whilst in two other species, the females are
+  twice or thrice as numerous as the males. In some European
+  species of Psocus thousands of females may be collected without
+  a single male, whilst with other species of the same genus both
+  sexes are common.[404] In England, Mr. MacLachlan has captured
+  hundreds of the female _Apatania muliebris_, but has never seen
+  the male; and of _Boreus hyemalis_ only four or five males have
+  been here seen.[405] With most of these species (excepting, as
+  I have heard, with the Tenthredin�) there is no reason to
+  suppose that the females are subject to parthenogenesis; and
+  thus we see how ignorant we are on the causes of the apparent
+  discrepancy in the proportional numbers of the two sexes.
+
+  In the other Classes of the Articulata I have been able to
+  collect still less information. With Spiders, Mr. Blackwall,
+  who has carefully attended to this class during many years,
+  writes to me that the males from their more erratic habits are
+  more commonly seen, and therefore appear to be the more
+  numerous. This is actually the case with a few species; but he
+  mentions several species in six genera, in which the females
+  appear to be much more numerous than the males.[406] The small
+  size of the males in comparison with the females, which is
+  sometimes carried to an extreme degree, and their widely
+  different appearance, may account in some instances for their
+  rarity in collections.[407]
+
+  Some of the lower Crustaceans are able to propagate their kind
+  asexually, and this will account for the extreme rarity of the
+  males. With some other forms (as with Tanais and Cypris) there
+  is reason to believe, as Fritz M�ller informs me, that the male
+  is much shorter-lived than the female, which, supposing the two
+  sexes to be at first equal in number, would explain the
+  scarcity of the males. On the other hand this same naturalist
+  has invariably taken, on the shores of Brazil, far more males
+  than females of the Diastylid� and of Cypridina; thus with a
+  species in the latter genus, 63 specimens caught the same day,
+  included 57 males; but he suggests that this preponderance may
+  be due to some unknown difference in the habits of the two
+  sexes. With one of the higher Brazilian crabs, namely a
+  Gelasimus, Fritz M�ller found the males to be more numerous
+  than the females. The reverse seems to be the case, according
+  to the large experience of Mr. C. Spence Bate, with six common
+  British crabs, the names of which he has given me.
+
+
+_On the Power of Natural Selection to regulate the proportional Numbers
+of the Sexes, and General Fertility._--In some peculiar cases, an excess
+in the number of one sex over the other might be a great advantage to a
+species, as with the sterile females of social insects, or with those
+animals in which more than one male is requisite to fertilise the
+female, as with certain cirripedes and perhaps certain fishes. An
+inequality between the sexes in these cases might have been acquired
+through natural selection, but from their rarity they need not here be
+further considered. In all ordinary cases an inequality would be no
+advantage or disadvantage to certain individuals more than to others;
+and therefore it could hardly have resulted from natural selection. We
+must attribute the inequality to the direct action of those unknown
+conditions, which with mankind lead to the males being born in a
+somewhat larger excess in certain countries than in others, or which
+cause the proportion between the sexes to differ slightly in legitimate
+and illegitimate births.
+
+Let us now take the case of a species producing from the unknown causes
+just alluded to, an excess of one sex--we will say of males--these being
+superfluous and useless, or nearly useless. Could the sexes be equalised
+through natural selection? We may feel sure, from all characters being
+variable, that certain pairs would produce a somewhat less excess of
+males over females than other pairs. The former, supposing the actual
+number of the offspring to remain constant, would necessarily produce
+more females, and would therefore be more productive. On the doctrine of
+chances a greater number of the offspring of the more productive pairs
+would survive; and these would inherit a tendency to procreate fewer
+males and more females. Thus a tendency towards the equalisation of the
+sexes would be brought about. But our supposed species would by this
+process be rendered, as just remarked, more productive; and this would
+in many cases be far from an advantage; for whenever the limit to the
+numbers which exist, depends, not on destruction by enemies, but on the
+amount of food, increased fertility will lead to severer competition and
+to most of the survivors being badly fed. In this case, if the sexes
+were equalised by an increase in the number of the females, a
+simultaneous decrease in the total number of the offspring would be
+beneficial, or even necessary, for the existence of the species; and
+this, I believe, could be effected through natural selection in the
+manner hereafter to be described. The same train of reasoning is
+applicable in the above, as well as in the following case, if we assume
+that females instead of males are produced in excess, for such females
+from not uniting with males would be superfluous and useless. So it
+would be with polygamous species, if we assume the excess of females to
+be inordinately great.
+
+An excess of either sex, we will again say of the males, could, however,
+apparently be eliminated through natural selection in another and
+indirect manner, namely by an actual diminution of the males, without
+any increase of the females, and consequently without any increase in
+the productiveness of the species. From the variability of all
+characters, we may feel assured that some pairs, inhabiting any
+locality, would produce a rather smaller excess of superfluous males,
+but an equal number of productive females. When the offspring from the
+more and the less male-productive parents were all mingled together,
+none would have any direct advantage over the others; but those that
+produced few superfluous males would have one great indirect advantage,
+namely that their ova or embryos would probably be larger and finer, or
+their young better nurtured in the womb and afterwards. We see this
+principle illustrated with plants; as those which bear a vast number of
+seed produce small ones; whilst those which bear comparatively few
+seeds, often produce large ones well-stocked with nutriment for the use
+of the seedlings.[408] Hence the offspring of the parents which had
+wasted least force in producing superfluous males would be the most
+likely to survive, and would inherit the same tendency not to produce
+superfluous males, whilst retaining their full fertility in the
+production of females. So it would be with the converse case of the
+female sex. Any slight excess, however, of either sex could hardly be
+checked in so indirect a manner. Nor indeed has a considerable
+inequality between the sexes been always prevented, as we have seen in
+some of the cases given in the previous discussion. In these cases the
+unknown causes which determine the sex of the embryo, and which under
+certain conditions lead to the production of one sex in excess over the
+other, have not been mastered by the survival of those varieties which
+were subjected to the least waste of organised matter and force by the
+production of superfluous individuals of either sex. Nevertheless we may
+conclude that natural selection will always tend, though sometimes
+inefficiently, to equalise the relative numbers of the two sexes.
+
+Having said this much on the equalisation of the sexes, it may be well
+to add a few remarks on the regulation through natural selection of the
+ordinary fertility of species. Mr. Herbert Spencer has shewn in an able
+discussion[409] that with all organisms a ratio exists between what he
+calls individuation and genesis; whence it follows that beings which
+consume much matter or force in their growth, complicated structure or
+activity, or which produce ova and embryos of large size, or which
+expend much energy in nurturing their young, cannot be so productive as
+beings of an opposite nature. Mr. Spencer further shews that minor
+differences in fertility will be regulated through natural selection.
+Thus the fertility of each species will tend to increase, from the more
+fertile pairs producing a larger number of offspring, and these from
+their mere number will have the best chance of surviving, and will
+transmit their tendency to greater fertility. The only check to a
+continued augmentation of fertility in each organism seems to be either
+the expenditure of more power and the greater risks run by the parents
+that produce a more numerous progeny, or the contingency of very
+numerous eggs and young being produced of smaller size, or less
+vigorous, or subsequently not so well nurtured. To strike a balance in
+any case between the disadvantages which follow from the production of a
+numerous progeny, and the advantages (such as the escape of at least
+some individuals from various dangers) is quite beyond our power of
+judgment.
+
+When an organism has once been rendered extremely fertile, how its
+fertility can be reduced through natural selection is not so clear as
+how this capacity was first acquired. Yet it is obvious that if
+individuals of a species, from a decrease of their natural enemies, were
+habitually reared in larger numbers than could be supported, all the
+members would suffer. Nevertheless the offspring from the less fertile
+parents would have no direct advantage over the offspring from the more
+fertile parents, when all were mingled together in the same district.
+All the individuals would mutually tend to starve each other. The
+offspring indeed of the less fertile parents would lie under one great
+disadvantage, for from the simple fact of being produced in smaller
+numbers, they would be the most liable to extermination. Indirectly,
+however, they would partake of one great advantage; for under the
+supposed condition of severe competition, when all were pressed for
+food, it is extremely probable that those individuals which from some
+variation in their constitution produced fewer eggs or young, would
+produce them of greater size or vigour; and the adults reared from such
+eggs or young would manifestly have the best chance of surviving, and
+would inherit a tendency towards lessened fertility. The parents,
+moreover, which had to nourish or provide for fewer offspring would
+themselves be exposed to a less severe strain in the struggle for
+existence, and would have a better chance of surviving. By these steps,
+and by no others as far as I can see, natural selection under the above
+conditions of severe competition for food, would lead to the formation
+of a new race less fertile, but better adapted for survival, than the
+parent-race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
+
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes--Brilliant
+  colours--Mollusca--Annelids--Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity--Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males--Myriapoda.
+
+
+In the lowest classes the two sexes are not rarely united in the same
+individual, and therefore secondary sexual characters cannot be
+developed. In many cases in which the two sexes are separate, both are
+permanently attached to some support, and the one cannot search or
+struggle for the other. Moreover it is almost certain that these animals
+have too imperfect senses and much too low mental powers to feel mutual
+rivalry, or to appreciate each other's beauty or other attractions.
+
+Hence in these classes, such as the Protozoa, Coelenterata,
+Echinodermata, Scolecida, true secondary sexual characters do not occur;
+and this fact agrees with the belief that such characters in the higher
+classes have been acquired through sexual selection, which depends on
+the will, desires, and choice of either sex. Nevertheless some few
+apparent exceptions occur; thus, as I hear from Dr. Baird, the males of
+certain Entozoa, or internal parasitic worms, differ slightly in colour
+from the females; but we have no reason to suppose that such differences
+have been augmented through sexual selection.
+
+Many of the lower animals, whether hermaphrodites or with the sexes
+separate, are ornamented with the most brilliant tints, or are shaded
+and striped in an elegant manner. This is the case with many corals and
+sea-anemonies (Actini�), with some jelly-fish (Medus�, Porpita, &c.),
+with some Planari�, Ascidians, numerous Star-fishes, Echini, &c.; but we
+may conclude from the reasons already indicated, namely the union of the
+two sexes in some of these animals, the permanently affixed condition of
+others, and the low mental powers of all, that such colours do not serve
+as a sexual attraction, and have not been acquired through sexual
+selection. With the higher animals the case is very different; for with
+them when one sex is much more brilliantly or conspicuously coloured
+than the other, and there is no difference in the habits of the two
+sexes which will account for this difference, we have reason to believe
+in the influence of sexual selection; and this belief is strongly
+confirmed when the more ornamented individuals, which are almost always
+the males, display their attractions before the other sex. We may also
+extend this conclusion to both sexes, when coloured alike, if their
+colours are plainly analogous to those of one sex alone in certain other
+species of the same group.
+
+How, then, are we to account for the beautiful or even gorgeous colours
+of many animals in the lowest classes? It appears very doubtful whether
+such colours usually serve as a protection; but we are extremely liable
+to err in regard to characters of all kinds in relation to protection,
+as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Wallace's excellent
+essay on this subject. It would not, for instance, at first occur to any
+one that the perfect transparency of the Medus�, or jelly-fishes, was of
+the highest service to them as a protection; but when we are reminded
+by H�ckel that not only the medus� but many floating mollusca,
+crustaceans, and even small oceanic fishes partake of this same
+glass-like structure, we can hardly doubt that they thus escape the
+notice of pelagic birds and other enemies.
+
+Notwithstanding our ignorance how far colour in many cases serves as a
+protection, the most probable view in regard to the splendid tints of
+many of the lowest animals seems to be that their colours are the direct
+result either of the chemical nature or the minute structure of their
+tissues, independently of any benefit thus derived. Hardly any colour is
+finer than that of arterial blood; but there is no reason to suppose
+that the colour of the blood is in itself any advantage; and though it
+adds to the beauty of the maiden's cheek, no one will pretend that it
+has been acquired for this purpose. So again with many animals,
+especially the lower ones, the bile is richly coloured; thus the extreme
+beauty of the Eolid� (naked sea-slugs) is chiefly due, as I am informed
+by Mr. Hancock, to the biliary glands seen through the translucent
+integuments; this beauty being probably of no service to these animals.
+The tints of the decaying leaves in an American forest are described by
+every one as gorgeous; yet no one supposes that these tints are of the
+least advantage to the trees. Bearing in mind how many substances
+closely analogous to natural organic compounds have been recently formed
+by chemists, and which exhibit the most splendid colours, it would have
+been a strange fact if substances similarly coloured had not often
+originated, independently of any useful end being thus gained, in the
+complex laboratory of living organisms.
+
+
+_The sub-kingdom of the Mollusca._--Throughout this great division
+(taken in its largest acceptation) of the animal kingdom, secondary
+sexual characters, such as we are here considering, never, as far as I
+can discover, occur. Nor could they be expected in the three lowest
+classes, namely in the Ascidians, Polyzoa, and Brachiopods (constituting
+the Molluscoida of Huxley), for most of these animals are permanently
+affixed to a support or have their sexes united in the same individual.
+In the Lamellibranchiata, or bivalve shells, hermaphroditism is not
+rare. In the next higher class of the Gasteropoda, or marine univalve
+shells, the sexes are either united or separate. But in this latter case
+the males never possess special organs for finding, securing, or
+charming the females, or for fighting with other males. The sole
+external difference between the sexes consists, as I am informed by Mr.
+Gwyn Jeffreys, in the shell sometimes differing a little in form; for
+instance, the shell of the male periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_) is
+narrower and has a more elongated spire than that of the female. But
+differences of this nature, it may be presumed, are directly connected
+with the act of reproduction or with the development of the ova.
+
+The Gasteropoda, though capable of locomotion and furnished with
+imperfect eyes, do not appear to be endowed with sufficient mental
+powers for the members of the same sex to struggle together in rivalry,
+and thus to acquire secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless with the
+pulmoniferous gasteropods, or land-snails, the pairing is preceded by
+courtship; for these animals, though hermaphrodites, are compelled by
+their structure to pair together. Agassiz remarks,[410] "Quiconque a eu
+l'occasion d'observer les amours des lima�ons, ne saurait mettre en
+doute la s�duction d�ploy�e dans les mouvements et les allures qui
+pr�parent et accomplissent le double embrassement de ces
+hermaphrodites." These animals appear also susceptible of some degree of
+permanent attachment: an accurate observer, Mr. Lonsdale, informs me
+that he placed a pair of land-shells (_Helix pomatia_), one of which was
+weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden. After a short time the
+strong and healthy individual disappeared, and was traced by its track
+of slime over a wall into an adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale
+concluded that it had deserted its sickly mate; but after an absence of
+twenty-four hours it returned, and apparently communicated the result of
+its successful exploration, for both then started along the same track
+and disappeared over the wall.
+
+Even in the highest class of the Mollusca, namely the Cephalopoda or
+cuttle-fishes, in which the sexes are separate, secondary sexual
+characters of the kind which we are here considering, do not, as far as
+I can discover, occur. This is a surprising circumstance, as these
+animals possess highly-developed sense-organs and have considerable
+mental powers, as will be admitted by every one who has watched their
+artful endeavours to escape from an enemy.[411] Certain Cephalopoda,
+however, are characterised by one extraordinary sexual character,
+namely, that the male element collects within one of the arms or
+tentacles, which is then cast off, and, clinging by its sucking-discs to
+the female, lives for a time an independent life. So completely does the
+cast-off arm resemble a separate animal, that it was described by Cuvier
+as a parasitic worm under the name of Hectocotyle. But this marvellous
+structure may be classed as a primary rather than as a secondary sexual
+character.
+
+Although with the Mollusca sexual selection does not seem to have come
+into play; yet many univalve and bivalve shells, such as volutes, cones,
+scallops, &c., are beautifully coloured and shaped. The colours do not
+appear in most cases to be of any use as a protection; they are probably
+the direct result, as in the lowest classes, of the nature of the
+tissues; the patterns and the sculpture of the shell depending on its
+manner of growth. The amount of light seems to a certain extent to be
+influential; for although, as repeatedly stated by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
+the shells of some species living at a profound depth are brightly
+coloured, yet we generally see the lower surfaces and the parts covered
+by the mantle less highly coloured than the upper and exposed
+surfaces.[412] In some cases, as with shells living amongst corals or
+brightly-tinted sea-weeds, the bright colours may serve as a protection.
+But many of the nudibranch mollusca, or sea-slugs, are as beautifully
+coloured as any shells, as may be seen in Messrs. Alder and Hancock's
+magnificent work; and from information kindly given me by Mr. Hancock,
+it is extremely doubtful whether these colours usually serve as a
+protection. With some species this may be the case, as with one which
+lives on the green leaves of alg�, and is itself bright-green. But many
+brightly-coloured, white or otherwise conspicuous species, do not seek
+concealment; whilst again some equally conspicuous species, as well as
+other dull-coloured kinds, live under stones and in dark recesses. So
+that with these nudibranch molluscs, colour apparently does not stand in
+any close relation to the nature of the places which they inhabit.
+
+These naked sea-slugs are hermaphrodites, yet they pair together, as do
+land-snails, many of which have extremely pretty shells. It is
+conceivable that two hermaphrodites, attracted by each others' greater
+beauty, might unite and leave offspring which would inherit their
+parents' greater beauty. But with such lowly-organised creatures this is
+extremely improbable. Nor is it at all obvious how the offspring from
+the more beautiful pairs of hermaphrodites would have any advantage, so
+as to increase in numbers, over the offspring of the less beautiful,
+unless indeed vigour and beauty generally coincided. We have not here a
+number of males becoming mature before the females, and the more
+beautiful ones selected by the more vigorous females. If, indeed,
+brilliant colours were beneficial to an hermaphrodite animal in relation
+to its general habits of life, the more brightly-tinted individuals
+would succeed best and would increase in number; but this would be a
+case of natural and not of sexual selection.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Vermes or Annulosa_: Class, _Annelida (or
+Sea-worms)_.--In this class, although the sexes (when separate)
+sometimes differ from each other in characters of such importance that
+they have been placed under distinct genera or even families, yet the
+differences do not seem of the kind which can be safely attributed to
+sexual selection. These animals, like those in the preceding classes,
+apparently stand too low in the scale, for the individuals of either sex
+to exert any choice in selecting a partner, or for the individuals of
+the same sex to struggle together in rivalry.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Arthropoda_: Class, _Crustacea_.--In this great
+class we first meet with undoubted secondary sexual characters, often
+developed in a remarkable manner. Unfortunately the habits of
+crustaceans are very imperfectly known, and we cannot explain the uses
+of many structures peculiar to one sex. With the lower parasitic species
+the males are of small size, and they alone are furnished with perfect
+swimming-legs, antenn� and sense-organs; the females being destitute of
+these organs, with their bodies often consisting of a mere distorted
+mass. But these extraordinary differences between the two sexes are no
+doubt related to their widely different habits of life, and consequently
+do not concern us. In various crustaceans, belonging to distinct
+families, the anterior antenn� are furnished with peculiar thread-like
+bodies, which are believed to act as smelling-organs, and these are much
+more numerous in the males than in the females. As the males, without
+any unusual development of their olfactory organs, would almost
+certainly be able sooner or later to find the females, the increased
+number of the smelling-threads has probably been acquired through sexual
+selection, by the better provided males having been the most successful
+in finding partners and in leaving offspring. Fritz M�ller has described
+a remarkable dimorphic species of Tanais, in which the male is
+represented by two distinct forms, never graduating into each other. In
+the one form the male is furnished with more numerous smelling-threads,
+and in the other form with more powerful and more elongated chel� or
+pincers which serve to hold the female. Fritz M�ller suggests that these
+differences between the two male forms of the same species must have
+originated in certain individuals having varied in the number of the
+smelling-threads, whilst other individuals varied in the shape and size
+of their chel�; so that of the former, those which were best able to
+find the female, and of the latter, those which were best able to hold
+her when found, have left the greater number of progeny to inherit their
+respective advantages.[413]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Labidocera Darwinii, (from Lubbock).
+
+_a._ Part of right-hand anterior antenna of male, forming a prehensile
+organ.
+
+_b._ Posterior pair of thoracic legs of male.
+
+_c._ Ditto of female.]
+
+In some of the lower crustaceans, the right-hand anterior antenna of the
+male differs greatly in structure from the left-hand one, the latter
+resembling in its simple tapering joints the antenn� of the female. In
+the male the modified antenna is either swollen in the middle or
+angularly bent, or converted (fig. 3) into an elegant, and sometimes
+wonderfully complex, prehensile organ.[414] It serves, as I hear from
+Sir J. Lubbock, to hold the female, and for this same purpose one of the
+two posterior legs (_b_) on the same side of the body is converted into
+a forceps. In another family the inferior or posterior antenn� are
+"curiously zigzagged" in the males alone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Anterior part of body of Callianassa (from
+Milne-Edwards), showing the unequal and differently-constructed right
+and left-hand chel� of the male.
+
+N.B.--The artist by mistake has reversed the drawing, and made the
+left-hand chela the largest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Second leg of male Orchestia Tucuratinga (from
+Fritz M�ller).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Ditto of female.]
+
+In the higher crustaceans the anterior legs form a pair of chel� or
+pincers, and these are generally larger in the male than in the female.
+In many species the chel� on the opposite sides of the body are of
+unequal size, the right-hand one being, as I am informed by Mr. C.
+Spence Bate, generally, though not invariably, the largest. This
+inequality is often much greater in the male than in the female. The two
+chel� also often differ in structure (figs. 4, 5, and 6), the smaller one
+resembling those of the female. What advantage is gained by their
+inequality in size on the opposite sides of the body, and by the
+inequality being much greater in the male than in the female; and why,
+when they are of equal size, both are often much larger in the male than
+in the female, is not known. The chel� are sometimes of such length and
+size that they cannot possibly be used, as I hear from Mr. Spence Bate,
+for carrying food to the mouth. In the males of certain freshwater
+prawns (Pal�mon) the right leg is actually longer than the whole
+body.[415] It is probable that the great size of one leg with its chel�
+may aid the male in fighting with his rivals; but this use will not
+account for their inequality in the female on the opposite sides
+of the body. In Gelasimus, according to a statement quoted by
+Milne-Edwards,[416] the male and female live in the same burrow, which
+is worth notice, as shewing that they pair, and the male closes the
+mouth of the burrow with one of its chel�, which is enormously
+developed; so that here it indirectly serves as a means of defence.
+Their main use, however, probably is to seize and to secure the female,
+and this in some instances, as with Gammarus, is known to be the case.
+The sexes, however, of the common shore-crab (_Carcinus m�nas_), as Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me, unite directly after the female has moulted her
+hard shell, and when she is so soft that she would be injured if seized
+by the strong pincers of the male; but as she is caught and carried
+about by the male previously to the act of moulting, she could then be
+seized with impunity.
+
+Fritz M�ller states that certain species of Melita are distinguished
+from all other amphipods by the females having "the coxal lamell� of the
+penultimate pair of feet produced into hook-like processes, of which the
+males lay hold with the hands of the first pair." The development of
+these hook-like processes probably resulted from those females which
+were the most securely held during the act of reproduction, having left
+the largest number of offspring. Another Brazilian amphipod (_Orchestia
+Darwinii_, fig. 7) is described by Fritz M�ller, as presenting a case of
+dimorphism, like that of Tanais; for there are two male forms, which
+differ in the structure of their chel�.[417] As chel� of either shape
+would certainly have sufficed to hold the female, for both are now used
+for this purpose, the two male forms probably originated, by some having
+varied in one manner and some in another; both forms having derived
+certain special, but nearly equal advantages, from their differently
+shaped organs.
+
+It is not known that male crustaceans fight together for the possession
+of the females, but this is probable; for with most animals when the
+male is larger than the female, he seems to have acquired his greater
+size by having conquered during many generations other males. Now Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me that in most of the crustacean orders, especially
+in the highest or the Brachyura, the male is larger than the female; the
+parasitic genera, however, in which the sexes follow different habits of
+life, and most of the Entomostraca must be excepted. The chel� of many
+crustaceans are weapons well adapted for fighting. Thus a Devil-crab
+(_Portunus puber_) was seen by a son of Mr. Bate fighting with a
+_Carcinus m�nas_, and the latter was soon thrown on its back, and had
+every limb torn from its body. When several males of a Brazilian
+Gelasimus, a species furnished with immense pincers, were placed
+together by Fritz M�ller in a glass vessel, they mutilated and killed
+each other. Mr. Bate put a large male _Carcinus m�nas_ into a pan of
+water, inhabited by a female paired with a smaller male; the latter was
+soon dispossessed, but, as Mr. Bate adds, "if they fought, the victory
+was a bloodless one, for I saw no wounds." This same naturalist
+separated a male sand-skipper (so common on our sea-shores), _Gammarus
+marinus_, from its female, both of which were imprisoned in the same
+vessel with many individuals of the same species. The female being thus
+divorced joined her comrades. After an interval the male was again put
+into the same vessel and he then, after swimming about for a time,
+dashed into the crowd, and without any fighting at once took away his
+wife. This fact shews that in the Amphipoda, an order low in the scale,
+the males and females recognise each other, and are mutually attached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Orchestia Darwinii (from Fritz M�ller), showing
+the differently-constructed chel� of the two male forms.]
+
+The mental powers of the Crustacea are probably higher than might have
+been expected. Any one who has tried to catch one of the shore-crabs, so
+numerous on many tropical coasts, will have perceived how wary and alert
+they are. There is a large crab (_Birgus latro_), found on coral
+islands, which makes at the bottom of a deep burrow a thick bed of the
+picked fibres of the cocoa-nut. It feeds on the fallen fruit of this
+tree by tearing off the husk, fibre by fibre; and it always begins at
+that end where the three eye-like depressions are situated. It then
+breaks through one of these eyes by hammering with its heavy front
+pincers, and turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its narrow
+posterior pincers. But these actions are probably instinctive, so that
+they would be performed as well by a young as by an old animal. The
+following case, however, can hardly be so considered: a trustworthy
+naturalist, Mr. Gardner,[418] whilst watching a shore-crab (Gelasimus)
+making its burrow, threw some shells towards the hole. One rolled in,
+and three other shells remained within a few inches of the mouth. In
+about five minutes the crab brought out the shell which had fallen in,
+and carried it away to the distance of a foot; it then saw the three
+other shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they might likewise
+roll in, carried them to the spot where it had laid the first. It would,
+I think, be difficult to distinguish this act from one performed by man
+by the aid of reason.
+
+With respect to colour which so often differs in the two sexes of
+animals belonging to the higher classes, Mr. Spence Bate does not know
+of any well-marked instances with our British crustaceans. In some
+cases, however, the male and female differ slightly in tint, but Mr.
+Bate thinks not more than may be accounted for by their different habits
+of life, such as by the male wandering more about and being thus more
+exposed to the light. In a curious Bornean crab, which inhabits sponges,
+Mr. Bate could always distinguish the sexes by the male not having the
+epidermis so much rubbed off. Dr. Power tried to distinguish by colour
+the sexes of the species which inhabit the Mauritius, but always failed,
+except with one species of Squilla, probably the _S. stylifera_, the
+male of which is described as being "of a beautiful blueish-green," with
+some of the appendages cherry-red, whilst the female is clouded with
+brown and grey, "with the red about her much less vivid than in the
+male."[419] In this case, we may suspect the agency of sexual selection.
+With Saphirina (an oceanic genus of Entomostraca, and therefore low in
+the scale) the males are furnished with minute shields or cell-like
+bodies, which exhibit beautiful changing colours; these being absent in
+the females, and in the case of one species in both sexes.[420] It
+would, however, be extremely rash to conclude that these curious organs
+serve merely to attract the females. In the female of a Brazilian
+species of Gelasimus, the whole body, as I am informed by Fritz M�ller,
+is of a nearly uniform greyish-brown. In the male the posterior part of
+the cephalo-thorax is pure white, with the anterior part of a rich
+green, shading into dark brown; and it is remarkable that these colours
+are liable to change in the course of a few minutes--the white becoming
+dirty grey or even black, the green "losing much of its brilliancy." The
+males apparently are much more numerous than the females. It deserves
+especial notice that they do not acquire their bright colours until they
+become mature. They differ also from the females in the larger size of
+their chel�. In some species of the genus, probably in all, the sexes
+pair and inhabit the same burrow. They are also, as we have seen, highly
+intelligent animals. From these various considerations it seems highly
+probable that the male in this species has become gaily ornamented in
+order to attract or excite the female.
+
+It has just been stated that the male Gelasimus does not acquire his
+conspicuous colours until mature and nearly ready to breed. This seems
+the general rule in the whole class with the many remarkable differences
+in structure between the two sexes. We shall hereafter find the same law
+prevailing throughout the great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and in
+all cases it is eminently distinctive of characters which have been
+acquired through sexual selection. Fritz M�ller[421] gives some
+striking instances of this law; thus the male sand-hopper (Orchestia)
+does not acquire his large claspers, which are very differently
+constructed from those of the female, until nearly full-grown; whilst
+young his claspers resemble those of the female. Thus, again, the male
+Brachyscelus possesses, like all other amphipods, a pair of posterior
+antenn�; the female, and this is a most extraordinary circumstance, is
+destitute of them, and so is the male as long as he remains immature.
+
+
+Class, _Arachnida_ (Spiders).--The males are often darker, but sometimes
+lighter than the females, as may be seen in Mr. Blackwall's magnificent
+work.[422] In some species the sexes differ conspicuously from each
+other in colour; thus the female of _Sparassus smaragdulus_ is
+dullish-green; whilst the adult male has the abdomen of a fine yellow,
+with three longitudinal stripes of rich red. In some species of Thomisus
+the two sexes closely resemble each other; in others they differ much;
+thus in _T. citreus_ the legs and body of the female are pale-yellow or
+green, whilst the front legs of the male are reddish-brown: in _T.
+floricolens_, the legs of the female are pale-green, those of the male
+being ringed in a conspicuous manner with various tints. Numerous
+analogous cases could be given in the genera Epeira, Nephila,
+Philodromus, Theridion, Linyphia, &c. It is often difficult to say which
+of the two sexes departs most from the ordinary coloration of the genus
+to which the species belong; but Mr. Blackwall thinks that, as a
+general rule, it is the male. Both sexes whilst young, as I am informed
+by the same author, usually resemble each other; and both often undergo
+great changes in colour during their successive moults before arriving
+at maturity. In other cases the male alone appears to change colour.
+Thus the male of the above-mentioned brightly-coloured Sparassus at
+first resembles the female and acquires his peculiar tints only when
+nearly adult. Spiders are possessed of acute senses, and exhibit much
+intelligence. The females often shew, as is well known, the strongest
+affection for their eggs, which they carry about enveloped in a silken
+web. On the whole it appears probable that well-marked differences in
+colour between the sexes have generally resulted from sexual selection,
+either on the male or female side. But doubts may be entertained on this
+head from the extreme variability in colour of some species, for
+instance of _Theridion lineatum_, the sexes of which differ when adult;
+this great variability indicates that their colours have not been
+subjected to any form of selection.
+
+Mr. Blackwall does not remember to have seen the males of any species
+fighting together for the possession of the female. Nor, judging from
+analogy, is this probable; for the males are generally much smaller than
+the females, sometimes to an extraordinary degree.[423] Had the males
+been in the habit of fighting together, they would, it is probable, have
+gradually acquired greater size and strength. Mr. Blackwall has
+sometimes seen two or more males on the same web with a single female;
+but their courtship is too tedious and prolonged an affair to be easily
+observed. The male is extremely cautious in making his advances, as the
+female carries her coyness to a dangerous pitch. De Geer saw a male that
+"in the midst of his preparatory caresses was seized by the object of
+his attentions, enveloped by her in a web and then devoured, a sight
+which, as he adds, filled him with horror and indignation."[424]
+
+Westring has made the interesting discovery that the males of several
+species of Theridion[425] have the power of making a stridulating sound
+(like that made by many beetles and other insects, but feebler), whilst
+the females are quite mute. The apparatus consists of a serrated ridge
+at the base of the abdomen, against which the hard hinder part of the
+thorax is rubbed; and of this structure not a trace could be detected in
+the females. From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, to be
+described in the next chapter, we may feel almost sure that the
+stridulation serves, as Westring remarks, either to call or to excite
+the female; and this is the first case in the ascending scale of the
+animal kingdom, known to me, of sounds emitted for this purpose.
+
+
+Class, _Myriapoda_.--In neither of the two orders in this class,
+including the millipedes and centipedes, can I find any well-marked
+instances of sexual differences such as more particularly concern us. In
+_Glomeris limbata_, however, and perhaps in some few other species, the
+males differ slightly in colour from the females; but this Glomeris is a
+highly variable species. In the males of the Diplopoda, the legs
+belonging to one of the anterior segments of the body, or to the
+posterior segment, are modified into prehensile hooks which serve to
+secure the female. In some species of Iulus the tarsi of the male are
+furnished with membranous suckers for the same purpose. It is a much
+more unusual circumstance, as we shall see when we treat of Insects,
+that it is the female in Lithobius which is furnished with prehensile
+appendages at the extremity of the body for holding the male.[426]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females--Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood--Difference in size between the
+  sexes--Thysanura--Diptera--Hemiptera--Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone--Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours--Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour--Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours--Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes.
+
+
+In the immense class of insects the sexes sometimes differ in their
+organs for locomotion, and often in their sense-organs, as in the
+pectinated and beautifully plumose antenn� of the males of many species.
+In one of the Ephemer�, namely Chlo�on, the male has great pillared
+eyes, of which the female is entirely destitute.[427] The ocelli are
+absent in the females of certain other insects, as in the Mutillid�,
+which are likewise destitute of wings. But we are chiefly concerned with
+structures by which one male is enabled to conquer another, either in
+battle or courtship, through his strength, pugnacity, ornaments, or
+music. The innumerable contrivances, therefore, by which the male is
+able to seize the female, may be briefly passed over. Besides the
+complex structures at the apex of the abdomen, which ought perhaps to be
+ranked as primary organs,[428] "it is astonishing," as Mr. B. D.
+Walsh[429] has remarked, "how many different organs are worked in by
+nature, for the seemingly insignificant object of enabling the male to
+grasp the female firmly." The mandibles or jaws are sometimes used for
+this purpose; thus the male _Corydalis cornutus_ (a neuropterous insect
+in some degree allied to the Dragon-flies, &c.) has immense curved jaws,
+many times longer than those of the female; and they are smooth instead
+of being toothed, by which means he is enabled to seize her without
+injury.[430] One of the stag-beetles of North America (_Lucanus
+elaphus_) uses his jaws, which are much larger than those of the female,
+for the same purpose, but probably likewise for fighting. In one of the
+sand-wasps (_Ammophila_) the jaws in the two sexes are closely alike,
+but are used for widely different purposes; the males, as Professor
+Westwood observes, "are exceedingly ardent, seizing their partners round
+the neck with their sickle-shaped jaws;"[431] whilst the females use
+these organs for burrowing in sand-banks and making their nests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Crabro cribrarius. Upper figure, male: lower
+figure, female.]
+
+The tarsi of the front-legs are dilated in many male beetles, or are
+furnished with broad cushions of hairs; and in many genera of
+water-beetles they are armed with a round flat sucker, so that the male
+may adhere to the slippery body of the female. It is a much more unusual
+circumstance that the females of some water-beetles (Dytiscus) have
+their elytra deeply grooved, and in _Acilius sulcatus_ thickly set with
+hairs, as an aid to the male. The females of some other water-beetles
+(Hydroporus) have their elytra punctured for the same object.[432] In
+the male of _Crabro cribrarius_ (fig. 8.), it is the tibia which is
+dilated into a broad horny plate, with minute membraneous dots, giving
+to it a singular appearance like that of a riddle.[433] In the male of
+Penthe (a genus of beetles) a few of the middle joints of the antenn�
+are dilated and furnished on the inferior surface with cushions of
+hair, exactly like those on the tarsi of the Carabid�, "and obviously
+for the same end." In male dragon-flies, "the appendages at the tip of
+the tail are modified in an almost infinite variety of curious patterns
+to enable them to embrace the neck of the female." Lastly in the males
+of many insects, the legs are furnished with peculiar spines, knobs or
+spurs; or the whole leg is bowed or thickened, but this is by no means
+invariably a sexual character; or one pair, or all three pairs are
+elongated, sometimes to an extravagant length.[434]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Taphroderes distortus (much enlarged). Upper
+figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+In all the orders, the sexes of many species present differences, of
+which the meaning is not understood. One curious case is that of a
+beetle (fig. 9), the male of which has the left mandible much enlarged;
+so that the mouth is greatly distorted. In another Carabidous beetle,
+the Eurygnathus,[435] we have the unique case, as far as known to Mr.
+Wollaston, of the head of the female being much broader and larger,
+though in a variable degree, than that of the male. Any number of such
+cases could be given. They abound in the Lepidoptera: one of the most
+extraordinary is that certain male butterflies have their fore-legs more
+or less atrophied, with the tibi� and tarsi reduced to mere rudimentary
+knobs. The wings, also, in the two sexes often differ in neuration,[436]
+and sometimes considerably in outline, as in the _Aricoris epitus_,
+which was shown to me in the British Museum by Mr. A. Butler. The males
+of certain South American butterflies have tufts of hair on the margins
+of the wings, and horny excrescences on the discs of the posterior
+pair.[437] In several British butterflies, the males alone, as shewn by
+Mr. Wonfor, are in parts clothed with peculiar scales.
+
+The purpose of the luminosity in the female glow-worm is likewise not
+understood; for it is very doubtful whether the primary use of the light
+is to guide the male to the female. It is no serious objection to this
+latter belief that the males emit a feeble light; for secondary sexual
+characters proper to one sex are often developed in a slight degree in
+the other sex. It is a more valid objection that the larv� shine, and in
+some species brilliantly: Fritz M�ller informs me that the most luminous
+insect which he ever beheld in Brazil, was the larva of some beetle.
+Both sexes of certain luminous species of Elater emit light. Kirby and
+Spence suspect that the phosphorescence serves to frighten and drive
+away enemies.
+
+
+_Difference in Size between the Sexes._--With insects of all kinds the
+males are commonly smaller than the females;[438] and this difference
+can often be detected even in the larval state. So considerable is the
+difference between the male and female cocoons of the silk-moth
+(_Bombyx mori_), that in France they are separated by a particular mode
+of weighing.[439] In the lower classes of the animal kingdom, the
+greater size of the females seems generally to depend on their
+developing an enormous number of ova; and this may to a certain extent
+hold good with insects. But Dr. Wallace has suggested a much more
+probable explanation. He finds, after carefully attending to the
+development of the caterpillars of _Bombyx cynthia_ and _yamamai_, and
+especially of some dwarfed caterpillars reared from a second brood on
+unnatural food, "that in proportion as the individual moth is finer, so
+is the time required for its metamorphosis longer; and for this reason
+the female, which is the larger and heavier insect, from having to carry
+her numerous eggs, will be preceded by the male, which is smaller and
+has less to mature."[440] Now as most insects are short-lived, and as
+they are exposed to many dangers, it would manifestly be advantageous to
+the female to be impregnated as soon as possible. This end would be
+gained by the males being first matured in large numbers ready for the
+advent of the females; and this again would naturally follow, as Mr. A.
+E. Wallace has remarked,[441] through natural selection; for the smaller
+males would be first matured, and thus would procreate a large number of
+offspring which would inherit the reduced size of their male parents,
+whilst the larger males from being matured later would leave fewer
+offspring.
+
+There are, however, exceptions to the rule of male insects being smaller
+than the females; and some of these exceptions are intelligible. Size
+and strength would be an advantage to the males, which fight for the
+possession of the female; and in these cases the males, as with the
+stag-beetle (Lucanus), are larger than the females. There are, however,
+other beetles which are not known to fight together, of which the males
+exceed the females in size; and the meaning of this fact is not known;
+but in some of these cases, as with the huge Dynastes and Megasoma, we
+can at least see that there would be no necessity for the males to be
+smaller than the females, in order to be matured before them, for these
+beetles are not short-lived, and there would be ample time for the
+pairing of the sexes. So, again, male dragon-flies (Libellulid�) are
+sometimes sensibly larger, and never smaller, than the females;[442] and
+they do not, as Mr. MacLachlan believes, generally pair with the
+females, until a week or fortnight has elapsed, and until they have
+assumed their proper masculine colours. But the most curious case,
+shewing on what complex and easily-overlooked relations, so trifling a
+character as a difference in size between the sexes may depend, is that
+of the aculeate Hymenoptera; for Mr. F. Smith informs me that throughout
+nearly the whole of this large group the males, in accordance with the
+general rule, are smaller than the females and emerge about a week
+before them; but amongst the Bees, the males of _Apis mellifica_,
+_Anthidium manicatum_ and _Anthophora acervorum_, and amongst the
+Fossores, the males of the _Methoca ichneumonides_, are larger than the
+females. The explanation of this anomaly is that a marriage-flight is
+absolutely necessary with these species, and the males require great
+strength and size in order to carry the females through the air.
+Increased size has here been acquired in opposition to the usual
+relation between size and the period of development, for the males,
+though larger, emerge before the smaller females.
+
+We will now review the several Orders, selecting such facts as more
+particularly concern us. The Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) will be
+retained for a separate chapter.
+
+
+Order, _Thysanura_.--The members of this Order are lowly organised for
+their class. They are wingless, dull-coloured, minute insects, with
+ugly, almost misshapen heads and bodies. The sexes do not differ; but
+they offer one interesting fact, by showing that the males pay sedulous
+court to their females even low down in the animal scale. Sir J.
+Lubbock[443] in describing the _Smynthurus luteus_, says: "it is very
+amusing to see these little creatures coquetting together. The male,
+which is much smaller than the female, runs round her, and they butt one
+another, standing face to face, and moving backward and forward like two
+playful lambs. Then the female pretends to run away and the male runs
+after her with a queer appearance of anger, gets in front and stands
+facing her again; then she turns coyly round, but he, quicker and more
+active, scuttles round too, and seems to whip her with his antenn�; then
+for a bit they stand face to face, play with their antenn�, and seem to
+be all in all to one another."
+
+
+Order, _Diptera_ (Flies).--The sexes differ little in colour. The
+greatest difference, known to Mr. F. Walker, is in the genus Bibio, in
+which the males are blackish or quite black, and the females obscure
+brownish-orange. The genus Elaphomyia, discovered by Mr. Wallace[444] in
+New Guinea, is highly remarkable, as the males are furnished with horns,
+of which the females are quite destitute. The horns spring from beneath
+the eyes, and curiously resemble those of stags, being either branched
+or palmated. They equal in length the whole of the body in one of the
+species. They might be thought to serve for fighting, but as in one
+species they are of a beautiful pink colour, edged with black, with a
+pale central stripe, and as these insects have altogether a very elegant
+appearance, it is perhaps more probable that the horns serve as
+ornaments. That the males of some Diptera fight together is certain; for
+Prof. Westwood[445] has several times seen this with some species of
+Tipula or Harry-long-legs. Many observers believe that when gnats
+(Culicid�) dance in the air in a body, alternately rising and falling,
+the males are courting the females. The mental faculties of the Diptera
+are probably fairly well developed, for their nervous system is more
+highly developed than in most other Orders of insects.[446]
+
+
+Order, _Hemiptera_ (Field-Bugs).--Mr. J. W. Douglas, who has
+particularly attended to the British species, has kindly given me an
+account of their sexual differences. The males of some species are
+furnished with wings, whilst the females are wingless; the sexes differ
+in the form of the body and elytra; in the second joints of their
+antenn� and in their tarsi; but as the signification of these
+differences is quite unknown, they may be here passed over. The females
+are generally larger and more robust than the males. With British, and,
+as far as Mr. Douglas knows, with exotic species, the sexes do not
+commonly differ much in colour; but in about six British species the
+male is considerably darker than the female, and in about four other
+species the female is darker than the male. Both sexes of some species
+are beautifully marked with vermilion and black. It is doubtful whether
+these colours serve as a protection. If in any species the males had
+differed from the females in an analogous manner, we might have been
+justified in attributing such conspicuous colours to sexual selection
+with transference to both sexes.
+
+Some species of Reduvid� make a stridulating noise; and, in the case of
+_Pirates stridulus_, this is said[447] to be effected by the movement of
+the neck within the pro-thoracic cavity. According to Westring,
+_Reduvius personatus_ also stridulates. But I have not been able to
+learn any particulars about these insects; nor have I any reason to
+suppose that they differ sexually in this respect.
+
+
+Order, _Homoptera._--Every one who has wandered in a tropical forest
+must have been astonished at the din made by the male Cicad�. The
+females are mute; as the Grecian poet Xenarchus says, "Happy the Cicadas
+live, since they all have voiceless wives." The noise thus made could be
+plainly heard on board the "Beagle," when anchored at a quarter of a
+mile from the shore of Brazil; and Captain Hancock says it can be heard
+at the distance of a mile. The Greeks formerly kept, and the Chinese now
+keep, these insects in cages for the sake of their song, so that it
+must be pleasing to the ears of some men.[448] The Cicadid� usually sing
+during the day; whilst the Fulgorid� appear to be night-songsters. The
+sound, according to Landois,[449] who has recently studied the subject,
+is produced by the vibration of the lips of the spiracles, which are set
+into motion by a current of air emitted from the trache�. It is
+increased by a wonderfully complex resounding apparatus, consisting of
+two cavities covered by scales. Hence the sound may truly be called a
+voice. In the female the musical apparatus is present, but very much
+less developed than in the male, and is never used for producing sound.
+
+With respect to the object of the music, Dr. Hartman in speaking of the
+_Cicada septemdecim_ of the United States, says,[450] "the drums are now
+(June 6th and 7th, 1851) heard in all directions. This I believe to be
+the marital summons from the males. Standing in thick chestnut sprouts
+about as high as my head, where hundreds were around me, I observed the
+females coming around the drumming males." He adds, "this season (Aug.
+1868) a dwarf pear-tree in my garden produced about fifty larv� of _Cic.
+pruinosa_; and I several times noticed the females to alight near a male
+while he was uttering his clanging notes." Fritz M�ller writes to me
+from S. Brazil that he has often listened to a musical contest between
+two or three males of a Cicada, having a particularly loud voice, and
+seated at a considerable distance from each other. As soon as the first
+had finished his song, a second immediately began; and after he had
+concluded, another began, and so on. As there is so much rivalry between
+the males, it is probable that the females not only discover them by the
+sounds emitted, but that, like female birds, they are excited or allured
+by the male with the most attractive voice.
+
+I have not found any well-marked cases of ornamental differences between
+the sexes of the Homoptera. Mr. Douglas informs me that there are three
+British species, in which the male is black or marked with black bands,
+whilst the females are pale-coloured or obscure.
+
+
+Order, _Orthoptera_.--The males in the three saltatorial families
+belonging to this Order are remarkable for their musical powers, namely
+the Achetid� or crickets, the Locustid� for which there is no exact
+equivalent name in English, and the Acridiid� or grasshoppers. The
+stridulation produced by some of the Locustid� is so loud that it can be
+heard during the night at the distance of a mile;[451] and that made by
+certain species is not unmusical even to the human ear, so that the
+Indians on the Amazons keep them in wicker cages. All observers agree
+that the sounds serve either to call or excite the mute females. But it
+has been noticed[452] that the male migratory locust of Russia (one of
+the Acridiid�) whilst coupled with the female, stridulates from anger or
+jealousy when approached by another male. The house-cricket when
+surprised at night uses its voice to warn its fellows.[453] In North
+America the Katy-did (_Platyphyllum concavum_, one of the Locustid�) is
+described[454] as mounting on the upper branches of a tree, and in the
+evening beginning "his noisy babble, while rival notes issue from the
+neighbouring trees, and the groves resound with the call of
+_Katy-did-she-did_, the live-long night." Mr. Bates, in speaking of the
+European field-cricket (one of the Achetid�), says, "the male has been
+observed to place itself in the evening at the entrance of its burrow,
+and stridulate until a female approaches, when the louder notes are
+succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician
+caresses with his antenn� the mate he has won."[455] Dr. Scudder was
+able to excite one of these insects to answer him, by rubbing on a file
+with a quill.[456] In both sexes a remarkable auditory apparatus has
+been discovered by Von Siebold, situated in the front legs.[457]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Gryllus campestris (from Landois).
+
+Right-hand figure, under side of part of the wing-nervure, much
+magnified, showing the teeth, _st_.
+
+Left-hand figure, upper surface of wing-cover, with the projecting,
+smooth nervure, _r._, across which the teeth (_st_) are scraped.]
+
+In the three Families the sounds are differently produced. In the males
+Of the Achetid� both wing-covers have the same structure; and this in
+the field-cricket (_Gryllus campestris_, fig. 10) consists, as
+described by Landois,[458] of from 131 to 138 sharp, transverse ridges
+or teeth (_st_) on the under side of one of the nervures of the
+wing-cover. This toothed nervure is rapidly scraped across a projecting,
+smooth, hard nervure (_r_) on the upper surface of the opposite wing.
+First one wing is rubbed over the other, and then the movement is
+reversed. Both wings are raised a little at the same time, so as to
+increase the resonance. In some species the wing-covers of the males are
+furnished at the base with a talc-like plate.[459] I have here given a
+drawing (fig. 11) of the teeth on the under side of the nervure of
+another species of Gryllus, viz. _G. domesticus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Teeth of Nervure of Gryllus domesticus (from
+Landois).]
+
+In the Locustid� the opposite wing-covers differ in structure (fig. 12),
+and cannot, as in the last family, be indifferently used in a reversed
+manner. The left wing, which acts as the bow of the fiddle, lies over
+the right wing which serves as the fiddle itself. One of the nervures
+(_a_) on the under surface of the former is finely serrated, and is
+scraped across the prominent nervures on the upper surface of the
+opposite or right wing. In our British _Phasgonura viridissima_ it
+appeared to me that the serrated nervure is rubbed against the rounded
+hind corner of the opposite wing, the edge of which is thickened,
+coloured brown, and very sharp. In the right wing, but not in the left,
+there is a little plate, as transparent as talc, surrounded by nervures,
+and called the speculum. In _Ephippiger vitium_, a member of this same
+family, we have a curious subordinate modification; for the wing-covers
+are greatly reduced in size, but "the posterior part of the pro-thorax
+is elevated into a kind of dome over the wing-covers, and which has
+probably the effect of increasing the sound."[460]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Chlorocoelus Tanana (from Bates). _a_, _b_.
+Lobes of opposite wing-covers.]
+
+We thus see that the musical apparatus is more differentiated or
+specialised in the Locustid�, which includes I believe the most powerful
+performers in the Order, than in the Achetid�, in which both wing-covers
+have the same structure and the same function.[461] Landois, however,
+detected in one of the Locustid�, namely in Decticus, a short and narrow
+row of small teeth, mere rudiments, on the inferior surface of the
+right wing-cover, which underlies the other and is never used as the
+bow. I observed the same rudimentary structure on the under side of the
+right wing-cover in _Phasgonura viridissima_. Hence we may with
+confidence infer that the Locustid� are descended from a form, in which,
+as in the existing Achetid�, both wing-covers had serrated nervures on
+the under surface, and could be indifferently used as the bow; but that
+in the Locustid� the two wing-covers gradually became differentiated and
+perfected, on the principle of the division of labour, the one to act
+exclusively as the bow and the other as the fiddle. By what steps the
+more simple apparatus in the Achetid� originated, we do not know, but it
+is probable that the basal portions of the wing-covers overlapped each
+other formerly as at present, and that the friction of the nervures
+produced a grating sound, as I find is now the case with the wing-covers
+of the females.[462] A grating sound thus occasionally and accidentally
+made by the males, if it served them ever so little as a love-call to
+the females, might readily have been intensified through sexual
+selection by fitting variations in the roughness of the nervures having
+been continually preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13, Hind-leg of Stenobothrus pratorum: _r_, the
+stridulating ridge; lower figure, the teeth, forming the ridge, much
+magnified (from Landois).]
+
+In the last and third Family, namely the Acridiid� or grasshoppers, the
+stridulation is produced in a very different manner, and is not so
+shrill, according to Dr. Scudder, as in the preceding Families. The
+inner surface of the femur (fig. 13, _r_) is furnished with a
+longitudinal row of minute, elegant, lancet-shaped, elastic teeth, from
+85 to 93 in number;[463] and these are scraped across the sharp,
+projecting nervures on the wing-covers, which, are thus made to vibrate
+and resound. Harris[464] says that when one of the males begins to play,
+he first "bends the shank of the hind-leg beneath, the thigh, where it
+is lodged in a furrow designed to receive it, and then draws the leg
+briskly up and down. He does not play both fiddles together, but
+alternately first upon one and then on the other." In many species, the
+base of the abdomen is hollowed out into a great cavity which is
+believed to act as a resounding board. In Pneumora (fig. 14), a S.
+African genus belonging to this same family, we meet with a new and
+remarkable modification: in the males a small notched ridge projects
+obliquely from each side of the abdomen, against which the hind femora
+are rubbed.[465] As the male is furnished with wings, the female being
+wingless, it is remarkable that the thighs are not rubbed in the usual
+manner against the wing-covers; but this may perhaps be accounted for by
+the unusually small size of the hind-legs. I have not been able to
+examine the inner surface of the thighs, which, judging from analogy,
+would be finely serrated. The species of Pneumora have been more
+profoundly modified for the sake of stridulation than any other
+orthopterous insect; for in the male the whole body has been converted
+into a musical instrument, being distended with air, like a great
+pellucid bladder, so as to increase the resonance. Mr. Trimen informs me
+that at the Cape of Good Hope these insects make a wonderful noise
+during the night There is one exception to the rule that the females in
+these three Families are destitute of an efficient musical apparatus;
+for both sexes of Ephippiger (Locustid�) are said[466] to be thus
+provided. This case may be compared with that of the reindeer, in which
+species alone both sexes possess horns. Although the female orthoptera
+are thus almost invariably mute, yet Landois[467] found rudiments of the
+stridulating organs on the femora of the female Acridiid�, and similar
+rudiments on the under surface of the wing-covers of the female
+Achetid�; but he failed to find any rudiments in the females of
+Decticus, one of the Locustid�. In the Homoptera the mute females of
+Cicada, have the proper musical apparatus in an undeveloped state; and
+we shall hereafter meet in other divisions of the animal kingdom with
+innumerable instances of structures proper to the male being present in
+a rudimentary condition in the female. Such cases appear at first sight
+to indicate that both sexes were primordially constructed in the same
+manner, but that certain organs were subsequently lost by the females.
+It is, however, a more probable view, as previously explained, that the
+organs in question were acquired by the males and partially transferred
+to the females.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pneumora (from specimens in the British Museum).
+Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Landois has observed another interesting fact, namely that in the
+females of the Acridiid�, the stridulating teeth on the femora remain
+throughout life in the same condition in which they first appear in both
+sexes during the larval state. In the males, on the other hand, they
+become fully developed and acquire their perfect structure at the last
+moult, when the insect is mature and ready to breed.
+
+From the facts now given, we see that the means by which the males
+produce their sounds are extremely diversified in the Orthoptera, and
+are altogether different from those employed by the Homoptera. But
+throughout the animal kingdom we incessantly find the same object
+gained by the most diversified means; this being due to the whole
+organisation undergoing in the course of ages multifarious changes; and
+as part after part varies, different variations are taken advantage of
+for the same general purpose. The diversification of the means for
+producing sound in the three families of the Orthoptera and in the
+Homoptera, impresses the mind with the high importance of these
+structures to the males, for the sake of calling or alluring the
+females. We need feel no surprise at the amount of modification which
+the Orthoptera have undergone in this respect, as we now know, from Dr.
+Scudder's remarkable discovery,[468] that there has been more than ample
+time. This naturalist has lately found a fossil insect in the Devonian
+formation of New Brunswick, which is furnished with "the well-known
+tympanum or stridulating apparatus of the male Locustid�." This insect,
+though in most respects related to the Neuroptera, appears to connect,
+as is so often the case with very ancient forms, the two Orders of the
+Neuroptera and Orthoptera which are now generally ranked as quite
+distinct.
+
+I have but little more to say on the Orthoptera. Some of the species are
+very pugnacious: when two male field-crickets (_Gryllus campestris_) are
+confined together, they fight till one kills the other; and the species
+of Mantis are described as manoeuvring with their sword-like
+front-limbs, like hussars with their sabres. The Chinese keep these
+insects in little bamboo cages and match them like game-cocks.[469] With
+respect to colour, some exotic locusts are beautifully ornamented; the
+posterior wings being marked with red, blue, and black; but as
+throughout the Order the two sexes rarely differ much in colour, it is
+doubtful whether they owe these bright tints to sexual selection.
+Conspicuous colours may be of use to these insects as a protection, on
+the principle to be explained in the next chapter, by giving notice to
+their enemies that they are unpalatable. Thus it has been observed[470]
+that an Indian brightly-coloured locust was invariably rejected when
+offered to birds and lizards. Some cases, however, of sexual differences
+in colour in this Order are known. The male of an American cricket[471]
+is described as being as white as ivory, whilst the female varies from
+almost white to greenish-yellow or dusky. Mr. Walsh informs me that the
+adult male of _Spectrum femoratum_ (one of the Phasmid�) "is of a
+shining brownish-yellow colour; the adult female being of a dull,
+opaque, cinereous-brown; the young of both sexes being green." Lastly, I
+may mention that the male of one curious kind of cricket[472] is
+furnished with "a long membranous appendage, which falls over the face
+like a veil;" but whether this serves as an ornament is not known.
+
+
+Order, _Neuroptera_.--Little need here be said, except in regard to
+colour. In the Ephemerid� the sexes often differ slightly in their
+obscure tints;[473] but it is not probable that the males are thus
+rendered attractive to the females. The Libellulid� or dragon-flies are
+ornamented with splendid green, blue, yellow, and vermilion metallic
+tints; and the sexes often differ. Thus, the males of some of the
+Agrionid�, as Prof. Westwood remarks[474] "are of a rich blue with black
+wings, whilst the females are fine green with colourless wings." But in
+_Agrion Ramburii_ these colours are exactly reversed in the two
+sexes.[475] In the extensive N. American genus of Het�rina, the males
+alone have a beautiful carmine spot at the base of each wing. In _Anax
+junius_ the basal part of the abdomen in the male is a vivid
+ultra-marine blue, and in the female grass-green. In the allied genus
+Gomphus, on the other hand, and in some other genera, the sexes differ
+but little in colour. Throughout the animal kingdom, similar cases of
+the sexes of closely-allied forms either differing greatly, or very
+little, or not at all, are of frequent occurrence. Although with many
+Libellulid� there is so wide a difference in colour between the sexes,
+it is often difficult to say which is the most brilliant; and the
+ordinary coloration of the two sexes is exactly reversed, as we have
+just seen, in one species of Agrion. It is not probable that their
+colours in any case have been gained as a protection. As Mr. MacLachlan,
+who has closely attended to this family, writes to me, dragon-flies--the
+tyrants of the insect-world--are the least liable of any insect to be
+attacked by birds or other enemies. He believes that their bright
+colours serve as a sexual attraction. It deserves notice, as bearing on
+this subject, that certain dragon-flies appear to be attracted by
+particular colours: Mr. Patterson observed[476] that the species of
+Agrionid�, of which the males are blue, settled in numbers on the blue
+float of a fishing line; whilst two other species were attracted by
+shining white colours.
+
+It is an interesting fact, first observed by Schelver, that the males,
+in several genera belonging to two sub-families, when they first emerge
+from the pupal state are coloured exactly like the females; but that
+their bodies in a short time assume a conspicuous milky-blue tint, owing
+to the exudation of a kind of oil, soluble in ether and alcohol. Mr.
+MacLachlan believes that in the male of _Libellula depressa_ this change
+of colour does not occur until nearly a fortnight after the
+metamorphosis, when the sexes are ready to pair.
+
+Certain species of Neurothemis present, according to Brauer[477] a
+curious case of dimorphism, some of the females having their wings
+netted in the usual manner; whilst other females have them "very richly
+netted as in the males of the same species." Brauer "explains the
+phenomenon on Darwinian principles by the supposition that the close
+netting of the veins is a secondary sexual character in the males." This
+latter character is generally developed in the males alone, but being,
+like every other masculine character, latent in the female, is
+occasionally developed in them. We have here an illustration of the
+manner in which the two sexes of many animals have probably come to
+resemble each other, namely by variations first appearing in the males,
+being preserved in them, and then transmitted to and developed in the
+females; but in this particular genus a complete transference is
+occasionally and abruptly effected. Mr. MacLachlan informs me of another
+case of dimorphism occurring in several species of Agrion in which a
+certain number of individuals are found of an orange colour, and these
+are invariably females. This is probably a case of reversion, for in
+the true Libellul�, when the sexes differ in colour, the females are
+always orange or yellow, so that supposing Agrion to be descended from
+some primordial form having the characteristic sexual colours of the
+typical Libellul�, it would not be surprising that a tendency to vary in
+this manner should occur in the females alone.
+
+Although many dragon-flies are such large, powerful, and fierce insects,
+the males have not been observed by Mr. MacLachlan to fight together,
+except, as he believes, in the case of some of the smaller species of
+Agrion. In another very distinct group in this Order, namely in the
+Termites or white ants, both sexes at the time of swarming may be seen
+running about, "the male after the female, sometimes two chasing one
+female, and contending with great eagerness who shall win the
+prize."[478]
+
+
+Order, _Hymenoptera_.--That inimitable observer, M. Fabre,[479] in
+describing the habits of Cerceris, a wasp-like insect, remarks that
+"fights frequently ensue between the males for the possession of some
+particular female, who sits an apparently unconcerned beholder of the
+struggle for supremacy, and when the victory is decided, quietly flies
+away in company with the conqueror." Westwood[480] says that the males
+of one of the saw-flies (Tenthredin�) "have been found fighting
+together, with their mandibles locked." As M. Fabre speaks of the males
+of Cerceris striving to obtain a particular female, it may be well to
+bear in mind that insects belonging to this Order have the power of
+recognising each other after long intervals of time, and are deeply
+attached. For instance, Pierre Huber, whose accuracy no one doubts,
+separated some ants, and when after an interval of four months they met
+others which had formerly belonged to the same community, they mutually
+recognised and caressed each other with their antenn�. Had they been
+strangers they would have fought together. Again, when two communities
+engage in a battle, the ants on the same side in the general confusion
+sometimes attack each other, but they soon perceive their mistake, and
+the one ant soothes the other.[481]
+
+In this Order slight differences in colour, according to sex, are
+common, but conspicuous differences are rare except in the family of
+Bees; yet both sexes of certain groups are so brilliantly coloured--for
+instance in Chrysis, in which vermilion and metallic greens
+prevail--that we are tempted to attribute the result to sexual
+selection. In the Ichneumonid�, according to Mr. Walsh,[482] the males
+are almost universally lighter coloured than the females. On the other
+hand, in the Tenthredinid� the males are generally darker than the
+females. In the Siricid� the sexes frequently differ; thus the male of
+_Sirex juvencus_ is banded with orange, whilst the female is dark
+purple; but it is difficult to say which sex is the most ornamented. In
+_Tremex columb�_ the female is much brighter coloured than the male.
+With ants, as I am informed by Mr. F. Smith, the males of several
+species are black, the females being testaceous. In the family of Bees,
+especially in the solitary species, as I hear from the same
+distinguished entomologist, the sexes often differ in colour. The males
+are generally the brightest, and in Bombus as well as in Apathus, much
+more variable in colour than the females. In _Anthophora retusa_ the
+male is of a rich fulvous-brown, whilst the female is quite black: so
+are the females of several species of Xylocopa, the males being bright
+yellow. In an Australian bee (_Lestis bombylans_), the female is of an
+extremely brilliant steel-blue, sometimes tinted with vivid green; the
+male being of a bright brassy colour clothed with rich fulvous
+pubescence. As in this group the females are provided with excellent
+defensive weapons in their stings, it is not probable that they have
+come to differ in colour from the males for the sake of protection.
+
+_Mutilla Europ�a_ emits a stridulating noise; and according to
+Goureau[483] both sexes have this power. He attributes the sound to the
+friction of the third and preceding abdominal segments; and I find that
+these surfaces are marked with very fine concentric ridges, but so is
+the projecting thoracic collar, on which the head articulates; and this
+collar, when scratched with the point of a needle, emits the proper
+sound. It is rather surprising that both sexes should have the power of
+stridulating, as the male is winged and the female wingless. It is
+notorious that Bees express certain emotions, as of anger, by the tone
+of their humming, as do some dipterous insects; but I have not referred
+to these sounds, as they are not known to be in any way connected with
+the act of courtship.
+
+
+Order, _Coleoptera_ (Beetles).--Many beetles are coloured so as to
+resemble the surfaces which they habitually frequent. Other species are
+ornamented with gorgeous metallic tints,--for instance, many Carabid�,
+which live on the ground and have the power of defending themselves by
+an intensely acrid secretion,--the splendid diamond-beetles which are
+protected by an extremely hard covering,--many species of Chrysomela,
+such as _C. cerealis_, a large species beautifully striped with various
+colours, and in Britain confined to the bare summit of Snowdon,--and a
+host of other species. These splendid colours, which are often arranged
+in stripes, spots, crosses and other elegant patterns, can hardly be
+beneficial, as a protection, except in the case of some flower-feeding
+species; and we cannot believe that they are purposeless. Hence the
+suspicion arises, that they serve as a sexual attraction; but we have no
+evidence on this head, for the sexes rarely differ in colour. Blind
+beetles, which cannot of course behold each other's beauty, never
+exhibit, as I hear from Mr. Waterhouse, jun., bright colours, though
+they often have polished coats: but the explanation of their obscurity
+may be that blind insects inhabit caves and other obscure stations.
+
+Some Longicorns, however, especially certain Prionid�, offer an
+exception to the common rule that the sexes of beetles do not differ in
+colour. Most of these insects are large and splendidly coloured. The
+males in the genus Pyrodes,[484] as I saw in Mr. Bates' collection, are
+generally redder but rather duller than the females, the latter being
+coloured of a more or less splendid golden green. On the other hand, in
+one species the male is golden-green, the female being richly tinted
+with red and purple. In the genus Esmeralda the sexes differ so greatly
+in colour that they have been ranked as distinct species: in one species
+both are of a beautiful shining green, but the male has a red thorax. On
+the whole, as far as I could judge, the females of those Prionid�, in
+which the sexes differ, are coloured more richly than the males; and
+this does not accord with the common rule in regard to colour when
+acquired through sexual selection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced);
+lower figure, female (nat. size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Phan�us faunus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Dipelicus cantori.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged.]
+
+A most remarkable distinction between the sexes of many beetles is
+presented by the great horns which rise from the head, thorax, or
+clypeus of the males; and in some few cases from the under surface of
+the body. These horns, in the great family of the Lamellicorns, resemble
+those of various quadrupeds, such as stags, rhinoceroses, &c., and are
+wonderful both from their size and diversified shapes. Instead of
+describing them, I have given figures of the males and females of some
+of the more remarkable forms. (Figs. 15 to 19.) The females generally
+exhibit rudiments of the horns in the form of small knobs or ridges; but
+some are destitute of even a rudiment. On the other hand, the horns are
+nearly as well developed in the female as in the male of _Phan�us
+lancifer_; and only a little less well developed in the females of some
+other species of the same genus and of Copris. In the several
+subdivisions of the family, the differences in structure of the horns do
+not run parallel, as I am informed by Mr. Bates, with their more
+important and characteristic differences; thus within the same natural
+section of the genus Onthophagus, there are species which have either a
+single cephalic horn, or two distinct horns.
+
+In almost all cases, the horns are remarkable from their excessive
+variability; so that a graduated series can be formed, from the most
+highly developed males to others so degenerate that they can barely be
+distinguished from the females. Mr. Walsh[485] found that in _Phan�us
+carnifex_ the horns were thrice as long in some males as in others. Mr.
+Bates, after examining above a hundred males of _Onthophagus rangifer_
+(fig. 19), thought that he had at last discovered a species in which
+the horns did not vary; but further research proved the contrary.
+
+The extraordinary size of the horns, and their widely different
+structure in closely-allied forms, indicate that they have been formed
+for some important purpose; but their excessive variability in the males
+of the same species leads to the inference that this purpose cannot be
+of a definite nature. The horns do not show marks of friction, as if
+used for any ordinary work. Some authors suppose[486] that as the males
+wander much more than the females, they require horns as a defence
+against their enemies; but in many cases the horns do not seem well
+adapted for defence, as they are not sharp. The most obvious conjecture
+is that they are used by the males for fighting together; but they have
+never been observed to fight; nor could Mr. Bates, after a careful
+examination of numerous species, find any sufficient evidence in their
+mutilated or broken condition of their having been thus used. If the
+males had been habitual fighters, their size would probably have been
+increased through sexual selection, so as to have exceeded that of the
+female; but Mr. Bates, after comparing the two sexes in above a hundred
+species of the Coprid�, does not find in well-developed individuals any
+marked difference in this respect. There is, moreover, one beetle,
+belonging to the same great division of the Lamellicorns, namely
+Lethrus, the males of which are known to fight, but they are not
+provided with horns, though their mandibles are much larger than those
+of the female.
+
+The conclusion, which best agrees with the fact of the horns having been
+so immensely yet not fixedly developed,--as shewn by their extreme
+variability in the same species and by their extreme diversity in
+closely-allied species--is that they have been acquired as ornaments.
+This view will at first appear extremely improbable; but we shall
+hereafter find with many animals, standing much higher in the scale,
+namely fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, that various kinds of
+crests, knobs, horns and combs have been developed apparently for this
+sole purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Onitis furcifer, male, viewed from beneath.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer,
+viewed laterally. Right-hand figure, female. _a._ Rudiment of cephalic
+horn. _b._ Trace of thoracic horn or crest.]
+
+The males of _Onitis furcifer_ (fig. 20) are furnished with singular
+projections on their anterior femora, and with a great fork or pair of
+horns on the lower surface of the thorax. This situation seems extremely
+ill adapted for the display of these projections, and they may be of
+some real service; but no use can at present be assigned to them. It is
+a highly remarkable fact, that although the males do not exhibit even a
+trace of horns on the upper surface of the body, yet in the females a
+rudiment of a single horn on the head (fig. 21, _a_), and of a crest
+(_b_) on the thorax, are plainly visible. That the slight thoracic crest
+in the female is a rudiment of a projection proper to the male, though
+entirely absent in the male of this particular species, is clear: for
+the female of _Bubas bison_ (a form which comes next to _Onitis_) has a
+similar slight crest on the thorax, and the male has in the same
+situation a great projection. So again there can be no doubt that the
+little point (_a_) on the head of the female _Onitis furcifer_, as well
+of the females of two or three allied species, is a rudimentary
+representative of the cephalic horn, which is common to the males of so
+many lamellicorn beetles, as in Phan�us, fig. 17. The males indeed of
+some unnamed beetles in the British Museum, which are believed actually
+to belong to the genus Onitis, are furnished with a similar horn. The
+remarkable nature of this case will be best perceived by an
+illustration: the Ruminant quadrupeds run parallel with the lamellicorn
+beetles, in some females possessing horns as large as those of the male,
+in others having them much smaller, or existing as mere rudiments
+(though this is as rare with ruminants as it is common with
+Lamellicorns), or in having none at all. Now if a new species of deer or
+sheep were discovered with the female bearing distinct rudiments of
+horns, whilst the head of the male was absolutely smooth, we should have
+a case like that of _Onitis furcifer_.
+
+In this case the old belief of rudiments having been created to complete
+the scheme of nature is so far from holding good, that all ordinary
+rules are completely broken through. The view which seems the most
+probable is that some early progenitor of Onitis acquired, like other
+Lamellicorns, horns on the head and thorax, and then transferred them,
+in a rudimentary condition, as with so many existing species, to the
+female, by whom they have ever since been retained. The subsequent loss
+of the horns by the male may have resulted through the principle of
+compensation from the development of the projections on the lower
+surface, whilst the female has not been thus affected, as she is not
+furnished with these projections, and consequently has retained the
+rudiments of the horns on the upper surface. Although this view is
+supported by the case of Bledius immediately to be given, yet the
+projections on the lower surface differ greatly in structure and
+development in the males of the several species of Onitis, and are even
+rudimentary in some; nevertheless the upper surface in all these species
+is quite destitute of horns. As secondary sexual characters are so
+eminently variable, it is possible that the projections on the lower
+surface may have been first acquired by some progenitor of Onitis and
+produced their effect through compensation, and then have been in
+certain cases almost completely lost.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure,
+male; right-hand figure, female.]
+
+All the cases hitherto given refer to the Lamellicorns, but the males of
+some few other beetles, belonging to two widely distinct groups, namely,
+the Curculionid� and Staphylinid�, are furnished with horns,--in the
+former on the lower surface of the body,[487] in the latter on the upper
+surface of the head and thorax. In the Staphylinid� the horns of the
+males in the same species are extraordinarily variable, just as we have
+seen with the Lamellicorns. In Siagonium we have a case of dimorphism,
+for the males can be divided into two sets, differing greatly in the
+size of their bodies, and in the development of their horns, without any
+intermediate gradations. In a species of Bledius (fig. 22), also
+belonging to the Staphylinid�, male specimens can be found in the same
+locality, as Professor Westwood states, "in which the central horn of
+the thorax is very large, but the horns of the head quite rudimental;
+and others, in which the thoracic horn is much shorter, whilst the
+protuberances on the head are long."[488] Here, then, we apparently have
+an instance of compensation of growth, which throws light on the curious
+case just given of the loss of the upper horns by the males of _Onitis
+furcifer_.
+
+
+_Law of Battle._--Some male beetles, which seem ill fitted for fighting,
+nevertheless engage in conflicts for the possession of the females. Mr.
+Wallace[489] saw two males of _Leptorhynchus angustatus_, a linear
+beetle with a much elongated rostrum, "fighting for a female, who stood
+close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other with their
+rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest rage." The
+smaller male, however, "soon ran away, acknowledging himself
+vanquished." In some few cases the males are well adapted for fighting,
+by possessing great toothed mandibles, much larger than those of the
+females. This is the case with the common stag-beetle (_Lucanus
+cervus_), the males of which emerge from the pupal state about a week
+before the other sex, so that several may often be seen pursuing the
+same female. At this period they engage in fierce conflicts. When Mr. A.
+H. Davis[490] enclosed two males with one female in a box, the larger
+male severely pinched the smaller one, until he resigned his
+pretensions. A friend informs me that when a boy he often put the males
+together to see them fight, and he noticed that they were much bolder
+and fiercer than the females, as is well known to be the case with the
+higher animals. The males would seize hold of his finger, if held in
+front, but not so the females. With many of the Lucanid�, as well as
+with the above-mentioned Leptorhynchus, the males are larger and more
+powerful insects than the females. The two sexes of _Lethrus cephalotes_
+(one of the Lamellicorns) inhabit the same burrow; and the male has
+larger mandibles than the female. If, during the breeding-season, a
+strange male attempts to enter the burrow, he is attacked; the female
+does not remain passive, but closes the mouth of the burrow, and
+encourages her mate by continually pushing him on from behind. The
+action does not cease until the aggressor is killed or runs away.[491]
+The two sexes of another lamellicorn beetle, the _Ateuchus cicatricosus_
+live in pairs, and seem much attached to each other; the male excites
+the female to roll the balls of dung in which the ova are deposited; and
+if she is removed, he becomes much agitated. If the male is removed, the
+female ceases all work, and as M. Brulerie[492] believes, would remain
+on the spot until she died.
+
+The great mandibles of the male Lucanid� are extremely variable both in
+size and structure, and in this respect resemble the horns on the head
+and thorax of many male Lamellicorns and Staphylinid�. A perfect series
+can be formed from the best-provided to the worst-provided or degenerate
+males. Although the mandibles of the common stag-beetle, and probably of
+many other species, are used as efficient weapons for fighting, it is
+doubtful whether their great size can thus be accounted for. We have
+seen that with the _Lucanus elaphus_ of N. America they are used for
+seizing the female. As they are so conspicuous and so elegantly
+branched, the suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that they may be
+serviceable to the males as an ornament, in the same manner as the horns
+on the head and thorax of the various above described species. The male
+_Chiasognathus grantii_ of S. Chile--a splendid beetle belonging to the
+same family--has enormously-developed mandibles (fig. 23); he is bold
+and pugnacious; when threatened on any side he faces round, opening his
+great jaws, and at the same time stridulating loudly; but the mandibles
+were not strong enough to pinch my finger so as to cause actual pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Chiasognathus grantii, reduced. Upper figure,
+male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Sexual selection, which implies the possession of considerable
+perceptive powers and of strong passions, seems to have been more
+effective with the Lamellicorns than with any other family of the
+Coleoptera or beetles. With some species the males are provided with
+weapons for fighting; some live in pairs and show mutual affection;
+many have the power of stridulating when excited; many are furnished
+with the most extraordinary horns, apparently for the sake of ornament;
+some which are diurnal in their habits are gorgeously coloured; and,
+lastly, several of the largest beetles in the world belong to this
+family, which was placed by Linn�us and Fabricius at the head of the
+Order of the Coleoptera.[493]
+
+
+_Stridulating organs._--Beetles belonging to many and widely distinct
+families possess these organs. The sound can sometimes be heard at the
+distance of several feet or even yards,[494] but is not comparable with
+that produced by the Orthoptera. The part which may be called the rasp
+generally consists of a narrow slightly-raised surface, crossed by very
+fine, parallel ribs, sometimes so fine as to cause iridescent colours,
+and having a very elegant appearance under the microscope. In some
+cases, for instance, with Typh�us, it could be plainly seen that
+extremely minute, bristly, scale-like prominences, which cover the whole
+surrounding surface in approximately parallel lines, give rise to the
+ribs of the rasp by becoming confluent and straight, and at the same
+time more prominent and smooth. A hard ridge on any adjoining part of
+the body, which in some cases is specially modified for the purpose,
+serves as the scraper for the rasp. The scraper is rapidly moved across
+the rasp, or conversely the rasp across the scraper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Necrophorus (from Landois). _r._ The two rasps.
+Left-hand figure, part of the rasp highly magnified.]
+
+These organs are situated in widely different positions. In the
+carrion-beetles (Necrophorus) two parallel rasps (_r_, fig. 24) stand on
+the dorsal surface of the fifth abdominal segment, each rasp being
+crossed, as described by Landois,[495] by from 126 to 140 fine ribs.
+These ribs are scraped by the posterior margins of the elytra, a small
+portion of which projects beyond the general outline. In many
+Criocerid�, and in _Clythra 4-punctata_ (one of the Chrysomelid�), and
+in some Tenebrionid�, &c.,[496] the rasp is seated on the dorsal apex of
+the abdomen, on the pygidium or pro-pygidium, and is scraped as above by
+the elytra. In Heterocerus, which belongs to another family, the rasps
+are placed on the sides of the first abdominal segment, and are scraped
+by ridges on the femora.[497] In certain Curculionid� and Carabid�,[498]
+the parts are completely reversed in position, for the rasps are seated
+on the inferior surface of the elytra, near their apices, or along their
+outer margins, and the edges of the abdominal segments serve as the
+scrapers. In _Pelobius hermanni_ (one of Dytiscid� or water-beetles) a
+strong ridge runs parallel and near to the sutural margin of the elytra,
+and is crossed by ribs, coarse in the middle part, but becoming
+gradually finer at both ends, especially at the upper end; when this
+insect is held under water or in the air, a stridulating noise is
+produced by scraping the extreme horny margin of the abdomen against the
+rasp. In a great number of long-horned beetles (Longicornia) the organs
+are altogether differently situated, the rasp being on the meso-thorax,
+which is rubbed against the pro-thorax; Landois counted 238 very fine
+ribs on the rasp of _Cerambyx heros_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Hind-leg of Geotrupes stercorarius (from
+Landois). _r._ Rasp. _c._ Coxa. _f._ Femur. _t._ Tibia. _tr._ Tarsi.]
+
+Many Lamellicorns have the power of stridulating, and the organs differ
+greatly in position. Some species stridulate very loudly, so that when
+Mr. F. Smith caught a _Trox sabulosus_, a gamekeeper who stood by
+thought that he had caught a mouse; but I failed to discover the proper
+organs in this beetle. In Geotrupes and Typh�us a narrow ridge runs
+obliquely across (_r_, fig. 25) the coxa of each hind-leg, having in
+_G. stercorarius_ 84 ribs, which are scraped by a specially-projecting
+part of one of the abdominal segments. In the nearly allied _Copris
+lunaris_, an excessively narrow fine rasp runs along the sutural margin
+of the elytra, with another short rasp near the basal outer margin; but
+in some other Coprini the rasp is seated, according to Leconte,[499] on
+the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In Oryctes it is seated on the
+pro-pygidium, and in some other Dynastini, according to the same
+entomologist, on the under surface of the elytra. Lastly, Westring
+states that in _Omaloplia brunnea_ the rasp is placed on the
+pro-sternum, and the scraper on the meta-sternum, the parts thus
+occupying the under surface of the body, instead of the upper surface as
+in the Longicorns.
+
+We thus see that the stridulating organs in the different coleopterous
+families are wonderfully diversified in position, but not much in
+structure. Within the same family some species are provided with these
+organs, and some are quite destitute of them. This diversity is
+intelligible, if we suppose that originally various species made a
+shuffling or hissing noise by the rubbing together of the hard and rough
+parts of their bodies which were in contact; and that from the noise
+thus produced being in some way useful, the rough surfaces were
+gradually developed into regular stridulating organs. Some beetles as
+they move, now produce, either intentionally or unintentionally, a
+shuffling noise, without possessing any proper organs for the purpose.
+Mr. Wallace informs me that the _Euchirus longimanus_ (a Lamellicorn,
+with the anterior legs wonderfully elongated in the male) "makes, whilst
+moving, a low hissing sound by the protrusion and contraction of the
+abdomen; and when seized it produces a grating sound by rubbing its
+hind-legs against the edges of the elytra." The hissing sound is clearly
+due to a narrow rasp running along the sutural margin of each elytron;
+and I could likewise make the grating sound by rubbing the shagreened
+surface of the femur against the granulated margin of the corresponding
+elytron; but I could not here detect any proper rasp; nor is it likely
+that I could have overlooked it in so large an insect. After examining
+Cychrus and reading what Westring has written in his two papers about
+this beetle, it seems very doubtful whether it possesses any true rasp,
+though it has the power of emitting a sound.
+
+From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, I expected to find
+that the stridulating organs in the Coleoptera differed according to
+sex; but Landois, who has carefully examined several species, observed
+no such difference; nor did Westring; nor did Mr. G. R. Crotch in
+preparing the numerous specimens which he had the kindness to send me
+for examination. Any slight sexual difference, however, would be
+difficult to detect, on account of the great variability of these
+organs. Thus in the first pair of the _Necrophorus humator_ and of the
+_Pelobius_ which I examined, the rasp was considerably larger in the
+male than in the female; but not so with succeeding specimens. In
+_Geotrupes stercorarius_ the rasp appeared to me thicker, opaquer, and
+more prominent in three males than in the same number of females;
+consequently my son, Mr. F. Darwin, in order to discover whether the
+sexes differed in their power of stridulating, collected 57 living
+specimens, which he separated into two lots, according as they made,
+when held in the same manner, a greater or lesser noise. He then
+examined their sexes, but found that the males were very nearly in the
+same proportion to the females in both lots. Mr. F. Smith has kept alive
+numerous specimens of _Mononychus pseudacori_ (Curculionid�), and is
+satisfied that both sexes stridulate, and apparently in an equal degree.
+
+Nevertheless the power of stridulating is certainly a sexual character
+in some few Coleoptera. Mr. Crotch has discovered that the males alone
+of two species of Heliopathes (Tenebrionid�) possess stridulating
+organs. I examined five males of _H. gibbus_, and in all these there was
+a well-developed rasp, partially divided into two, on the dorsal surface
+of the terminal abdominal segment; whilst in the same number of females
+there was not even a rudiment of the rasp, the membrane of this segment
+being transparent and much thinner than in the male. In _H.
+cribratostriatus_ the male has a similar rasp, excepting that it is not
+partially divided into two portions, and the female is completely
+destitute of this organ; but in addition the male has on the apical
+margins of the elytra, on each side of the suture, three or four short
+longitudinal ridges, which are crossed by extremely fine ribs, parallel
+to and resembling those on the abdominal rasp; whether these ridges
+serve as an independent rasp, or as a scraper for the abdominal rasp, I
+could not decide: the female exhibits no trace of this latter structure.
+
+Again, in three species of the Lamellicorn genus Oryctes, we have a
+nearly parallel case. In the females of _O. gryphus_ and _nasicornis_
+the ribs on the rasp of the pro-pygidium are less continuous and less
+distinct than in the males; but the chief difference is that the whole
+upper surface of this segment, when held in the proper light, is seen to
+be clothed with hairs, which are absent or are represented by
+excessively fine down in the males. It should be noticed that in all
+Coleoptera the effective part of the rasp is destitute of hairs. In _O.
+senegalensis_ the difference between the sexes is more strongly marked,
+and this is best seen when the proper segment is cleaned and viewed as a
+transparent object. In the female the whole surface is covered with
+little separate crests, bearing spines; whilst in the male these crests
+become, in proceeding towards the apex, more and more confluent,
+regular, and naked; so that three-fourths of the segment is covered with
+extremely fine parallel ribs, which are quite absent in the female. In
+the females, however, of all three species of Oryctes, when the abdomen
+of a softened specimen is pushed backwards and forwards, a slight
+grating or stridulating sound can be produced.
+
+In the case of the Heliopathes and Oryctes there can hardly be a doubt
+that the males stridulate in order to call or to excite the females; but
+with most beetles the stridulation apparently serves both sexes as a
+mutual call. This view is not rendered improbable from beetles
+stridulating under various emotions; we know that birds use their voices
+for many purposes besides singing to their mates. The great
+Chiasognathus stridulates in anger or defiance; many species do the same
+from distress or fear, when held so that they cannot escape; Messrs.
+Wollaston and Crotch were able, by striking the hollow stems of trees in
+the Canary Islands, to discover the presence of beetles belonging to the
+genus Acalles by their stridulation. Lastly the male Ateuchus
+stridulates to encourage the female in her work, and from distress when
+she is removed.[500] Some naturalists believe that beetles make this
+noise to frighten away their enemies; but I cannot think that the
+quadrupeds and birds which are able to devour the larger beetles with
+their extremely hard coats, would be frightened by so slight a grating
+sound. The belief that the stridulation serves as a sexual call is
+supported by the fact that death-ticks (_Anobium tessellatum_) are well
+known to answer each other's ticking, or, as I have myself observed, a
+tapping noise artificially made; and Mr. Doubleday informs me that he
+has twice or thrice observed a female ticking,[501] and in the course of
+an hour or two has found her united with a male, and on one occasion
+surrounded by several males. Finally, it seems probable that the two
+sexes of many kinds of beetles were at first enabled to find each other
+by the slight shuffling noise produced by the rubbing together of the
+adjoining parts of their hard bodies; and that as the males or females
+which made the greatest noise succeeded best in finding partners, the
+rugosities on various parts of their bodies were gradually developed by
+means of sexual selection into true stridulating organs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+INSECTS, _continued_.--ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+
+  Courtship of butterflies--Battles--Ticking noise--Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males--Examples--Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life--Colours adapted for protection--Colours of
+  moths--Display--Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera--Variability--Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females--Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males--Bright colours of
+  caterpillars--Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects--Birds and insects compared.
+
+
+In this great Order the most interesting point for us is the difference
+in colour between the sexes of the same species, and between the
+distinct species of the same genus. Nearly the whole of the following
+chapter will be devoted to this subject; but I will first make a few
+remarks on one or two other points. Several males may often be seen
+pursuing and crowding round the same female. Their courtship appears to
+be a prolonged affair, for I have frequently watched one or more males
+pirouetting round a female until I became tired, without seeing the end
+of the courtship. Although butterflies are such weak and fragile
+creatures, they are pugnacious, and an Emperor butterfly[502] has been
+captured with the tips of its wings broken from a conflict with another
+male. Mr. Collingwood in speaking of the frequent battles between the
+butterflies of Borneo says, "They whirl round each other with the
+greatest rapidity, and appear to be incited by the greatest ferocity."
+One case is known of a butterfly, namely the _Ageronia feronia_, which
+makes a noise like that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a
+spring catch, and which could be heard at the distance of several yards.
+At Rio de Janeiro this sound was noticed by me, only when two were
+chasing each other in an irregular course, so that it is probably made
+during the courtship of the sexes; but I neglected to attend to this
+point.[503]
+
+Every one has admired the extreme beauty of many butterflies and of some
+moths; and we are led to ask, how has this beauty been acquired? Have
+their colours and diversified patterns simply resulted from the direct
+action of the physical conditions to which these insects have been
+exposed, without any benefit being thus derived? Or have successive
+variations been accumulated and determined either as a protection or for
+some unknown purpose, or that one sex might be rendered attractive to
+the other? And, again, what is the meaning of the colours being widely
+different in the males and females of certain species, and alike in the
+two sexes of other species? Before attempting to answer these questions
+a body of facts must be given.
+
+With most of our English butterflies, both those which are beautiful,
+such as the admiral, peacock, and painted lady (Vaness�), and those
+which are plain-coloured, such as the meadow-browns (Hipparchi�), the
+sexes are alike. This is also the case with the magnificent Heliconid�
+and Danaid� of the tropics. But in certain other tropical groups, and
+with some of our English butterflies, as the purple emperor, orange-tip,
+&c. (_Apatura Iris_ and _Anthocharis cardamines_), the sexes differ
+either greatly or slightly in colour. No language suffices to describe
+the splendour of the males of some tropical species. Even within the
+same genus we often find species presenting an extraordinary difference
+between the sexes, whilst others have their sexes closely alike. Thus in
+the South American genus Epicalia, Mr. Bates, to whom I am much indebted
+for most of the following facts and for looking over this whole
+discussion, informs me that he knows twelve species, the two sexes of
+which haunt the same stations (and this is not always the case with
+butterflies), and therefore cannot have been differently affected by
+external conditions[504]. In nine of these species the males rank
+amongst the most brilliant of all butterflies, and differ so greatly
+from the comparatively plain females that they were formerly placed in
+distinct genera. The females of these nine species resemble each other
+in their general type of coloration, and likewise resemble both sexes in
+several allied genera, found in various parts of the world. Hence in
+accordance with the descent-theory we may infer that these nine species,
+and probably all the others of the genus, are descended from an
+ancestral form which was coloured in nearly the same manner. In the
+tenth species the female still retains the same general colouring, but
+the male resembles her, so that he is coloured in a much less gaudy and
+contrasted manner than the males of the previous species. In the
+eleventh and twelfth species, the females depart from the type of
+colouring which is usual with their sex in this genus, for they are
+gaily decorated in nearly the same manner as the males, but in a
+somewhat less degree. Hence in these two species the bright colours of
+the males seem to have been transferred to the females; whilst the male
+of the tenth species has either retained or recovered the plain colours
+of the female as well as of the parent-form of the genus; the two sexes
+being thus rendered in both cases, though in an opposite manner, nearly
+alike. In the allied genus Eubagis, both sexes of some of the species
+are plain-coloured and nearly alike; whilst with the greater number the
+males are decorated with beautiful metallic tints, in a diversified
+manner, and differ much from their females. The females throughout the
+genus retain the same general style of colouring, so that they commonly
+resemble each other much more closely than they resemble their own
+proper males.
+
+In the genus Papilio, all the species of the �neas group are remarkable
+for their conspicuous and strongly contrasted colours, and they
+illustrate the frequent tendency to gradation in the amount of
+difference between the sexes. In a few species, for instance in _P.
+ascanius_, the males and females are alike; in others the males are a
+little or very much more superbly coloured than the females. The genus
+Junonia allied to our Vaness� offers a nearly parallel case, for
+although the sexes of most of the species resemble each other and are
+destitute of rich colours, yet in certain species, as in _J. oenone_,
+the male is rather more brightly coloured than the female, and in a few
+(for instance _J. andremiaja_) the male is so different from the female
+that he might be mistaken for an entirely distinct species.
+
+Another striking case was pointed out to me in the British museum by Mr.
+A. Butler, namely one of the Tropical American Thecl�, in which both
+sexes are nearly alike and wonderfully splendid; in another, the male
+is coloured in a similarly gorgeous manner, whilst the whole upper
+surface of the female is of a dull uniform brown. Our common little
+English blue butterflies of the genus Lyc�na, illustrate the various
+differences in colour between the sexes, almost as well, though not in
+so striking a manner, as the above exotic genera. In _Lyc�na agestis_
+both sexes have wings of a brown colour, bordered with small ocellated
+orange spots, and are consequently alike. In _L. oegon_ the wings of
+the male are of a fine blue, bordered with black; whilst the wings of
+the female are brown, with a similar border, and closely resemble those
+of _L. agestis_. Lastly, in _L. arion_ both sexes are of a blue colour
+and nearly alike, though in the female the edges of the wings are rather
+duskier, with the black spots plainer; and in a bright blue Indian
+species both sexes are still more closely alike.
+
+I have given the foregoing cases in some detail in order to shew, in the
+first place, that when the sexes of butterflies differ, the male as a
+general rule is the most beautiful, and departs most from the usual type
+of colouring of the group to which the species belongs. Hence in most
+groups the females of the several species resemble each other much more
+closely than do the males. In some exceptional cases, however, to which
+I shall hereafter allude, the females are coloured more splendidly than
+the males. In the second place these cases have been given to bring
+clearly before the mind that within the same genus, the two sexes
+frequently present every gradation from no difference in colour to so
+great a difference that it was long before the two were placed by
+entomologists in the same genus. In the third place, we have seen that
+when the sexes nearly resemble each other, this apparently may be due
+either to the male having transferred his colours to the female, or to
+the male having retained, or perhaps recovered, the primordial colours
+of the genus to which the species belongs. It also deserves notice that
+in those groups in which the sexes present any difference of colour, the
+females usually resemble the males to a certain extent, so that when the
+males are beautiful to an extraordinary degree, the females almost
+invariably exhibit some degree of beauty. From the numerous cases of
+gradation in the amount of difference between the sexes, and from the
+prevalence of the same general type of coloration throughout the whole
+of the same group, we may conclude that the causes, whatever they may
+be, which have determined the brilliant colouring of the males alone of
+some species, and of both sexes in a more or less equal degree of other
+species, have generally been the same.
+
+As so many gorgeous butterflies inhabit the tropics, it has often been
+supposed that they owe their colours to the great heat and moisture of
+these zones; but Mr. Bates[505] has shewn by the comparison of various
+closely-allied groups of insects from the temperate and tropical
+regions, that this view cannot be maintained; and the evidence becomes
+conclusive when brilliantly-coloured males and plain-coloured females of
+the same species inhabit the same district, feed on the same food, and
+follow exactly the same habits of life. Even when the sexes resemble
+each other, we can hardly believe that their brilliant and
+beautifully-arranged colours are the purposeless result of the nature of
+the tissues, and the action of the surrounding conditions.
+
+With animals of all kinds, whenever colour has been modified for some
+special purpose, this has been, as far as we can judge, either for
+protection or as an attraction between the sexes. With many species of
+butterflies the upper surfaces of the wings are obscurely coloured, and
+this in all probability leads to their escaping observation and danger.
+But butterflies when at rest would be particularly liable to be attacked
+by their enemies; and almost all the kinds when resting raise their
+wings vertically over their backs, so that the lower sides alone are
+exposed to view. Hence it is this side which in many cases is obviously
+coloured so as to imitate the surfaces on which these insects commonly
+rest. Dr. R�ssler, I believe, first noticed the similarity of the closed
+wings of certain Vaness� and other butterflies to the bark of trees.
+Many analogous and striking facts could be given. The most interesting
+one is that recorded by Mr. Wallace[506] of a common Indian and Sumatran
+butterfly (Kallima), which disappears like magic when it settles in a
+bush; for it hides its head and antenn� between its closed wings, and
+these in form, colour, and veining cannot be distinguished from a
+withered leaf together with the footstalk. In some other cases the lower
+surfaces of the wings are brilliantly coloured, and yet are protective;
+thus in _Thecla rubi_ the wings when closed are of an emerald green and
+resemble the young leaves of the bramble, on which this butterfly in the
+spring may often be seen seated.
+
+Although the obscure tints of the upper or under surface of many
+butterflies no doubt serve to conceal them, yet we cannot possibly
+extend this view to the brilliant and conspicuous colours of many kinds,
+such as our admiral and peacock Vaness�, our white cabbage-butterflies
+(Pieris), or the great swallow-tail Papilio which haunts the open
+fens--for these butterflies are thus rendered visible to every living
+creature. With these species both sexes are alike; but in the common
+brimstone butterfly (_Gonepteryx rhamni_), the male is of an intense
+yellow, whilst the female is much paler; and in the orange-tip
+(_Anthocharis cardamines_) the males alone have the bright orange tips
+to their wings. In these cases the males and females are equally
+conspicuous, and it is not credible that their difference in colour
+stands in any relation to ordinary protection. Nevertheless it is
+possible that the conspicuous colours of many species may be in an
+indirect manner beneficial, as will hereafter be explained, by leading
+their enemies at once to recognise them as unpalatable. Even in this
+case it does not certainly follow that their bright colours and
+beautiful patterns were acquired for this special purpose. In some other
+remarkable cases, beauty has been gained for the sake of protection,
+through the imitation of other beautiful species, which inhabit the same
+district and enjoy an immunity from attack by being in some way
+offensive to their enemies.
+
+The female of our orange-tip butterfly, above referred to, and of an
+American species (_Anth. genutia_) probably shew us, as Mr. Walsh has
+remarked to me, the primordial colours of the parent-species of the
+genus; for both sexes of four or five widely-distributed species are
+coloured in nearly the same manner. We may infer here, as in several
+previous cases, that it is the males of _Anth. cardamines_ and _genutia_
+which have departed from the usual type of colouring of their genus. In
+the _Anth. sara_ from California, the orange-tips have become partially
+developed in the female; for her wings are tipped with reddish-orange,
+but paler than in the male, and slightly different in some other
+respects. In an allied Indian form, the _Iphias glaucippe_, the
+orange-tips are fully developed in both sexes. In this Iphias the under
+surface of the wings marvellously resembles, as pointed out to me by Mr.
+A. Butler, a pale-coloured leaf; and in our English orange-tip, the
+under surface resembles the flower-head of the wild parsley, on which it
+may be seen going to rest at night.[507] The same reasoning power which
+compels us to believe that the lower surfaces have here been coloured
+for the sake of protection, leads us to deny that the wings have been
+tipped, especially when this character is confined to the males, with
+bright orange for the same purpose.
+
+
+Turning now to Moths: most of these rest motionless with their wings
+depressed during the whole or greater part of the day; and the upper
+surfaces of their wings are often shaded and coloured in an admirable
+manner, as Mr. Wallace has remarked, for escaping detection. With most
+of the Bombycid� and Noctuid�,[508] when at rest, the front-wings
+overlap and conceal the hind-wings; so that the latter might be brightly
+coloured without much risk; and they are thus coloured in many species
+of both families. During the act of flight, moths would often be able to
+escape from their enemies; nevertheless, as the hind-wings are then
+fully exposed to view, their bright colours must generally have been
+acquired at the cost of some little risk. But the following fact shews
+us how cautious we ought to be in drawing conclusions on this head. The
+common yellow under-wings (Triphaena) often fly about during the day or
+early evening, and are then conspicuous from the colour of their
+hind-wings. It would naturally be thought that this would be a source of
+danger; but Mr. J. Jenner Weir believes that it actually serves them as
+a means of escape, for birds strike at these brightly coloured and
+fragile surfaces, instead of at the body. For instance, Mr. Weir turned
+into his aviary a vigorous specimen of _Triphaena pronuba_, which was
+instantly pursued by a robin; but the bird's attention being caught by
+the coloured wings, the moth was not captured until after about fifty
+attempts, and small portions of the wings were repeatedly broken off. He
+tried the same experiment, in the open air, with a _T. fimbria_ and
+swallow; but the large size of this moth probably interfered with its
+capture.[509] We are thus reminded of a statement made by Mr.
+Wallace,[510] namely, that in the Brazilian forests and Malayan islands,
+many common and highly-decorated butterflies are weak flyers, though
+furnished with a broad expanse of wings; and they "are often captured
+with pierced and broken wings, as if they had been seized by birds, from
+which they had escaped: if the wings had been much smaller in proportion
+to the body, it seems probable that the insect would more frequently
+have been struck or pierced in a vital part, and thus the increased
+expanse of the wings may have been indirectly beneficial."
+
+
+_Display._--The bright colours of butterflies and of some moths are
+specially arranged for display, whether or not they serve in addition as
+a protection. Bright colours would not be visible during the night; and
+there can be no doubt that moths, taken as a body, are much less gaily
+decorated than butterflies, all of which are diurnal in their habits.
+But the moths in certain families, such as the Zyg�nid�, various
+Sphingid�, Uraniid�, some Arctiid� and Saturniid�, fly about during the
+day or early evening, and many of these are extremely beautiful, being
+far more brightly coloured than the strictly nocturnal kinds. A few
+exceptional cases, however, of brightly-coloured nocturnal species have
+been recorded.[511]
+
+There is evidence of another kind in regard to display. Butterflies, as
+before remarked, elevate their wings when at rest, and whilst basking in
+the sunshine often alternately raise and depress them, thus exposing to
+full view both surfaces; and although the lower surface is often
+coloured in an obscure manner as a protection, yet in many species it is
+as highly coloured as the upper surface, and sometimes in a very
+different manner. In some tropical species the lower surface is even
+more brilliantly coloured than the upper.[512] In one English
+fritillary, the _Argynnis aglaia_, the lower surface alone is ornamented
+with shining silver discs. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the upper
+surface, which is probably the most fully exposed, is coloured more
+brightly and in a more diversified manner than the lower. Hence the
+lower surface generally affords to entomologists the most useful
+character for detecting the affinities of the various species.
+
+Now if we turn to the enormous group of moths, which do not habitually
+expose to full view the under surface of their wings, this side is very
+rarely, as I hear from Mr. Stainton, coloured more brightly than the
+upper side, or even with equal brightness. Some exceptions to the rule,
+either real or apparent, must be noticed, as that of Hypopyra, specified
+by Mr. Wormald.[513] Mr. R. Trimen informs me that in Guen�e's great
+work, three moths are figured, in which the under surface is much the
+most brilliant. For instance, in the Australian Gastrophora the upper
+surface of the fore-wing is pale greyish-ochreous, while the lower
+surface is magnificently ornamented by an ocellus of cobalt-blue, placed
+in the midst of a black mark, surrounded by orange-yellow, and this by
+bluish-white. But the habits of these three moths are unknown; so that
+no explanation can be given of their unusual style of colouring. Mr.
+Trimen also informs me that the lower surface of the wings in certain
+other Geometr�[514] and quadrifid Noctu� are either more variegated or
+more brightly-coloured than the upper surface; but some of these species
+have the habit of "holding their wings quite erect over their backs,
+retaining them in this position for a considerable time," and thus
+exposing to view the under surface. Other species when settled on the
+ground or herbage have the habit of now and then suddenly and slightly
+lifting up their wings. Hence the lower surface of the wings being more
+brightly-coloured than the upper surface in certain moths is not so
+anomalous a circumstance as it at first appears. The Saturniid� include
+some of the most beautiful of all moths, their wings being decorated, as
+in our British Emperor moth, with fine ocelli; and Mr. T. W. Wood[515]
+observes that they resemble butterflies in some of their movements; "for
+instance, in the gentle waving up and down of the wings, as if for
+display, which is more characteristic of diurnal than of nocturnal
+Lepidoptera."
+
+It is a singular fact that no British moths, nor as far as I can
+discover hardly any foreign species, which are brilliantly coloured,
+differ much in colour according to sex; though this is the case with
+many brilliant butterflies. The male, however, of one American moth, the
+_Saturnia Io_, is described as having its fore-wings deep yellow,
+curiously marked with purplish-red spots; whilst the wings of the female
+are purple-brown, marked with grey lines.[516] The British moths which
+differ sexually in colour are all brown, or various tints of dull
+yellow, or nearly white. In several species the males are much darker
+than the females,[517] and these belong to groups which generally fly
+about during the afternoon. On the other hand, in many genera, as Mr.
+Stainton informs me, the males have the hind-wings whiter than those of
+the female--of which, fact _Agrotis exclamationis_ offers a good
+instance. The males are thus rendered more conspicuous than the females,
+whilst flying about in the dusk. In the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_)
+the difference is more strongly marked; the males being white and the
+females yellow with darker markings. It is difficult to conjecture what
+the meaning can be of these differences between the sexes in the shades
+of darkness or lightness; but we can hardly suppose that they are the
+result of mere variability with sexually-limited inheritance,
+independently of any benefit thus derived.
+
+From the foregoing statements it is impossible to admit that the
+brilliant colours of butterflies and of some few moths, have commonly
+been acquired for the sake of protection. We have seen that their
+colours and elegant patterns are arranged and exhibited as if for
+display. Hence I am led to suppose that the females generally prefer, or
+are most excited by the more brilliant males; for on any other
+supposition the males would be ornamented, as far as we can see, for no
+purpose. We know that ants and certain lamellicorn beetles are capable
+of feeling an attachment for each other, and that ants recognise their
+fellows after an interval of several months. Hence there is no abstract
+improbability in the Lepidoptera, which probably stand nearly or quite
+as high in the scale as these insects, having sufficient mental capacity
+to admire bright colours. They certainly discover flowers by colour,
+and, as I have elsewhere shewn, the plants which are fertilised
+exclusively by the wind never have a conspicuously-coloured corolla. The
+Humming-bird Sphinx may often be seen to swoop down from a distance on a
+bunch of flowers in the midst of green foliage; and I have been assured
+by a friend, that these moths repeatedly visited flowers painted on the
+walls of a room in the South of France. The common white butterfly, as I
+hear from Mr. Doubleday, often flies down to a bit of paper on the
+ground, no doubt mistaking it for one of its own species. Mr.
+Collingwood[518] in speaking of the difficulty of collecting certain
+butterflies in the Malay Archipelago, states that "a dead specimen
+pinned upon a conspicuous twig will often arrest an insect of the same
+species in its headlong flight, and bring it down within easy reach of
+the net, especially if it be of the opposite sex."
+
+The courtship of butterflies is a prolonged affair. The males sometimes
+fight together in rivalry; and many may be seen pursuing or crowding
+round the same female. If, then, the females do not prefer one male to
+another, the pairing must be left to mere chance, and this does not
+appear to me a probable event. If, on the other hand, the females
+habitually, or even occasionally, prefer the more beautiful males, the
+colours of the latter will have been rendered brighter by degrees, and
+will have been transmitted to both sexes or to one sex, according to
+which law of inheritance prevailed. The process of sexual selection will
+have been much facilitated, if the conclusions arrived at from various
+kinds of evidence in the supplement to the ninth chapter can be trusted;
+namely that the males of many Lepidoptera, at least in the imago state,
+greatly exceed in number the females.
+
+Some facts, however, are opposed to the belief that female butterflies
+prefer the more beautiful males; thus, as I have been assured by several
+observers, fresh females may frequently be seen paired with battered,
+faded or dingy males; but this is a circumstance which could hardly
+fail often to follow from the males emerging from their cocoons earlier
+than the females. With moths of the family of the Bombycid�, the sexes
+pair immediately after assuming the imago state; for they cannot feed,
+owing to the rudimentary condition of their mouths. The females, as
+several entomologists have remarked to me, lie in an almost torpid
+state, and appear not to evince the least choice in regard to their
+partners, This is the case with the common silk-moth (_B. mori_), as I
+have been told by some continental and English breeders. Dr. Wallace,
+who has had such immense experience in breeding _Bombyx cynthia_, is
+convinced that the females evince no choice or preference. He has kept
+above 300 of these moths living together, and has often found the most
+vigorous females mated with stunted males. The reverse apparently seldom
+occurs; for, as he believes, the more vigorous males pass over the
+weakly females, being attracted by those endowed with most vitality.
+Although we have been indirectly induced to believe that the females of
+many species prefer the more beautiful males, I have no reason to
+suspect, either with moths or butterflies, that the males are attracted
+by the beauty of the females. If the more beautiful females had been
+continually preferred, it is almost certain, from the colours of
+butterflies being so frequently transmitted to one sex alone, that the
+females would often have been rendered more beautiful than their male
+partners. But this does not occur except in a few instances; and these
+can be explained, as we shall presently see, on the principle of
+mimickry and protection.
+
+
+As sexual selection primarily depends on variability, a few words must
+be added on this subject. In respect to colour there is no difficulty,
+as any number of highly variable Lepidoptera could be named. One good
+instance will suffice. Mr. Bates shewed me a whole series of specimens
+of _Papilio sesostris_ and _children�_; in the latter the males varied
+much in the extent of the beautifully enamelled green patch on the
+fore-wings, and in the size of the white mark, as well as of the
+splendid crimson stripe on the hind-wings; so that there was a great
+contrast between the most and least gaudy males. The male of _Papilio
+sesostris_, though a beautiful insect, is much less so than _P.
+children�_. It likewise varies a little in the size of the green patch
+on the fore-wings, and in the occasional appearance of a small crimson
+stripe on the hind-wings, borrowed, as it would seem, from its own
+female; for the females of this and of many other species in the �neas
+group possess this crimson stripe. Hence between the brightest specimens
+of _P. sesostris_ and the least bright of _P. children�_, there was but
+a small interval; and it was evident that as far as mere variability is
+concerned, there would be no difficulty in permanently increasing by
+means of selection the beauty of either species. The variability is here
+almost confined to the male sex; but Mr. Wallace and Mr. Bates have
+shewn[519] that the females of some other species are extremely
+variable, the males being nearly constant. As I have before mentioned
+the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_) as one of the best instances in
+Britain of a difference in colour between the sexes of moths, it may be
+worth adding[520] that in the Shetland Islands, males are frequently
+found which closely resemble the females. In a future chapter I shall
+have occasion to shew that the beautiful eye-like spots or ocelli, so
+common on the wings of many Lepidoptera, are eminently variable.
+
+
+On the whole, although many serious objections may be urged, it seems
+probable that most of the species of Lepidoptera which are brilliantly
+coloured, owe their colours to sexual selection, excepting in certain
+cases, presently to be mentioned, in which conspicuous colours are
+beneficial as a protection. From the ardour of the male throughout the
+animal kingdom, he is generally willing to accept any female; and it is
+the female which usually exerts a choice. Hence if sexual selection has
+here acted, the male, when the sexes differ, ought to be the most
+brilliantly coloured; and this undoubtedly is the ordinary rule. When
+the sexes are brilliantly coloured and resemble each other, the
+characters acquired by the males appear to have been transmitted to both
+sexes. But will this explanation of the similarity and dissimilarity in
+colour between the sexes suffice?
+
+The males and females of the same species of butterfly are known[521] in
+several cases to inhabit different stations, the former commonly basking
+in the sunshine, the latter haunting gloomy forests. It is therefore
+possible that different conditions of life may have acted directly on
+the two sexes; but this is not probable,[522] as in the adult state they
+are exposed during a very short period to different conditions; and the
+larv� of both are exposed to the same conditions. Mr. Wallace believes
+that the less brilliant colours of the female have been specially
+gained in all or almost all cases for the sake of protection. On the
+contrary it seems to me more probable that the males alone, in the large
+majority of cases, have acquired their bright colours through sexual
+selection, the females having been but little modified. Consequently the
+females of distinct but allied species ought to resemble each other much
+more closely than do the males of the same species; and this is the
+general rule. The females thus approximately show us the primordial
+colouring of the parent-species of the group to which they belong. They
+have, however, almost always been modified to a certain extent by some
+of the successive steps of variation, through the accumulation of which
+the males were rendered beautiful, having been transferred to them. The
+males and females of allied though distinct species will also generally
+have been exposed during their prolonged larval state to different
+conditions, and may have been thus indirectly affected; though with the
+males any slight change of colour thus caused will often have been
+completely masked by the brilliant tints gained through sexual
+selection. When we treat of Birds, I shall have to discuss the whole
+question whether the differences in colour between the males and females
+have been in part specially gained by the latter as a protection; so
+that I will here only give unavoidable details.
+
+In all cases when the more common form of equal inheritance by both
+sexes has prevailed, the selection of bright-coloured males would tend
+to make the females bright-coloured; and the selection of dull-coloured
+females would tend to make the males dull. If both processes were
+carried on simultaneously, they would tend to neutralise each other. As
+far as I can see, it would be extremely difficult to change through
+selection the one form of inheritance into the other. But by the
+selection of successive variations, which were from the first sexually
+limited in their transmission, there would not be the slightest
+difficulty in giving bright colours to the males alone, and at the same
+time or subsequently, dull colours to the females alone. In this latter
+manner female butterflies and moths may, as I fully admit, have been
+rendered inconspicuous for the sake of protection, and widely different
+from their males.
+
+Mr. Wallace[523] has argued with much force in favour of his view that
+when the sexes differ, the female has been specially modified for the
+sake of protection; and that this has been effected by one form of
+inheritance, namely, the transmission of characters to both sexes,
+having been changed through the agency of natural selection into the
+other form, namely, transmission to one sex. I was at first strongly
+inclined to accept this view; but the more I have studied the various
+classes throughout the animal kingdom, the less probable it has
+appeared. Mr. Wallace urges that both sexes of the _Heliconid�_,
+_Danaid�_, _Acroeid�_ are equally brilliant because both are protected
+from the attacks of birds and other enemies, by their offensive odour;
+but that in other groups, which do not possess this immunity, the
+females have been rendered inconspicuous, from having more need of
+protection than the males. This supposed difference in the "need of
+protection by the two sexes" is rather deceptive, and requires some
+discussion. It is obvious that brightly-coloured individuals, whether
+males or females, would equally attract, and obscurely-coloured
+individuals equally escape, the attention of their enemies. But we are
+concerned with the effects of the destruction or preservation of certain
+individuals of either sex, on the character of the race. With insects,
+after the male has fertilised the female, and after the latter has laid
+her eggs, the greater or less immunity from danger of either sex could
+not possibly have any effect on the offspring. Before the sexes have
+performed their proper functions, if they existed in equal numbers and
+if they strictly paired (all other circumstances being the same), the
+preservation of the males and females would be equally important for the
+existence of the species and for the character of the offspring. But
+with most animals, as is known to be the case with the domestic
+silk-moth, the male can fertilise two or three females; so that the
+destruction of the males would not be so injurious to the species as
+that of the females. On the other hand, Dr. Wallace believes that with
+moths the progeny from a second or third fertilisation is apt to be
+weakly, and therefore would not have so good chance of surviving. When
+the males exist in much greater numbers than the females, no doubt many
+males might be destroyed with impunity to the species; but I cannot see
+that the results of ordinary selection for the sake of protection would
+be influenced by the sexes existing in unequal numbers; for the same
+proportion of the more conspicuous individuals, whether males or
+females, would probably be destroyed. If indeed the males presented a
+greater range of variation in colour, the result would be different; but
+we need not here follow out such complex details. On the whole I cannot
+perceive that an inequality in the numbers of the two sexes would
+influence in any marked manner the effects of ordinary selection on the
+character of the offspring.
+
+Female Lepidoptera require, as Mr. Wallace insists, some days to
+deposit their fertilised ova and to search for a proper place; during
+this period (whilst the life of the male was of no importance) the
+brighter-coloured females would be exposed to danger and would be liable
+to be destroyed. The duller-coloured females on the other hand would
+survive, and thus would influence, it might be thought, in a marked
+manner the character of the species,--either of both sexes or of one
+sex, according to which form of inheritance prevailed. But it must not
+be forgotten that the males emerge from the cocoon-state some days
+before the females, and during this period, whilst the unborn females
+were safe, the brighter-coloured males would be exposed to danger; so
+that ultimately both sexes would probably be exposed during a nearly
+equal length of time to danger, and the elimination of conspicuous
+colours would not be much more effective in the one than the other sex.
+
+It is a more important consideration that female Lepidoptera, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, and as is known to every collector, are generally
+slower flyers than the males. Consequently the latter, if exposed to
+greater danger from being conspicuously coloured, might be able to
+escape from their enemies, whilst the similarly-coloured females would
+be destroyed; and thus the females would have the most influence in
+modifying the colour of their progeny.
+
+There is one other consideration: bright colours, as far as sexual
+selection is concerned, are commonly of no service to the females; so
+that if the latter varied in brightness, and the variations were
+sexually limited in their transmission, it would depend on mere chance
+whether the females had their bright colours increased; and this would
+tend throughout the Order to diminish the number of species with
+brightly-coloured females in comparison with the species having
+brightly-coloured males. On the other hand, as bright colours are
+supposed to be highly serviceable to the males in their love-struggles,
+the brighter males (as we shall see in the chapter on Birds) although
+exposed to rather greater danger, would on an average procreate a
+greater number of offspring than the duller males. In this case, if the
+variations were limited in their transmission to the male sex, the males
+alone would be rendered more brilliantly coloured; but if the variations
+were not thus limited, the preservation and augmentation of such
+variations would depend on whether more evil was caused to the species
+by the females being rendered conspicuous, than good to the males by
+certain individuals being successful over their rivals.
+
+As there can hardly be a doubt that both sexes of many butterflies and
+moths have been rendered dull-coloured for the sake of protection, so
+it may have been with the females alone of some species in which
+successive variations towards dullness first appeared in the female sex
+and were from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex.
+If not thus limited, both sexes would become dull-coloured. We shall
+immediately see, when we treat of mimickry, that the females alone of
+certain butterflies have been rendered extremely beautiful for the sake
+of protection, without any of the successive protective variations
+having been transferred to the male, to whom they could not possibly
+have been in the least degree injurious, and therefore could not have
+been eliminated through natural selection. Whether in each particular
+species, in which the sexes differ in colour, it is the female which has
+been specially modified for the sake of protection; or whether it is the
+male which has been specially modified for the sake of sexual
+attraction, the female having retained her primordial colouring only
+slightly changed through the agencies before alluded to; or whether
+again both sexes have been modified, the female for protection and the
+male for sexual attraction, can only be definitely decided when we know
+the life-history of each species.
+
+Without distinct evidence, I am unwilling to admit that a double process
+of selection has long been going on with a multitude of species,--the
+males having been rendered more brilliant by beating their rivals; and
+the females more dull-coloured by having escaped from their enemies. We
+may take as an instance the common brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx),
+which appears early in the spring before any other kind. The male of
+this species is of a far more intense yellow than the female, though she
+is almost equally conspicuous; and in this case it does not seem
+probable that she specially acquired her pale tints as a protection,
+though it is probable that the male acquired his bright colours as a
+sexual attraction. The female of _Anthocharis cardamines_ does not
+possess the beautiful orange tips to her wings with which the male is
+ornamented; consequently she closely resembles the white butterflies
+(Pieris) so common in our gardens; but we have no evidence that this
+resemblance is beneficial. On the contrary, as she resembles both sexes
+of several species of the same genus inhabiting various quarters of the
+world, it is more probable that she has simply retained to a large
+extent her primordial colours.
+
+Various facts support the conclusion that with the greater number of
+brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera, it is the male which has been
+modified; the two sexes having come to differ from each other, or to
+resemble each other, according to which form of inheritance has
+prevailed. Inheritance is governed by so many unknown laws or
+conditions, that they seem to us to be most capricious in their
+action;[524] and we can so far understand how it is that with
+closely-allied species the sexes of some differ to an astonishing
+degree, whilst the sexes of others are identical in colour. As the
+successive steps in the process of variation are necessarily all
+transmitted through the female, a greater or less number of such steps
+might readily become developed in her; and thus we can understand the
+frequent gradations from an extreme difference to no difference at all
+between the sexes of the species within the same group. These cases of
+gradation are much too common to favour the supposition that we here see
+females actually undergoing the process of transition and losing their
+brightness for the sake of protection; for we have every reason to
+conclude that at any one time the greater number of species are in a
+fixed condition. With respect to the differences between the females of
+the species in the same genus or family, we can perceive that they
+depend, at least in part, on the females partaking of the colours of
+their respective males. This is well illustrated in those groups in
+which the males are ornamented to an extraordinary degree; for the
+females in these groups generally partake to a certain extent of the
+splendour of their male partners. Lastly, we continually find, as
+already remarked, that the females of almost all the species in the same
+genus, or even family, resemble each other much more closely in colour
+than do the males; and this indicates that the males have undergone a
+greater amount of modification than the females.
+
+
+_Mimickry._--This principle was first made clear in an admirable paper
+by Mr. Bates,[525] who thus threw a flood of light on many obscure
+problems. It had previously been observed that certain butterflies in S.
+America belonging to quite distinct families, resembled the Heliconid�
+so closely in every stripe and shade of colour that they could not be
+distinguished except by an experienced entomologist. As the Heliconid�
+are coloured in their usual manner, whilst the others depart from the
+usual colouring of the groups to which they belong, it is clear that the
+latter are the imitators, and the Heliconid� the imitated. Mr. Bates
+further observed that the imitating species are comparatively rare,
+whilst the imitated swarm in large numbers; the two sets living mingled
+together. From the fact of the Heliconid� being conspicuous and
+beautiful insects, yet so numerous in individuals and species, he
+concluded that they must be protected from the attacks of birds by some
+secretion or odour; and this hypothesis has now been confirmed by a
+considerable body of curious evidence.[526] From these considerations
+Mr. Bates inferred that the butterflies which imitate the protected
+species had acquired their present marvellously deceptive appearance,
+through variation and natural selection, in order to be mistaken for the
+protected kinds and thus to escape being devoured. No explanation is
+here attempted of the brilliant colours of the imitated, but only of the
+imitating butterflies. We must account for the colours of the former in
+the same general manner, as in the cases previously discussed in this
+chapter. Since the publication of Mr. Bates' paper, similar and equally
+striking facts have been observed by Mr. Wallace[527] in the Malayan
+region, and by Mr. Trimen in South Africa.
+
+As some writers[528] have felt much difficulty in understanding how the
+first steps in the process of mimickry could have been effected through
+natural selection, it may be well to remark that the process probably
+has never commenced with forms widely dissimilar in colour. But with two
+species moderately like each other, the closest resemblance if
+beneficial to either form could readily be thus gained; and if the
+imitated form was subsequently and gradually modified through sexual
+selection or any other means, the imitating form would be led along the
+same track, and thus be modified to almost any extent, so that it might
+ultimately assume an appearance or colouring wholly unlike that of the
+other members of the group to which it belonged. As extremely slight
+variations in colour would not in many cases suffice to render a species
+so like another protected species as to lead to its preservation, it
+should be remembered that many species of Lepidoptera are liable to
+considerable and abrupt variations in colour. A few instances have been
+given in this chapter; but under this point of view Mr. Bates' original
+paper on mimickry, as well as Mr. Wallace's papers, should be consulted.
+
+In the foregoing cases both sexes of the imitating species
+resemble the imitated; but occasionally the female alone mocks a
+brilliantly-coloured and protected species inhabiting the same district.
+Consequently the female differs in colour from her own male, and, which
+is a rare and anomalous circumstance, is the more brightly-coloured of
+the two. In all the few species of Pierid�, in which the female is more
+conspicuously coloured than the male, she imitates, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, some protected species inhabiting the same region. The
+female of _Diadema anomala_ is rich purple-brown with almost the whole
+surface glossed with satiny blue, and she closely imitates the
+_Euploea midamus_, "one of the commonest butterflies of the East;"
+whilst the male is bronzy or olive-brown, with only a slight blue gloss
+on the outer parts of the wings.[529] Both sexes of this Diadema and of
+_D. bolina_ follow the same habits of life, so that the differences in
+colour between the sexes cannot be accounted for by exposure to
+different conditions;[530] even if this explanation were admissible in
+other instances.[531]
+
+The above cases of female butterflies which are more brightly-coloured
+than the males, shew us, firstly, that variations have arisen in a state
+of nature in the female sex, and have been transmitted exclusively, or
+almost exclusively, to the same sex; and, secondly, that this form of
+inheritance has not been determined through natural selection. For if we
+assume that the females, before they became brightly coloured in
+imitation of some protected kind, were exposed during each season for a
+longer period to danger than the males; or if we assume that they could
+not escape so swiftly from their enemies, we can understand how they
+alone might originally have acquired through natural selection and
+sexually-limited inheritance their present protective colours. But
+except on the principle of these variations having been transmitted
+exclusively to the female offspring, we cannot understand why the males
+should have remained dull-coloured; for it would surely not have been in
+any way injurious to each individual male to have partaken by
+inheritance of the protective colours of the female, and thus to have
+had a better chance of escaping destruction. In a group in which
+brilliant colours are so common as with butterflies, it cannot be
+supposed that the males have been kept dull-coloured through sexual
+selection by the females rejecting the individuals which were rendered
+as beautiful as themselves. We may, therefore, conclude that in these
+cases inheritance by one sex is not due to the modification through
+natural selection of a tendency to equal inheritance by both sexes.
+
+It may be well here to give an analogous case in another Order, of
+characters acquired only by the female, though not in the least
+injurious, as far as we can judge, to the male. Amongst the Phasmid�, or
+spectre-insects, Mr. Wallace states that "it is often the females alone
+that so strikingly resemble leaves, while the males show only a rude
+approximation." Now, whatever may be the habits of these insects, it is
+highly improbable that it could be disadvantageous to the males to
+escape detection by resembling leaves.[532] Hence we may conclude that
+the females alone in this latter as in the previous cases originally
+varied in certain characters; these characters having been preserved and
+augmented through ordinary selection for the sake of protection and from
+the first transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+
+_Bright Colours of Caterpillars._--Whilst reflecting on the beauty of
+many butterflies, it occurred to me that some caterpillars were
+splendidly coloured, and as sexual selection could not possibly have
+here acted, it appeared rash to attribute the beauty of the mature
+insect to this agency, unless the bright colours of their larv� could
+be in some manner explained. In the first place it may be observed that
+the colours of caterpillars do not stand in any close correlation with
+those of the mature insect. Secondly, their bright colours do not serve
+in any ordinary manner as a protection. As an instance of this, Mr.
+Bates informs me that the most conspicuous caterpillar which he ever
+beheld (that of a Sphinx) lived on the large green leaves of a tree on
+the open llanos of South America; it was about four inches in length,
+transversely banded with black and yellow, and with its head, legs, and
+tail of a bright red. Hence it caught the eye of any man who passed by
+at the distance of many yards, and no doubt of every passing bird.
+
+I then applied to Mr. Wallace, who has an innate genius for solving
+difficulties. After some consideration he replied: "Most caterpillars
+require protection, as may be inferred from some kinds being furnished
+with spines or irritating hairs, and from many being coloured green like
+the leaves on which they feed, or curiously like the twigs of the trees
+on which they live." I may add as another instance of protection, that
+there is a caterpillar of a moth, as I am informed by Mr. J. Mansel
+Weale, which lives on the mimosas in South Africa, and fabricates for
+itself a case, quite undistinguishable from the surrounding thorns. From
+such considerations Mr. Wallace thought it probable that
+conspicuously-coloured caterpillars were protected by having a nauseous
+taste; but as their skin is extremely tender, and as their intestines
+readily protrude from a wound, a slight peck from the beak of a bird
+would be as fatal to them as if they had been devoured. Hence, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, "distastefulness alone would be insufficient to protect
+a caterpillar unless some outward sign indicated to its would-be
+destroyer that its prey was a disgusting morsel." Under these
+circumstances it would be highly advantageous to a caterpillar to be
+instantaneously and certainly recognised as unpalatable by all birds and
+other animals. Thus the most gaudy colours would be serviceable, and
+might have been gained by variation and the survival of the most
+easily-recognised individuals.
+
+This hypothesis appears at first sight very bold; but when it was
+brought before the Entomological Society[533] it was supported by
+various statements; and Mr. J. Jenner Weir, who keeps a large number of
+birds in an aviary, has made, as he informs me, numerous trials, and
+finds no exception to the rule, that all caterpillars of nocturnal and
+retiring habits with smooth skins, all of a green colour, and all which
+imitate twigs, are greedily devoured by his birds. The hairy and spinose
+kinds are invariably rejected, as were four conspicuously-coloured
+species. When the birds rejected a caterpillar, they plainly shewed, by
+shaking their heads and cleansing their beaks, that they were disgusted
+by the taste.[534] Three conspicuous kinds of caterpillars and moths
+were also given by Mr. A. Butler to some lizards and frogs, and were
+rejected; though other kinds were eagerly eaten. Thus the probable truth
+of Mr. Wallace's view is confirmed, namely, that certain caterpillars
+have been made conspicuous for their own good, so as to be easily
+recognised by their enemies, on nearly the same principle that certain
+poisons are coloured by druggists for the good of man. This view will,
+it is probable, be hereafter extended to many animals, which are
+coloured in a conspicuous manner.
+
+
+_Summary and Concluding Remarks on Insects._--Looking back to the
+several Orders, we have seen that the sexes often differ in various
+characters, the meaning of which is not understood. The sexes, also,
+often differ in their organs of sense or locomotion, so that the males
+may quickly discover or reach the females, and still oftener in the
+males possessing diversified contrivances for retaining the females when
+found. But we are not here much concerned with sexual differences of
+these kinds.
+
+In almost all the Orders, the males of some species, even of weak and
+delicate kinds, are known to be highly pugnacious; and some few are
+furnished with special weapons for fighting with their rivals. But the
+law of battle does not prevail nearly so widely with insects as with the
+higher animals. Hence probably it is that the males have not often been
+rendered larger and stronger than the females. On the contrary they are
+usually smaller, in order that they may be developed within a shorter
+time, so as to be ready in large numbers for the emergence of the
+females.
+
+In two families of the Homoptera the males alone possess, in an
+efficient state, organs which may be called vocal; and in three families
+of the Orthoptera the males alone possess stridulating organs. In both
+cases these organs are incessantly used during the breeding-season, not
+only for calling the females, but for charming or exciting them in
+rivalry with other males. No one who admits the agency of natural
+selection, will dispute that these musical instruments have been
+acquired through sexual selection. In four other Orders the members of
+one sex, or more commonly of both sexes, are provided with organs for
+producing various sounds, which apparently serve merely as call-notes.
+Even when both sexes are thus provided, the individuals which were able
+to make the loudest or most continuous noise would gain partners before
+those which were less noisy, so that their organs have probably been
+gained through sexual selection. It is instructive to reflect on the
+wonderful diversity of the means for producing sound, possessed by the
+males alone or by both sexes in no less than six Orders, and which were
+possessed by at least one insect at an extremely remote geological
+epoch. We thus learn how effectual sexual selection has been in leading
+to modifications of structure, which sometimes, as with the Homoptera,
+are of an important nature.
+
+From the reasons assigned in the last chapter, it is probable that the
+great horns of the males of many lamellicorn, and some other beetles,
+have been acquired as ornaments. So perhaps it may be with certain other
+peculiarities confined to the male sex. From the small size of insects,
+we are apt to undervalue their appearance. If we could imagine a male
+Chalcosoma (fig. 15) with its polished, bronzed coat of mail, and vast
+complex horns, magnified to the size of a horse or even of a dog, it
+would be one of the most imposing animals in the world.
+
+The colouring of insects is a complex and obscure subject. When the male
+differs slightly from the female, and neither are brilliantly coloured,
+it is probable that the two sexes have varied in a slightly different
+manner, with the variations transmitted to the same sex, without any
+benefit having been thus derived or evil suffered. When the male is
+brilliantly coloured and differs conspicuously from the female, as with
+some dragon-flies and many butterflies, it is probable that he alone has
+been modified, and that he owes his colours to sexual selection; whilst
+the female has retained a primordial or very ancient type of colouring,
+slightly modified by the agencies before explained, and has therefore
+not been rendered obscure, at least in most cases, for the sake of
+protection. But the female alone has sometimes been coloured
+brilliantly so as to imitate other protected species inhabiting the same
+district. When the sexes resemble each other and both are obscurely
+coloured, there is no doubt that they have been in a multitude of cases
+coloured for the sake of protection. So it is in some instances when
+both are brightly coloured, causing them to resemble surrounding objects
+such as flowers, or other protected species, or indirectly by giving
+notice to their enemies that they are of an unpalatable nature. In many
+other cases in which the sexes resemble each other and are brilliantly
+coloured, especially when the colours are arranged for display, we may
+conclude that they have been gained by the male sex as an attraction,
+and have been transferred to both sexes. We are more especially led to
+this conclusion whenever the same type of coloration prevails throughout
+a group, and we find that the males of some species differ widely in
+colour from the females, whilst both sexes of other species are quite
+alike, with intermediate gradations connecting these extreme states.
+
+In the same manner as bright colours have often been partially
+transferred from the males to the females, so it has been with the
+extraordinary horns of many lamellicorn and some other beetles. So,
+again, the vocal or instrumental organs proper to the males of the
+Homoptera and Orthoptera have generally been transferred in a
+rudimentary, or even in a nearly perfect condition to the females; yet
+not sufficiently perfect to be used for producing sound. It is also an
+interesting fact, as bearing on sexual selection, that the stridulating
+organs of certain male Orthoptera are not fully developed until the last
+moult; and that the colours of certain male dragon-flies are not fully
+developed until some little time after their emergence from the pupal
+state, and when they are ready to breed.
+
+Sexual selection implies that the more attractive individuals are
+preferred by the opposite sex; and as with insects, when the sexes
+differ, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, is the most
+ornamented and departs most from the type to which the species
+belongs;--and as it is the male which searches eagerly for the female,
+we must suppose that the females habitually or occasionally prefer the
+more beautiful males, and that these have thus acquired their beauty.
+That in most or all the orders the females have the power of rejecting
+any particular male, we may safely infer from the many singular
+contrivances possessed by the males, such as great jaws, adhesive
+cushions, spines, elongated legs, &c., for seizing the female; for these
+contrivances shew that there is some difficulty in the act. In the case
+of unions between distinct species, of which many instances have been
+recorded, the female must have been a consenting party. Judging from
+what we know of the perceptive powers and affections of various insects,
+there is no antecedent improbability in sexual selection having come
+largely into action; but we have as yet no direct evidence on this head,
+and some facts are opposed to the belief. Nevertheless, when we see many
+males pursuing the same female, we can hardly believe that the pairing
+is left to blind chance--that the female exerts no choice, and is not
+influenced by the gorgeous colours or other ornaments, with which the
+male alone is decorated.
+
+If we admit that the females of the Homoptera and Orthoptera appreciate
+the musical tones emitted by their male partners, and that the various
+instruments for this purpose have been perfected through sexual
+selection, there is little improbability in the females of other insects
+appreciating beauty in form or colour, and consequently in such
+characters having been thus gained by the males. But from the
+circumstance of colour being so variable, and from its having been so
+often modified for the sake of protection, it is extremely difficult to
+decide in how large a proportion of cases sexual selection has come into
+play. This is more especially difficult in those Orders, such as the
+Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera, in which the two sexes rarely
+differ much in colour; for we are thus cut off from our best evidence of
+some relation between the reproduction of the species and colour. With
+the Coleoptera, however, as before remarked, it is in the great
+lamellicorn group, placed by some authors at the head of the Order, and
+in which we sometimes see a mutual attachment between the sexes, that we
+find the males of some species possessing weapons for sexual strife,
+others furnished with wonderful horns, many with stridulating organs,
+and others ornamented with splendid metallic tints. Hence it seems
+probable that all these characters have been gained through the same
+means, namely sexual selection.
+
+When we treat of Birds, we shall see that they present in their
+secondary sexual characters the closest analogy with insects. Thus, many
+male birds are highly pugnacious, and some are furnished with special
+weapons for fighting with their rivals. They possess organs which are
+used during the breeding-season for producing vocal and instrumental
+music. They are frequently ornamented with combs, horns, wattles and
+plumes of the most diversified kinds, and are decorated with beautiful
+colours, all evidently for the sake of display. We shall find that, as
+with insects, both sexes, in certain groups, are equally beautiful, and
+are equally provided with ornaments which are usually confined to the
+male sex. In other groups both sexes are equally plain-coloured and
+unornamented. Lastly, in some few anomalous cases, the females are more
+beautiful than the males. We shall often find, in the same group of
+birds, every gradation from no difference between the sexes, to an
+extreme difference. In the latter case we shall see that the females,
+like female insects, often possess more or less plain traces of the
+characters which properly belong to the males. The analogy, indeed, in
+all these respects between birds and insects, is curiously close.
+Whatever explanation applies to the one class probably applies to the
+other; and this explanation, as we shall hereafter attempt to shew, is
+almost certainly sexual selection.
+
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As the works of the first-named authors are so well known,
+  I need not give the titles; but as those of the latter are less
+  well known in England, I will give them:--'Sechs Vorlesungen
+  �ber die Darwin'sche Theorie:' zweite Auflage, 1868, von Dr. L.
+  B�chner; translated into French under the title 'Conf�rences
+  sur la Th�orie Darwinienne,' 1869. 'Der Mensch, im Lichte der
+  Darwin'sche Lehre,' 1865, von Dr. F. Rolle. I will not attempt
+  to give references to all the authors who have taken the same
+  side of the question. Thus G. Canestrini has published
+  ('Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,' Modena, 1867, p. 81) a very
+  curious paper on rudimentary characters, as bearing on the
+  origin of man. Another work has (1869) been published by Dr.
+  Barrago Francesco, bearing in Italian the title of "Man, made
+  in the image of God, was also made in the image of the ape."
+
+  [2] Prof. H�ckel is the sole author who, since the publication
+  of the 'Origin,' has discussed, in his various works, in a very
+  able manner, the subject of sexual selection, and has seen its
+  full importance.
+
+  [3] 'Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 96.
+
+  [4] 'Le�. sur la Phys.' 1866, p. 890, as quoted by M. Dally,
+  'L'Ordre des Primates et le Transformisme,' 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [5] 'Naturgeschichte der S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+  50.
+
+  [6] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 75, 86. On the Ateles,
+  s. 105. For other analogous statements, see s. 25, 107.
+
+  [7] With respect to insects see Dr. Laycock 'On a General Law
+  of Vital Periodicity,' British Association, 1842. Dr.
+  Macculloch, 'Silliman's North American Journal of Science,'
+  vol. xvii. p. 305, has seen a dog suffering from tertian ague.
+
+  [8] I have given the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 15.
+
+  [9] "Mares e diversis generibus Quadrumanorum sine dubio
+  dignoscunt feminas humanas a maribus. Primum, credo, odoratu,
+  postea aspectu. Mr. Youatt, qui diu in Hortis Zoologicis
+  (Bestiariis) medicus animalium erat, vir in rebus observandis
+  cautus et sagax, hoc mihi certissime probavit, et curatores
+  ejusdem loci et alii e ministris confirmaverunt. Sir Andrew
+  Smith et Brehm notabant idem in Cynocephalo. Illustrissimus
+  Cuvier etiam narrat multa de hac re qu� ut opinor nihil turpius
+  potest indicari inter omnia hominibus et Quadrumanis communia.
+  Narrat enim Cynocephalum quendam in furorem incidere aspectu
+  feminarum aliquarum, sed nequaquam accendi tanto furore ab
+  omnibus. Semper eligebat juniores, et dignoscebat in turba, et
+  advocabat voce gestuque."
+
+  [10] This remark is made with respect to Cynocephalus and the
+  anthropomorphous apes by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and F. Cuvier,
+  'Hist. Nat. des Mammif�res,' tom. i. 1824.
+
+  [11] Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 34.
+
+  [12] 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 67.
+
+  [13] The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, 'Icones
+  Phys.,' 1851-1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines
+  in length, so that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of
+  the dog is from Bischoff, 'Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+  Hunde-Eies,' 1845, tab. xi. fig. 42 B. This drawing is five
+  times magnified, the embryo being 25 days old. The internal
+  viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages in both
+  drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by Prof.
+  Huxley, from whose work, 'Man's Place in Nature.' the idea of
+  giving them was taken. H�ckel has also given analogous drawings
+  in his 'Sch�pfungsgeschichte.'
+
+  [14] Prof. Wyman in 'Proc. of American Acad. of Sciences,' vol.
+  iv. 1860, p. 17.
+
+  [15] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. p. 533.
+
+  [16] 'Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 95.
+
+  [17] 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 553.
+
+  [18] 'Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist.' Boston, 1863, vol. ix. p. 185.
+
+  [19] 'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 65.
+
+  [20] I had written a rough copy of this chapter before reading
+  a valuable paper, "Caratteri rudimentali in ordine all'origine
+  del uomo" ('Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,' Modena, 1867, p. 81),
+  by G. Canestrini, to which paper I am considerably indebted.
+  H�ckel has given admirable discussions on this whole subject,
+  under the title of Dysteleology, in his 'Generelle Morphologie'
+  and 'Sch�pfungsgeschichte.'
+
+  [21] Some good criticisms on this subject have been given by
+  Messrs. Murie and Mivart, in 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869,
+  vol. vii. p. 92.
+
+  [22] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. pp. 317 and 397. See also 'Origin of Species,' 5th
+  edit. p. 535.
+
+  [23] For instance M. Richard ('Annales des Sciences Nat.' 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. 1852, tom. xviii. p. 13) describes and figures
+  rudiments of what he calls the "muscle p�dieux de la main,"
+  which he says is sometimes "infiniment petit." Another muscle,
+  called "le tibial post�rieur," is generally quite absent in the
+  hand, but appears from time to time in a more or less
+  rudimentary condition.
+
+  [24] Prof. W. Turner, 'Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,' 1866-67, p.
+  65.
+
+  [25] Canestrini quotes Hyrt. ('Annuario della Soc. dei
+  Naturalisti,' Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.
+
+  [26] 'The Diseases of the Ear,' by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p.
+  12.
+
+  [27] See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the
+  Lemuroidea, in Messrs. Murie and Mivart's excellent paper in
+  'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.
+
+  [28] M�ller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat., 1842,
+  vol. ii. p. 1117. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p.
+  260; ibid. on the Walrus, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' November 8th,
+  1854. See also R. Knox, 'Great Artists and Anatomists,' p. 106.
+  This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in Negroes and
+  Australians than in Europeans, see Carl Vogt, 'Lectures on
+  Man,' Eng. translat. p. 129.
+
+  [29] 'The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p.
+  134.
+
+  [30] Eschricht, Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen
+  K�rper 'M�llers Archiv f�r Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 47. I
+  shall often have to refer to this very curious paper.
+
+  [31] Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p.
+  71.
+
+  [32] Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.
+
+  [33] Dr. Webb, 'Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,' as
+  quoted by Dr. C. Carter Blake in 'Anthropological Review,'
+  July, 1867, p. 299.
+
+  [34] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 320, 321,
+  and 325.
+
+  [35] 'On the Primitive Form of the Skull,' Eng. translat. in
+  'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [36] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 416, 434,
+  441.
+
+  [37] 'Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.' Modena, 1867, p. 94.
+
+  [38] M. C. Martins ("De l'Unit� Organique," in 'Revue des Deux
+  Mondes,' June 15, 1862, p. 16), and H�ckel ('Generelle
+  Morphologie,' B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the
+  singular fact of this rudiment sometimes causing death.
+
+  [39] 'The Lancet,' Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, 'Great
+  Artists and Anatomists,' p. 63. See also an important memoir on
+  this process by Dr. Grube, in the 'Bulletin de l'Acad. Imp. de
+  St. P�tersbourg,' tom. xii. 1867, p. 448.
+
+  [40] "On the Caves of Gibraltar," 'Transact. Internat. Congress
+  of Prehist. Arch.' Third Session, 1869, p. 54.
+
+  [41] Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this
+  subject. 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1867-1868, p. 625.
+
+  [42] Owen, 'On the Nature of Limbs,' 1849, p. 114.
+
+  [43] Leuckart, in Todd's 'Cyclop. of Anat.' 1849-52, vol. iv.
+  p. 1415. In man this organ is only from three to six lines in
+  length, but, like so many other rudimentary parts, it is
+  variable in development as well as in other characters.
+
+  [44] See, on this subject, Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol.
+  iii. pp. 675, 676, 706.
+
+  [45] See the evidence on these points, as given by Lubbock,
+  'Prehistoric Times,' p. 354, &c.
+
+  [46] 'L'Instinct chez les Insectes.' 'Revue des Deux Mondes,'
+  Feb. 1870, p. 690.
+
+  [47] 'The American Beaver and his Works,' 1868.
+
+  [48] 'The Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1870, pp.
+  418-443.
+
+  [49] 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870,
+  p. 212
+
+  [50] 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 173.
+
+  [51] All the following statements, given on the authority of
+  these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger's 'Naturges. der
+  S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm's
+  'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 10-87.
+
+  [52] 'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 263.
+
+  [53] W. C. L. Martin, 'Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 405.
+
+  [54] Quoted by Vogt, 'M�moire sur les Microc�phales,' 1867, p.
+  168.
+
+  [55] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [56] 'Les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 150.
+
+  [57] Quoted in Dr. Maudsley's 'Physiology and Pathology of
+  Mind,' 1868, pp. 19, 220.
+
+  [58] Dr. Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. 1862, p. xxi.
+
+  [59] Mr. L. H. Morgan's work on 'The American Beaver,' 1868,
+  offers a good illustration of this remark. I cannot, however,
+  avoid thinking that he goes too far in underrating the power of
+  Instinct.
+
+  [60] 'The Moor and the Loch,' p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on 'Dog
+  Breaking,' 1850, p. 46.
+
+  [61] 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.
+
+  [62] Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, 'Antiquity of Man,' p. 497.
+
+  [63] 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"'
+  1845, p. 398. 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 260.
+
+  [64] 'Lettres Phil. sur l'Intelligence des Animaux,' nouvelle
+  edit. 1802, p. 86.
+
+  [65] See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i. 'On the
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'
+
+  [66] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1864, p. 186.
+
+  [67] Savage and Wyman in 'Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol.
+  iv. 1843-44, p. 383.
+
+  [68] 'S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 51-56.
+
+  [69] 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 79, 82.
+
+  [70] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. i. 1869, p. 87.
+
+  [71] 'Primeval Man,' 1869, pp. 145, 147.
+
+  [72] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 473, &c.
+
+  [73] Quoted in 'Anthropological Review,' 1864, p. 158.
+
+  [74] Rengger, ibid. s. 45.
+
+  [75] See my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [76] See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor's very
+  interesting work, 'Researches into the Early History of
+  Mankind,' 1865, chaps. ii. to iv.
+
+  [77] Hon. Daines Barrington in 'Philosoph. Transactions,' 1773,
+  p. 262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in 'Ann. des Sc. Nat.' 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 119.
+
+  [78] 'On the Origin of Language,' by H. Wedgwood, 1866.
+  'Chapters on Language,' by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, 1865. These
+  works are most interesting. See also 'De la Phys. et de
+  Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 190. The work on this
+  subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher, has been translated
+  by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title of 'Darwinism
+  tested by the Science of Language,' 1869.
+
+  [79] Vogt, 'M�moire sur les Microc�phales,' 1867, p. 169. With
+  respect to savages, I have given some facts in my 'Journal of
+  Researches,' &c., 1845, p. 206.
+
+  [80] See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often
+  quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.
+
+  [81] See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, 'The Physiology
+  and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p. 199.
+
+  [82] Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance,
+  'Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,' by Dr.
+  Abercrombie, 1838, p. 150.
+
+  [83] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. p. 6.
+
+  [84] See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, 'The
+  Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 1808, p. 199.
+
+  [85] Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. ii. 1839, p.
+  29. An excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the
+  magpie learns to pronounce single words, and even short
+  sentences, more readily than almost any other British bird;
+  yet, as he adds, after long and closely investigating its
+  habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature, display
+  any unusual capacity for imitation. 'Researches in Zoology,'
+  1834, p. 158.
+
+  [86] See the very interesting parallelism between the
+  development of species and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in
+  'The Geolog. Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,' 1863, chap.
+  xxiii.
+
+  [87] See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an
+  interesting article, entitled "Philology and Darwinism" in
+  'Nature,' March 24th, 1870, p. 528.
+
+  [88] 'Nature,' Jan. 6th, 1870, p. 257.
+
+  [89] Quoted by C. S. Wake, 'Chapters on Man,' 1868, p. 101.
+
+  [90] Buckland, 'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 411.
+
+  [91] See some good remarks on the simplification of languages,
+  by Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 278.
+
+  [92] 'Conf�rences sur la Th�orie Darwinienne,' French
+  translat., 1869, p. 132.
+
+  [93] The Rev. Dr. J. M'Cann, 'Anti-Darwinism,' 1869, p. 13.
+
+  [94] 'The Spectator,' Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.
+
+  [95] See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F. W.
+  Farrar, in the 'Anthropological Review,' Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii.
+  For further facts see Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd
+  edit. 1869. p. 564; and especially the chapters on Religion in
+  his 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.
+
+  [96] The Worship of Animals and Plants, in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.
+
+  [97] Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865, p. 6. See also
+  the three striking chapters on the Development of Religion, in
+  Lubbock's 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870. In a like manner Mr.
+  Herbert Spencer, in his ingenious essay in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review' (May 1st, 1870, p. 535), accounts for the earliest
+  forms of religious belief throughout the world, by man being
+  led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look at
+  himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the
+  spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be
+  powerful, it is propitiated by various gifts and ceremonies,
+  and its aid invoked. He then further shews that names or
+  nicknames given from some animal or other object to the early
+  progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed after a long
+  interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe; and
+  such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist
+  as a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god.
+  Nevertheless I cannot but suspect that there is a still earlier
+  and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or
+  movement is thought to be endowed with some form of life, and
+  with mental faculties analogous to our own.
+
+  [98] See an able article on the Psychical Elements of Religion,
+  by Mr. L. Owen Pike, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' April, 1870, p.
+  lxiii.
+
+  [99] 'Religion, Moral, &c., der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre,' 1869,
+  s. 53.
+
+  [100] 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. p. 571. In this work (at
+  p. 553) there will be found an excellent account of the many
+  strange and capricious customs of savages.
+
+  [101] See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, 'Unit�
+  de l'Esp�ce Humaine,' 1861, p. 21, &c.
+
+  [102] 'Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,' 1837, p. 231, &c.
+
+  [103] 'Metaphysics of Ethics,' translated by J. W. Semple,
+  Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.
+
+  [104] Mr. Bain gives a list ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868,
+  p. 543-725) of twenty-six British authors who have written on
+  this subject, and whose names are familiar to every reader; to
+  these, Mr. Bain's own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr.
+  Shadworth Hodgson, and Sir J. Lubbock, as well as of others,
+  may be added.
+
+  [105] Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social
+  animal ('Psychological Enquiries,' 1854, p. 192), asks the
+  pregnant question, "ought not this to settle the disputed
+  question as to the existence of a moral sense?" Similar ideas
+  have probably occurred to many persons, as they did long ago to
+  Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J. S. Mill speaks, in his celebrated work,
+  'Utilitarianism,' (1864, p. 46), of the social feelings as a
+  "powerful natural sentiment," and as "the natural basis of
+  sentiment for utilitarian morality;" but on the previous page
+  he says, "if, as is my own belief, the moral feelings are not
+  innate, but acquired, they are not for that reason less
+  natural." It is with hesitation that I venture to differ from
+  so profound a thinker, but it can hardly be disputed that the
+  social feelings are instinctive or innate in the lower animals;
+  and why should they not be so in man? Mr. Bain (see, for
+  instance, 'The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 481) and others
+  believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual
+  during his lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is
+  at least extremely improbable.
+
+  [106] 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie,' s. 101.
+
+  [107] Mr. R. Brown in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 409.
+
+  [108] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case
+  of the monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54.
+  With respect to the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is
+  given (s. 76) on the evidence of Alvarez, whose observations
+  Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the old male
+  baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the
+  eagle, s. 56.
+
+  [109] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' November, 1868, p. 382.
+
+  [110] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. p. 446.
+
+  [111] As quoted by Mr. L. H. Morgan, 'The American Beaver,'
+  1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account
+  of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away by a
+  strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to
+  reach the shore by half a dozen old birds.
+
+  [112] As Mr. Bain states, "effective aid to a sufferer springs
+  from sympathy proper:" 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p.
+  245.
+
+  [113] 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 85.
+
+  [114] 'De l'Esp�ce et de la Class.' 1869, p. 97.
+
+  [115] 'Der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre,' 1869, s. 54.
+
+  [116] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 76.
+
+  [117] See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith's
+  'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' Also Mr. Bain's 'Mental and Moral
+  Science,' 1868, p. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that
+  "sympathy is, indirectly, a source of pleasure to the
+  sympathiser;" and he accounts for this through reciprocity. He
+  remarks that "the person benefited, or others in his stead, may
+  make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the
+  sacrifice." But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is
+  strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure,
+  in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of
+  almost every other instinct.
+
+  [118] This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of
+  'White's Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1853, p. 204) was first
+  recorded by the illustrious Jenner, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824,
+  and has since been confirmed by several observers, especially
+  by Mr. Blackwall. This latter careful observer examined, late
+  in the autumn, during two years, thirty-six nests; he found
+  that twelve contained young dead birds, five contained eggs on
+  the point of being hatched, and three eggs not nearly hatched.
+  Many birds not yet old enough for a prolonged flight are
+  likewise deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, 'Researches
+  in Zoology,' 1834, pp. 108, 118. For some additional evidence,
+  although this is not wanted, see Leroy, 'Lettres Phil.' 1802,
+  p. 217.
+
+  [119] Hume remarks ('An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
+  Morals,' edit. of 1751, p. 132), "there seems a necessity for
+  confessing that the happiness and misery of others are not
+  spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of
+  the former ... communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the
+  latter ... throws a melancholy damp over the imagination."
+
+  [120] 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 254.
+
+  [121] I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian
+  Indians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to
+  betraying the plans of their companions in war ('Journal of
+  Researches,' 1845, p. 103).
+
+  [122] Dr. Prosper Despine, in his 'Psychologie Naturelle,' 1868
+  (tom. i. p. 243; tom ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of
+  the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely
+  destitute of conscience.
+
+  [123] See an able article in the 'North British Review,' 1867,
+  p. 395. See also Mr. W. Bagehot's articles on the Importance of
+  Obedience and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, &c.
+
+  [124] The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr.
+  Gerland, in his 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturv�lker,' 1868;
+  but I shall have to recur to the subject of infanticide in a
+  future chapter.
+
+  [125] See the very interesting discussion on Suicide in Lecky's
+  'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 223.
+
+  [126] See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton's account of the Kaffirs,
+  'Anthropological Review,' 1870, p. xv.
+
+  [127] Mr. M'Lennan has given 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p.
+  176, a good collection of facts on this head.
+
+  [128] Lecky, 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p.
+  109.
+
+  [129] 'Embassy to China,' vol. ii. p. 348.
+
+  [130] See on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir
+  J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.
+
+  [131] For instance Lecky, 'Hist. European Morals,' vol. i. p.
+  124.
+
+  [132] This term is used in an able article in the 'Westminster
+  Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the Greatest Happiness
+  principle, see J. S. Mill, 'Utilitarianism,' p. 17.
+
+  [133] Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in 'Scientific
+  Opinion,' Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his 'Contributions
+  to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 353.
+
+  [134] Tennyson, 'Idylls of the King,' p. 244.
+
+  [135] 'The Thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,' Eng.
+  translat., 2nd edit., 1869, p. 112. Marcus Aurelius was born
+  A.D. 121.
+
+  [136] Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain's 'Mental and Moral Science,'
+  1868, p. 722.
+
+  [137] A writer in the 'North British Review' (July, 1869, p.
+  531), well capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses
+  himself strongly to this effect. Mr. Lecky ('Hist. of Morals,'
+  vol. i. p. 143) seems to a certain extent to coincide.
+
+  [138] See his remarkable work on 'Hereditary Genius,' 1869, p.
+  349. The Duke of Argyll ('Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 188) has some
+  good remarks on the contest in man's nature between right and
+  wrong.
+
+  [139] 'The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,' &c., p. 139.
+
+  [140] 'Investigations in Military and Anthropolog. Statistics
+  of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 256.
+
+  [141] With respect to the "Cranial forms of the American
+  aborigines," see Dr. Aitken Meigs in 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.'
+  Philadelphia, May, 1866. On the Australians, see Huxley, in
+  Lyell's 'Antiquity of Man,' 1863, p. 87. On the Sandwich
+  Islanders, Prof. J. Wyman, 'Observations on Crania,' Boston,
+  1868, p. 18.
+
+  [142] 'Anatomy of the Arteries,' by R. Quain.
+
+  [143] 'Transact. Royal Soc.' Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 175, 189.
+
+  [144] 'Proc. Royal Soc.' 1867, p. 544; also 1868, p. 483, 524.
+  There is a previous paper, 1866, p. 229.
+
+  [145] 'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 141.
+
+  [146] 'Act. Acad.,' St. Petersburg, 1778, part ii. p. 217.
+
+  [147] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger,
+  'S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.
+
+  [148] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. chap. xii.
+
+  [149] 'Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry into its Laws and
+  Consequences,' 1869.
+
+  [150] Mr. Bates remarks ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863,
+  vol. ii. p. 159), with respect to the Indians of the same S.
+  American tribe, "no two of them were at all similar in the
+  shape of the head; one man had an oval visage with fine
+  features, and another was quite Mongolian in breadth and
+  prominence of cheek, spread of nostrils, and obliquity of
+  eyes."
+
+  [151] Blumenbach, 'Treatises on Anthropolog.' Eng. translat.,
+  1865, p. 205.
+
+  [152] Godron, 'De l'Esp�ce,' 1859, tom. ii. livre 3.
+  Quatrefages, 'Unit� de l'Esp�ce Humaine,' 1861. Also Lectures
+  on Anthropology, given in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,'
+  1866-1868.
+
+  [153] 'Hist. Gen. et Part. des Anomalies de l'Organisation,' in
+  three volumes, tom. i. 1832.
+
+  [154] I have fully discussed these laws in my 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xxii.
+  and xxiii. M. J. P. Durand has lately 1868; published a
+  valuable essay 'De l'Influence des Milieux, &c.' He lays much
+  stress on the nature of the soil.
+
+  [155] 'Investigations in Military and Anthrop. Statistics,' &c.
+  1869, by B. A. Gould, p. 93, 107, 126, 131, 134.
+
+  [156] For the Polynesians, see Prichard's 'Physical Hist. of
+  Mankind,' vol. v. 1847, p. 145, 283. Also Godron, 'De
+  l'Esp�ce,' tom. ii. p. 289. There is also a remarkable
+  difference in appearance between the closely-allied Hindoos
+  inhabiting the Upper Ganges and Bengal; see Elphinstone's
+  'History of India,' vol. i. p. 324.
+
+  [157] 'Memoirs, Anthropolog. Soc.' vol. iii. 1867-69, p. 561,
+  565, 567.
+
+  [158] Dr. Brakenridge, 'Theory of Diathesis,' 'Medical Times,'
+  June 19 and July 17, 1869.
+
+  [159] I have given authorities for these several statements in
+  my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p.
+  297-300. Dr. Jaeger, "Ueber das L�ngenwachsthum der Knochen,"
+  'Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft i.
+
+  [160] 'Investigations,' &c. By B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 288.
+
+  [161] 'S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 4.
+
+  [162] 'History of Greenland,' Eng. translat. 1767, vol. i. p.
+  230.
+
+  [163] 'Intermarriage.' By Alex. Walker, 1838. p. 377.
+
+  [164] 'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i.
+  p. 173.
+
+  [165] 'Principles of Biology,' vol. i. p. 455.
+
+  [166] Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' vol. i. 1853, p.
+  209.
+
+  [167] 'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  p. 8.
+
+  [168] 'S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 8, 10. I have had good
+  opportunities for observing the extraordinary power of eyesight
+  in the Fuegians.' See also Lawrence ('Lectures on Physiology,'
+  &c., 1822, p. 404) on this same subject. M. Giraud-Teulon has
+  recently collected ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1870, p.
+  625) a large and valuable body of evidence proving that the
+  cause of short-sight, "_C'est le travail assidu, de pr�s._"
+
+  [169] Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' on the authority of
+  Blumenbach, vol. i. 1851, p. 311; for the statement by Pallas,
+  vol. iv. 1844, p. 407.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Prichard, 'Researches into the Phys. Hist. of
+  Mankind,' vol. v. p. 463.
+
+  [171] Mr. Forbes' valuable paper is now published in the
+  'Journal of the Ethnological Soc. of London,' new series, vol.
+  ii. 1870, p. 193.
+
+  [172] Dr. Wilckens ('Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt,' No. 10,
+  1869) has lately published an interesting essay shewing how
+  domestic animals, which live in mountainous regions, have their
+  frames modified.
+
+  [173] 'M�moire sur les Microc�phales,' 1867, p. 50, 125, 169,
+  171, 184-198.
+
+  [174] See Dr. A. Farre's well-known article in the 'Cyclop. of
+  Anat. and Phys.' vol. v. 1859, p. 642. Owen 'Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 687. Prof. Turner in
+  'Edinburgh Medical Journal,' Feb. 1865.
+
+  [175] 'Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti in Modena,' 1867, p.
+  83. Prof. Canestrini gives extracts on this subject from
+  various authorities. Laurillard remarks, that as he has found a
+  complete similarity in the form, proportions, and connexion of
+  the two malar bones in several human subjects and in certain
+  apes, he cannot consider this disposition of the parts as
+  simply accidental.
+
+  [176] A whole series of cases is given by Isid. Geoffroy
+  St.-Hilaire, 'Hist. des Anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 437.
+
+  [177] In my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication' (vol.
+  ii. p. 57) I attributed the not very rare cases of
+  supernumerary mamm� in women to reversion. I was led to this as
+  a _probable_ conclusion, by the additional mamm� being
+  generally placed symmetrically on the breast, and more
+  especially from one case, in which a single efficient mamma
+  occurred in the inguinal region of a woman, the daughter of
+  another woman with supernumerary mamm�. But Prof. Preyer ('Der
+  Kampf um das Dasein,' 1869, s. 45) states that _mamm� erratic�_
+  have been known to occur in other situations, even on the back;
+  so that the force of my argument is greatly weakened or perhaps
+  quite destroyed.
+
+  With much hesitation I, in the same work (vol. ii. p. 12),
+  attributed the frequent cases of polydactylism in men to
+  reversion. I was partly led to this through Prof. Owen's
+  statement, that some of the Ichthyopterygia possess more than
+  five digits, and therefore, as I supposed, had retained a
+  primordial condition; but after reading Prof. Gegenbaur's paper
+  ('Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft 3, s. 341), who is the
+  highest authority in Europe on such a point, and who disputes
+  Owen's conclusion, I see that it is extremely doubtful whether
+  supernumerary digits can thus be accounted for. It was the fact
+  that such digits not only frequently occur and are strongly
+  inherited, but have the power of regrowth after amputation,
+  like the normal digits of the lower vertebrata, that chiefly
+  led me to the above conclusion. This extraordinary fact of
+  their regrowth remains inexplicable, if the belief in reversion
+  to some extremely remote progenitor must be rejected. I cannot,
+  however, follow Prof. Gegenbaur in supposing that additional
+  digits could not reappear through reversion, without at the
+  same time other parts of the skeleton being simultaneously and
+  similarly modified; for single characters often reappear
+  through reversion.
+
+  [178] 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 323.
+
+  [179] 'Generelle Morphologie,' 1866, B. ii. s. clv.
+
+  [180] Carl Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p.
+  151.
+
+  [181] C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, 'Anthropolog.
+  Review,' 1867, p. 295. Schaaffhausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [182] 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 110, 131.
+
+  [183] Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the 'Annuario,' &c., 1867,
+  p. 90.
+
+  [184] These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires
+  to learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come
+  to resemble those of the Quadrumana. The following references
+  relate to the few points touched on in my text: Proc. Royal
+  Soc. vol. xiv. 1865, p. 379-384; vol. xv. 1866, p. 241, 242;
+  vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I may here add
+  that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn in their
+  Memoir on the Lemuroidea ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii.
+  1869, p. 96), how extraordinarily variable some of the muscles
+  are in these animals, the lowest members of the Primates.
+  Gradations, also, in the muscles leading to structures found in
+  animals still lower in the scale, are numerous in the
+  Lemuroidea.
+
+  [185] Prof. Macalister in 'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x.
+  1868, p. 124.
+
+  [186] Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his
+  observations, and finds that muscular abnormalities are most
+  frequent in the fore-arms, secondly in the face, thirdly in the
+  foot, &c.
+
+  [187] The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving ('Proc. R. Irish
+  Academy,' June 27, 1864, p. 715) a remarkable case of variation
+  in the human _flexor pollicis longus_, adds, "This remarkable
+  example shews that man may sometimes possess the arrangement of
+  tendons of thumb and fingers characteristic of the macaque; but
+  whether such a case should be regarded as a macaque passing
+  upwards into a man, or a man passing downwards into a macaque,
+  or as a congenital freak of nature, I cannot undertake to say."
+  It is satisfactory to hear so capable an anatomist, and so
+  embittered an opponent of evolutionism, admitting even the
+  possibility of either of his first propositions. Prof.
+  Macalister has also described ('Proc. R. Irish Acad.' vol. x.
+  1864, p. 138) variations in the _flexor pollicis longus_,
+  remarkable from their relations to the same muscle in the
+  Quadrumana.
+
+  [188] The authorities for these several statements are given in
+  my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p.
+  320-335.
+
+  [189] This whole subject has been discussed in chap. xxiii.
+  vol. ii. of my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication.'
+
+  [190] See the ever memorable 'Essay on the Principle of
+  Population,' by the Rev. T. Malthus, vol. i. 1826, p. 6, 517.
+
+  [191] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. p. 111-113, 163.
+
+  [192] Mr. Sedgwick, 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg.
+  Review,' July, 1863, p. 170.
+
+  [193] 'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' by W. W. Hunter, 1868, p.
+  259.
+
+  [194] 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865.
+
+  [195] See some good remarks to this effect by W. Stanley
+  Jevons, "A Deduction from Darwin's Theory," 'Nature,' 1869, p.
+  231.
+
+  [196] Latham, 'Man and his Migrations,' 1851, p. 135.
+
+  [197] Messrs. Murie and Mivart in their "Anatomy of the
+  Lemuroidea" ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 96-98)
+  say, "some muscles are so irregular in their distribution that
+  they cannot be well classed in any of the above groups." These
+  muscles differ even on the opposite sides of the same
+  individual.
+
+  [198] 'Quarterly Review,' April, 1869, p. 392. This subject is
+  more fully discussed in Mr. Wallace's 'Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, in which all the essays
+  referred to in this work are republished. The 'Essay on Man'
+  has been ably criticised by Prof. Clapar�de, one of the most
+  distinguished zoologists in Europe, in an article published in
+  the 'Biblioth�que Universelle,' June, 1870. The remark quoted
+  in my text will surprise every one who has read Mr. Wallace's
+  celebrated paper on 'The Origin of Human Races deduced from the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' originally published in the
+  'Anthropological Review,' May, 1864, p. clviii. I cannot here
+  resist quoting a most just remark by Sir J. Lubbock
+  ('Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 479) in reference to this paper,
+  namely, that Mr. Wallace, "with characteristic unselfishness,
+  ascribes it (_i.e._ the idea of natural selection) unreservedly
+  to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well known, he struck out the
+  idea independently, and published it, though not with the same
+  elaboration, at the same time."
+
+  [199] Quoted by Mr. Lawson Tait in his "Law of Natural
+  Selection,"--'Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,'
+  Feb. 1869. Dr. Keller is likewise quoted to the same effect.
+
+  [200] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 71.
+
+  [201] 'Quarterly Review,' April, 1869, p. 392.
+
+  [202] In _Hylobates syndactylus_, as the name expresses, two of
+  the digits regularly cohere; and this, as Mr. Blyth informs me,
+  is occasionally the case with the digits of _H. agilis_, _lar_,
+  and _leuciscus_.
+
+  [203] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 80.
+
+  [204] "The Hand, its mechanism," &c. 'Bridgewater Treatise,'
+  1833, p. 38.
+
+  [205] H�ckel has an excellent discussion on the steps by which
+  man became a biped: 'Nat�rliche Sch�pfungsgeschichte,' 1868, s.
+  507. Dr. B�chner ('Conf�rences sur la Th�orie Darwinienne,'
+  1869, p. 135) has given good cases of the use of the foot as a
+  prehensile organ by man; also on the manner of progression of
+  the higher apes to which I allude in the following paragraph:
+  see also Owen ('Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 71) on
+  this latter subject.
+
+  [206] "On the Primitive Form of the Skull," translated in
+  'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 428. Owen ('Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,' vol. ii. 1866, p. 551) on the mastoid processes
+  in the higher apes.
+
+  [207] 'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt, eine Betrachtung zu Darwin's
+  Lehre,' 1868, s. 51.
+
+  [208] Dujardin, 'Annales des Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog. tom.
+  xiv. 1850, p. 203. See also Mr. Lowne, 'Anatomy and Phys. of
+  the _Musca vomitoria_,' 1870, p. 14. My son, Mr. F. Darwin,
+  dissected for me the cerebral ganglia of the _Formica rufa_.
+
+  [209] 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1869, p. 513.
+
+  [210] Quoted in C. Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat.
+  1864, p. 88, 90. Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' vol. i.
+  1838, p. 305.
+
+  [211] 'Comptes Rendus des S�ances,' &c. June 1, 1868.
+
+  [212] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 124-129.
+
+  [213] Schaaffhausen gives from Blumenbach and Busch, the cases
+  of the spasms and cicatrix, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' Oct.
+  1868, p. 420. Dr. Jarrold ('Anthropologia,' 1808, p. 115, 116)
+  adduces from Camper and from his own observations, cases of the
+  modification of the skull from the head being fixed in an
+  unnatural position. He believes that certain trades, such as
+  that of a shoemaker, by causing the head to be habitually held
+  forward, makes the forehead more rounded and prominent.
+
+  [214] 'Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. i. p. 117 on the
+  elongation of the skull; p. 119, on the effect of the lopping
+  of one ear.
+
+  [215] Quoted by Schaaffhausen, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' Oct.
+  1868, p. 419.
+
+  [216] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619.
+
+  [217] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire remarks ('Hist. Nat.
+  G�n�rale,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 215-217) on the head of man being
+  covered with long hair; also on the upper surfaces of monkeys
+  and of other mammals being more thickly clothed than the lower
+  surfaces. This has likewise been observed by various authors.
+  Prof. P. Gervais ('Hist. Nat. des Mammif�res,' tom. i. 1854, p.
+  28), however, states that in the Gorilla the hair is thinner on
+  the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower
+  surface.
+
+  [218] Mr. St. George Mivart, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 562,
+  583. Dr. J. E. Gray, 'Cat. Brit. Mus.: Skeletons.' Owen,
+  'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 517. Isidore Geoffroy,
+  'Hist. Nat. G�n.' tom. ii. p. 244.
+
+  [219] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 280, 282.
+
+  [220] 'Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 66.
+
+  [221] 'Anthropological Review,' May, 1864, p. clviii.
+
+  [222] After a time the members or tribes which are absorbed
+  into another tribe assume, as Mr. Maine remarks ('Ancient Law,'
+  1861, p. 131), that they are the co-descendants of the same
+  ancestors.
+
+  [223] Morlot, 'Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat.' 1860, p. 294.
+
+  [224] I have given instances in my 'Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 196.
+
+  [225] See a remarkable series of articles on Physics and
+  Politics in the 'Fortnightly Review,' Nov. 1867; April 1, 1868;
+  July 1, 1869.
+
+  [226] 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 265.
+
+  [227] Mr. Wallace gives cases in his 'Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 354.
+
+  [228] 'Ancient Law,' 1861, p. 22. For Mr. Bagehot's remarks,
+  'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1868, p. 452.
+
+  [229] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. i. p. 309.
+
+  [230] 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 353. This article
+  seems to have struck many persons, and has given rise to two
+  remarkable essays and a rejoinder in the 'Spectator,' Oct. 3rd
+  and 17th 1868. It has also been discussed in the 'Q. Journal of
+  Science,' 1869, p. 152, and by Mr. Lawson Tait in the 'Dublin
+  Q. Journal of Medical Science,' Feb. 1869, and by Mr. E. Ray
+  Lankester in his 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 128. Similar
+  views appeared previously in the 'Australasian,' July 13, 1867.
+  I have borrowed ideas from several of these writers.
+
+  [231] For Mr. Wallace, see 'Anthropolog. Review,' as before
+  cited. Mr. Galton in 'Macmillan's Magazine,' Aug. 1865, p. 318;
+  also his great work, 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870.
+
+  [232] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 132-140.
+
+  [233] See the fifth and sixth columns, compiled from good
+  authorities, in the table given in Mr. E. R. Lankester's
+  'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115.
+
+  [234] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 330.
+
+  [235] 'Origin of Species' (fifth edition, 1869), p. 104.
+
+  [236] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 347.
+
+  [237] E. Ray Lankester, 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115.
+  The table of the intemperate is from Nelson's 'Vital
+  Statistics.' In regard to profligacy, see Dr. Farr, "Influence
+  of Marriage on Mortality," 'Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of
+  Social Science,' 1858.
+
+  [238] 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 353. 'Macmillan's
+  Magazine,' Aug. 1865, p. 318. The Rev. F. W. Farrar ('Fraser's
+  Mag.,' Aug. 1870, p. 264) takes a different view.
+
+  [239] "On the Laws of the Fertility of Women," in 'Transact.
+  Royal Soc.' Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 287. See, also, Mr.
+  Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' p. 352-357, for observations to
+  the above effect.
+
+  [240] 'Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in
+  Scotland,' 1867, p. xxix.
+
+  [241] These quotations are taken from our highest authority on
+  such questions, namely, Dr. Farr, in his paper "On the
+  Influence of Marriage on the Mortality of the French People,"
+  read before the Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of Social
+  Science, 1858.
+
+  [242] Dr. Farr, ibid. The quotations given below are extracted
+  from the same striking paper.
+
+  [243] I have taken the mean of the quinquennial means, given in
+  'The Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,'
+  1867. The quotation from Dr. Stark is copied from an article in
+  the 'Daily News,' Oct. 17th, 1868, which Dr. Farr considers
+  very carefully written.
+
+  [244] See the ingenious and original argument on this subject
+  by Mr. Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' p. 340-342.
+
+  [245] Mr. Greg, 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 357.
+
+  [246] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 357-359. The Rev. F. H.
+  Farrar ('Fraser's Mag.' , Aug. 1870, p. 257) advances arguments
+  on the other side. Sir C. Lyell had already ('Principles of
+  Geology,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 489) called attention, in a
+  striking passage, to the evil influence of the Holy Inquisition
+  in having lowered, through selection, the general standard of
+  intelligence in Europe.
+
+  [247] Mr. Galton, 'Macmillan's Magazine,' August, 1865, p. 325.
+  See, also, 'Nature,' "On Darwinism and National Life," Dec.
+  1869, p. 184.
+
+  [248] 'Last Winter in the United States,' 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [249] 'On the Origin of Civilisation,' 'Proc. Ethnological
+  Soc.' Nov. 26, 1867.
+
+  [250] 'Primeval Man,' 1869.
+
+  [251] 'Royal Institution of Great Britain,' March 15, 1867.
+  Also, 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 1865.
+
+  [252] 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See, likewise, an excellent
+  article, evidently by the same author, in the 'North British
+  Review,' July, 1869. Also, Mr. L. H. Morgan, "A Conjectural
+  Solution of the Origin of the Class. System of Relationship,"
+  in 'Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,' vol. vii. Feb. 1868.
+  Prof. Schaaffhausen ('Anthropolog. Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 373)
+  remarks on "the vestiges of human sacrifices found both in
+  Homer and the Old Testament."
+
+  [253] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869,
+  chap. xv. and xvi. _et passim_.
+
+  [254] Dr. F. M�ller has made some good remarks to this effect
+  in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' Abtheil. iii.
+  1868, s. 127.
+
+  [255] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of
+  the position assigned to man by various naturalists in their
+  classifications: 'Hist. Nat. G�n.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 170-189.
+
+  [256] See the very interesting article, "L'Instinct chez les
+  Insectes," by M. George Pouchet, 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' Feb.
+  1870, p. 682.
+
+  [257] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  87.
+
+  [258] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 4.
+
+  [259] 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 70, _et
+  passim_.
+
+  [260] Isid. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. G�n.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.
+
+  [261] "Ueber die Richtung der Haare," &c., M�ller's 'Archiv f�r
+  Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 51.
+
+  [262] On the hair in Hylobates, see 'Nat. Hist. of Mammals,' by
+  C. L. Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isid. Geoffroy on the
+  American monkeys and other kinds, 'Hist. Nat. G�n.' vol. ii.
+  1859, p. 216, 243. Eschricht, ibid., s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, 'Anat.
+  of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619. Wallace, 'Contributions to
+  the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870. p. 344.
+
+  [263] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. 1869, p. 194. 'The
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 348.
+
+  [264] 'An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,' 1869,
+  p. 99.
+
+  [265] This is nearly the same classification as that
+  provisionally adopted by Mr. St. George Mivart ('Transact.
+  Philosoph. Soc.' 1867, p. 300), who, after separating the
+  Lemurid�, divides the remainder of the Primates into the
+  Hominid�, the Simiad� answering to the Catarhines, the Cebid�,
+  and the Hapalid�,--these two latter groups answering to the
+  Platyrhines.
+
+  [266] 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.
+
+  [267] Mr. St. G. Mivart, 'Transact. Phil. Soc.' 1867, p. 410.
+
+  [268] Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea. 'Transact.
+  Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 5.
+
+  [269] H�ckel has come to this same conclusion. See 'Ueber die
+  Entstehung des Menschengeschlechts,' in Virchow's 'Sammlung.
+  gemein. wissen. Vortr�ge,' 1868, s. 61. Also his 'Nat�rliche
+  Sch�pfungsgeschichte,' 1868, in which he gives in detail his
+  views on the genealogy of man.
+
+  [270] 'Anthropological Review,' April, 1867, p. 236.
+
+  [271] 'Elements of Geology,' 1865, p. 583-585. 'Antiquity of
+  Man', 1863; p. 145.
+
+  [272] 'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 105.
+
+  [273] Elaborate tables are given in his 'Generelle Morphologie'
+  (B. ii. s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference
+  to man in his 'Nat�rliche Sch�pfungsgeschichte,' 1868. Prof.
+  Huxley, in reviewing this latter work ('The Academy,' 1869, p.
+  42) says, that he considers the phylum or lines of descent of
+  the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed by H�ckel, although he
+  differs on some points. He expresses, also, his high estimate
+  of the value of the general tenor and spirit of the whole work.
+
+  [274] 'Pal�ontology,' 1860, p. 199.
+
+  [275] I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Falkland
+  Islands, in April, 1833, and therefore some years before any
+  other naturalist, the locomotive larv� of a compound Ascidian,
+  closely allied to, but apparently generically distinct from,
+  Synoicum. The tail was about five times as long as the oblong
+  head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It was plainly
+  divided, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, by
+  transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the
+  great cells figured by Kowalevsky. At an early stage of
+  development the tail was closely coiled round the head of the
+  larva.
+
+  [276] 'M�moires de l'Acad. des Sciences de St. P�tersbourg,'
+  tom. x. No. 15, 1866.
+
+  [277] This is the conclusion of one of the highest authorities
+  in comparative anatomy, namely, Prof. Gegenbaur: 'Grundz�ge der
+  vergleich. Anat.' 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at
+  chiefly from the study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the
+  researches of Waldeyer (as quoted in Humphry's 'Journal of
+  Anat. and Phys.' 1869, p. 161), that the sexual organs of even
+  "the higher vertebrata are, in their early condition,
+  hermaphrodite." Similar views have long been held by some
+  authors, though until recently not well based.
+
+  [278] The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen,
+  'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 771.
+
+  [279] Serranus is well known often to be in an hermaphrodite
+  condition; but Dr. G�nther informs me that he is convinced that
+  this is not its normal state. Descent from an ancient
+  androgynous prototype would, however, naturally favour and
+  explain, to a certain extent, the recurrence of this condition
+  in these fishes.
+
+  [280] Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in 'Quart. Journal of
+  Science,' April, 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of
+  the development of Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal
+  pouch of the male in some way afford nourishment. On male
+  fishes hatching the ova in their mouths, see a very interesting
+  paper by Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.'
+  Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anat. and
+  Phys.' Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. G�nther has likewise described
+  similar cases.
+
+  [281] All vital functions tend to run their course in fixed and
+  recurrent periods, and with tidal animals the periods would
+  probably be lunar; for such animals must have been left dry or
+  covered deep with water,--supplied with copious food or
+  stinted,--during endless generations, at regular lunar
+  intervals. If then the Vertebrata are descended from an animal
+  allied to the existing tidal Ascidians, the mysterious fact,
+  that with the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, not to
+  mention other classes, many normal and abnormal vital processes
+  run their course according to lunar periods, is rendered
+  intelligible. A recurrent period, if approximately of the right
+  duration, when once gained, would not, as far as we can judge,
+  be liable to be changed; consequently it might be thus
+  transmitted during almost any number of generations. This
+  conclusion, if it could be proved sound, would be curious; for
+  we should then see that the period of gestation in each mammal,
+  and the hatching of each bird's eggs, and many other vital
+  processes, still betrayed the primordial birthplace of these
+  animals.
+
+  [282] 'History of India,' 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa
+  makes exactly the same remark with respect to the Chinese.
+
+  [283] A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and
+  Indians, are given in the 'Investigations in the Military and
+  Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould,
+  1869, p. 298-358; on the capacity of the lungs, p. 471. See
+  also the numerous and valuable tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from
+  the observations of Dr. Scherzer and Dr. Schwarz, in the 'Reise
+  der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867.
+
+  [284] See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of the brain of
+  a Bush-woman, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1864, p. 519.
+
+  [285] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.
+
+  [286] With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves
+  of Abou-Simbel, M. Pouchet says ('The Plurality of the Human
+  Races,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 50), that he was far from
+  finding recognisable representations of the dozen or more
+  nations which some authors believe that they can recognise.
+  Even some of the most strongly-marked races cannot be
+  identified with that degree of unanimity which might have been
+  expected from what has been written on the subject. Thus
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon ('Types of Mankind,' p. 148) state
+  that Rameses II., or the Great, has features superbly European;
+  whereas Knox, another firm believer in the specific distinction
+  of the races of man ('Races of Man,' 1850, p. 201), speaking of
+  young Memnon (the same person with Rameses II., as I am
+  informed by Mr. Birch) insists in the strongest manner that he
+  is identical in character with the Jews of Antwerp. Again,
+  whilst looking in the British Museum with two competent judges,
+  officers of the establishment, at the statue of Amunoph III.,
+  we agreed that he had a strongly negro cast of features; but
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (ibid. p. 146, fig. 53) describe him
+  as "a hybrid, but not of negro intermixture."
+
+  [287] As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854,
+  p. 439. They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt
+  thinks that the subject requires further investigation.
+
+  [288] "Diversity of Origin of the Human Races," in the
+  'Christian Examiner,' July, 1850.
+
+  [289] 'Transact. B. Soc. of Edinburgh,' vol. xxii. 1861, p.
+  567.
+
+  [290] 'On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,' Eng.
+  translat. 1864.
+
+  [291] See the interesting letter by Mr. T. A. Murray, in the
+  'Anthropolog. Review,' April, 1868, p. liii. In this letter
+  Count Strzelecki's statement, that Australian women who have
+  borne children to a white man are afterwards sterile with their
+  own race, is disproved. M. A. de Quatrefages has also collected
+  ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' March, 1869, p. 239) much
+  evidence that Australians and Europeans are not sterile when
+  crossed.
+
+  [292] 'An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch of the Nat.
+  Provinces of the Animal World,' Charleston, 1855, p. 44.
+
+  [293] 'Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American
+  Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.
+
+  [294] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 109. I may here remind the reader
+  that the sterility of species when crossed is not a
+  specially-acquired quality; but, like the incapacity of certain
+  trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other acquired
+  differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but
+  they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and
+  much less to external structure or to ordinary differences in
+  constitution. One important element in the sterility of crossed
+  species apparently lies in one or both having been long
+  habituated to fixed conditions; for we know that changed
+  conditions have a special influence on the reproductive system,
+  and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked) that
+  the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate
+  that sterility which is so general with species in a natural
+  state when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid.
+  vol. ii. p. 185, and 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 317)
+  that the sterility of crossed species has not been acquired
+  through natural selection: we can see that when two forms have
+  already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely possible
+  that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or
+  survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for as the
+  sterility increases fewer and fewer offspring will be produced
+  from which to breed, and at last only single individuals will
+  be produced, at the rarest intervals. But there is even a
+  higher grade of sterility than this. Both G�rtner and K�lreuter
+  have proved that in genera of plants including numerous
+  species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed
+  yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a
+  single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other
+  species, for the germen swells. It is here manifestly
+  impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have
+  already ceased to yield seeds; so that the acme of sterility,
+  when the germen alone is affected, cannot be gained through
+  selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades of
+  sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown
+  differences in the constitution of the reproductive system of
+  the species which are crossed.
+
+  [295] 'The Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. ii. p. 92.
+
+  [296] M. de Quatrefages has given ('Anthropolog. Review,' Jan.
+  1869, p. 22) an interesting account of the success and energy
+  of the Paulistas in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of
+  Portuguese and Indians, with a mixture of the blood of other
+  races.
+
+  [297] For instance with the aborigines of America and
+  Australia. Prof. Huxley says ('Transact. Internat. Congress of
+  Prehist. Arch.' 1868. p. 105) that the skulls of many South
+  Germans and Swiss are "as short and as broad as those of the
+  Tartars," &c.
+
+  [298] See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz,
+  'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, p. 198-208,
+  227. I have taken some of the above statements from H. Tuttle's
+  'Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man,' Boston, 1866, p. 35.
+
+  [299] Prof. N�geli has carefully described several striking
+  cases in his 'Botanische Mittheilungen,' B. ii. 1866, s.
+  294-369. Prof. Asa Gray has made analogous remarks on some
+  intermediate forms in the Composit� of N. America.
+
+  [300] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 68.
+
+  [301] See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' 1865, p. 275.
+
+  [302] 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 468.
+
+  [303] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 46. 'Vorstudien f�r
+  Geschichte, &c., Schweinesch�del,' 1864, s. 104. With respect
+  to cattle, see M. de Quatrefages, 'Unit� de l'Esp�ce Humaine,'
+  1861, p. 119.
+
+  [304] Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865; for the
+  evidence with respect to gesture-language, see p. 54. Lubbock's
+  'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869.
+
+  [305] 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' Eng.
+  translat. edited by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.
+
+  [306] Hodder M. Westropp, on Cromlechs, &c., 'Journal of
+  Ethnological Soc.' as given in 'Scientific Opinion,' June 2nd.
+  1869, p. 3.
+
+  [307] 'Journal of Researches: Voyage of the "Beagle,"' p. 46.
+
+  [308] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 574.
+
+  [309] Translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p.
+  431.
+
+  [310] 'Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.' 1868,
+  p. 172-175. See also Broca (translation) in 'Anthropological
+  Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 410.
+
+  [311] Dr. Gerland, 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturv�lker,'
+  1868, s. 82.
+
+  [312] Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this
+  statement.
+
+  [313] See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland's 'Medical
+  Notes and Reflections,' 1839, p. 390.
+
+  [314] I have collected ('Journal of Researches, Voyage of the
+  "Beagle,"' p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject:
+  see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the "breath of
+  civilisation as poisonous to savages."
+
+  [315] Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p.
+  284.
+
+  [316] Bagehot, "Physics and Politics," 'Fortnightly Review,'
+  April 1, 1868, p. 455.
+
+  [317] "On Anthropology," translation, 'Anthropolog. Review,'
+  Jan. 1868, p. 38.
+
+  [318] 'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' 1868, p. 134.
+
+  [319] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 95.
+
+  [320] Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p.
+  69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his 'Beytr�ge zur
+  Anthropologie,' 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is
+  given by Godron, 'De l'Esp�ce,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &c.
+
+  [321] Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, 'Races of Man,'
+  1850, p. 473.
+
+  [322] See De Quatrefages on this head, 'Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,' Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.
+
+  [323] Livingstone's 'Travels and Researches in S. Africa,'
+  1857, p. 338, 329. D'Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, 'De
+  l'Esp�ce,' vol. ii. p. 266.
+
+  [324] See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and
+  published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr.
+  Wells' views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my 'Origin of
+  Species.' Various cases of colour correlated with
+  constitutional peculiarities are given in my 'Variation of
+  Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 227, 335.
+
+  [325] See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,'
+  p. 68.
+
+  [326] Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical
+  Society, April 20th, 1840, and given in the 'Athen�um,' 1840,
+  p. 353.
+
+  [327] 'The Plurality of the Human Race' (translat.), 1864, p.
+  60.
+
+  [328] Quatrefages, 'Unit� de l'Esp�ce Humaine,' 1861, p. 205.
+  Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' translat. vol. i. 1863, p.
+  124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his 'Travels.'
+
+  [329] In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the
+  Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to
+  transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign
+  service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but
+  I have received no returns. "As several well-marked cases have
+  been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between
+  the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and
+  it being notorious that there is some limited degree of
+  relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate
+  inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth
+  consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in
+  Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability
+  to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the
+  several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical
+  districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of
+  comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are
+  drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of
+  intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were
+  kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered
+  from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would
+  soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated,
+  whether there exists any relation between the colour of the
+  hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps
+  no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is
+  well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained,
+  it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any
+  particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high
+  interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men
+  inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate,
+  might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of
+  dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long
+  succession of generations."
+
+  [330] 'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1866, p. xxi.
+
+  [331] See, for instance, Quatrefages ('Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,' Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of
+  residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases.
+  Dr. Rolle ('Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,' &c., 1865, s. 99)
+  states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number
+  of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the
+  course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes
+  informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in
+  colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by
+  them.
+
+  [332] Harlan, 'Medical Researches,' p. 532. Quatrefages ('Unit�
+  de l'Esp�ce Humaine,' 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence
+  on this head.
+
+  [333] See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in 'Anthropological
+  Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [334] Mr. Catlin states ('N. American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842,
+  vol. i. p. 49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about
+  one in ten or twelve of the members of all ages and both sexes
+  have bright silvery grey hair, which is hereditary. Now this
+  hair is as coarse and harsh as that of a horse's mane, whilst
+  the hair of other colours is fine and soft.
+
+  [335] On the odour of the skin, Godron, 'Sur l'Esp�ce,' tom.
+  ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, 'Die
+  Aufgaben der landwirth. Zootechnik,' 1869, s. 7.
+
+  [336] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1810, p.
+  541. In regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below,
+  I am indebted to Fritz M�ller.
+
+  [337] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 309.
+
+  [338] Even with those of plants in which the sexes are
+  separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the
+  female. Many hermaphrodite plants are, as first shewn by C. K.
+  Sprengel, dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs
+  are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be
+  self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is generally
+  mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there are
+  some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature
+  before the male.
+
+  [339] I have received information, hereafter to be given, to
+  this effect with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as
+  pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr.
+  Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows
+  weak.
+
+  [340] On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, 'Boston Journal of Nat.
+  Hist.' vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm,
+  'Illust. Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger,
+  'Naturgesch.: S�ugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 14, 20. On
+  Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.
+
+  [341] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir
+  Andrew Smith, 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,'
+  1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his 'Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates' (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table
+  incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and which
+  are gregarious.
+
+  [342] Dr. Campbell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 138. See
+  also an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in 'Proc.
+  Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' May, 1868.
+
+  [343] 'The Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne
+  Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii.
+  1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great
+  Bustard, see L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 19, and
+  182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous
+  and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.
+
+  [344] The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively
+  ('Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the
+  guinea-fowl being infertile when more than one female is kept
+  with the same male.
+
+  [345] Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.
+
+  [346] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 342.
+
+  [347] One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the
+  rule, as the male has rudimentary wings, and never quits the
+  cell in which it is born, whilst the female has well-developed
+  wings. Audouin believes that the females are impregnated by the
+  males which are born in the same cells with them; but it is
+  much more probable that the females visit other cells, and thus
+  avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter meet with a few
+  exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the female,
+  instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.
+
+  [348] 'Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861,
+  p. 194.
+
+  [349] Prof. Sachs ('Lehrbuch der Botanik,' 1870, s. 633) in
+  speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks,
+  "verh�lt sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die
+  andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv."
+
+  [350] 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, s. 216-269.
+  The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements
+  made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater
+  variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my
+  'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 75.
+
+  [351] 'Proceedings Royal Soc.' vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and
+  524.
+
+  [352] 'Proc. Royal Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 123.
+
+  [353] 'Massachusetts Medical Soc.' vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.
+
+  [354] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but
+  one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded
+  to, is fully explained.
+
+  [355] These facts are given on the high authority of a great
+  breeder, Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1868, p.
+  158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on
+  the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph,
+  see 'Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii.
+  p. 77.
+
+  [356] 'Nov� species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7.
+  On the transmission of colour by the horse, see 'Variation of
+  Animals, &c. under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii.
+  p. 71, for a general discussion on Inheritance as limited by
+  Sex.
+
+  [357] Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.
+  Boitard et Corbi�, 'Les Pigeons de Voli�re,' &c., 1824, p. 173.
+
+  [358] References are given in my 'Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 72.
+
+  [359] I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made
+  enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of
+  Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to
+  the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I am
+  obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the
+  _Cervus alces_ of N. America, see 'Land and Water,' 1868, p.
+  221 and 254; and for the _C. Virginianus_ and _strongyloceros_
+  of the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in 'Ottawa Acad. of
+  Nat. Sc.' 1868, p. 13. For _Cervus Eldi_ of Pegu, see Lieut.
+  Beavan, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1867, p. 762.
+
+  [360] _Antilocapra Americana._ Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,'
+  vol. iii. p. 627.
+
+  [361] I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North
+  Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in
+  length, at birth. With cattle Youatt says ('Cattle,' 1834, p.
+  277) that the prominence of the frontal bone penetrates the
+  cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over
+  it.
+
+  [362] I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having
+  made inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with
+  respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of
+  Africa there is a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the
+  rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in
+  the one case observed, a young ram born on Feb. 10th first
+  showed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance the
+  development of the horns occurred at a later period of life,
+  conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in which
+  both sexes are horned.
+
+  [363] In the common peacock (_Pavo cristatus_) the male alone
+  possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (_P.
+  muticus_) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs.
+  Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would
+  have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock;
+  but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of
+  the previous year, belonging to both species, compared on April
+  23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the
+  spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by
+  slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been
+  informed if any difference in the rate of development had
+  subsequently been observed.
+
+  [364] In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in
+  the two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been
+  able to discover whether its full development occurs later in
+  life in the males of such species, than in the male of the
+  common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule.
+  With the allied _Mergus cucullatus_ we have, however, a case of
+  this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general
+  plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is
+  pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the
+  young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and
+  have a greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at
+  an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his
+  other more strongly-marked sexual differences in plumage: see
+  Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. 1835, p.
+  249-250.
+
+  [365] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' 1837, s. 21, 24. For the
+  case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon
+  Voyageur Belge.' 1865, p. 87.
+
+  [366] For full particulars and references on all these points
+  respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 250, 256.
+  In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which
+  have arisen under domestication are described in the same work
+  under the head of each species.
+
+  [367] 'Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for
+  1866.' In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is
+  given.
+
+  [368] For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye's
+  researches, in 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,'
+  April, 1867, p. 343, 345. For France, the 'Annuaire pour l'An
+  1867.' p. 213.
+
+  [369] In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, 'La Loi de
+  Production des Sexes,' 1863, p. 25.
+
+  [370] Babbage, 'Edinburgh Journal of Science,' 1829, vol. i. p.
+  88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate
+  children in England, see 'Report of Registrar-General for
+  1866,' p. xv.
+
+  [371] 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,' April,
+  1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks ('Tenth Annual Report of
+  Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,' 1867, p. xxviii) that "These
+  examples may suffice to shew that, at almost every stage of
+  life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death
+  and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of
+  this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that
+  infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general
+  treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the
+  higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and
+  constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone."
+
+  [372] With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the
+  accurate Azara ('Voyages dans l'Am�rique m�rid.' tom. ii. 1809,
+  p. 60, 179), the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to
+  13.
+
+  [373] Leuckart in Wagner, 'Handw�rterbuch der Phys.' B. iv.
+  1853, s. 774.
+
+  [374] Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.
+
+  [375] During the last eleven years a record has been kept of
+  the number of mares which have proved barren or prematurely
+  slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how
+  infertile these highly-nurtured and rather closely-interbred
+  animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares
+  failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male
+  colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to
+  produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were
+  born, and 794 mares failed.
+
+  [376] I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for
+  me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the
+  following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first
+  called my attention to the premature deaths of the males,--a
+  statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others.
+  To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for
+  the larger returns on sheep.
+
+  [377] Bell, 'History of British Quadrupeds,' p. 100.
+
+  [378] 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,' 1849, pl.
+  29.
+
+  [379] Brehm ('Illust. Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 990) comes to the
+  same conclusion.
+
+  [380] On the authority of L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,'
+  1867, p. 12, 132.
+
+  [381] 'Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,' letter xxix. edit. of 1825,
+  vol. i. p. 139.
+
+  [382] Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making
+  enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of
+  chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a
+  match between two experts; and one man caught in a day 62, and
+  another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught
+  by one man in a single day was 70.
+
+  [383] 'Ibis,' vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould's
+  'Trochilid�,' 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions, I am
+  indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.
+
+  [384] 'Ibis,' 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.
+
+  [385] 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 137.
+
+  [386] Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, 'Handw�rterbuch der Phys.'
+  B. iv. 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many
+  males as females.
+
+  [387] Quoted in the 'Farmer,' March 18, 1869, p. 369.
+
+  [388] 'The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,' 1866, p.
+  23. The 'Field' newspaper, June 29th, 1867.
+
+  [389] 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 41.
+
+  [390] Yarrell, 'Hist. British Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, p. 307; on
+  the _Cyprinus carpio_, p. 331; on the _Tinca vulgaris_, p. 331;
+  on the _Abramis brama_, p. 336. See, for the minnow (_Leuciscus
+  phoxinus_), 'Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1832, p. 682.
+
+  [391] Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, 'Handw�rterbuch der
+  Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that with Butterflies the males are
+  three or four times as numerous as the females.
+
+  [392] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, p. 228,
+  347.
+
+  [393] Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his
+  'Rhopalocera Afric� Australis.'
+
+  [394] Quoted by Trimen, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. v. part iv.
+  1866, p. 330.
+
+  [395] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. p. 37.
+
+  [396] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Feb. 17th, 1868.
+
+  [397] Quoted by Dr. Wallace in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series,
+  vol. v. 1867, p. 487.
+
+  [398] Blanchard, 'Metamorphoses, Moeurs des Insectes,' 1868, p.
+  225-226.
+
+  [399] 'Lepidopteren-Doubblettren Liste,' Berlin, No. x. 1866.
+
+  [400] This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some
+  results from former years, in which the females seemed to
+  preponderate; but so many of the figures were estimates, that I
+  found it impossible to tabulate them.
+
+  [401] G�nther's 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p.
+  260. On the excess of female Lucanus, ibid. p. 250. On the
+  males of Lucanus in England, Westwood, 'Modern Class. of
+  Insects,' vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium, ibid. p. 172.
+
+  [402] Walsh, in 'The American Entomologist,' vol. i. 1869, p.
+  103. F. Smith, 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p. 328.
+
+  [403] 'Farm Insects,' p. 45-46.
+
+  [404] 'Observations on N. American Neuroptera,' by H. Hagen and
+  B. D. Walsh, 'Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,' Oct. 1863, p. 168,
+  223, 239.
+
+  [405] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. London,' Feb. 17, 1868.
+
+  [406] Another great authority in this class, Prof. Thorell of
+  Upsala ('On European Spiders,' 1869-70, part i. p. 205) speaks
+  as if female spiders were generally commoner than the males.
+
+  [407] See, on this subject, Mr. Pickard-Cambridge, as quoted in
+  'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [408] I have often been struck with the fact, that in several
+  species of Primula the seeds in the capsules which contained
+  only a few were very much larger than the numerous seeds in the
+  more productive capsules.
+
+  [409] 'Principles of Biology,' vol. ii. 1867, chaps. ii.-xi.
+
+  [410] 'De l'Esp�ce et de la Class.' &c., 1869, p. 106.
+
+  [411] See, for instance, the account which I have given in my
+  'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 7.
+
+  [412] I have given ('Geolog. Observations on Volcanic Islands,'
+  1844, p. 53) a curious instance of the influence of light on
+  the colours of a frondescent incrustation, deposited by the
+  surf on the coast-rocks of Ascension, and formed by the
+  solution of triturated sea-shells.
+
+  [413] 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' English translat. 1869,
+  p. 20. See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads.
+  Sars has described a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in
+  'Nature,' 1870, p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the
+  _Pontoporeia affinis_.
+
+  [414] See Sir J. Lubbock in 'Annals. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'
+  vol. xi. 1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853) pl. vii. See
+  also Lubbock in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. new series,
+  1856-1858, p. 8. With respect to the zigzagged antenn�
+  mentioned below, see Fritz M�ller, 'Facts and Arguments for
+  Darwin' 1869, p. 40, foot-note.
+
+  [415] See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in
+  'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of
+  the genus, ibid. p. 585. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence
+  Bate for nearly all the above statements with respect to the
+  chel� of the higher crustaceans.
+
+  [416] 'Hist. Nat. des Crust.' tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.
+
+  [417] Fritz M�ller, 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' 1869, p.
+  25-28.
+
+  [418] 'Travels in the Interior of Brazil,' 1846, p. 111. I have
+  given, in my 'Journal of Researches,' p. 463, an account of the
+  habits of the Birgos.
+
+  [419] Mr. Ch. Fraser, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 3. I am
+  indebted to Mr. Bate for the statement from Dr. Power.
+
+  [420] Claus, 'Die freilebenden Copepoden,' 1863, s. 35.
+
+  [421] 'Facts and Arguments,' &c., p. 79.
+
+  [422] 'A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,' 1861-64. For
+  the following facts, see p. 102, 77, 88.
+
+  [423] Aug. Vinson ('Aran�ides des Iles de la R�union,' pl. vi.
+  figs. 1 and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the
+  male in _Epeira nigra_. In this species, as I may add, the male
+  is testaceous and the female black with legs banded with red.
+  Other even more striking cases of inequality in size between
+  the sexes have been recorded ('Quarterly Journal of Science,'
+  1868, July, p. 429); but I have not seen the original accounts.
+
+  [424] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. i.
+  1818, p. 280.
+
+  [425] Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4-punctatum et
+  guttatum; see Westring, in Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,' vol.
+  iv. 1842-1843, p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See,
+  also, for other species, 'Arane� Svecic�,' p. 184.
+
+  [426] Walckenaer et P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Insectes:
+  Apt�res,' tom. iv. 1847, p. 17, 19, 68.
+
+  [427] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxv. 1866,
+  p. 484. With respect to the Mutillid� see Westwood, 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 213.
+
+  [428] These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied
+  species, and afford excellent specific characters. But their
+  importance, under a functional point of view, as Mr. E.
+  MacLachlan has remarked to me, has probably been overrated. It
+  has been suggested, that slight differences in these organs
+  would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of well-marked
+  varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their
+  development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer
+  from the many recorded cases (see for instance, Bronn,
+  'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood,
+  'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iii. 1842, p. 195) of distinct
+  species having been observed in union. Mr. MacLachlan informs
+  me (vide 'Stett. Ent. Zeitung,' 1867, s. 155) that when several
+  species of Phryganid�, which present strongly-pronounced
+  differences of this kind, were confined together by Dr. Aug.
+  Meyer, _they coupled_, and one pair produced fertile ova.
+
+  [429] 'The Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia, vol. ii. May,
+  1867, p. 88.
+
+  [430] Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.
+
+  [431] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  206, 205. Mr. Walsh, who called my attention to this double use
+  of the jaws, says that he has repeatedly observed this fact.
+
+  [432] We have here a curious and inexplicable case of
+  dimorphism, for some of the females of four European species of
+  Dytiscus, and of certain species of Hydroporus, have their
+  elytra smooth; and no intermediate gradations between sulcated
+  or punctured and quite smooth elytra have been observed. See
+  Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the 'Zoologist,' vol. v.-vi.
+  1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to
+  Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.
+
+  [433] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 193. The following
+  statement about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are
+  taken from Mr. Walsh, 'Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia,
+  vol. ii. p. 88.
+
+  [434] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' &c., vol. iii. p. 332-336.
+
+  [435] 'Insecta Maderensia,' 1854, p. 20.
+
+  [436] E. Doubleday, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i.
+  1848, p. 379. I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera
+  (see Shuckard, 'Fossorial Hymenop.' 1837, p. 39-43) differ in
+  neuration according to sex.
+
+  [437] H. W. Bates, in 'Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.' vol. vi.
+  1862, p. 74. Mr. Wonfor's observations are quoted in 'Popular
+  Science Review,' 1868, p. 343.
+
+  [438] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  p. 299.
+
+  [439] Robinet, 'Vers � Soie,' 1848, p. 207.
+
+  [440] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.
+
+  [441] 'Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.' Feb. 4th, 1867, p. lxxi.
+
+  [442] For this and other statements on the size of the sexes,
+  see Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration
+  of life in insects, see p. 344.
+
+  [443] 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.
+
+  [444] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.
+
+  [445] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  526.
+
+  [446] See Mr. B. T. Lowne's very interesting work, 'On the
+  Anatomy of the Blow-Fly, Musca vomitoria,' 1870, p. 14.
+
+  [447] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 473.
+
+  [448] These particulars are taken from Westwood's 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the
+  Fulgorid�, Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 401.
+
+  [449] 'Zeitschrift f�r wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  152-158.
+
+  [450] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this
+  extract from a 'Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,'
+  by Dr. Hartman.
+
+  [451] L. Guilding, 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xv. p. 154.
+
+  [452] K�ppen, as quoted in the 'Zoological Record,' for 1867,
+  p. 460.
+
+  [453] Gilbert White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' vol. ii. 1825,
+  p. 262.
+
+  [454] Harris, 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 128.
+
+  [455] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 252.
+  Mr. Bates gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations
+  in the musical apparatus of the three families. See also
+  Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 445 and 453.
+
+  [456] 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April, 1868.
+
+  [457] 'Nouveau Manuel d'Anat. Comp.' (French translat.), tom.
+  i. 1850 p. 567.
+
+  [458] 'Zeitschrift f�r wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  117.
+
+  [459] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 440.
+
+  [460] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [461] Landois, ibid. s. 121, 122.
+
+  [462] Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the
+  female of the _Platyphyllum concavum_, "when captured makes a
+  feeble grating noise by shuffling her wing-covers together."
+
+  [463] Landois, ibid. s. 113.
+
+  [464] 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 133.
+
+  [465] Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol. i. p. 462.
+
+  [466] Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [467] Landois, ibid. s. 115, 116, 120, 122.
+
+  [468] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. ii. ('Journal of
+  Proceedings, p. 117.)
+
+  [469] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 427; for
+  crickets, p. 445.
+
+  [470] Mr. Ch. Horne, in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' May 3, 1869, p. xii.
+
+  [471] The _Oecanthus nivalis_, Harris, 'Insects of New
+  England,' 1842, p. 124.
+
+  [472] Platyblemnus: Westwood, 'Modern. Class.' vol. i. p. 447.
+
+  [473] B. D. Walsh, the Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois, in 'Proc.
+  Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1862, p. 361.
+
+  [474] 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 37.
+
+  [475] Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for
+  the following facts on Het�rina, Anax, and Gomphus.
+
+  [476] 'Transact. Ent. Soc' vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.
+
+  [477] See abstract in the 'Zoological Record' for 1867, p. 450.
+
+  [478] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. to Entomology,' vol. ii.
+  1818, p. 35.
+
+  [479] See an interesting article, "The Writings of Fabre," in
+  'Nat. Hist. Review,' April, 1862, p. 122.
+
+  [480] 'Journal of Proc. of Entomolog. Soc.' Sept. 7th, 1863,
+  p. 169.
+
+  [481] P. Huber, 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810,
+  p. 150, 165.
+
+  [482] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1866, p.
+  238-239.
+
+  [483] Quoted by Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii.
+  p. 214.
+
+  [484] Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ
+  conspicuously, has been described by Mr. Bates in 'Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 50. I will specify the few other cases in
+  which I have heard of a difference in colour between the sexes
+  of beetles. Kirby and Spence ('Introduct. to Entomology,' vol.
+  iii. p. 301) mention a Cantharis, Meloe, Rhagium, and the
+  _Leptura testacea_; the male of the latter being testaceous,
+  with a black thorax, and the female of a dull red all over.
+  These two latter beetles belong to the Order of Longicorns.
+  Messrs. R. Trimen and Waterhouse, junr., inform me of two
+  Lamellicorns, viz., a Peritrichia and Trichius, the male of the
+  latter being more obscurely coloured than the female. In
+  _Tillus elongatus_ the male is black, and the female always, as
+  it is believed, of a dark blue colour with a red thorax. The
+  male, also, of _Orsodacna atra_, as I hear from Mr. Walsh, is
+  black, the female (the so-called _O. ruficollis_) having a
+  rufous thorax.
+
+  [485] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1864, p. 228.
+
+  [486] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. Entomolog.' vol. iii. p.
+  300.
+
+  [487] Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 329.
+
+  [488] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 172. On
+  the same page there is an account of Siagonium. In the British
+  Museum I noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an
+  intermediate condition, so that the dimorphism is not strict.
+
+  [489] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 276.
+
+  [490] 'Entomological Magazine,' vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also
+  on the conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol.
+  iii. p. 314; and Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.
+
+  [491] Quoted from Fischer, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom.
+  x. p. 324.
+
+  [492] 'Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,' 1866, as quoted in
+  'Journal of Travel,' by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [493] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. i. p. 184.
+
+  [494] Wollaston, On certain musical Curculionid�, 'Annals and
+  Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.
+
+  [495] 'Zeitschrift f�r wiss. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.
+
+  [496] I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. R. Crotch for having sent
+  me numerous prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to
+  these three families and others, as well as for valuable
+  information of all kinds. He believes that the power of
+  stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously observed. I
+  am also much indebted to Mr. E. W. Janson, for information and
+  specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin, finds that
+  _Dermestes murinus_ stridulates, but he searched in vain for
+  the apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Mr. Algen
+  as a stridulator, in the 'Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,' 1869,
+  Nov., p. 130.
+
+  [497] Schi�dte, translated in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'
+  vol. xx. 1867, p. 37.
+
+  [498] Westring has described (Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,'
+  B. ii. 1848-49, p. 334) the stridulating organs in these two,
+  as well as in other families. In the Carabid� I have examined
+  _Elaphrus uliginosus_ and _Blethisa multipunctata_, sent to me
+  by Mr. Crotch. In Blethisa the transverse ridges on the
+  furrowed border of the abdominal segment do not come into play,
+  as far as I could judge, in scraping the rasps on the elytra.
+
+  [499] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent
+  me extracts from Leconte's 'Introduction to Entomology,' p.
+  101, 143.
+
+  [500] M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in 'Journal of Travel,'
+  A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [501] Mr. Doubleday informs me that "the noise is produced by
+  the insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and
+  then sinking its thorax five or six times, in rapid succession,
+  against the substance upon which it is sitting." For references
+  on this subject see Landois, 'Zeitschrift f�r wissen. Zoolog.'
+  B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted by Kirby and Spence,
+  'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of _Pimelia
+  striata_ produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen
+  against any hard substance, "and that the male, obedient to
+  this call, soon attends her and they pair."
+
+  [502] Apatura Iris: 'The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer,'
+  1859, p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies see C. Collingwood,
+  'Rambles of a Naturalist,' 1868, p. 183.
+
+  [503] See my 'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 33. Mr.
+  Doubleday has detected ('Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 3rd, 1845, p.
+  123) a peculiar membranous sac at the base of the front wings,
+  which is probably connected with the production of the sound.
+
+  [504] See also Mr. Bates' paper in 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of
+  Philadelphia,' 1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same
+  subject, in regard to Diadema, in 'Transact. Entomolog. Soc. of
+  London,' 1869, p. 278.
+
+  [505] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 19.
+
+  [506] See the interesting article in the 'Westminster Review,'
+  July, 1867, p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr.
+  Wallace in Hardwicke's 'Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867, p. 196.
+
+  [507] See the interesting observations by Mr. T. W. Wood, 'The
+  Student,' Sept. 1868, p. 81.
+
+  [508] Mr. Wallace in 'Hardwicke's Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867,
+  p. 193.
+
+  [509] See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir's paper in 'Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 23.
+
+  [510] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 16.
+
+  [511] For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood ('Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this
+  case. On the relative colours of diurnal and nocturnal
+  Lepidoptera, see ibid. p. 333 and 392; also Harris, 'Treatise
+  on the Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 315.
+
+  [512] Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of
+  the wings of several species of Papilio, may be seen in the
+  beautiful plates to Mr. Wallace's Memoir on the Papilionid� of
+  the Malayan Region, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. part i.
+  1865.
+
+  [513] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 2nd, 1868.
+
+  [514] See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina
+  (one of the Geometr�) in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' new series, vol.
+  v. pl. xv. and xvi.
+
+  [515] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of London,' July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.
+
+  [516] Harris, 'Treatise,' &c., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.
+
+  [517] For instance, I observe in my son's cabinet that the
+  males are darker than the females in the _Lasiocampa quercus_,
+  _Odonestis potatoria_, _Hypogymna dispar_, _Dasychira
+  pudibunda_, and _Cycnia mendica_. In this latter species the
+  difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly marked;
+  and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes,
+  an instance of protective mimickry confined to one sex, as will
+  hereafter be more fully explained. The white female of the
+  Cycnia resembles the very common _Spilosoma menthrasti_, both
+  sexes of which are white; and Mr. Stainton observed that this
+  latter moth was rejected with utter disgust by a whole brood of
+  young turkeys, which were fond of eating other moths; so that
+  if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British birds for the
+  Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white
+  deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.
+
+  [518] 'Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,' 1868, p.
+  182.
+
+  [519] Wallace on the Papilionid� of the Malayan Region, in
+  'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 8, 36. A striking case
+  of a rare variety, strictly intermediate between two other
+  well-marked female varieties, is given by Mr. Wallace. See also
+  Mr. Bates, in 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xl.
+
+  [520] Mr. R. MacLachlan, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. ii. part
+  6th, 3rd series, 1866, p. 459.
+
+  [521] H. W. Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii.
+  1863, p. 228. A. R. Wallace, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv.
+  1865, p. 10.
+
+  [522] On this whole subject see 'The Variation of Animals and
+  Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, chap. xxiii.
+
+  [523] A. R. Wallace, in 'The Journal of Travel,' vol. i. 1868,
+  p. 88. 'Westminster Review,' July, 1857, p. 37. See also
+  Messrs. Wallace and Bates in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866,
+  p. xxxix.
+
+  [524] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.
+
+  [525] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.
+
+  [526] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv.
+
+  [527] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 1; also
+  'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301.
+
+  [528] See an ingenious article entitled, "Difficulties of the
+  Theory of Natural Selection," in the 'Month,' 1869. The writer
+  strangely supposes that I attribute the variations in colour of
+  the Lepidoptera, by which certain species belonging to distinct
+  families have come to resemble others, to reversion to a common
+  progenitor; but there is no more reason to attribute these
+  variations to reversion than in the case of any ordinary
+  variation.
+
+  [529] Wallace, "Notes on Eastern Butterflies," 'Transact. Ent.
+  Soc.' 1869, p. 287.
+
+  [530] Wallace, in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 37; and
+  in 'Journal of Travel and Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1868, p. 88.
+
+  [531] See remarks by Messrs. Bates and Wallace, in 'Proc. Ent.
+  Soc.' Nov. 19, 1866, p. xxxix.
+
+  [532] See Mr. Wallace in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p.
+  11 and 37. The male of no butterfly, as Mr. Wallace informs me,
+  is known to differ in colour, as a protection, from the female;
+  and he asks me how I can explain this fact on the principle
+  that one sex alone has varied and has transmitted its
+  variations exclusively to the same sex, without the aid of
+  selection to check the variations being inherited by the other
+  sex. No doubt if it could be shewn that the females of very
+  many species had been rendered beautiful through protective
+  mimickry, but that this has never occurred with the males, it
+  would be a serious difficulty. But the number of cases as yet
+  known hardly suffices for a fair judgment. We can see that the
+  males, from having the power of flying more swiftly, and thus
+  escaping danger, would not be so likely as the females to have
+  had their colours modified for the sake of protection; but this
+  would not in the least have interfered with their receiving
+  protective colours through inheritance from the females. In the
+  second place, it is probable that sexual selection would
+  actually tend to prevent a beautiful male from becoming
+  obscure, for the less brilliant individuals would be less
+  attractive to the females. Supposing that the beauty of the
+  male of any species had been mainly acquired through sexual
+  selection, yet if this beauty likewise served as a protection,
+  the acquisition would have been aided by natural selection. But
+  it would be quite beyond our power to distinguish between the
+  two processes of sexual and ordinary selection. Hence it is not
+  likely that we should be able to adduce cases of the males
+  having been rendered brilliant exclusively through protective
+  mimickry, though this is comparatively easy with the females,
+  which have rarely or never been rendered beautiful, as far as
+  we can judge, for the sake of sexual attraction, although they
+  have often received beauty through inheritance from their male
+  parents.
+
+  [533] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv., and
+  March 4th, 1867, p. lxxx.
+
+  [534] See Mr. J. Jenner Weir's paper on insects and
+  insectivorous birds, in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 21; also
+  Mr. Butler's paper, ibid. p. 27.
+
+
+END OF VOL. I.
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+GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. By RICHARD FORD.
+
+TRAVELS IN MEXICO AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. By G. F. RUXTON.
+
+PORTUGAL AND GALLICIA; WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE
+OF THE BASQUE PROVINCES. By LORD CARNARVON.
+
+A RESIDENCE AT SIERRA LEONE. Described from a Journal kept on the Spot,
+and Letters written to Friends at Home. By A LADY.
+
+THE REMAINS IN VERSE AND PROSE OF ARTHUR HENRY HALLAM. With Preface,
+Memoir, and Portrait.
+
+THE POETICAL WORKS OF BISHOP HEBER; containing Palestine, Europe, the
+Red Sea, Hymns, &c. With Portrait.
+
+GLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. By EDWARD JESSE. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE REJECTED ADDRESSES: or, The New Theatrum Poetarum. By HORACE and
+JAMES SMITH. With Portrait and Woodcuts.
+
+CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL; or, The Last Days of a Philosopher. By SIR
+HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+SALMONIA; or, Days of Fly-fishing. By SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS AND THE INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH. By JOHN
+ABERCROMBIE.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE TABLE-TALK OF THE LATE SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. With
+Portrait.
+
+PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING, for every Month in the Year. By
+MRS. LOUDON. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With Translations from the Ancient Poets.
+Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY, from the Earliest Times to the Conquest of
+Alexander the Great. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, from the earliest period to the
+Georgian Era. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE CHIEF WRITERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. Chronologically
+arranged. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.--I. Old Testament History; II. Connection
+of Old and New Testaments; III. New Testament History to A.D. 70. Edited
+by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Four Shillings._
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the FIRST INVASION by the ROMANS, continued
+down to 1865. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS.
+MARKHAM. With 100 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the CONQUEST by the GAULS, continued down to
+1867. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS. MARKHAM.
+With 70 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF GERMANY, from the INVASION of the KINGDOM by the ROMANS under
+MARIUS, continued down to 1867. On the Plan of MRS. MARKHAM. With 50
+Woodcuts.
+
+SHALL AND WILL; or, the Future Auxiliary Verb. By SIR EDMUND HEAD.
+
+
+_Four Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+CHILDREN OF THE LAKE. A Poem. By EDWARD SALLESBURY.
+
+A LADY'S DIARY OF THE SIEGE OF LUCKNOW.
+
+HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; or, Hints on Emergencies. By JOHN F. SOUTH. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Five Shillings._
+
+ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS; HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC. Translated with Notes
+by J. G. LOCKHART. With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+MISCELLANIES. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+INTRODUCTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE GREEK CLASSIC POETS. By HENRY NELSON
+COLERIDGE.
+
+HYMNS IN PROSE FOR CHILDREN. By MRS. BARBAULD. With 112 Illustrations.
+
+RECOLLECTIONS OF THE DRUSES, AND SOME NOTES ON THEIR RELIGION. By LORD
+CARNARVON.
+
+THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. BASED ON MODERN RESEARCHES. By REV. F. W.
+FARRAR.
+
+MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY. Founded on Principles of Economy and Practical
+Knowledge, and adapted for Private Families. With Woodcuts.
+
+DRAMAS AND PLAYS. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+THE HORSE AND HIS RIDER. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD. With Woodcuts.
+
+HANDBOOK OF FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS, chiefly from English Authors.
+
+THE CHACE--THE TURF--AND THE ROAD. A Series of Popular Essays. By C. J.
+APPERLEY (NIMROD). With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+AUNT IDA'S WALKS AND TALKS. A Story Book for Children. By A LADY.
+
+STORIES FOR DARLINGS. A Book for Boys and Girls. With Illustrations.
+
+THE CHARMED ROE. A Story Book for Young People. Illustrated by OTTO
+SPECKTER.
+
+DON JUAN AND BEPPO. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD'S WORD. By ARCHBISHOP THOMSON, D.D.
+
+ATHENS AND ATTICA; Notes of a Tour. By BISHOP WORDSWORTH, D.D. With
+Illustrations.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS--XVIIITH CENTURY, 1700-1799. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST, D.C.L. With Maps. 5 vols. Post
+8vo. 5s. each.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS--XIXTH CENTURY, 1800-15. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST. 4 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. each.
+
+
+_Six Shillings._
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+BENEDICITE; or, THE SONG OF THE THREE CHILDREN. Being ILLUSTRATIONS of
+the POWER, BENEFICENCE, and DESIGN manifested by the CREATOR in HIS
+WORKS. By DR. CHAPLIN CHILD.
+
+OLD DECCAN DAYS; or, HINDOO FAIRY LEGENDS current in Southern India. By
+M. FRERE. With Introduction by SIR BARTLE FRERE. With Illustrations.
+
+THE WILD GARDEN; or, OUR GROVES AND SHRUBBERIES MADE BEAUTIFUL BY THE
+NATURALIZATION OF HARDY EXOTIC PLANTS. By WILLIAM ROBINSON. With
+Frontispiece.
+
+MISSIONARY TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE,
+M.D. With Map and Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS OF A HUNTER'S LIFE IN SOUTH AFRICA; By GORDON CUMMING. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES; or, The Invisible World, as revealed by the
+Microscope. By GIDEON A. MANTELL. With Plates.
+
+LIVES OF BRINDLEY AND THE EARLY ENGINEERS. By SAMUEL SMILES. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+LIFE OF TELFORD. With a History of Roads and Travelling in England. By
+SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+LIVES OF GEORGE AND ROBERT STEPHENSON. By SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+SELF-HELP. With Illustrations of Character and Conduct. By SAMUEL
+SMILES.
+
+INDUSTRIAL BIOGRAPHY: Iron-workers and Toolmakers. A Sequel to
+'Self-help.' By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+THE HUGUENOTS IN ENGLAND AND IRELAND: their Settlements, Churches, and
+Industries. By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+WILD WALES; its People, Language, and Scenery. With Introductory
+Remarks. By GEORGE BORROW.
+
+A MANUAL OF ETHNOLOGY; or, A POPULAR HISTORY of the RACES of the OLD
+WORLD. By CHARLES L. BRACE.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings._
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+JOURNALS OF A TOUR IN INDIA. By BISHOP HEBER. 2 vols.
+
+ADVENTURES AMONG THE MARQUESAS AND SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. By HERMAN
+MELVILLE. 2 vols.
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL PROGRESS. By MONTAGU BURROWS, M.A.
+
+LIFE AND POETICAL WORKS OF REV. GEORGE CRABBE. Edited by HIS SON. With
+Notes, Portrait, and Illustrations.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE ART OF TRAVEL; or, Hints on the Shifts and Contrivances available in
+Wild Countries. By FRANCIS GALTON. With Woodcuts.
+
+VISITS TO THE MONASTERIES OF THE LEVANT. By HON. R. CURZON. With
+Illustrations.
+
+LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES; an Account of a Yacht Voyage to Iceland,
+Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen, &c. By LORD DUFFERIN. With Illustrations.
+
+BUBBLES FROM THE BRUNNEN OF NASSAU. By an Old Man (SIR FRANCIS HEAD).
+With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS; a Narrative of an Expedition to Assyria in
+1845-47. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND BABYLON; a Narrative of a Second Expedition to Assyria in
+1849-51. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+THREE YEARS' RESIDENCE IN ABYSSINIA, with Travels in that Country. By
+MANSFIELD PARKYNS. With Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS IN DAMASCUS, with TRAVELS in PALMYRA, LEBANON, and among the
+GIANT CITIES OF BASHAN and THE HAURAN. By REV. J. L. PORTER. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE 'FOX' IN THE ARCTIC SEAS, and the Discovery of the
+Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions. By SIR LEOPOLD McCLINTOCK.
+With Illustrations.
+
+REMINISCENCES OF ATHENS AND THE MOREA, during Travels in Greece. By LORD
+CARNARVON. With Map.
+
+PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN INDIA. By GENERAL MUNDY. With Illustrations.
+
+PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT, MADE SCIENCE IN EARNEST: or, The First Principles
+of Natural Philosophy explained by the Toys and Sports of Youth. By DR.
+PARIS. With Woodcuts.
+
+BLIND PEOPLE; their Works and Ways. With Lives of some famous Blind Men.
+By REV. B. G. JOHNS. With Illustrations.
+
+HORACE: A New Edition of the Text. Edited by DEAN MILMAN. With 100
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE BOOK OF THE CHURCH. By ROBERT SOUTHEY.
+
+A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG PAINTERS. By C. R. LESLIE, R.A. With 24
+Illustrations.
+
+A GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF FERNS, with Tables to show their
+Distribution. By K. M. LYELL. With a Frontispiece.
+
+THE STORY OF THE LIFE OF LORD BACON. By W. HEPWORTH DIXON.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; Its Antiquities, Geography,
+Biography, and Natural History. By DR. WM. SMITH. With Maps and
+Illustrations.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY.
+By DR. WM. SMITH. With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. By DR. WM. SMITH.
+With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. With a Dictionary of Proper Names,
+and Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and Moneys. By DR.
+WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY, By DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HUME; AN EPITOME of the HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By DAVID HUME.
+Corrected and continued to 1868. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By HENRY HALLAM. With
+the Author's latest Additions. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the Press._
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES OF EUROPE. By HENRY HALLAM.
+With the Author's Supplemental Notes. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the
+Press._
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF FRANCE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND EMPIRE, 1852. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ROME. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. With Chapters on the History of Literature
+and Art. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S GIBBON; AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL
+OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By EDWARD GIBBON. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF GREECE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN
+CONQUEST. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST. From the Earliest Times to
+the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria,
+Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By PHILIP SMITH,
+B.A. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. FROM THE CREATION TO THE RETURN OF
+THE JEWS FROM CAPTIVITY. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an Introduction, containing
+the connection of the Old and New Testaments. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By GEORGE P. MARSH.
+Edited, with additional Chapters and Notes.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By T. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited,
+with Notes and Illustrations.
+
+THE STUDENT'S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the BEST
+WRITERS. By THOS. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited, with Additions.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Mathematical, Physical, and
+Descriptive. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. With Quotations and
+References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D.
+
+THE STUDENT'S BLACKSTONE. A SYSTEMATIC ABRIDGMENT OF THE ENTIRE
+COMMENTARIES. By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D.
+
+A PRACTICAL HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew text of Genesis i.-vi. and
+Psalms i.-vi., Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. By REV. STANLEY
+LEATHES.
+
+
+_Nine Shillings._
+
+THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE. Revised by H. W. BATES. With
+Portrait.
+
+THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR CHARLES LYELL. With 600
+Woodcuts.
+
+A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. By VARIOUS WRITERS. Edited by SIR J. F.
+HERSCHEL and REV. ROBERT MAIN.
+
+POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON. With Notes, Illustrations, and Portrait.
+
+LIFE OF LORD BYRON; with his Letters and Journals. By THOMAS MOORE. With
+Portraits.
+
+ARCHBISHOP BECKET; A BIOGRAPHY. By CANON ROBERTSON, M.A. With
+Illustrations.
+
+PICTURES OF THE CHINESE, DRAWN BY THEMSELVES. Described by REV. R. H.
+COBBOLD. With 34 Illustrations.
+
+THE ENGLISH BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE PENINSULAR WAR. By SIR WILLIAM
+NAPIER. With Portrait.
+
+THE YOUNG OFFICER'S COMPANION; or, ESSAYS on MILITARY DUTIES and
+QUALITIES: with ILLUSTRATIONS from HISTORY. By LORD DE ROS.
+
+DOG-BREAKING; the most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy Method, whether
+great Excellence or only Mediocrity be required. With a Few Hints for
+those who Love the Dog and the Gun. By GENERAL HUTCHINSON. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+LIST OF SCHOOL CLASSICS.
+
+By DR. WILLIAM SMITH.
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART I. A FIRST LATIN COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and
+Exercise Book with Vocabularies. _13th Edition._ _3s. 6d._
+
+*** This Edition contains the Accidence arranged for the 'Public School
+Latin Primer.'
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART II. LATIN READING BOOK. An Introduction to
+Ancient Mythology, Geography, Roman Antiquities, and History. With Notes
+and a Dictionary. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART III. LATIN POETRY. 1. Easy Hexameters and
+Pentameters. 2. Eclog� Ovidian�. 3. Prosody and Metre. 4. First Latin
+Verse Book. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART IV. LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. Rules of Syntax,
+with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises on the Syntax.
+_3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART V. SHORT TALES AND ANECDOTES FROM ANCIENT
+HISTORY, FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN PROSE. _3s._
+
+A LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, with a Latin-English Dictionary to Ph�drus,
+Cornelius Nepos, and C�sar's 'Gallic War.' _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT'S LATIN GRAMMAR. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and THEOPHILUS D.
+HALL. _6s._
+
+A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GR�CA, PART I. A FIRST GREEK COURSE, containing Grammar,
+Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. By DR. WM. SMITH. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GR�CA, PART II. A READING BOOK; containing short Tales,
+Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. With a Lexicon. _3s.
+6d._
+
+INITIA GR�CA, PART III. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION; containing the Rules of
+Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT'S GREEK GRAMMAR. By PROFESSOR CURTIUS, and WM. SMITH, D.C.L.
+_6s._
+
+A SMALLER GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA GR�CA. A FIRST GREEK COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise
+Book, with Vocabularies. By H. E. BUTTON, M.A. _3s. 6d._
+
+MATTHI�'S GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged by BLOMFIELD. Revised and enlarged, by
+E. S. CROOKE, B.A. _4s._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.' S FIRST LATIN BOOK; including a Short Syntax and Prosody
+with an English Translation. _2s. 6d._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.' S LATIN GRAMMAR. _3s. 6d._
+
+ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS; designed for Early Proficients in the
+Art of Latin Versification. By REV. W. OXENHAM. _3s. 6d._
+
+
+LIST OF HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.
+
+THE CONTINENT, &c.
+
+HANDBOOK--TRAVEL TALK,--ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN. _3s. 6d._
+
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+SWITZERLAND. With Map and Plans.
+
+HANDBOOK--SOUTH GERMANY, THE TYROL, BAVARIA, AUSTRIA, SALZBURG, STYRIA,
+HUNGARY, AND THE DANUBE, FROM ULM TO THE BLACK SEA. With Map and Plans.
+_10s._
+
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+
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+VALENCIA, CATALONIA, ARAGON, NAVARRE, THE BALEARIC ISLANDS, &c., &c.
+With Maps. 2 vols. _24s._
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+
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+ROUTE TO INDIA. With Map. _15s._
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+
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+KNAPSACK GUIDES FOR TRAVELLERS.
+
+KNAPSACK GUIDE TO SWITZERLAND. With Plans. _5s._
+
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+
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
+Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st editio, by Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st edition)
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34967]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by StevenGibbs, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<h4>THE</h4>
+<h1>DESCENT OF MAN,</h1>
+
+<h5>AND</h5>
+
+<h2>SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.</h2>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">By</span> CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &amp;c.</h3>
+
+<h4>IN TWO VOLUMES.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Vol. I.</span></h4>
+
+<h6>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.</h6>
+
+<h4>LONDON:<br />
+
+JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.<br />
+
+1871.</h4>
+
+<h6>[<i>The right of Translation is reserved.</i>]</h6>
+
+<h4>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL
+SELECTION; or, <span class="smcap">The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle
+for Life</span>; Fifth Edition (<i>Tenth Thousand</i>), with Additions and Corrections.
+1869. <span class="smcap">Murray</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER
+DOMESTICATION. In two vols. With Illustrations. 1868. <span class="smcap">Murray</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES <span class="smcap">by which</span> BRITISH
+AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the
+<span class="smcap">Good Effects of Crossing</span>. With numerous Woodcuts. <span class="smcap">Murray</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A NATURALIST&#8216;S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or,
+<span class="smcap">A Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the
+Countries</span> visited during the voyage of H.M.S. &#8216;Beagle,&#8217; under the command of
+Captain <span class="smcap">FitzRoy</span>, R.N. <i>Eleventh Thousand</i>. <span class="smcap">Murray</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL
+REEFS. <span class="smcap"> Smith, Elder, &amp; Co.</span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS.
+<span class="smcap">Smith, Elder, &amp; Co.</span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA.
+<span class="smcap">Smith, Elder &amp; Co.</span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous
+Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. <span class="smcap">Hardwicke</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ON THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF CLIMBING
+PLANTS. With Woodcuts. <span class="smcap">Williams</span> &amp; <span class="smcap">Norgate</span>.</p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<h6>LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
+
+AND CHARING CROSS.</h6>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">v</a></span></p>
+<table width="100%" summary="contents" border="0">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><h2>CONTENTS.</h2></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><hr /></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85"><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td>
+<td class="right15">Page <a href="#Page_1">1-5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><h3>PART I.</h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><h4>ON THE DESCENT OF MAN</h4></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER I.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Evidence of the Descent of man from some
+Lower form.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man&mdash;Homologous
+structures in man and the lower animals&mdash;Miscellaneous points
+of correspondence&mdash;Development&mdash;Rudimentary structures,
+muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs, &amp;c.&mdash;The
+bearing of these three great classes of facts on the origin of
+man </td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_9">9-33</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER II.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the
+Lower Animals</span>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+lowest savage, immense&mdash;Certain instincts in common&mdash;The
+emotions&mdash;Curiosity&mdash;Imitation&mdash;Attention&mdash;Memory&mdash;Imagination&mdash;Reason&mdash;Progressive
+improvement&mdash;Tools and
+weapons used by animals&mdash;Language&mdash;Self-consciousness&mdash;Sense
+of beauty&mdash;Belief in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_34">34-69</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER III.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the
+Lower Animals</span>&mdash;<i>continued</i>.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+lowest savage, immense&mdash;Certain instincts in common&mdash;The
+emotions&mdash;Curiosity&mdash;Imitation&mdash;Attention&mdash;Memory&mdash;Imagination&mdash;Reason&mdash;Progressive
+improvement&mdash;Tools and
+weapons used by animals&mdash;Language&mdash;Self-consciousness&mdash;Sense
+of beauty&mdash;Belief in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_70">70-106</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER IV.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">On the Manner of Development of Man from some
+Lower Form.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Variability of body and mind in man&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Causes of
+variability&mdash;Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+animals&mdash;Direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Effects of the
+increased use and disuse of parts&mdash;Arrested development&mdash;Reversion&mdash;Correlated
+variation&mdash;Rate of increase&mdash;Checks to
+increase&mdash;Natural selection&mdash;Man the most dominant animal
+in the world&mdash;Importance of his corporeal structure&mdash;The
+causes which have led to his becoming erect&mdash;Consequent changes
+of structure&mdash;Decrease in size of the canine teeth&mdash;Increased
+size and altered shape of the skull&mdash;Nakedness&mdash;Absence of
+a tail&mdash;Defenceless condition of man</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_107">107-157</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER V.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">On the Development of the Intellectual and Moral
+Faculties during Primeval and Civilised Times.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural selection&mdash;Importance
+of imitation&mdash;Social and moral faculties&mdash;Their
+development within the limits of the same tribe&mdash;Natural
+selection as affecting civilised nations&mdash;Evidence that civilised
+nations were once barbarous</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_158">158-184</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">On the Affinities and Genealogy of Man.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Position of man in the animal series&mdash;The natural system genealogical&mdash;Adaptive
+characters of slight value&mdash;Various small
+points of resemblance between man and the Quadrumana&mdash;Rank
+of man in the natural system&mdash;Birthplace and antiquity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">vii</a></span>
+of man&mdash;Absence of fossil connecting-links&mdash;Lower stages in
+the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his affinities and
+secondly from his structure&mdash;Early androgynous condition of
+the Vertebrata&mdash;Conclusion</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_195">185-213</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">On the Races of Man.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">The nature and value of specific characters&mdash;Application to the races
+of man&mdash;Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the
+so-called races of man as distinct species&mdash;Sub-species&mdash;Monogenists
+and polygenists&mdash;Convergence of character&mdash;Numerous
+points of resemblance in body and mind between the most distinct
+races of man&mdash;The state of man when he first spread over the
+earth&mdash;Each race not descended from a single pair&mdash;The extinction
+of races&mdash;The formation of races&mdash;The effects of crossing&mdash;Slight
+influence of the direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Slight
+or no influence of natural selection&mdash;Sexual selection.</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_214">214-250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><hr /></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="contents">
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2"><h3>PART II.<br /><br /><small>SEXUAL SELECTION.</small></h3></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER VIII.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Principles of Sexual Selection.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Secondary sexual characters&mdash;Sexual selection&mdash;Manner of action&mdash;Excess
+of males&mdash;Polygamy&mdash;The male alone generally
+modified through sexual selection&mdash;Eagerness of the male&mdash;Variability
+of the male&mdash;Choice exerted by the female&mdash;Sexual
+compared with natural selection&mdash;Inheritance at corresponding
+periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the year, and as limited
+by sex&mdash;Relations between the several forms of inheritance&mdash;Causes
+why one sex and the young are not modified through
+sexual selection&mdash;Supplement on the proportional numbers of
+the two sexes throughout the animal kingdom&mdash;On the limitation
+of the numbers of the two sexes through natural selection</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_253">253-320</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER IX.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters in the Lower Classes of
+the Animal Kingdom.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">viii</a></span>
+These characters absent in the lowest classes&mdash;Brilliant colours&mdash;Mollusca&mdash;Annelids&mdash;Crustacea,
+secondary sexual characters
+strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters not acquired
+before maturity&mdash;Spiders, sexual colours of; stridulation by the
+males&mdash;Myriapoda</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_321">321-340</a></td>
+</tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER X.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Insects.</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the females&mdash;Differences
+between the sexes, of which the meaning is not
+understood&mdash;Difference in size between the sexes&mdash;Thysanura&mdash;Diptera&mdash;Hemiptera&mdash;Homoptera,
+musical powers possessed
+by the males alone&mdash;Orthoptera, musical instruments of the
+males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity; colours&mdash;Neuroptera,
+sexual differences in colour&mdash;Hymenoptera, pugnacity
+and colours&mdash;Coleoptera, colours; furnished with great
+horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating organs
+generally common to both sexes</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_341">341-385</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center" colspan="2">CHAPTER XI.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center2" colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Insects</span>, <i>continued</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Order Lepidoptera.</span>
+</td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left85">Courtship of butterflies&mdash;Battles&mdash;Ticking noise&mdash;Colours common
+to both sexes, or more brilliant in the males&mdash;Examples&mdash;Not
+due to the direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Colours
+adapted for protection&mdash;Colours of moths&mdash;Display&mdash;Perceptive
+powers of the Lepidoptera&mdash;Variability&mdash;Causes of the
+difference in colour between the males and females&mdash;Mimickry,
+female butterflies more brilliantly coloured than the males&mdash;Bright
+colours of caterpillars&mdash;Summary and concluding remarks
+on the secondary sexual characters of insects&mdash;Birds
+and insects compared</td>
+<td class="right15"><a href="#Page_386">386-423</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">1</a></span></p>
+
+<h1>THE DESCENT OF MAN;</h1>
+
+<h6>AND ON</h6>
+
+<h3>SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.</h3>
+
+<h4>INTRODUCTION.</h4>
+
+<p>The nature of the following work will be best understood
+by a brief account of how it came to be written.
+During many years I collected notes on the origin or
+descent of man, without any intention of publishing on
+the subject, but rather with the determination not to
+publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to
+the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient
+to indicate, in the first edition of my &#8216;Origin of
+Species,&#8217; that by this work &#8220;light would be thrown on
+the origin of man and his history;&#8221; and this implies
+that man must be included with other organic beings in
+any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance
+on this earth. Now the case wears a wholly different
+aspect. When a naturalist like Carl Vogt ventures
+to say in his address as President of the National
+Institution of Geneva (1869), &#8220;personne, en Europe
+au moins, n&#8217;ose plus soutenir la cr&eacute;ation ind&eacute;pendante
+et de toutes pi&egrave;ces, des esp&egrave;ces,&#8221; it is manifest that at
+least a large number of naturalists must admit that
+species are the modified descendants of other species;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">2</a></span>
+and this especially holds good with the younger and
+rising naturalists. The greater number accept the
+agency of natural selection; though some urge, whether
+with justice the future must decide, that I have greatly
+overrated its importance. Of the older and honoured
+chiefs in natural science, many unfortunately are still
+opposed to evolution in every form.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the views now adopted by most
+naturalists, and which will ultimately, as in every other
+case, be followed by other men, I have been led to put
+together my notes, so as to see how far the general
+conclusions arrived at in my former works were applicable
+to man. This seemed all the more desirable
+as I had never deliberately applied these views to a
+species taken singly. When we confine our attention
+to any one form, we are deprived of the weighty arguments
+derived from the nature of the affinities which
+connect together whole groups of organisms&mdash;their geographical
+distribution in past and present times, and
+their geological succession. The homological structure,
+embryological development, and rudimentary organs of
+a species, whether it be man or any other animal, to
+which our attention may be directed, remain to be considered;
+but these great classes of facts afford, as it
+appears to me, ample and conclusive evidence in favour
+of the principle of gradual evolution. The strong support
+derived from the other arguments should, however,
+always be kept before the mind.</p>
+
+<p>The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly,
+whether man, like every other species, is descended
+from some pre-existing form; secondly, the manner of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">3</a></span>
+his development; and thirdly, the value of the differences
+between the so-called races of man. As I shall
+confine myself to these points, it will not be necessary
+to describe in detail the differences between the several
+races&mdash;an enormous subject which has been fully discussed
+in many valuable works. The high antiquity of
+man has recently been demonstrated by the labours
+of a host of eminent men, beginning with M. Boucher
+de Perthes; and this is the indispensable basis for
+understanding his origin. I shall, therefore, take this
+conclusion for granted, and may refer my readers to
+the admirable treatises of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John
+Lubbock, and others. Nor shall I have occasion to do
+more than to allude to the amount of difference between
+man and the anthropomorphous apes; for Prof. Huxley,
+in the opinion of most competent judges, has conclusively
+shewn that in every single visible character man
+differs less from the higher apes than these do from the
+lower members of the same order of Primates.</p>
+
+<p>This work contains hardly any original facts in
+regard to man; but as the conclusions at which I
+arrived, after drawing up a rough draft, appeared to
+me interesting, I thought that they might interest
+others. It has often and confidently been asserted, that
+man&#8217;s origin can never be known: but ignorance more
+frequently begets confidence than does knowledge: it is
+those who know little, and not those who know much,
+who so positively assert that this or that problem will
+never be solved by science. The conclusion that man is
+the co-descendant with other species of some ancient,
+lower, and extinct form, is not in any degree new. La<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">4</a></span>marck
+long ago came to this conclusion, which has lately
+been maintained by several eminent naturalists and
+philosophers; for instance by Wallace, Huxley, Lyell,
+Vogt, Lubbock, B&uuml;chner, Rolle, &amp;c.,<a name="FNanchor_1" id="FNanchor_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">1</a> and especially by
+H&auml;ckel. This last naturalist, besides his great work,
+'Generelle Morphologie &#8216;(1866), has recently (1868,
+with a second edit. in 1870), published his &#8216;Nat&uuml;rliche
+Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte, &#8216;in which he fully discusses the
+genealogy of man. If this work had appeared before
+my essay had been written, I should probably never
+have completed it. Almost all the conclusions at which
+I have arrived I find confirmed by this naturalist, whose
+knowledge on many points is much fuller than mine.
+Wherever I have added any fact or view from Prof.
+H&auml;ckel&#8217;s writings, I give his authority in the text, other
+statements I leave as they originally stood in my manuscript,
+occasionally giving in the foot-notes references
+to his works, as a confirmation of the more doubtful or
+interesting points.</p>
+
+<p>During many years it has seemed to me highly probable
+that sexual selection has played an important
+part in differentiating the races of man; but in my
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">5<br />6</a></span>&#8216;Origin of Species&#8217; (first edition, p. 199) I contented
+myself by merely alluding to this belief. When I came
+to apply this view to man, I found it indispensable to
+treat the whole subject in full detail.<a name="FNanchor_2" id="FNanchor_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">2</a> Consequently
+the second part of the present work, treating of sexual
+selection, has extended to an inordinate length, compared
+with the first part; but this could not be
+avoided.</p>
+
+<p>I had intended adding to the present volumes an
+essay on the expression of the various emotions by man
+and the lower animals. My attention was called to this
+subject many years ago by Sir Charles Bell&#8217;s admirable
+work. This illustrious anatomist maintains that man
+is endowed with certain muscles solely for the sake
+of expressing his emotions. As this view is obviously
+opposed to the belief that man is descended from some
+other and lower form, it was necessary for me to consider
+it. I likewise wished to ascertain how far the emotions
+are expressed in the same manner by the different races
+of man. But owing to the length of the present work,
+I have thought it better to reserve my essay, which is
+partially completed, for separate publication.</p>
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">7<br />8</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Part I.</span></h4>
+
+<h3>THE DESCENT OR ORIGIN OF MAN.</h3>
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">9</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><span class="smcap">Part I.</span>&mdash;THE DESCENT OF MAN.</h3>
+
+<hr />
+<h4>CHAPTER I.</h4>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Evidence of the Descent of Man from some
+Lower Form.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man&mdash;Homologous
+structures in man and the lower animals&mdash;Miscellaneous points
+of correspondence&mdash;Development&mdash;Rudimentary structures,
+muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs, &amp;c.&mdash;The
+bearing of these three great classes of facts on the origin
+of man.</p></div>
+
+<p>He who wishes to decide whether man is the modified
+descendant of some pre-existing form, would probably
+first enquire whether man varies, however slightly, in
+bodily structure and in mental faculties; and if so,
+whether the variations are transmitted to his offspring
+in accordance with the laws which prevail with the lower
+animals; such as that of the transmission of characters
+to the same age or sex. Again, are the variations the result,
+as far as our ignorance permits us to judge, of the
+same general causes, and are they governed by the same
+general laws, as in the case of other organisms; for instance
+by correlation, the inherited effects of use and
+disuse, &amp;c.? Is man subject to similar malconformations,
+the result of arrested development, of reduplication of
+parts, &amp;c., and does he display in any of his anomalies
+reversion to some former and ancient type of structure?
+It might also naturally be enquired whether man, like
+so many other animals, has given rise to varieties and
+sub-races, differing but slightly from each other, or to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">10</a></span>
+races differing so much that they must be classed as
+doubtful species? How are such races distributed over
+the world; and how, when crossed, do they react on
+each other, both in the first and succeeding generations?
+And so with many other points.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The enquirer would next come to the important point,
+whether man tends to increase at so rapid a rate, as to
+lead to occasional severe struggles for existence, and
+consequently to beneficial variations, whether in body
+or mind, being preserved, and injurious ones eliminated.
+Do the races or species of men, whichever term may be
+applied, encroach on and replace each other, so that
+some finally become extinct? We shall see that all
+these questions, as indeed is obvious in respect to most
+of them, must be answered in the affirmative, in the
+same manner as with the lower animals. But the
+several considerations just referred to may be conveniently
+deferred for a time; and we will first see how
+far the bodily structure of man shows traces, more or
+less plain, of his descent from some lower form. In the
+two succeeding chapters the mental powers of man, in
+comparison with those of the lower animals, will be considered.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bodily Structure of Man.</i>&mdash;It is notorious that
+man is constructed on the same general type or model
+with other mammals. All the bones in his skeleton
+can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey,
+bat, or seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels
+and internal viscera. The brain, the most important
+of all the organs, follows the same law, as shewn
+by Huxley and other anatomists. Bischoff,<a name="FNanchor_3" id="FNanchor_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">3</a> who is a
+hostile witness, admits that every chief fissure and fold
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">11</a></span>in the brain of man has its analogy in that of the orang;
+but he adds that at no period of development do their
+brains perfectly agree; nor could this be expected, for
+otherwise their mental powers would have been the same.
+Vulpian<a name="FNanchor_4" id="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">4</a> remarks: &#8220;Les diff&eacute;rences r&eacute;elles qui existent
+entre l&#8217;enc&eacute;phale de l&#8217;homme et celui des singes sup&eacute;rieurs,
+sont bien minimes. Il ne faut pas se faire
+d&#8217;illusions &agrave; cet &eacute;gard. L&#8217;homme est bien plus pr&egrave;s
+des singes anthropomorphes par les caract&egrave;res anatomiques
+de son cerveau que ceux-ci ne le sont non-seulement
+des autres mammif&egrave;res, mais m&ecirc;mes de
+certains quadrumanes, des guenons et des macaques.&#8221;
+But it would be superfluous here to give further details
+on the correspondence between man and the higher
+mammals in the structure of the brain and all other
+parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>It may, however, be worth while to specify a few
+points, not directly or obviously connected with structure,
+by which this correspondence or relationship is
+well shewn.</p>
+
+<p>Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and
+to communicate to them, certain diseases as hydrophobia,
+variola, the glanders, &amp;c.; and this fact proves
+the close similarity of their tissues and blood, both in
+minute structure and composition, far more plainly than
+does their comparison under the best microscope, or by
+the aid of the best chemical analysis. Monkeys are
+liable to many of the same non-contagious diseases as we
+are; thus Rengger,<a name="FNanchor_5" id="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">5</a> who carefully observed for a long
+time the <i>Cebus Azar&aelig;</i> in its native land, found it liable
+to catarrh, with the usual symptoms, and which when
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">12</a></span>often recurrent led to consumption. These monkeys
+suffered also from apoplexy, inflammation of the bowels,
+and cataract in the eye. The younger ones when shedding
+their milk-teeth often died from fever. Medicines
+produced the same effect on them as on us. Many
+kinds of monkeys have a strong taste for tea, coffee, and
+spirituous liquors: they will also, as I have myself seen,
+smoke tobacco with pleasure. Brehm asserts that the
+natives of north-eastern Africa catch the wild baboons
+by exposing vessels with strong beer, by which they are
+made drunk. He has seen some of these animals, which
+he kept in confinement, in this state; and he gives
+a laughable account of their behaviour and strange
+grimaces. On the following morning they were very
+cross and dismal; they held their aching heads with
+both hands and wore a most pitiable expression: when
+beer or wine was offered them, they turned away with
+disgust, but relished the juice of lemons.<a name="FNanchor_6" id="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">6</a> An American
+monkey, an Ateles, after getting drunk on brandy, would
+never touch it again, and thus was wiser than many
+men. These trifling facts prove how similar the nerves
+of taste must be in monkeys and man, and how similarly
+their whole nervous system is affected.</p>
+
+<p>Man is infested with internal parasites, sometimes
+causing fatal effects, and is plagued by external parasites,
+all of which belong to the same genera or families
+with those infesting other mammals. Man is subject like
+other mammals, birds, and even insects, to that mysterious
+law, which causes certain normal processes, such
+as gestation, as well as the maturation and duration of
+various diseases, to follow lunar periods.<a name="FNanchor_7" id="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">7</a> His wounds
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">13</a></span>are repaired by the same process of healing; and the
+stumps left after the amputation of his limbs occasionally
+possess, especially during an early embryonic
+period, some power of regeneration, as in the lowest
+animals.<a name="FNanchor_8" id="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">8</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">The whole process of that most important function,
+the reproduction of the species, is strikingly the same
+in all mammals, from the first act of courtship by the
+male<a name="FNanchor_9" id="FNanchor_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">9</a> to the birth and nurturing of the young. Monkeys
+are born in almost as helpless a condition as our
+own infants; and in certain genera the young differ
+fully as much in appearance from the adults, as do our
+children from their full-grown parents.<a name="FNanchor_10" id="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">10</a> It has been
+urged by some writers as an important distinction, that
+with man the young arrive at maturity at a much later
+age than with any other animal; but if we look to the
+races of mankind which inhabit tropical countries the
+difference is not great, for the orang is believed not to
+be adult till the age of from ten to fifteen years.<a name="FNanchor_11" id="FNanchor_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">11</a> Man
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">14</a></span>differs from woman in size, bodily strength, hairyness,
+&amp;c., as well as in mind, in the same manner as do the
+two sexes of many mammals. It is, in short, scarcely
+possible to exaggerate the close correspondence in general
+structure, in the minute structure of the tissues, in
+chemical composition and in constitution, between man
+and the higher animals, especially the anthropomorphous
+apes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Embryonic Development.</i>&mdash;Man is developed from an
+ovule, about the 125th of an inch in diameter, which
+differs in no respect from the ovules of other animals.
+The embryo itself at a very early period can hardly be
+distinguished from that of other members of the vertebrate
+kingdom. At this period the arteries run in arch-like
+branches, as if to carry the blood to branchi&aelig;
+which are not present in the higher vertebrata, though
+the slits on the sides of the neck still remain (<i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, fig. 1),
+marking their former position. At a somewhat later
+period, when the extremities are developed, &#8220;the feet of
+lizards and mammals,&#8221; as the illustrious Von Baer
+remarks, &#8220;the wings and feet of birds, no less than the
+hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental
+form.&#8221; It is, says Prof. Huxley,<a name="FNanchor_12" id="FNanchor_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">12</a> &#8220;quite in
+the later stages of development that the young human
+being presents marked differences from the young
+ape, while the latter departs as much from the dog
+in its developments, as the man does. Startling as
+this last assertion may appear to be, it is demonstrably
+true.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing
+of an embryo, I have given one of man and another
+of a dog, at about the same early stage of development,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">15</a></span>carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy.<a name="FNanchor_13" id="FNanchor_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">13</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f1" id="f1"></a><img src="images/fig1.png" width="550" height="972"
+alt="Upper figure human embryo, from Ecker. Lower figure that of a dog." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;1. Upper figure human embryo, from Ecker. Lower figure that of a dog,
+from Bischoff.</p></div>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="embryos" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>a.</i> Fore-brain, cerebral hemispheres, &amp;c.</td>
+<td class="left25" colspan="2"><i>g.</i> Second visceral arch.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>b.</i> Mid-brain, corpora quadrigemina.</td>
+<td class="left25" colspan="2">H. Vertebral columns and muscles in process of development.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>c.</i> Hind-brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata.</td>
+<td class="left25"><i>i.</i> Anterior</td>
+<td class="left25m" rowspan="2">&#9488;<br />&#9474;&nbsp;&nbsp;extremities<br />&#9496;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>d.</i> Eye.</td>
+<td class="left25">K. Posterior</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>e.</i> Ear.</td>
+<td class="left25" colspan="2">L. Tail or os coccyx.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left50"><i>f.</i> First visceral arch.</td>
+<td class="left25" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">16</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="tb">After the foregoing statements made by such high
+authorities, it would be superfluous on my part to give
+a number of borrowed details, shewing that the embryo
+of man closely resembles that of other mammals. It
+may, however, be added that the human embryo likewise
+resembles in various points of structure certain
+low forms when adult. For instance, the heart
+at first exists as a simple pulsating vessel; the excreta
+are voided through a cloacal passage; and the os
+coccyx projects like a true tail, &#8220;extending considerably
+beyond the rudimentary legs.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_14" id="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">14</a> In the embryos of
+all air-breathing vertebrates, certain glands called the corpora
+Wolffiana, correspond with and act like the kidneys
+of mature fishes.<a name="FNanchor_15" id="FNanchor_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">15</a> Even at a later embryonic period,
+some striking resemblances between man and the lower
+animals may be observed. Bischoff says that the convolutions
+of the brain in a human f&oelig;tus at the end of
+the seventh month reach about the same stage of development
+as in a baboon when adult.<a name="FNanchor_16" id="FNanchor_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">16</a> The great toe, as
+Prof. Owen remarks,<a name="FNanchor_17" id="FNanchor_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">17</a> &#8220;which forms the fulcrum when
+standing or walking, is perhaps the most characteristic
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">17</a></span>peculiarity in the human structure;&#8221; but in an embryo,
+about an inch in length, Prof. Wyman<a name="FNanchor_18" id="FNanchor_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">18</a> found
+&#8220;that the great toe was shorter than the others, and,
+instead of being parallel to them, projected at an
+angle from the side of the foot, thus corresponding
+with the permanent condition of this part in the
+quadrumana.&#8221; I will conclude with a quotation from
+Huxley,<a name="FNanchor_19" id="FNanchor_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">19</a> who after asking, does man originate in a
+different way from a dog, bird, frog or fish? says, &#8220;the
+reply is not doubtful for a moment; without question,
+the mode of origin and the early stages of the development
+of man are identical with those of the animals
+immediately below him in the scale: without a doubt
+in these respects, he is far nearer to apes, than the apes
+are to the dog.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><i>Rudiments.</i>&mdash;This subject, though not intrinsically
+more important than the two last, will for several reasons
+be here treated with more fullness.<a name="FNanchor_20" id="FNanchor_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">20</a> Not one of
+the higher animals can be named which does not bear
+some part in a rudimentary condition; and man forms
+no exception to the rule. Rudimentary organs must
+be distinguished from those that are nascent; though
+in some cases the distinction is not easy. The former
+are either absolutely useless, such as the mamm&aelig; of
+male quadrupeds, or the incisor teeth of ruminants
+which never cut through the gums; or they are of such
+slight service to their present possessors, that we cannot
+suppose that they were developed under the conditions
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">18</a></span>which now exist. Organs in this latter state are not
+strictly rudimentary, but they are tending in this direction.
+Nascent organs, on the other hand, though not
+fully developed, are of high service to their possessors,
+and are capable of further development. Rudimentary
+organs are eminently variable; and this is partly intelligible,
+as they are useless or nearly useless, and
+consequently are no longer subjected to natural selection.
+They often become wholly suppressed. When
+this occurs, they are nevertheless liable to occasional
+reappearance through reversion; and this is a circumstance
+well worthy of attention.</p>
+
+<p>Disuse at that period of life, when an organ is chiefly
+used, and this is generally during maturity, together
+with inheritance at a corresponding period of life, seem
+to have been the chief agents in causing organs to become
+rudimentary. The term &#8220;disuse&#8221; does not relate
+merely to the lessened action of muscles, but includes
+a diminished flow of blood to a part or organ, from
+being subjected to fewer alternations of pressure, or
+from becoming in any way less habitually active. Rudiments,
+however, may occur in one sex of parts normally
+present in the other sex; and such rudiments, as we
+shall hereafter see, have often originated in a distinct
+manner. In some cases organs have been reduced by
+means of natural selection, from having become injurious
+to the species under changed habits of life. The
+process of reduction is probably often aided through the
+two principles of compensation and economy of growth;
+but the later stages of reduction, after disuse has done
+all that can fairly be attributed to it, and when the saving
+to be effected by the economy of growth would be very
+small,<a name="FNanchor_21" id="FNanchor_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">21</a> are difficult to understand. The final and com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">19</a></span>plete
+suppression of a part, already useless and much
+reduced in size, in which case neither compensation nor
+economy can come into play, is perhaps intelligible by
+the aid of the hypothesis of pangenesis, and apparently in
+no other way. But as the whole subject of rudimentary
+organs has been fully discussed and illustrated in my
+former works,<a name="FNanchor_22" id="FNanchor_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">22</a> I need here say no more on this head.</p>
+
+<p>Rudiments of various muscles have been observed in
+many parts of the human body;<a name="FNanchor_23" id="FNanchor_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">23</a> and not a few muscles,
+which are regularly present in some of the lower animals
+can occasionally be detected in man in a greatly
+reduced condition. Every one must have noticed the
+power which many animals, especially horses, possess
+of moving or twitching their skin; and this is effected
+by the panniculus carnosus. Remnants of this muscle
+in an efficient state are found in various parts of our
+bodies; for instance, on the forehead, by which the
+eyebrows are raised. The <i>platysma myoides</i>, which is
+well developed on the neck, belongs to this system, but
+cannot be voluntarily brought into action. Prof.
+Turner, of Edinburgh, has occasionally detected, as he
+informs me, muscular fasciculi in five different situations,
+namely in the axill&aelig;, near the scapul&aelig;, &amp;c., all of
+which must be referred to the system of the panniculus.
+He has also shewn<a name="FNanchor_24" id="FNanchor_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">24</a> that the <i>musculus sternalis</i> or <i>sternalis
+brutorum</i>, which is not an extension of the <i>rectus
+abdominalis</i>, but is closely allied to the panniculus, oc<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">20</a></span>curred
+in the proportion of about 3 per cent. in upwards
+of 600 bodies: he adds, that this muscle affords &#8220;an
+excellent illustration of the statement that occasional
+and rudimentary structures are especially liable to
+variation in arrangement.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>Some few persons have the power of contracting the
+superficial muscles on their scalps; and these muscles
+are in a variable and partially rudimentary condition.
+M. A. de Candolle has communicated to me a curious
+instance of the long-continued persistence or inheritance
+of this power, as well as of its unusual development.
+He knows a family, in which one member, the present
+head of a family, could, when a youth, pitch several
+heavy books from his head by the movement of the
+scalp alone; and he won wagers by performing this feat.
+His father, uncle, grandfather, and all his three children
+possess the same power to the same unusual degree.
+This family became divided eight generations ago into
+two branches; so that the head of the above-mentioned
+branch is cousin in the seventh degree to the head of
+the other branch. This distant cousin resides in another
+part of France, and on being asked whether he possessed
+the same faculty, immediately exhibited his power.
+This case offers a good illustration how persistently an
+absolutely useless faculty may be transmitted.</p>
+
+<p>The extrinsic muscles which serve to move the whole
+external ear, and the intrinsic muscles which move the
+different parts, all of which belong to the system of the
+panniculus, are in a rudimentary condition in man; they
+are also variable in development, or at least in function.
+I have seen one man who could draw his ears forwards,
+and another who could draw them backwards;<a name="FNanchor_25" id="FNanchor_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">25</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">21</a></span>
+and from what one of these persons told me, it is probable
+that most of us by often touching our ears and
+thus directing our attention towards them, could by
+repeated trials recover some power of movement. The
+faculty of erecting the ears and of directing them to
+different points of the compass, is no doubt of the
+highest service to many animals, as they thus perceive
+the point of danger; but I have never heard of a man
+who possessed the least power of erecting his ears,&mdash;the
+one movement which might be of use to him. The
+whole external shell of the ear may be considered a
+rudiment, together with the various folds and prominences
+(helix and anti-helix, tragus and anti-tragus, &amp;c.)
+which in the lower animals strengthen and support the
+ear when erect, without adding much to its weight.
+Some authors, however, suppose that the cartilage of the
+shell serves to transmit vibrations to the acoustic
+nerve; but Mr. Toynbee,<a name="FNanchor_26" id="FNanchor_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">26</a> after collecting all the
+known evidence on this head, concludes that the external
+shell is of no distinct use. The ears of the chimpanzee
+and orang are curiously like those of man, and I
+am assured by the keepers in the Zoological Gardens
+that these animals never move or erect them; so that
+they are in an equally rudimentary condition, as far as
+function is concerned, as in man. Why these animals,
+as well as the progenitors of man, should have lost the
+power of erecting their ears we cannot say. It may be,
+though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing
+to their arboreal habits and great strength they were
+but little exposed to danger, and so during a lengthened
+period moved their ears but little, and thus gradually
+lost the power of moving them. This would be a
+parallel case with that of those large and heavy birds,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">22</a></span>which from inhabiting oceanic islands have not been
+exposed to the attacks of beasts of prey, and have consequently
+lost the power of using their wings for flight.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f2" id="f2"></a><img src="images/fig2.png" width="200" height="243"
+alt="Human Ear, modelled
+and drawn by Mr. Woolner." title="" />
+
+<p class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;2. Human Ear, modelled
+and drawn by Mr. Woolner.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a.</i> The projecting point.</p></div>
+
+<p>The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of
+one little peculiarity in the external ear, which he has
+often observed both in men and women, and of which
+he perceived the full signification. His attention was
+first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure
+of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was
+thus led to examine the ears of various monkeys, and
+subsequently more carefully those of man. The peculiarity
+consists in a little blunt point, projecting from
+the inwardly folded margin, or helix. Mr. Woolner
+made an exact model of one such case, and has sent
+me the accompanying drawing.
+(Fig. 2.) These points not only
+project inwards, but often a little
+outwards, so that they are visible
+when the head is viewed from directly
+in front or behind. They
+are variable in size and somewhat
+in position, standing either
+a little higher or lower; and they
+sometimes occur on one ear and
+not on the other. Now the meaning
+of these projections is not,
+I think, doubtful; but it may
+be thought that they offer too
+trifling a character to be worth notice. This thought,
+however, is as false as it is natural. Every character,
+however slight, must be the result of some definite
+cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves
+consideration. The helix obviously consists of the extreme
+margin of the ear folded inwards; and this folding
+appears to be in some manner connected with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">23</a></span>
+whole external ear being permanently pressed backwards.
+In many monkeys, which do not stand high in
+the order, as baboons and some species of macacus,<a name="FNanchor_27" id="FNanchor_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">27</a> the
+upper portion of the ear is slightly pointed, and the
+margin is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
+were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily
+project inwards and probably a little outwards. This
+could actually be observed in a specimen of the <i>Ateles
+beelzebuth</i> in the Zoological Gardens; and we may safely
+conclude that it is a similar structure&mdash;a vestige of
+formerly pointed ears&mdash;which occasionally reappears in
+man.</p>
+
+<p>The nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, with its
+accessory muscles and other structures, is especially
+well developed in birds, and is of much functional importance
+to them, as it can be rapidly drawn across the
+whole eye-ball. It is found in some reptiles and amphibians,
+and in certain fishes, as in sharks. It is fairly
+well developed in the two lower divisions of the mammalian
+series, namely, in the monotremata and marsupials,
+and in some few of the higher mammals, as in the
+walrus. But in man, the quadrumana, and most other
+mammals, it exists, as is admitted by all anatomists, as
+a mere rudiment, called the semilunar fold.<a name="FNanchor_28" id="FNanchor_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">28</a></p>
+
+<p>The sense of smell is of the highest importance to
+the greater number of mammals&mdash;to some, as the ruminants,
+in warning them of danger; to others, as the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">24</a></span>carnivora, in finding their prey; to others, as the wild
+boar, for both purposes combined. But the sense of
+smell is of extremely slight service, if any, even to
+savages, in whom it is generally more highly developed
+than in the civilised races. It does not warn them of
+danger, nor guide them to their food; nor does it prevent
+the Esquimaux from sleeping in the most fetid
+atmosphere, nor many savages from eating half-putrid
+meat. Those who believe in the principle of gradual
+evolution, will not readily admit that this sense in its
+present state was originally acquired by man, as he
+now exists. No doubt he inherits the power in <i>an</i>
+enfeebled and so far rudimentary condition, from some
+early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable
+and by whom it was continually used. We can thus
+perhaps understand how it is, as Dr. Maudsley has truly
+remarked,<a name="FNanchor_29" id="FNanchor_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">29</a> that the sense of smell in man &#8220;is singularly
+effective in recalling vividly the ideas and images
+of forgotten scenes and places;&#8221; for we see in those
+animals, which have this sense highly developed, such as
+dogs and horses, that old recollections of persons and
+places are strongly associated with their odour.</p>
+
+<p>Man differs conspicuously from all the other Primates
+in being almost naked. But a few short straggling
+hairs are found over the greater part of the body in
+the male sex, and fine down on that of the female sex,
+In individuals belonging to the same race these hairs
+are highly variable, not only in abundance, but likewise
+in position: thus the shoulders in some Europeans
+are quite naked, whilst in others they bear thick tufts
+of hair.<a name="FNanchor_30" id="FNanchor_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">30</a> There can be little doubt that the hairs
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">25</a></span>thus scattered over the body are the rudiments of the
+uniform hairy coat of the lower animals. This view
+is rendered all the more probable, as it is known that
+fine, short, and pale-coloured hairs on the limbs and
+other parts of the body occasionally become developed
+into &#8220;thickset, long, and rather coarse dark hairs,&#8221;
+when abnormally nourished near old-standing inflamed
+surfaces.<a name="FNanchor_31" id="FNanchor_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">31</a></p>
+
+<p>I am informed by Mr. Paget that persons belonging
+to the same family often have a few hairs in their eyebrows
+much longer than the others; so that this slight
+peculiarity seems to be inherited. These hairs apparently
+represent the vibriss&aelig;, which are used as organs
+of touch by many of the lower animals. In a young
+chimpanzee I observed that a few upright, rather long,
+hairs, projected above the eyes, where the true eyebrows,
+if present, would have stood.</p>
+
+<p>The fine wool-like hair, or so-called lanugo, with
+which the human f&oelig;tus during the sixth month is
+thickly covered, offers a more curious case. It is first
+developed, during the fifth month, on the eyebrows and
+face, and especially round the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. A moustache of this kind
+was observed by Eschricht<a name="FNanchor_32" id="FNanchor_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">32</a> on a female f&oelig;tus; but this
+is not so surprising a circumstance as it may at first appear,
+for the two sexes generally resemble each other in
+all external characters during an early period of growth.
+The direction and arrangement of the hairs on all parts
+of the f&oelig;tal body are the same as in the adult, but are
+subject to much variability. The whole surface, including
+even the forehead and ears, is thus thickly clothed; but
+it is a significant fact that the palms of the hands and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">26</a></span>the soles of the feet are quite naked, like the inferior
+surfaces of all four extremities in most of the lower
+animals. As this can hardly be an accidental coincidence,
+we must consider the woolly covering of the
+f&oelig;tus to be the rudimental representative of the first
+permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are
+born hairy. This representation is much more complete,
+in accordance with the usual law of embryological
+development, than that afforded by the straggling hairs
+on the body of the adult.</p>
+
+<p>It appears as if the posterior molar or wisdom-teeth
+were tending to become rudimentary in the more civilised
+races of man. These teeth are rather smaller
+than the other molars, as is likewise the case with the
+corresponding teeth in the chimpanzee and orang; and
+they have only two separate fangs. They do not cut
+through the gums till about the seventeenth year, and
+I am assured by dentists that they are much more
+liable to decay, and are earlier lost, than the other
+teeth. It is also remarkable that they are much more
+liable to vary both in structure and in the period of
+their development than the other teeth.<a name="FNanchor_33" id="FNanchor_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">33</a> In the
+Melanian races, on the other hand, the wisdom-teeth
+are usually furnished with three separate fangs, and
+are generally sound: they also differ from the other
+molars in size less than in the Caucasian races.<a name="FNanchor_34" id="FNanchor_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">34</a> Prof.
+Schaaffhausen accounts for this difference between the
+races by &#8220;the posterior dental portion of the jaw being
+always shortened&#8221; in those that are civilised,<a name="FNanchor_35" id="FNanchor_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">35</a> and this
+shortening may, I presume, be safely attributed to civi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">27</a></span>lised
+men habitually feeding on soft, cooked food, and
+thus using their jaws less. I am informed by Mr. Brace
+that it is becoming quite a common practice in the United
+States to remove some of the molar teeth of children,
+as the jaw does not grow large enough for the perfect
+development of the normal number.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the alimentary canal I have met
+with an account of only a single rudiment, namely the
+vermiform appendage of the c&aelig;cum. The c&aelig;cum is
+a branch or diverticulum of the intestine, ending in a
+cul-de-sac, and it is extremely long in many of the
+lower vegetable-feeding mammals. In the marsupial
+koala it is actually more than thrice as long as the
+whole body.<a name="FNanchor_36" id="FNanchor_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">36</a> It is sometimes produced into a long
+gradually-tapering point, and is sometimes constricted
+in parts. It appears as if, in consequence of changed
+diet or habits, the c&aelig;cum had become much shortened
+in various animals, the vermiform appendage being left
+as a rudiment of the shortened part. That this appendage
+is a rudiment, we may infer from its small
+size, and from the evidence which Prof. Canestrini<a name="FNanchor_37" id="FNanchor_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">37</a> has
+collected of its variability in man. It is occasionally
+quite absent, or again is largely developed. The passage
+is sometimes completely closed for half or two-thirds of
+its length, with the terminal part consisting of a flattened
+solid expansion. In the orang this appendage is
+long and convoluted: in man it arises from the end of
+the short c&aelig;cum, and is commonly from four to five
+inches in length, being only about the third of an inch
+in diameter. Not only is it useless, but it is sometimes
+the cause of death, of which fact I have lately
+heard two instances: this is due to small hard bodies,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">28</a></span>such as seeds, entering the passage and causing inflammation.<a name="FNanchor_38" id="FNanchor_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">38</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Quadrumana and some other orders of mammals,
+especially in the Carnivora, there is a passage near
+the lower end of the humerus, called the supra-condyloid
+foramen, through which the great nerve of the fore limb
+passes, and often the great artery. Now in the humerus
+of man, as Dr. Struthers<a name="FNanchor_39" id="FNanchor_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">39</a> and others have shewn, there
+is generally a trace of this passage, and it is sometimes
+fairly well developed, being formed by a depending
+hook-like process of bone, completed by a band of
+ligament. When present the great nerve invariably
+passes through it, and this clearly indicates that it is the
+homologue and rudiment of the supra-condyloid foramen
+of the lower animals. Prof. Turner estimates, as
+he informs me, that it occurs in about one per cent. of
+recent skeletons; but during ancient times it appears
+to have been much more common. Mr. Busk<a name="FNanchor_40" id="FNanchor_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">40</a> has
+collected the following evidence on this head: Prof.
+Broca &#8220;noticed the perforation in four and a half per
+cent. of the arm-bones collected in the &#8216;Cimeti&egrave;re du
+Sud&#8217; at Paris; and in the Grotto of Orrony, the contents
+of which are referred to the Bronze period, as
+many as eight humeri out of thirty-two were perforated;
+but this extraordinary proportion, he thinks,
+might be due to the cavern having been a sort of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">29</a></span> &#8216;family vault.&#8217; Again, M. Dupont found 30 per cent.
+of perforated bones in the caves of the Valley of the
+Lesse, belonging to the Reindeer period; whilst M.
+Leguay, in a sort of <i>dolmen</i> at Argenteuil, observed
+twenty-five per cent. to be perforated; and M. Pruner-Bey
+found twenty-six per cent. in the same condition
+in bones from Vaur&eacute;al. Nor should it be left unnoticed
+that M. Pruner-Bey states that this condition is
+common in Guanche skeletons.&#8221; The fact that ancient
+races, in this and several other cases, more frequently
+present structures which resemble those of the lower
+animals than do the modern races, is interesting. One
+chief cause seems to be that ancient races stand somewhat
+nearer than modern races in the long line of
+descent to their remote animal-like progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>The os coccyx in man, though functionless as a tail,
+plainly represents this part in other vertebrate animals.
+At an early embryonic period it is free, and, as we have
+seen, projects beyond the lower extremities. In certain
+rare and anomalous cases it has been known, according
+to Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and others,<a name="FNanchor_41" id="FNanchor_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">41</a> to form a
+small external rudiment of a tail. The os coccyx is
+short, usually including only four vertebr&aelig;: and these
+are in a rudimental condition, for they consist, with the
+exception of the basal one, of the centrum alone.<a name="FNanchor_42" id="FNanchor_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42" class="fnanchor">42</a> They
+are furnished with some small muscles; one of which, as
+I am informed by Prof. Turner, has been expressly
+described by Theile as a rudimentary repetition of the
+extensor of the tail, which is so largely developed in
+many mammals.</p>
+
+<p>The spinal cord in man extends only as far downwards
+as the last dorsal or first lumbar vertebra; but a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">30</a></span>thread-like structure (the <i>filum terminale</i>) runs down the
+axis of the sacral part of the spinal canal, and even
+along the back of the coccygeal bones. The upper
+part of this filament, as Prof. Turner informs me, is
+undoubtedly homologous with the spinal cord; but the
+lower part apparently consists merely of the <i>pia mater</i>,
+or vascular investing membrane. Even in this case the
+os coccyx may be said to possess a vestige of so important
+a structure as the spinal cord, though no longer
+enclosed within a bony canal. The following fact, for
+which I am also indebted to Prof. Turner, shews how
+closely the os coccyx corresponds with the true tail in
+the lower animals: Luschka has recently discovered at
+the extremity of the coccygeal bones a very peculiar
+convoluted body, which is continuous with the middle
+sacral artery; and this discovery led Krause and Meyer
+to examine the tail of a monkey (Macacus) and of a cat,
+in both of which they found, though not at the extremity,
+a similarly convoluted body.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The reproductive system offers various rudimentary
+structures; but these differ in one important respect
+from the foregoing cases. We are not here concerned
+with a vestige of a part which does not belong to the
+species in an efficient state; but with a part which
+is always present and efficient in the one sex, being
+represented in the other by a mere rudiment. Nevertheless,
+the occurrence of such rudiments is as difficult
+to explain on the belief of the separate creation
+of each species, as in the foregoing cases. Hereafter
+I shall have to recur to these rudiments, and shall
+shew that their presence generally depends merely on
+inheritance; namely, on parts acquired by one sex
+having been partially transmitted to the other. Here
+I will only give some instances of such rudiments. It
+is well known that in the males of all mammals, in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">31</a></span>cluding
+man, rudimentary mamm&aelig; exist. These in
+several instances have become well developed, and have
+yielded a copious supply of milk. Their essential identity
+in the two sexes is likewise shewn by their occasional
+sympathetic enlargement in both during an
+attack of the measles. The <i>vesicula prostratica</i>, which
+has been observed in many male mammals, is now universally
+acknowledged to be the homologue of the
+female uterus, together with the connected passage. It
+is impossible to read Leuckart&#8217;s able description of this
+organ, and his reasoning, without admitting the justness
+of his conclusion. This is especially clear in the case of
+those mammals in which the true female uterus bifurcates,
+for in the males of these the vesicula likewise
+bifurcates.<a name="FNanchor_43" id="FNanchor_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43" class="fnanchor">43</a> Some additional rudimentary structures
+belonging to the reproductive system might here have
+been adduced.<a name="FNanchor_44" id="FNanchor_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44" class="fnanchor">44</a></p>
+
+<p>The bearing of the three great classes of facts now
+given is unmistakeable. But it would be superfluous here
+fully to recapitulate the line of argument given in detail
+in my &#8216;Origin of Species.&#8217; The homological construction
+of the whole frame in the members of the same class is
+intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common
+progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation
+to diversified conditions. On any other view the similarity
+of pattern between the hand of a man or monkey,
+the foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing of
+a bat, &amp;c., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">32</a></span>explanation to assert that they have all been formed on
+the same ideal plan. With respect to development,
+we can clearly understand, on the principle of variations
+supervening at a rather late embryonic period,
+and being inherited at a corresponding period, how it is
+that the embryos of wonderfully different forms should
+still retain, more or less perfectly, the structure of their
+common progenitor. No other explanation has ever
+been given of the marvellous fact that the embryo of a
+man, dog, seal, bat, reptile, &amp;c., can at first hardly be
+distinguished from each other. In order to understand
+the existence of rudimentary organs, we have only to
+suppose that a former progenitor possessed the parts in
+question in a perfect state, and that under changed
+habits of life they became greatly reduced, either from
+simple disuse, or through the natural selection of those
+individuals which were least encumbered with a superfluous
+part, aided by the other means previously indicated.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we can understand how it has come to pass
+that man and all other vertebrate animals have been
+constructed on the same general model, why they pass
+through the same early stages of development, and why
+they retain certain rudiments in common. Consequently
+we ought frankly to admit their community of descent:
+to take any other view, is to admit that our own structure
+and that of all the animals around us, is a mere
+snare laid to entrap our judgment. This conclusion
+is greatly strengthened, if we look to the members of
+the whole animal series, and consider the evidence derived
+from their affinities or classification, their geographical
+distribution and geological succession. It
+is only our natural prejudice, and that arrogance
+which made our forefathers declare that they were
+descended from demi-gods, which leads us to demur to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">33</a></span>
+this conclusion. But the time will before long come
+when it will be thought wonderful, that naturalists, who
+were well acquainted with the comparative structure
+and development of man and other mammals, should
+have believed that each was the work of a separate act
+of creation.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">34</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER II.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the
+Lower Animals.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+lowest savage, immense&mdash;Certain instincts in common&mdash;The
+emotions&mdash;Curiosity&mdash;Imitation&mdash;Attention&mdash;Memory&mdash;Imagination&mdash;Reason&mdash;Progressive
+improvement&mdash;Tools and
+weapons used by animals&mdash;Language&mdash;Self-consciousness&mdash;Sense
+of beauty&mdash;Belief in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions.</p></div>
+
+<p>We have seen in the last chapter that man bears in his
+bodily structure clear traces of his descent from some
+lower form; but it may be urged that, as man differs so
+greatly in his mental power from all other animals, there
+must be some error in this conclusion. No doubt the
+difference in this respect is enormous, even if we compare
+the mind of one of the lowest savages, who has no
+words to express any number higher than four, and who
+uses no abstract terms for the commonest objects or
+affections,<a name="FNanchor_45" id="FNanchor_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45" class="fnanchor">45</a> with that of the most highly organised ape.
+The difference would, no doubt, still remain immense,
+even if one of the higher apes had been improved or
+civilised as much as a dog has been in comparison with
+its parent-form, the wolf or jackal. The Fuegians rank
+amongst the lowest barbarians; but I was continually
+struck with surprise how closely the three natives on
+board H.M.S. &#8220;Beagle,&#8221; who had lived some years in
+England and could talk a little English, resembled us
+in disposition and in most of our mental faculties. If no
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">35</a></span>organic being excepting man had possessed any mental
+power, or if his powers had been of a wholly different
+nature from those of the lower animals, then we should
+never have been able to convince ourselves that our
+high faculties had been gradually developed. But it
+can be clearly shewn that there is no fundamental
+difference of this kind. We must also admit that
+there is a much wider interval in mental power between
+one of the lowest fishes, as a lamprey or lancelet,
+and one of the higher apes, than between an ape and
+man; yet this immense interval is filled up by numberless
+gradations.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition
+between a barbarian, such as the man described by the
+old navigator Byron, who dashed his child on the rocks
+for dropping a basket of sea-urchins, and a Howard or
+Clarkson; and in intellect, between a savage who does
+not use any abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakspeare.
+Differences of this kind between the highest men of the
+highest races and the lowest savages, are connected by
+the finest gradations. Therefore it is possible that they
+might pass and be developed into each other.</p>
+
+<p>My object in this chapter is solely to shew that there
+is no fundamental difference between man and the
+higher mammals in their mental faculties. Each division
+of the subject might have been extended into a
+separate essay, but must here be treated briefly. As
+no classification of the mental powers has been universally
+accepted, I shall arrange my remarks in the order
+most convenient for my purpose; and will select those
+facts which have most struck me, with the hope that
+they may produce some effect on the reader.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to animals very low in the scale, I shall
+have to give some additional facts under Sexual Selection,
+shewing that their mental powers are higher than<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">36</a></span>
+might have been expected. The variability of the faculties
+in the individuals of the same species is an important
+point for us, and some few illustrations will here
+be given. But it would be superfluous to enter into
+many details on this head, for I have found on frequent
+enquiry, that it is the unanimous opinion of all those
+who have long attended to animals of many kinds,
+including birds, that the individuals differ greatly in
+every mental characteristic. In what manner the mental
+powers were first developed in the lowest organisms,
+is as hopeless an enquiry as how life first originated.
+These are problems for the distant future, if they are
+ever to be solved by man.</p>
+
+<p>As man possesses the same senses with the lower
+animals, his fundamental intuitions must be the same.
+Man has also some few instincts in common, as that of
+self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for
+her new-born offspring, the power possessed by the
+latter of sucking, and so forth. But man, perhaps, has
+somewhat fewer instincts than those possessed by the
+animals which come next to him in the series. The
+orang in the Eastern islands, and the chimpanzee in
+Africa, build platforms on which they sleep; and, as both
+species follow the same habit, it might be argued that
+this was due to instinct, but we cannot feel sure that it is
+not the result of both animals having similar wants and
+possessing similar powers of reasoning. These apes, as
+we may assume, avoid the many poisonous fruits of the
+tropics, and man has no such knowledge; but as our
+domestic animals, when taken to foreign lands and when
+first turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs,
+which they afterwards avoid, we cannot feel sure that
+the apes do not learn from their own experience or
+from that of their parents what fruits to select. It is
+however certain, as we shall presently see, that apes have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">37</a></span>
+an instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other
+dangerous animals.</p>
+
+<p>The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the
+instincts in the higher animals are remarkable in contrast
+with those of the lower animals. Cuvier maintained
+that instinct and intelligence stand in an inverse
+ratio to each other; and some have thought that the
+intellectual faculties of the higher animals have been
+gradually developed from their instincts. But Pouchet,
+in an interesting essay,<a name="FNanchor_46" id="FNanchor_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46" class="fnanchor">46</a> has shewn that no such inverse
+ratio really exists. Those insects which possess the most
+wonderful instincts are certainly the most intelligent.
+In the vertebrate series, the least intelligent members,
+namely fishes and amphibians, do not possess complex
+instincts; and amongst mammals the animal most remarkable
+for its instincts, namely the beaver, is highly
+intelligent, as will be admitted by every one who has
+read Mr. Morgan&#8217;s excellent account of this animal.<a name="FNanchor_47" id="FNanchor_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47" class="fnanchor">47</a></p>
+
+<p>Although the first dawnings of intelligence, according
+to Mr. Herbert Spencer,<a name="FNanchor_48" id="FNanchor_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48" class="fnanchor">48</a> have been developed
+through the multiplication and co-ordination of reflex
+actions, and although many of the simpler instincts
+graduate into actions of this kind and can hardly be
+distinguished from them, as in the case of young animals
+sucking, yet the more complex instincts seem to have
+originated independently of intelligence. I am, however,
+far from wishing to deny that instinctive actions
+may lose their fixed and untaught character, and be
+replaced by others performed by the aid of the free will.
+On the other hand, some intelligent actions&mdash;as when,
+birds on oceanic islands first learn to avoid man&mdash;after
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">38</a></span>being performed during many generations, become converted
+into instincts and are inherited. They may then
+be said to be degraded in character, for they are no
+longer performed through reason or from experience.
+But the greater number of the more complex instincts
+appear to have been gained in a wholly different manner,
+through the natural selection of variations of simpler
+instinctive actions. Such variations appear to arise from
+the same unknown causes acting on the cerebral organisation,
+which induce slight variations or individual differences
+in other parts of the body; and these variations,
+owing to our ignorance, are often said to arise spontaneously.
+We can, I think, come to no other conclusion
+with respect to the origin of the more complex instincts,
+when we reflect on the marvellous instincts of sterile
+worker-ants and bees, which leave no offspring to inherit
+the effects of experience and of modified habits.</p>
+
+<p>Although a high degree of intelligence is certainly
+compatible with the existence of complex instincts, as
+we see in the insects just named and in the beaver, it is
+not improbable that they may to a certain extent interfere
+with each other&#8217;s development. Little is known
+about the functions of the brain, but we can perceive
+that as the intellectual powers become highly developed,
+the various parts of the brain must be connected by the
+most intricate channels of intercommunication; and as
+a consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to
+become less well fitted to answer in a definite and uniform,
+that is instinctive, manner to particular sensations
+or associations.</p>
+
+<p>I have thought this digression worth giving, because
+we may easily underrate the mental powers of the
+higher animals, and especially of man, when we compare
+their actions founded on the memory of past
+events, on foresight, reason, and imagination, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">39</a></span>
+exactly similar actions instinctively performed by the
+lower animals; in this latter case the capacity of
+performing such actions having been gained, step by
+step, through the variability of the mental organs and
+natural selection, without any conscious intelligence on
+the part of the animal during each successive generation.
+No doubt, as Mr. Wallace has argued,<a name="FNanchor_49" id="FNanchor_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49" class="fnanchor">49</a> much of
+the intelligent work done by man is due to imitation and
+not to reason; but there is this great difference between
+his actions and many of those performed by the lower
+animals, namely, that man cannot, on his first trial,
+make, for instance, a stone hatchet or a canoe, through
+his power of imitation. He has to learn his work by
+practice; a beaver, on the other hand, can make its dam
+or canal, and a bird its nest, as well, or nearly as well,
+the first time it tries, as when old and experienced.</p>
+
+<p>To return to our immediate subject: the lower
+animals, like man, manifestly feel pleasure and pain,
+happiness and misery. Happiness is never better exhibited
+than by young animals, such as puppies, kittens,
+lambs, &amp;c., when playing together, like our own children.
+Even insects play together, as has been described by
+that excellent observer, P. Huber,<a name="FNanchor_50" id="FNanchor_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50" class="fnanchor">50</a> who saw ants chasing
+and pretending to bite each other, like so many puppies.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the lower animals are excited by the
+same emotions as ourselves is so well established, that
+it will not be necessary to weary the reader by many
+details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on
+us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate,
+the sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to
+stand on end. Suspicion, the offspring of fear, is eminently
+characteristic of most wild animals. Courage
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">40</a></span>and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the
+individuals of the same species, as is plainly seen in
+our dogs. Some dogs and horses are ill-tempered and
+easily turn sulky; others are good-tempered; and
+these qualities are certainly inherited. Every one
+knows how liable animals are to furious rage, and how
+plainly they show it. Many anecdotes, probably true,
+have been published on the long-delayed and artful
+revenge of various animals. The accurate Rengger and
+Brehm<a name="FNanchor_51" id="FNanchor_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51" class="fnanchor">51</a> state that the American and African monkeys
+which they kept tame, certainly revenged themselves.
+The love of a dog for his master is notorious; in the
+agony of death he has been known to caress his master,
+and every one has heard of the dog suffering under
+vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; this
+man, unless he had a heart of stone, must have felt
+remorse to the last hour of his life. As Whewell<a name="FNanchor_52" id="FNanchor_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52" class="fnanchor">52</a> has
+remarked, &#8220;who that reads the touching instances of
+maternal affection, related so often of the women of
+all nations, and of the females of all animals, can
+doubt that the principle of action is the same in the
+two cases?&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>We see maternal affection exhibited in the most
+trifling details; thus Rengger observed an American
+monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the flies which
+plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates
+washing the faces of her young ones in a stream. So
+intense is the grief of female monkeys for the loss of
+their young, that it invariably caused the death of certain
+kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in N.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">41</a></span>Africa. Orphan-monkeys were always adopted and
+carefully guarded by the other monkeys, both males
+and females. One female baboon had so capacious a
+heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of
+other species, but stole young dogs and cats, which she
+continually carried about. Her kindness, however, did
+not go so far as to share her food with her adopted
+offspring, at which Brehm was surprised, as his monkeys
+always divided everything quite fairly with their own
+young ones. An adopted kitten scratched the above-mentioned
+affectionate baboon, who certainly had a
+fine intellect, for she was much astonished at being
+scratched, and immediately examined the kitten&#8217;s feet,
+and without more ado bit off the claws. In the
+Zoological Gardens, I heard from the keeper that
+an old baboon (<i>C. chacma</i>) had adopted a Rhesus
+monkey; but when a young drill and mandrill were
+placed in the cage, she seemed to perceive that these
+monkeys, though distinct species, were her nearer relatives,
+for she at once rejected the Rhesus and adopted
+both of them. The young Rhesus, as I saw, was greatly
+discontented at being thus rejected, and it would, like
+a naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and
+mandrill whenever it could do so with safety; this
+conduct exciting great indignation in the old baboon.
+Monkeys will also, according to Brehm, defend their
+master when attacked by any one, as well as dogs to
+whom they are attached, from the attacks of other
+dogs. But we here trench on the subject of sympathy,
+to which I shall recur. Some of Brehm&#8217;s monkeys
+took much delight in teasing, in various ingenious
+ways, a certain old dog whom they disliked, as well
+as other animals.</p>
+
+<p>Most of the more complex emotions are common to
+the higher animals and ourselves. Every one has seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">42</a></span>
+how jealous a dog is of his master&#8217;s affection, if lavished
+on any other creature; and I have observed the same fact
+with monkeys. This shews that animals not only love,
+but have the desire to be loved. Animals manifestly
+feel emulation. They love approbation or praise; and
+a dog carrying a basket for his master exhibits in a high
+degree self-complacency or pride. There can, I think,
+be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct from
+fear, and something very like modesty when begging
+too often for food. A great dog scorns the snarling of
+a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity.
+Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly
+dislike being laughed at; and they sometimes invent
+imaginary offences. In the Zoological Gardens I saw a
+baboon who always got into a furious rage when his
+keeper took out a letter or book and read it aloud to
+him; and his rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on
+one occasion, he bit his own leg till the blood flowed.</p>
+
+<p>We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions
+and faculties, which are very important, as forming the
+basis for the development of the higher mental powers.
+Animals manifestly enjoy excitement and suffer from
+ennui, as may be seen with dogs, and, according to
+Rengger, with monkeys. All animals feel Wonder,
+and many exhibit Curiosity. They sometimes suffer
+from this latter quality, as when the hunter plays antics
+and thus attracts them; I have witnessed this with
+deer, and so it is with the wary chamois, and with some
+kinds of wild-ducks. Brehm gives a curious account of
+the instinctive dread which his monkeys exhibited
+towards snakes; but their curiosity was so great that
+they could not desist from occasionally satiating their
+horror in a most human fashion, by lifting up the lid
+of the box in which the snakes were kept. I was so
+much surprised at his account, that I took a stuffed and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">43</a></span>
+coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoological
+Gardens, and the excitement thus caused was
+one of the most curious spectacles which I ever beheld.
+Three species of Cercopithecus were the most alarmed;
+they dashed about their cages and uttered sharp signal-cries
+of danger, which were understood by the other
+monkeys. A few young monkeys and one old Anubis
+baboon alone took no notice of the snake. I then
+placed the stuffed specimen on the ground in one of
+the larger compartments. After a time all the monkeys
+collected round it in a large circle, and staring intently,
+presented a most ludicrous appearance. They
+became extremely nervous; so that when a wooden ball,
+with which they were familiar as a plaything, was accidently
+moved in the straw, under which it was partly
+hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys
+behaved very differently when a dead fish, a mouse, and
+some other new objects were placed in their cages; for
+though at first frightened, they soon approached, handled
+and examined them. I then placed a live snake in a
+paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the
+larger compartments. One of the monkeys immediately
+approached, cautiously opened the bag a little, peeped
+in, and instantly dashed away. Then I witnessed what
+Brehm has described, for monkey after monkey, with
+head raised high and turned on one side, could not
+resist taking momentary peeps into the upright bag,
+at the dreadful object lying quiet at the bottom. It
+would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of
+zoological affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited
+a strange, though mistaken, instinctive dread of innocent
+lizards and frogs. An orang, also, has been known
+to be much alarmed at the first sight of a turtle.<a name="FNanchor_53" id="FNanchor_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53" class="fnanchor">53</a></p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">44</a></span></p>
+<p>The principle of <i>Imitation</i> is strong in man, and
+especially in man in a barbarous state. Desor<a name="FNanchor_54" id="FNanchor_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54" class="fnanchor">54</a> has
+remarked that no animal voluntarily imitates an action
+performed by man, until in the ascending scale we
+come to monkeys, which are well-known to be ridiculous
+mockers. Animals, however, sometimes imitate each
+others&#8217; actions: thus two species of wolves, which had
+been reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does sometimes
+the jackal,<a name="FNanchor_55" id="FNanchor_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55" class="fnanchor">55</a> but whether this can be called voluntary
+imitation is another question. From one account
+which I have read, there is reason to believe that puppies
+nursed by cats sometimes learn to lick their feet and
+thus to clean their faces: it is at least certain, as I hear
+from a perfectly trustworthy friend, that some dogs
+behave in this manner. Birds imitate the songs of their
+parents, and sometimes those of other birds; and parrots
+are notorious imitators of any sound which they
+often hear.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual
+progress of man than the power of <i>Attention</i>.
+Animals clearly manifest this power, as when a cat
+watches by a hole and prepares to spring on its prey.
+Wild animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus
+engaged, that they may be easily approached. Mr.
+Bartlett has given me a curious proof how variable this
+faculty is in monkeys. A man who trains monkeys to
+act used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological
+Society at the price of five pounds for each; but he
+offered to give double the price, if he might keep three
+or four of them for a few days, in order to select one.
+When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">45</a></span>a particular monkey would turn out a good actor, he
+answered that it all depended on their power of attention.
+If when he was talking and explaining anything
+to a monkey, its attention was easily distracted, as by
+a fly on the wall or other trifling object, the case was
+hopeless. If he tried by punishment to make an inattentive
+monkey act, it turned sulky. On the other
+hand, a monkey which carefully attended to him could
+always be trained.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost superfluous to state that animals have
+excellent <i>Memories</i> for persons and places. A baboon
+at the Cape of Good Hope, as I have been informed by
+Sir Andrew Smith, recognised him with joy after an
+absence of nine months. I had a dog who was savage
+and averse to all strangers, and I purposely tried his
+memory after an absence of five years and two days. I
+went near the stable where he lived, and shouted to
+him in my old manner; he showed no joy, but instantly
+followed me out walking and obeyed me,
+exactly as if I had parted with him only half-an-hour
+before. A train of old associations, dormant during five
+years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in his
+mind. Even ants, as P. Huber<a name="FNanchor_56" id="FNanchor_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56" class="fnanchor">56</a> has clearly shewn,
+recognised their fellow-ants belonging to the same community
+after a separation of four months. Animals
+can certainly by some means judge of the intervals of
+time between recurrent events.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Imagination</i> is one of the highest prerogatives
+of man. By this faculty he unites, independently of
+the will, former images and ideas, and thus creates brilliant
+and novel results. A poet, as Jean Paul Richter
+remarks,<a name="FNanchor_57" id="FNanchor_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57" class="fnanchor">57</a> &#8220;who must reflect whether he shall make a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">46</a></span>character say yes or no&mdash;to the devil with him; he is
+only a stupid corpse.&#8221; Dreaming gives us the best
+notion of this power; as Jean Paul again says, &#8220;The
+dream is an involuntary art of poetry.&#8221; The value of
+the products of our imagination depends of course on
+the number, accuracy, and clearness of our impressions;
+on our judgment and taste in selecting or rejecting the
+involuntary combinations, and to a certain extent on
+our power of voluntarily combining them. As dogs,
+cats, horses, and probably all the higher animals, even
+birds, as is stated on good authority,<a name="FNanchor_58" id="FNanchor_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58" class="fnanchor">58</a> have vivid dreams,
+and this is shewn by their movements and voice, we must
+admit that they possess some power of imagination.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I
+presume, be admitted that <i>Reason</i> stands at the summit.
+Few persons any longer dispute that animals possess
+some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be
+seen to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant
+fact, that the more the habits of any particular animal
+are studied by a naturalist, the more he attributes to
+reason and the less to unlearnt instincts.<a name="FNanchor_59" id="FNanchor_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59" class="fnanchor">59</a> In future
+chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in
+the scale apparently display a certain amount of reason.
+No doubt it is often difficult to distinguish between the
+power of reason and that of instinct. Thus Dr. Hayes,
+in his work on &#8216;The Open Polar Sea,&#8217; repeatedly remarks
+that his dogs, instead of continuing to draw the
+sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated when
+they came to thin ice, so that their weight might be
+more evenly distributed. This was often the first warn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">47</a></span>ing
+and notice which the travellers received that the ice
+was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, did the dogs
+act thus from the experience of each individual, or from
+the example of the older and wiser dogs, or from an
+inherited habit, that is from an instinct? This instinct
+might possibly have arisen since the time, long ago,
+when dogs were first employed by the natives in drawing
+their sledges; or the Arctic wolves, the parent-stock
+of the Esquimaux dog, may have acquired this instinct,
+impelling them not to attack their prey in a close pack
+when on thin ice. Questions of this kind are most
+difficult to answer.</p>
+
+<p>So many facts have been recorded in various works
+shewing that animals possess some degree of reason,
+that I will here give only two or three instances, authenticated
+by Rengger, and relating to American monkeys,
+which stand low in their order. He states that when
+he first gave eggs to his monkeys, they smashed them
+and thus lost much of their contents; afterwards they
+gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked
+off the bits of shell with their fingers. After cutting
+themselves only once with any sharp tool, they would
+not touch it again, or would handle it with the greatest
+care. Lumps of sugar were often given them wrapped
+up in paper; and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp
+in the paper, so that in hastily unfolding it they got
+stung; after this had once happened, they always first
+held the packet to their ears to detect any movement
+within. Any one who is not convinced by such facts as
+these, and by what he may observe with his own dogs,
+that animals can reason, would not be convinced by
+anything that I could add. Nevertheless I will give
+one case with respect to dogs, as it rests on two distinct
+observers, and can hardly depend on the modification
+of any instinct.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">48</a></span>Mr. Colquhoun<a name="FNanchor_60" id="FNanchor_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60" class="fnanchor">60</a> winged two wild-ducks, which fell
+on the opposite side of a stream; his retriever tried to
+bring over both at once, but could not succeed; she
+then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned
+for the dead bird. Col. Hutchinson relates that
+two partridges were shot at once, one being killed, the
+other wounded; the latter ran away, and was caught by
+the retriever, who on her return came across the dead
+bird; &#8220;she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and
+after one or two trials, finding she could not take it up
+without permitting the escape of the winged bird, she
+considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it
+by giving it a severe crunch, and afterwards brought
+away both together. This was the only known instance
+of her ever having wilfully injured any game.&#8221;
+Here we have reason, though not quite perfect, for the
+retriever might have brought the wounded bird first
+and then returned for the dead one, as in the case of
+the two wild-ducks.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The muleteers in S. America say, &#8220;I will not give
+you the mule whose step is easiest, but <i>la mas rational,</i>&mdash;the
+one that reasons best;&#8221; and Humboldt<a name="FNanchor_61" id="FNanchor_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61" class="fnanchor">61</a> adds,
+&#8220;this popular expression, dictated by long experience,
+combats the system of animated machines, better perhaps
+than all the arguments of speculative philosophy.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It has, I think, now been shewn that man and the
+higher animals, especially the Primates, have some few
+instincts in common. All have the same senses, intuitions
+and sensations&mdash;similar passions, affections, and
+emotions, even the more complex ones; they feel
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">49</a></span>wonder and curiosity; they possess the same faculties
+of imitation, attention, memory, imagination, and reason,
+though in very different degrees. Nevertheless many
+authors have insisted that man is separated through his
+mental faculties by an impassable barrier from all the
+lower animals. I formerly made a collection of above
+a score of such aphorisms, but they are not worth
+giving, as their wide difference and number prove the
+difficulty, if not the impossibility, of the attempt. It
+has been asserted that man alone is capable of progressive
+improvement; that he alone makes use of tools or
+fire, domesticates other animals, possesses property, or
+employs language; that no other animal is self-conscious,
+comprehends itself, has the power of abstraction,
+or possesses general ideas; that man alone has a sense
+of beauty, is liable to caprice, has the feeling of gratitude,
+mystery, &amp;c.; believes in God, or is endowed with
+a conscience. I will hazard a few remarks on the more
+important and interesting of these points.</p>
+
+<p>Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained<a name="FNanchor_62" id="FNanchor_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62" class="fnanchor">62</a> that man
+alone is capable of progressive improvement. With
+animals, looking first to the individual, every one who
+has had any experience in setting traps knows that
+young animals can be caught much more easily than
+old ones; and they can be much more easily approached
+by an enemy. Even with respect to old animals, it is
+impossible to catch many in the same place and in the
+same kind of trap, or to destroy them by the same kind
+of poison; yet it is improbable that all should have
+partaken of the poison, and impossible that all should
+have been caught in the trap. They must learn caution
+by seeing their brethren caught or poisoned. In North
+America, where the fur-bearing animals have long been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">50</a></span>pursued, they exhibit, according to the unanimous testimony
+of all observers, an almost incredible amount
+of sagacity, caution, and cunning; but trapping has
+been there so long carried on that inheritance may have
+come into play.</p>
+
+<p>If we look to successive generations, or to the race,
+there is no doubt that birds and other animals gradually
+both acquire and lose caution in relation to man or
+other enemies;<a name="FNanchor_63" id="FNanchor_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63" class="fnanchor">63</a> and this caution is certainly in chief
+part an inherited habit or instinct, but in part the result
+of individual experience. A good observer, Leroy,<a name="FNanchor_64" id="FNanchor_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64" class="fnanchor">64</a>
+states that in districts where foxes are much hunted,
+the young when they first leave their burrows are incontestably
+much more wary than the old ones in districts
+where they are not much disturbed.</p>
+
+<p>Our domestic dogs are descended from wolves and
+jackals,<a name="FNanchor_65" id="FNanchor_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65" class="fnanchor">65</a> and though they may not have gained in
+cunning, and may have lost in waryness and suspicion,
+yet they have progressed in certain moral qualities,
+such as in affection, trust-worthiness, temper, and probably
+in general intelligence. The common rat has
+conquered and beaten several other species throughout
+Europe, in parts of North America, New Zealand,
+and recently in Formosa, as well as on the mainland of
+China. Mr. Swinhoe,<a name="FNanchor_66" id="FNanchor_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66" class="fnanchor">66</a> who describes these latter cases,
+attributes the victory of the common rat over the large
+<i>Mus coninga</i> to its superior cunning; and this latter
+quality may be attributed to the habitual exercise of
+all its faculties in avoiding extirpation by man, as well
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">51</a></span>as to nearly all the less cunning or weak-minded rats
+having been successively destroyed by him. To maintain,
+independently of any direct evidence, that no
+animal during the course of ages has progressed in
+intellect or other mental faculties, is to beg the question
+of the evolution of species. Hereafter we shall see that,
+according to Lartet, existing mammals belonging to
+several orders have larger brains than their ancient
+tertiary prototypes.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been said that no animal uses any tool;
+but the chimpanzee in a state of nature cracks a native
+fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with a stone.<a name="FNanchor_67" id="FNanchor_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67" class="fnanchor">67</a> Rengger<a name="FNanchor_68" id="FNanchor_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68" class="fnanchor">68</a>
+easily taught an American monkey thus to break open
+hard palm-nuts, and afterwards of its own accord it
+used stones to open other kinds of nuts, as well as
+boxes. It thus also removed the soft rind of fruit that
+had a disagreeable flavour. Another monkey was taught
+to open the lid of a large box with a stick, and afterwards
+it used the stick as a lever to move heavy bodies;
+and I have myself seen a young orang put a stick into
+a crevice, slip his hand to the other end, and use it in
+the proper manner as a lever. In the cases just mentioned
+stones and sticks were employed as implements;
+but they are likewise used as weapons. Brehm<a name="FNanchor_69" id="FNanchor_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69" class="fnanchor">69</a> states,
+on the authority of the well-known traveller Schimper,
+that in Abyssinia when the baboons belonging to one
+species (<i>C. gelada</i>) descend in troops from the mountains
+to plunder the fields, they sometimes encounter
+troops of another species (<i>C. hamadryas</i>), and then a
+fight ensues. The Geladas roll down great stones, which
+the Hamadryas try to avoid, and then, both species,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">52</a></span>making a great uproar, rush furiously against each
+other. Brehm, when accompanying the Duke of Coburg-Gotha,
+aided in an attack with fire-arms on a troop of
+baboons in the pass of Mensa in Abyssinia. The baboons
+in return rolled so many stones down the mountain,
+some as large as a man&#8217;s head, that the attackers had
+to beat a hasty retreat; and the pass was actually for
+a time closed against the caravan. It deserves notice
+that these baboons thus acted in concert. Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_70" id="FNanchor_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70" class="fnanchor">70</a>
+on three occasions saw female orangs, accompanied
+by their young, &#8220;breaking off branches and
+the great spiny fruit of the Durian tree, with every
+appearance of rage; causing such a shower of missiles
+as effectually kept us from approaching too near the
+tree.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In the Zoological Gardens a monkey which had weak
+teeth used to break open nuts with a stone; and I was
+assured by the keepers that this animal, after using the
+stone, hid it in the straw, and would not let any other
+monkey touch it. Here, then, we have the idea of
+property; but this idea is common to every dog with a
+bone, and to most or all birds with their nests.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The Duke of Argyll<a name="FNanchor_71" id="FNanchor_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71" class="fnanchor">71</a> remarks, that the fashioning of
+an implement for a special purpose is absolutely peculiar
+to man; and he considers that this forms an immeasurable
+gulf between him and the brutes. It is no doubt
+a very important distinction, but there appears to me
+much truth in Sir J. Lubbock&#8217;s suggestion,<a name="FNanchor_72" id="FNanchor_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72" class="fnanchor">72</a> that when
+primeval man first used flint-stones for any purpose, he
+would have accidentally splintered them, and would
+then have used the sharp fragments. From this step
+it would be a small one to intentionally break the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">53</a></span>flints, and not a very wide step to rudely fashion them.
+This latter advance, however, may have taken long
+ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time
+which elapsed before the men of the neolithic period
+took to grinding and polishing their stone tools. In
+breaking the flints, as Sir J. Lubbock likewise remarks,
+sparks would have been emitted, and in grinding them
+heat would have been evolved: &#8220;thus the two usual
+methods of obtaining fire may have originated.&#8221; The
+nature of fire would have been known in the many
+volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows through
+forests. The anthropomorphous apes, guided probably
+by instinct, build for themselves temporary platforms;
+but as many instincts are largely controlled by reason,
+the simpler ones, such as this of building a platform,
+might readily pass into a voluntary and conscious act.
+The orang is known to cover itself at night with the
+leaves of the Pandanus; and Brehm states that one of
+his baboons used to protect itself from the heat of the
+sun by throwing a straw-mat over its head. In these
+latter habits, we probably see the first steps towards
+some of the simpler arts; namely rude architecture
+and dress, as they arose amongst the early progenitors
+of man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Language.</i>&mdash;This faculty has justly been considered as
+one of the chief distinctions between man and the lower
+animals. But man, as a highly competent judge, Archbishop
+Whately remarks, &#8220;is not the only animal that
+can make use of language to express what is passing in
+his mind, and can understand, more or less, what is so
+expressed by another.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_73" id="FNanchor_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73" class="fnanchor">73</a> In Paraguay the <i>Cebus Azar&aelig;</i>
+when excited utters at least six distinct sounds, which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">54</a></span>excite in other monkeys similar emotions.<a name="FNanchor_74" id="FNanchor_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74" class="fnanchor">74</a> The movements
+of the features and gestures of monkeys are understood
+by us, and they partly understand ours, as
+Rengger and others declare. It is a more remarkable
+fact that the dog, since being domesticated, has
+learnt to bark<a name="FNanchor_75" id="FNanchor_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75" class="fnanchor">75</a> in at least four or five distinct tones.
+Although barking is a new art, no doubt the wild species,
+the parents of the dog, expressed their feelings
+by cries of various kinds. With the domesticated
+dog we have the bark of eagerness, as in the chase;
+that of anger; the yelping or howling bark of despair,
+as when shut up; that of joy, as when starting on a
+walk with his master; and the very distinct one of
+demand or supplication, as when wishing for a door or
+window to be opened.</p>
+
+<p>Articulate language is, however, peculiar to man;
+but he uses in common with the lower animals inarticulate
+cries to express his meaning, aided by gestures
+and the movements of the muscles of the face.<a name="FNanchor_76" id="FNanchor_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76" class="fnanchor">76</a> This
+especially holds good with the more simple and vivid
+feelings, which are but little connected with our higher
+intelligence. Our cries of pain, fear, surprise, anger, together
+with their appropriate actions, and the murmur
+of a mother to her beloved child, are more expressive
+than any words. It is not the mere power of articulation
+that distinguishes man from other animals, for as
+every one knows, parrots can talk; but it is his large
+power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas;
+and this obviously depends on the development of the
+mental faculties.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">55</a></span></p><p>As Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble
+science of philology, observes, language is an art, like
+brewing or baking; but writing would have been a
+much more appropriate simile. It certainly is not a
+true instinct, as every language has to be learnt. It
+differs, however, widely from all ordinary arts, for man
+has an instinctive tendency to speak, as we see in the
+babble of our young children; whilst no child has an
+instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write. Moreover,
+no philologist now supposes that any language has
+been deliberately invented; each has been slowly and
+unconsciously developed by many steps. The sounds
+uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest
+analogy to language, for all the members of the same
+species utter the same instinctive cries expressive of
+their emotions; and all the kinds that have the power
+of singing exert this power instinctively; but the actual
+song, and even the call-notes, are learnt from their
+parents or foster-parents. These sounds, as Daines
+Barrington<a name="FNanchor_77" id="FNanchor_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77" class="fnanchor">77</a> has proved, &#8220;are no more innate than
+language is in man.&#8221; The first attempts to sing
+&#8220;may be compared to the imperfect endeavour in a
+child to babble.&#8221; The young males continue practising,
+or, as the bird-catchers say, recording, for ten
+or eleven months. Their first essays show hardly a
+rudiment of the future song; but as they grow older
+we can perceive what they are aiming at; and at last
+they are said &#8220;to sing their song round.&#8221; Nestlings
+which have learnt the song of a distinct species, as
+with the canary-birds educated in the Tyrol, teach and
+transmit their new song to their offspring. The slight
+natural differences of song in the same species inha<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">56</a></span>biting
+different districts may be appositely compared,
+as Barrington remarks, &#8220;to provincial dialects;&#8221; and
+the songs of allied, though distinct species may be compared
+with the languages of distinct races of man. I
+have given the foregoing details to shew that an instinctive
+tendency to acquire an art is not a peculiarity
+confined to man.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the origin of articulate language,
+after having read on the one side the highly interesting
+works of Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, the Rev. F. Farrar,
+and Prof. Schleicher,<a name="FNanchor_78" id="FNanchor_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78" class="fnanchor">78</a> and the celebrated lectures of
+Prof. Max M&uuml;ller on the other side, I cannot doubt that
+language owes its origin to the imitation and modification,
+aided by signs and gestures, of various
+natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and man&#8217;s
+own instinctive cries. When we treat of sexual selection
+we shall see that primeval man, or rather some
+early progenitor of man, probably used his voice largely,
+as does one of the gibbon-apes at the present day, in
+producing true musical cadences, that is in singing;
+we may conclude from a widely-spread analogy that
+this power would have been especially exerted during
+the courtship of the sexes, serving to express various
+emotions, as love, jealousy, triumph, and serving as a
+challenge to their rivals. The imitation by articulate
+sounds of musical cries might have given rise to
+words expressive of various complex emotions. As
+bearing on the subject of imitation, the strong tendency
+in our nearest allies, the monkeys, in microcephalous
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">57</a></span>idiots,<a name="FNanchor_79" id="FNanchor_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79" class="fnanchor">79</a> and in the barbarous races of mankind, to imitate
+whatever they hear deserves notice. As monkeys
+certainly understand much that is said to them by man,
+and as in a state of nature they utter signal-cries of
+danger to their fellows,<a name="FNanchor_80" id="FNanchor_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80" class="fnanchor">80</a> it does not appear altogether
+incredible, that some unusually wise ape-like animal
+should have thought of imitating the growl of a beast
+of prey, so as to indicate to his fellow monkeys the
+nature of the expected danger. And this would have
+been a first step in the formation of a language.</p>
+
+<p>As the voice was used more and more, the vocal
+organs would have been strengthened and perfected
+through the principle of the inherited effects of use;
+and this would have reacted on the power of speech.
+But the relation between the continued use of language
+and the development of the brain has no doubt been far
+more important. The mental powers in some early progenitor
+of man must have been more highly developed
+than in any existing ape, before even the most imperfect
+form of speech could have come into use; but we may
+confidently believe that the continued use and advancement
+of this power would have reacted on the mind by
+enabling and encouraging it to carry on long trains of
+thought. A long and complex train of thought can no
+more be carried on without the aid of words, whether
+spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the
+use of figures or algebra. It appears, also, that even
+ordinary trains of thought almost require some form of
+language, for the dumb, deaf, and blind girl, Laura
+Bridgman, was observed to use her fingers whilst dream<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">58</a></span>ing.<a name="FNanchor_81" id="FNanchor_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81" class="fnanchor">81</a>
+Nevertheless a long succession of vivid and connected
+ideas, may pass through the mind without the
+aid of any form of language, as we may infer from the
+prolonged dreams of dogs. We have, also, seen that
+retriever-dogs are able to reason to a certain extent;
+and this they manifestly do without the aid of language.
+The intimate connection between the brain, as it is
+now developed in us, and the faculty of speech, is well
+shewn by those curious cases of brain-disease, in which
+speech is specially affected, as when the power to remember
+substantives is lost, whilst other words can be
+correctly used.<a name="FNanchor_82" id="FNanchor_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82" class="fnanchor">82</a> There is no more improbability in
+the effects of the continued use of the vocal and mental
+organs being inherited, than in the case of handwriting,
+which depends partly on the structure of the
+hand and partly on the disposition of the mind; and
+handwriting is certainly inherited.<a name="FNanchor_83" id="FNanchor_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83" class="fnanchor">83</a></p>
+
+<p>Why the organs now used for speech should have
+been originally perfected for this purpose, rather than
+any other organs, it is not difficult to see. Ants have
+considerable powers of intercommunication by means
+of their antenn&aelig;, as shewn by Huber, who devotes a
+whole chapter to their language. We might have used
+our fingers as efficient instruments, for a person with
+practice can report to a deaf man every word of a speech
+rapidly delivered at a public meeting; but the loss of
+our hands, whilst thus employed, would have been
+a serious inconvenience. As all the higher mammals
+possess vocal organs constructed on the same general
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">59</a></span>plan with ours, and which are used as a means of communication,
+it was obviously probable, if the power of communication
+had to be improved, that these same organs
+would have been still further developed; and this has
+been effected by the aid of adjoining and well-adapted
+parts, namely the tongue and lips.<a name="FNanchor_84" id="FNanchor_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84" class="fnanchor">84</a> The fact of the
+higher apes not using their vocal organs for speech, no
+doubt depends on their intelligence not having been
+sufficiently advanced. The possession by them of organs,
+which with long-continued practice might have been
+used for speech, although not thus used, is paralleled by
+the case of many birds which possess organs fitted for
+singing, though they never sing. Thus, the nightingale
+and crow have vocal organs similarly constructed, these
+being used by the former for diversified song, and by
+the latter merely for croaking.<a name="FNanchor_85" id="FNanchor_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85" class="fnanchor">85</a></p>
+
+<p>The formation of different languages and of distinct
+species, and the proofs that both have been developed
+through a gradual process, are curiously the same.<a name="FNanchor_86" id="FNanchor_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86" class="fnanchor">86</a>
+But we can trace the origin of many words further
+back than in the case of species, for we can perceive
+that they have arisen from the imitation of various
+sounds, as in alliterative poetry. We find in distinct
+languages striking homologies due to community of
+descent, and analogies due to a similar process of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">60</a></span>formation. The manner in which certain letters or
+sounds change when others change is very like correlated
+growth. We have in both cases the reduplication
+of parts, the effects of long-continued use, and so forth.
+The frequent presence of rudiments, both in languages
+and in species, is still more remarkable. The letter <i>m</i>
+in the word <i>am</i>, means <i>I</i>; so that in the expression <i>I am</i>,
+a superfluous and useless rudiment has been retained.
+In the spelling also of words, letters often remain
+as the rudiments of ancient forms of pronunciation.
+Languages, like organic beings, can be classed in groups
+under groups; and they can be classed either naturally
+according to descent, or artificially by other characters.
+Dominant languages and dialects spread widely and
+lead to the gradual extinction of other tongues. A language,
+like a species, when once extinct, never, as Sir
+C. Lyell remarks, reappears. The same language never
+has two birthplaces. Distinct languages may be crossed
+or blended together.<a name="FNanchor_87" id="FNanchor_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87" class="fnanchor">87</a> We see variability in every
+tongue, and new words are continually cropping up; but
+as there is a limit to the powers of the memory, single
+words, like whole languages, gradually become extinct.
+As Max M&uuml;ller<a name="FNanchor_88" id="FNanchor_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88" class="fnanchor">88</a> has well remarked:&mdash;&#8220;A struggle for
+life is constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical
+forms in each language. The better, the
+shorter, the easier forms are constantly gaining the
+upper hand, and they owe their success to their own
+inherent virtue.&#8221; To these more important causes of
+the survival of certain words, mere novelty may, I
+think, be added; for there is in the mind of man a strong
+love for slight changes in all things. The survival or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">61</a></span>preservation of certain favoured words in the struggle
+for existence is natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction
+of the languages of many barbarous nations
+has often been advanced as a proof, either of the divine
+origin of these languages, or of the high art and former
+civilisation of their founders. Thus F. von Schlegel
+writes: &#8220;In those languages which appear to be at the
+lowest grade of intellectual culture, we frequently observe
+a very high and elaborate degree of art in their
+grammatical structure. This is especially the case with
+the Basque and the Lapponian, and many of the American
+languages.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_89" id="FNanchor_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89" class="fnanchor">89</a> But it is assuredly an error to speak
+of any language as an art in the sense of its having
+been elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists
+now admit that conjugations, declensions, &amp;c., originally
+existed as distinct words, since joined together;
+and as such words express the most obvious relations
+between objects and persons, it is not surprising that
+they should have been used by the men of most races
+during the earliest ages. With respect to perfection,
+the following illustration will best shew how easily we
+may err: a Crinoid sometimes consists of no less
+than 150,000 pieces of shell,<a name="FNanchor_90" id="FNanchor_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90" class="fnanchor">90</a> all arranged with perfect
+symmetry in radiating lines; but a naturalist does
+not consider an animal of this kind as more perfect
+than a bilateral one with comparatively few parts,
+and with none of these alike, excepting on the opposite
+sides of the body. He justly considers the differentiation
+and specialisation of organs as the test of perfection.
+So with languages, the most symmetrical and
+complex ought not to be ranked above irregular, abbre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">62</a></span>viated,
+and bastardised languages, which have borrowed
+expressive words and useful forms of construction from
+various conquering, or conquered, or immigrant races.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude
+that the extremely complex and regular construction of
+many barbarous languages, is no proof that they owe
+their origin to a special act of creation.<a name="FNanchor_91" id="FNanchor_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91" class="fnanchor">91</a> Nor, as
+we have seen, does the faculty of articulate speech in
+itself offer any insuperable objection to the belief that
+man has been developed from some lower form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Self-consciousness, Individuality, Abstraction, General
+Ideas, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;It would be useless to attempt discussing
+these high faculties, which, according to several recent
+writers, make the sole and complete distinction between
+man and the brutes, for hardly two authors agree in their
+definitions. Such faculties could not have been fully
+developed in man until his mental powers had advanced
+to a high standard, and this implies the use of a perfect
+language. No one supposes that one of the lower animals
+reflects whence he comes or whither he goes,&mdash;what
+is death or what is life, and so forth. But can
+we feel sure that an old dog with an excellent memory
+and some power of imagination, as shewn by his
+dreams, never reflects on his past pleasures in the
+chase? and this would be a form of self-consciousness.
+On the other hand, as B&uuml;chner<a name="FNanchor_92" id="FNanchor_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92" class="fnanchor">92</a> has remarked, how
+little can the hard-worked wife of a degraded Australian
+savage, who uses hardly any abstract words and cannot
+count above four, exert her self-consciousness, or reflect
+on the nature of her own existence.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">63</a></span>That animals retain their mental individuality is
+unquestionable. When my voice awakened a train of
+old associations in the mind of the above-mentioned
+dog, he must have retained his mental individuality,
+although every atom of his brain had probably undergone
+change more than once during the interval of five
+years. This dog might have brought forward the
+argument lately advanced to crush all evolutionists,
+and said, &#8220;I abide amid all mental moods and all
+material changes.... The teaching that atoms leave
+their impressions as legacies to other atoms falling
+into the places they have vacated is contradictory of
+the utterance of consciousness, and is therefore false;
+but it is the teaching necessitated by evolutionism,
+consequently the hypothesis is a false one.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_93" id="FNanchor_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93" class="fnanchor">93</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Sense of Beauty.</i>&mdash;This sense has been declared to
+be peculiar to man. But when we behold male birds
+elaborately displaying their plumes and splendid colours
+before the females, whilst other birds not thus decorated
+make no such display, it is impossible to doubt
+that the females admire the beauty of their male partners.
+As women everywhere deck themselves with
+these plumes, the beauty of such ornaments cannot be
+disputed. The Bower-birds by tastefully ornamenting
+their playing-passages with gaily-coloured objects, as
+do certain humming-birds their nests, offer additional
+evidence that they possess a sense of beauty. So with
+the song of birds, the sweet strains poured forth by the
+males during the season of love are certainly admired
+by the females, of which fact evidence will hereafter be
+given. If female birds had been incapable of appreciating
+the beautiful colours, the ornaments, and voices
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">64</a></span>of their male partners, all the labour and anxiety exhibited
+by them in displaying their charms before the
+females would have been thrown away; and this it is
+impossible to admit. Why certain bright colours and
+certain sounds should excite pleasure, when in harmony,
+cannot, I presume, be explained any more than why
+certain flavours and scents are agreeable; but assuredly
+the same colours and the same sounds are admired by
+us and by many of the lower animals.</p>
+
+<p>The taste for the beautiful, at least as far as female
+beauty is concerned, is not of a special nature in the
+human mind; for it differs widely in the different
+races of man, as will hereafter be shewn, and is not
+quite the same even in the different nations of the
+same race. Judging from the hideous ornaments and
+the equally hideous music admired by most savages, it
+might be urged that their &aelig;sthetic faculty was not so
+highly developed as in certain animals, for instance, in
+birds. Obviously no animal would be capable of admiring
+such scenes as the heavens at night, a beautiful
+landscape, or refined music; but such high tastes, depending
+as they do on culture and complex associations,
+are not enjoyed by barbarians or by uneducated
+persons.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Many of the faculties, which have been of inestimable
+service to man for his progressive advancement,
+such as the powers of the imagination, wonder,
+curiosity, an undefined sense of beauty, a tendency
+to imitation, and the love of excitement or novelty,
+could not fail to have led to the most capricious
+changes of customs and fashions. I have alluded to
+this point, because a recent writer<a name="FNanchor_94" id="FNanchor_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94" class="fnanchor">94</a> has oddly fixed
+on Caprice &#8220;as one of the most remarkable and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">65</a></span>typical differences between savages and brutes.&#8221; But
+not only can we perceive how it is that roan is capricious,
+but the lower animals are, as we shall hereafter
+see, capricious in their affections, aversions, and sense
+of beauty. There is also good reason to suspect that
+they love novelty, for its own sake.</p>
+
+<p><i>Belief in God&mdash;Religion.</i>&mdash;There is no evidence that
+man was aboriginally endowed with the ennobling
+belief in the existence of an Omnipotent God. On the
+contrary there is ample evidence, derived not from hasty
+travellers, but from men who have long resided with
+savages, that numerous races have existed and still
+exist, who have no idea of one or more gods, and who
+have no words in their languages to express such an
+idea.<a name="FNanchor_95" id="FNanchor_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95" class="fnanchor">95</a> The question is of course wholly distinct from
+that higher one, whether there exists a Creator and
+Ruler of the universe; and this has been answered in
+the affirmative by the highest intellects that have ever
+lived.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, we include under the term &#8220;religion&#8221; the
+belief in unseen or spiritual agencies, the case is wholly
+different; for this belief seems to be almost universal
+with the less civilised races. Nor is it difficult to
+comprehend how it arose. As soon as the important
+faculties of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity,
+together with some power of reasoning, had become
+partially developed, man would naturally have craved
+to understand what was passing around him, and
+have vaguely speculated on his own existence. As
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">66</a></span>Mr. M&#8217;Lennan<a name="FNanchor_96" id="FNanchor_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96" class="fnanchor">96</a> has remarked, &#8220;Some explanation of
+the phenomena of life, a man must feign for himself;
+and to judge from the universality of it, the simplest
+hypothesis, and the first to occur to men, seems to have
+been that natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence
+in animals, plants, and things, and in the forces
+of nature, of such spirits prompting to action as men
+are conscious they themselves possess.&#8221; It is probable,
+as Mr. Tylor has clearly shewn, that dreams may have
+first given rise to the notion of spirits; for savages do
+not readily distinguish between subjective and objective
+impressions. When a savage dreams, the figures which
+appear before him are believed to have come from a
+distance and to stand over him; or &#8220;the soul of the
+dreamer goes out on its travels, and comes home with
+a remembrance of what it has seen.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_97" id="FNanchor_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97" class="fnanchor">97</a> But until the
+above-named faculties of imagination, curiosity, reason,
+&amp;c., had been fairly well developed in the mind of man,
+his dreams would not have led him to believe in spirits,
+any more than in the case of a dog.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">67</a></span></p><p>The tendency in savages to imagine that natural
+objects and agencies are animated by spiritual or living
+essences, is perhaps illustrated by a little fact which I
+once noticed: my dog, a full-grown and very sensible
+animal, was lying on the lawn during a hot and still
+day; but at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally
+moved an open parasol, which would have been wholly
+disregarded by the dog, had any one stood near it. As
+it was, every time that the parasol slightly moved, the
+dog growled fiercely and barked. He must, I think,
+have reasoned to himself in a rapid and unconscious
+manner, that movement without any apparent cause
+indicated the presence of some strange living agent, and
+no stranger had a right to be on his territory.</p>
+
+<p>The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into
+the belief in the existence of one or more gods. For
+savages would naturally attribute to spirits the same
+passions, the same love of vengeance or simplest form
+of justice, and the same affections which they themselves
+experienced. The Fuegians appear to be in this respect
+in an intermediate condition, for when the surgeon on
+board the &#8220;Beagle&#8221; shot some young ducklings as
+specimens, York Minster declared in the most solemn
+manner, &#8220;Oh! Mr. Bynoe, much rain, much snow, blow
+much;&#8221; and this was evidently a retributive punishment
+for wasting human food. So again he related
+how, when his brother killed a &#8220;wild man,&#8221; storms long
+raged, much rain and snow fell. Yet we could never
+discover that the Fuegians believed in what we should
+call a God, or practised any religious rites; and Jemmy
+Button, with justifiable pride, stoutly maintained that
+there was no devil in his land. This latter assertion is
+the more remarkable, as with savages the belief in
+bad spirits is far more common than the belief in good
+spirits.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">68</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex
+one, consisting of love, complete submission to
+an exalted and mysterious superior, a strong sense of
+dependence,<a name="FNanchor_98" id="FNanchor_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98" class="fnanchor">98</a> fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the
+future, and perhaps other elements. No being could
+experience so complex an emotion until advanced in
+his intellectual and moral faculties to at least a moderately
+high level. Nevertheless we see some distant
+approach to this state of mind, in the deep love of a
+dog for his master, associated with complete submission,
+some fear, and perhaps other feelings. The behaviour
+of a dog when returning to his master after an absence,
+and, as I may add, of a monkey to his beloved
+keeper, is widely different from that towards their
+fellows. In the latter case the transports of joy
+appear to be somewhat less, and the sense of equality
+is shewn in every action. Professor Braubach<a name="FNanchor_99" id="FNanchor_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99" class="fnanchor">99</a> goes
+so far as to maintain that a dog looks on his master as
+on a god.</p>
+
+<p>The same high mental faculties which first led man
+to believe in unseen spiritual agencies, then in fetishism,
+polytheism, and ultimately in monotheism, would
+infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to various strange superstitions
+and customs. Many of these are terrible to
+think of&mdash;such as the sacrifice of human beings to a
+blood-loving god; the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison or fire; witchcraft, &amp;c.&mdash;yet it is well
+occasionally to reflect on these superstitions, for they
+shew us what an infinite debt of gratitude we owe to
+the improvement of our reason, to science, and our
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">69</a></span>accumulated knowledge.<a name="FNanchor_100" id="FNanchor_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100" class="fnanchor">100</a> As Sir J. Lubbock has well
+observed, &#8220;it is not too much to say that the horrible
+dread of unknown evil hangs like a thick cloud over
+savage life, and embitters every pleasure.&#8221; These
+miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and
+occasional mistakes of the instincts of the lower animals.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">70</a></span></p>
+<h3>CHAPTER III.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Comparison of the Mental Powers of Man and the
+Lower Animals</span>&mdash;<i>continued</i>.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The moral sense&mdash;Fundamental proposition&mdash;The qualities of social
+animals&mdash;Origin of sociability&mdash;Struggle between opposed instincts&mdash;Man
+a social animal&mdash;The more enduring social instincts
+conquer other less persistent instincts&mdash;The social virtues alone
+regarded by savages&mdash;The self-regarding virtues acquired at a
+later stage of development&mdash;The importance of the judgment
+of the members of the same community on conduct&mdash;Transmission
+of moral tendencies&mdash;Summary.</p></div>
+
+<p>I fully subscribe to the judgment of those writers<a name="FNanchor_101" id="FNanchor_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101" class="fnanchor">101</a>
+who maintain that of all the differences between man
+and the lower animals, the moral sense or conscience
+is by far the most important. This sense, as Mackintosh<a name="FNanchor_102" id="FNanchor_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102" class="fnanchor">102</a>
+remarks, &#8220;has a rightful supremacy over every
+other principle of human action;&#8221; it is summed up
+in that short but imperious word <i>ought</i>, so full of high
+significance. It is the most noble of all the attributes
+of man, leading him without a moment&#8217;s hesitation
+to risk his life for that of a fellow-creature; or after
+due deliberation, impelled simply by the deep feeling
+of right or duty, to sacrifice it in some great cause.
+Immanuel Kant exclaims, &#8220;Duty! Wondrous thought,
+that workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor
+by any threat, but merely by holding up thy naked
+law in the soul, and so extorting for thyself always
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">71</a></span>reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all
+appetites are dumb, however secretly they rebel;
+whence thy original?&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_103" id="FNanchor_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103" class="fnanchor">103</a></p>
+
+<p>This great question has been discussed by many
+writers<a name="FNanchor_104" id="FNanchor_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104" class="fnanchor">104</a> of consummate ability; and my sole excuse
+for touching on it is the impossibility of here passing
+it over, and because, as far as I know, no one has approached
+it exclusively from the side of natural history.
+The investigation possesses, also, some independent interest,
+as an attempt to see how far the study of the
+lower animals can throw light on one of the highest
+psychical faculties of man.</p>
+
+<p>The following proposition seems to me in a high
+degree probable&mdash;namely, that any animal whatever,
+endowed with well-marked social instincts,<a name="FNanchor_105" id="FNanchor_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105" class="fnanchor">105</a> would inevitably
+acquire a moral sense or conscience, as soon as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">72</a></span>its intellectual powers had become as well developed, or
+nearly as well developed, as in man. For, <i>firstly</i>, the
+social instincts lead an animal to take pleasure in
+the society of its fellows, to feel a certain amount of
+sympathy with them, and to perform various services
+for them. The services may be of a definite and evidently
+instinctive nature; or there may be only a wish
+and readiness, as with most of the higher social animals,
+to aid their fellows in certain general ways. But these
+feelings and services are by no means extended to all
+the individuals of the same species, only to those of
+the same association. <i>Secondly</i>, as soon as the mental
+faculties had become highly developed, images of all
+past actions and motives would be incessantly passing
+through the brain of each individual; and that feeling
+of dissatisfaction which invariably results, as we shall
+hereafter see, from any unsatisfied instinct, would arise,
+as often as it was perceived that the enduring and
+always present social instinct had yielded to some other
+instinct, at the time stronger, but neither enduring in
+its nature, nor leaving behind it a very vivid impression.
+It is clear that many instinctive desires, such as
+that of hunger, are in their nature of short duration;
+and after being satisfied are not readily or vividly recalled.
+<i>Thirdly</i>, after the power of language had been
+acquired and the wishes of the members of the same
+community could be distinctly expressed, the common
+opinion how each member ought to act for the public
+good, would naturally become to a large extent the guide
+to action. But the social instincts would still give the
+impulse to act for the good of the community, this impulse
+being strengthened, directed, and sometimes even
+deflected by public opinion, the power of which rests, as
+we shall presently see, on instinctive sympathy. <i>Lastly</i>,
+habit in the individual would ultimately play a very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">73</a></span>
+important part in guiding the conduct of each member;
+for the social instincts and impulses, like all other instincts,
+would be greatly strengthened by habit, as
+would obedience to the wishes and judgment of the community.
+These several subordinate propositions must
+now be discussed; and some of them at considerable
+length.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to
+maintain that any strictly social animal, if its intellectual
+faculties were to become as active and as highly
+developed as in man, would acquire exactly the same
+moral sense as ours. In the same manner as various
+animals have some sense of beauty, though they admire
+widely different objects, so they might have a sense of
+right and wrong, though led by it to follow widely different
+lines of conduct. If, for instance, to take an extreme
+case, men were reared under precisely the same
+conditions as hive-bees, there can hardly be a doubt
+that our unmarried females would, like the worker-bees,
+think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and
+mothers would strive to kill their fertile daughters;
+and no one would think of interfering. Nevertheless
+the bee, or any other social animal, would in our supposed
+case gain, as it appears to me, some feeling of
+right and wrong, or a conscience. For each individual
+would have an inward sense of possessing certain
+stronger or more enduring instincts, and others less
+strong or enduring; so that there would often be a
+struggle which impulse should be followed; and satisfaction
+or dissatisfaction would be felt, as past impressions
+were compared during their incessant passage
+through the mind. In this case an inward monitor
+would tell the animal that it would have been better to
+have followed the one impulse rather than the other.
+The one course ought to have been followed: the one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">74</a></span>
+would have been right and the other wrong; but to
+these terms I shall have to recur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sociability.</i>&mdash;Animals of many kinds are social; we
+find even distinct species living together, as with some
+American monkeys, and with the united flocks of rooks,
+jackdaws, and starlings. Man shows the same feeling
+in his strong love for the dog, which the dog returns
+with interest. Every one must have noticed how miserable
+horses, dogs, sheep, &amp;c. are when separated from
+their companions; and what affection at least the two
+former kinds show on their reunion. It is curious to
+speculate on the feelings of a dog, who will rest peacefully
+for hours in a room with his master or any of the
+family, without the least notice being taken of him; but
+if left for a short time by himself, barks or howls dismally.
+We will confine our attention to the higher
+social animals, excluding insects, although these aid
+each other in many important ways. The most common
+service which the higher animals perform for each other,
+is the warning each other of danger by means of the
+united senses of all. Every sportsman knows, as Dr.
+Jaeger remarks,<a name="FNanchor_106" id="FNanchor_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106" class="fnanchor">106</a> how difficult it is to approach animals
+in a herd or troop. Wild horses and cattle do not, I
+believe, make any danger-signal; but the attitude of
+any one who first discovers an enemy, warns the others.
+Rabbits stamp loudly on the ground with their hind-feet
+as a signal: sheep and chamois do the same, but with
+their fore-feet, uttering likewise a whistle. Many birds
+and some mammals post sentinels, which in the case of
+seals are said<a name="FNanchor_107" id="FNanchor_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107" class="fnanchor">107</a> generally to be the females. The leader
+of a troop of monkeys acts as the sentinel, and utters
+cries expressive both of danger and of safety.<a name="FNanchor_108" id="FNanchor_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108" class="fnanchor">108</a> Social
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">75</a></span>animals perform many little services for each other:
+horses nibble, and cows lick each other, on any spot
+which itches: monkeys search for each other&#8217;s external
+parasites; and Brehm states that after a troop of the
+<i>Cercopithecus griseo-viridis</i> has rushed through a thorny
+brake, each monkey stretches itself on a branch, and
+another monkey sitting by &#8220;conscientiously&#8221; examines
+its fur and extracts every thorn or burr.</p>
+
+<p>Animals also render more important services to each
+other: thus wolves and some other beasts of prey hunt
+in packs, and aid each other in attacking their victims.
+Pelicans fish in concert. The Hamadryas baboons turn
+over stones to find insects, &amp;c.; and when they come to
+a large one, as many as can stand round, turn it over
+together and share the booty. Social animals mutually
+defend each other. The males of some ruminants come
+to the front when there is danger and defend the herd
+with their horns. I shall also in a future chapter give
+cases of two young wild bulls attacking an old one in
+concert, and of two stallions together trying to drive
+away a third stallion from a troop of mares. Brehm
+encountered in Abyssinia a great troop of baboons which
+were crossing a valley: some had already ascended the
+opposite mountain, and some were still in the valley:
+the latter were attacked by the dogs, but the old males
+immediately hurried down from the rocks, and with
+mouths widely opened roared so fearfully, that the dogs
+precipitately retreated. They were again encouraged
+to the attack; but by this time all the baboons had reascended
+the heights, excepting a young one, about six
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">76</a></span>months old, who, loudly calling for aid, climbed on a
+block of rock and was surrounded. Now one of the
+largest males, a true hero, came down again from the
+mountain, slowly went to the young one, coaxed him,
+and triumphantly led him away&mdash;the dogs being too
+much astonished to make an attack. I cannot resist
+giving another scene which was witnessed by this same
+naturalist; an eagle seized a young Cercopithecus,
+which, by clinging to a branch, was not at once carried
+off; it cried loudly for assistance, upon which the other
+members of the troop with much uproar rushed to the
+rescue, surrounded the eagle, and pulled out so many
+feathers, that he no longer thought of his prey, but only
+how to escape. This eagle, as Brehm remarks, assuredly
+would never again attack a monkey in a troop.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that associated animals have a feeling of
+love for each other which is not felt by adult and non-social
+animals. How far in most cases they actually
+sympathise with each other&#8217;s pains and pleasures is
+more doubtful, especially with respect to the latter.
+Mr. Buxton, however, who had excellent means of
+observation,<a name="FNanchor_109" id="FNanchor_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109" class="fnanchor">109</a> states that his macaws, which lived free in
+Norfolk, took &#8220;an extravagant interest&#8221; in a pair
+with a nest, and whenever the female left it, she was
+surrounded by a troop &#8220;screaming horrible acclamations
+in her honour.&#8221; It is often difficult to judge
+whether animals have any feeling for each other&#8217;s
+sufferings. Who can say what cows feel, when they
+surround and stare intently on a dying or dead
+companion? That animals sometimes are far from
+feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel
+a wounded animal from the herd, or gore or worry
+it to death. This is almost the blackest fact in natural
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">77</a></span>history, unless indeed the explanation which has been
+suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them
+to expel an injured companion, lest beasts of prey,
+including man, should be tempted to follow the troop.
+In this case their conduct is not much worse than that
+of the North American Indians who leave their feeble
+comrades to perish on the plains, or the Feegeans, who,
+when their parents get old or fall ill, bury them alive.<a name="FNanchor_110" id="FNanchor_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110" class="fnanchor">110</a></p>
+
+<p>Many animals, however, certainly sympathise with
+each other&#8217;s distress or danger. This is the case even
+with birds; Capt. Stansbury<a name="FNanchor_111" id="FNanchor_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111" class="fnanchor">111</a> found on a salt lake in
+Utah an old and completely blind pelican, which was
+very fat, and must have been long and well fed by his
+companions. Mr. Blyth, as he informs me, saw Indian
+crows feeding two or three of their companions which
+were blind; and I have heard of an analogous case
+with the domestic cock. We may, if we choose, call
+these actions instinctive; but such cases are much too
+rare for the development of any special instinct.<a name="FNanchor_112" id="FNanchor_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112" class="fnanchor">112</a> I
+have myself seen a dog, who never passed a great
+friend of his, a cat which lay sick in a basket, without
+giving her a few licks with his tongue, the surest
+sign of kind feeling in a dog.</p>
+
+<p>It must be called sympathy that leads a courageous
+dog to fly at any one who strikes his master, as he
+certainly will. I saw a person pretending to beat a
+lady who had a very timid little dog on her lap, and
+the trial had never before been made. The little crea<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">78</a></span>ture
+instantly jumped away, but after the pretended
+beating was over, it was really pathetic to see how perseveringly
+he tried to lick his mistress&#8217;s face and comfort
+her. Brehm<a name="FNanchor_113" id="FNanchor_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113" class="fnanchor">113</a> states that when a baboon in confinement
+was pursued to be punished, the others tried
+to protect him. It must have been sympathy in the
+cases above given which led the baboons and Cercopitheci
+to defend their young comrades from the dogs
+and the eagle. I will give only one other instance of
+sympathetic and heroic conduct in a little American
+monkey. Several years ago a keeper at the Zoological
+Gardens, showed me some deep and scarcely healed
+wounds on the nape of his neck, inflicted on him whilst
+kneeling on the floor by a fierce baboon. The little
+American monkey, who was a warm friend of this
+keeper, lived in the same large compartment, and was
+dreadfully afraid of the great baboon. Nevertheless, as
+soon as he saw his friend the keeper in peril, he rushed
+to the rescue, and by screams and bites so distracted the
+baboon that the man was able to escape, after running
+great risk, as the surgeon who attended him thought,
+of his life.</p>
+
+<p>Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other
+qualities which in us would be called moral; and I agree
+with Agassiz<a name="FNanchor_114" id="FNanchor_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114" class="fnanchor">114</a> that dogs possess something very like a
+conscience. They certainly possess some power of self-command,
+and this does not appear to be wholly the
+result of fear. As Braubach<a name="FNanchor_115" id="FNanchor_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115" class="fnanchor">115</a> remarks, a dog will
+refrain from stealing food in the absence of his master.
+Dogs have long been accepted as the very type of
+fidelity and obedience. All animals living in a body
+which defend each other or attack their enemies
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">79</a></span>in concert, must be in some degree faithful to each
+other; and those that follow a leader must be in
+some degree obedient. When the baboons in Abyssinia<a name="FNanchor_116" id="FNanchor_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116" class="fnanchor">116</a>
+plunder a garden, they silently follow their
+leader; and if an imprudent young animal makes a
+noise, he receives a slap from the others to teach him
+silence and obedience; but as soon as they are sure
+that there is no danger, all show their joy by much
+clamour.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the impulse which leads certain
+animals to associate together, and to aid each other in
+many ways, we may infer that in most cases they are
+impelled by the same sense of satisfaction or pleasure
+which they experience in performing other instinctive
+actions; or by the same sense of dissatisfaction, as in
+other cases of prevented instinctive actions. We see
+this in innumerable instances, and it is illustrated in
+a striking manner by the acquired instincts of our
+domesticated animals; thus a young shepherd-dog
+delights in driving and running round a flock of sheep,
+but not in worrying them; a young foxhound delights
+in hunting a fox, whilst some other kinds of dogs
+as I have witnessed, utterly disregard foxes. What a
+strong feeling of inward satisfaction must impel a bird,
+so full of activity, to brood day after day over her eggs.
+Migratory birds are miserable if prevented from migrating,
+and perhaps they enjoy starting on their long
+flight. Some few instincts are determined solely by
+painful feelings, as by fear, which leads to self-preservation,
+or is specially directed against certain enemies.
+No one, I presume, can analyse the sensations of
+pleasure or pain. In many cases, however, it is probable
+that instincts are persistently followed from the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">80</a></span>mere force of inheritance, without the stimulus of either
+pleasure or pain. A young pointer, when it first scents
+game, apparently cannot help pointing. A squirrel in
+a cage who pats the nuts which it cannot eat, as if to
+bury them in the ground, can hardly be thought to act
+thus either from pleasure or pain. Hence the common
+assumption that men must be impelled to every action
+by experiencing some pleasure or pain may be erroneous.
+Although a habit may be blindly and implicitly
+followed, independently of any pleasure or pain felt at
+the moment, yet if it be forcibly and abruptly checked,
+a vague sense of dissatisfaction is generally experienced;
+and this is especially true in regard to persons
+of feeble intellect.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been assumed that animals were in the
+first place rendered social, and that they feel as a consequence
+uncomfortable when separated from each other,
+and comfortable whilst together; but it is a more probable
+view that these sensations were first developed, in
+order that those animals which would profit by living
+in society, should be induced to live together. In the
+same manner as the sense of hunger and the pleasure of
+eating were, no doubt, first acquired in order to induce
+animals to eat. The feeling of pleasure from society
+is probably an extension of the parental or filial affections;
+and this extension may be in chief part attributed
+to natural selection, but perhaps in part to mere habit.
+For with those animals which were benefited by living
+in close association, the individuals which took the
+greatest pleasure in society would best escape various
+dangers; whilst those that cared least for their comrades
+and lived solitary would perish in greater numbers.
+With respect to the origin of the parental and filial
+affections, which apparently lie at the basis of the
+social affections, it is hopeless to speculate; but we<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">81</a></span>
+may infer that they have been to a large extent gained
+through natural selection. So it has almost certainly
+been with the unusual and opposite feeling of hatred
+between the nearest relations, as with the worker-bees
+which kill their brother-drones, and with the queen-bees
+which kill their daughter-queens; the desire to destroy,
+instead of loving, their nearest relations having been
+here of service to the community.</p>
+
+<p>The all-important emotion of sympathy is distinct
+from that of love. A mother may passionately love her
+sleeping and passive infant, but she can then hardly be
+said to feel sympathy for it. The love of a man for
+his dog is distinct from sympathy, and so is that of a
+dog for his master. Adam Smith formerly argued, as
+has Mr. Bain recently, that the basis of sympathy lies
+in our strong retentiveness of former states of pain or
+pleasure. Hence, &#8220;the sight of another person enduring
+hunger, cold, fatigue, revives in us some recollection
+of these states, which are painful even in idea.&#8221; We
+are thus impelled to relieve the sufferings of another,
+in order that our own painful feelings may be at the
+same time relieved. In like manner we are led to
+participate in the pleasures of others.<a name="FNanchor_117" id="FNanchor_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117" class="fnanchor">117</a> But I cannot
+see how this view explains the fact that sympathy
+is excited in an immeasurably stronger degree by a
+beloved than by an indifferent person. The mere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">82</a></span>sight of suffering, independently of love, would suffice
+to call up in us vivid recollections and associations.
+Sympathy may at first have originated in the manner
+above suggested; but it seems now to have become
+an instinct, which is especially directed towards beloved
+objects, in the same manner as fear with animals
+is especially directed against certain enemies. As
+sympathy is thus directed, the mutual love of the
+members of the same community will extend its limits.
+No doubt a tiger or lion feels sympathy for the sufferings
+of its own young, but not for any other animal.
+With strictly social animals the feeling will be more
+or less extended to all the associated members, as we
+know to be the case. With mankind selfishness, experience,
+and imitation probably add, as Mr. Bain has
+shewn, to the power of sympathy; for we are led
+by the hope of receiving good in return to perform
+acts of sympathetic kindness to others; and there can
+be no doubt that the feeling of sympathy is much
+strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner
+this feeling may have originated, as it is one of high
+importance to all those animals which aid and defend
+each other, it will have been increased, through natural
+selection; for those communities, which included the
+greatest number of the most sympathetic members,
+would flourish best and rear the greatest number of
+offspring.</p>
+
+<p>In many cases it is impossible to decide whether
+certain social instincts have been acquired through
+natural selection, or are the indirect result of other
+instincts and faculties, such as sympathy, reason, experience,
+and a tendency to imitation; or again, whether
+they are simply the result of long-continued habit.
+So remarkable an instinct as the placing sentinels to
+warn the community of danger, can hardly have been<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">83</a></span>
+the indirect result of any other faculty; it must therefore
+have been directly acquired. On the other hand,
+the habit followed by the males of some social animals,
+of defending the community and of attacking their
+enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps have
+originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and
+in most cases strength, must have been previously
+acquired, probably through natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various instincts and habits, some are much
+stronger than others, that is, some either give more
+pleasure in their performance and more distress in their
+prevention than others; or, which is probably quite as
+important, they are more persistently followed through
+inheritance without exciting any special feeling of pleasure
+or pain. We are ourselves conscious that some
+habits are much more difficult to cure or change than
+others. Hence a struggle may often be observed in
+animals between different instincts, or between an
+instinct and some habitual disposition; as when a dog
+rushes after a hare, is rebuked, pauses, hesitates, pursues
+again or returns ashamed to his master; or as between
+the love of a female dog for her young puppies and for
+her master, for she may be seen to slink away to them,
+as if half ashamed of not accompanying her master.
+But the most curious instance known to me of one
+instinct conquering another, is the migratory instinct
+conquering the maternal instinct. The former is wonderfully
+strong; a confined bird will at the proper
+season beat her breast against the wires of her cage, until
+it is bare and bloody. It causes young salmon to leap
+out of the fresh water, where they could still continue to
+live, and thus unintentionally to commit suicide. Every
+one knows how strong the maternal instinct is, leading
+even timid birds to face great danger, though with
+hesitation and in opposition to the instinct of self<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">84</a></span>preservation.
+Nevertheless the migratory instinct is so
+powerful that late in the autumn swallows and house-martins
+frequently desert their tender young, leaving
+them to perish miserably in their nests.<a name="FNanchor_118" id="FNanchor_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118" class="fnanchor">118</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">We can perceive that an instinctive impulse, if it be in
+any way more beneficial to a species than some other or
+opposed instinct, would be rendered the more potent of
+the two through natural selection; for the individuals
+which had it most strongly developed would survive in
+larger numbers. Whether this is the case with the
+migratory in comparison with the maternal instinct,
+may well be doubted. The great persistence or steady
+action of the former at certain seasons of the year
+during the whole day, may give it for a time paramount
+force.</p>
+
+<p><i>Man a social animal.</i>&mdash;Most persons admit that man
+is a social being. We see this in his dislike of solitude,
+and in his wish for society beyond that of his own
+family. Solitary confinement is one of the severest
+punishments which can be inflicted. Some authors suppose
+that man primevally lived in single families; but
+at the present day, though single families, or only two
+or three together, roam the solitudes of some savage
+lands, they are always, as far as I can discover, friendly
+with other families inhabiting the same district. Such
+families occasionally meet in council, and they unite
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">85</a></span>for their common defence. It is no argument against
+savage man being a social animal, that the tribes inhabiting
+adjacent districts are almost always at war
+with each other; for the social instincts never extend
+to all the individuals of the same species. Judging
+from the analogy of the greater number of the Quadrumana,
+it is probable that the early ape-like progenitors
+of man were likewise social; but this is not of
+much importance for us. Although man, as he now
+exists, has few special instincts, having lost any which
+his early progenitors may have possessed, this is no
+reason why he should not have retained from an extremely
+remote period some degree of instinctive love
+and sympathy for his fellows. We are indeed all conscious
+that we do possess such sympathetic feelings;<a name="FNanchor_119" id="FNanchor_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119" class="fnanchor">119</a>
+but our consciousness does not tell us whether they are
+instinctive, having originated long ago in the same
+manner as with the lower animals, or whether they have
+been acquired by each of us during our early years.
+As man is a social animal, it is also probable that he
+would inherit a tendency to be faithful to his comrades,
+for this quality is common to most social animals. He
+would in like manner possess some capacity for self-command,
+and perhaps of obedience to the leader of
+the community. He would from an inherited tendency
+still be willing to defend, in concert with others, his
+fellow-men, and would be ready to aid them in any
+way which did not too greatly interfere with his own
+welfare or his own strong desires.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The social animals which stand at the bottom of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">86</a></span>scale are guided almost exclusively, and those which
+stand higher in the scale are largely guided, in the aid
+which they give to the members of the same community,
+by special instincts; but they are likewise in part impelled
+by mutual love and sympathy, assisted apparently
+by some amount of reason. Although man, as just
+remarked, has no special instincts to tell him how to aid
+his fellow-men, he still has the impulse, and with his
+improved intellectual faculties would naturally be much
+guided in this respect by reason and experience. Instinctive
+sympathy would, also, cause him to value highly
+the approbation of his fellow-men; for, as Mr. Bain has
+clearly shewn,<a name="FNanchor_120" id="FNanchor_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120" class="fnanchor">120</a> the love of praise and the strong feeling
+of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn and infamy,
+&#8220;are due to the workings of sympathy.&#8221; Consequently
+man would be greatly influenced by the wishes,
+approbation, and blame of his fellow-men, as expressed
+by their gestures and language. Thus the social instincts,
+which must have been acquired by man in a
+very rude state, and probably even by his early ape-like
+progenitors, still give the impulse to many of his best
+actions; but his actions are largely determined by the
+expressed wishes and judgment of his fellow-men, and
+unfortunately still oftener by his own strong, selfish
+desires. But as the feelings of love and sympathy and
+the power of self-command become strengthened by
+habit, and as the power of reasoning becomes clearer so
+that man can appreciate the justice of the judgments of
+his fellow-men, he will feel himself impelled, independently
+of any pleasure or pain felt at the moment, to
+certain lines of conduct. He may then say, I am the
+supreme judge of my own conduct, and in the words of
+Kant, I will not in my own person violate the dignity
+of humanity.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">87</a></span><i>The more enduring Social Instincts conquer the less
+Persistent Instincts.</i>&mdash;We have, however, not as yet considered
+the main point, on which the whole question of
+the moral sense hinges. Why should a man feel that
+he ought to obey one instinctive desire rather than
+another? Why does he bitterly regret if he has yielded
+to the strong sense of self-preservation, and has not
+risked his life to save that of a fellow-creature; or why
+does he regret having stolen food from severe hunger?</p>
+
+<p>It is evident in the first place, that with mankind the
+instinctive impulses have different degrees of strength;
+a young and timid mother urged by the maternal instinct
+will, without a moment&#8217;s hesitation, run the
+greatest danger for her infant, but not for a mere fellow-creature.
+Many a man, or even boy, who never
+before risked his life for another, but in whom courage
+and sympathy were well developed, has, disregarding the
+instinct of self-preservation, instantaneously plunged
+into a torrent to save a drowning fellow-creature. In
+this case man is impelled by the same instinctive motive,
+which caused the heroic little American monkey,
+formerly described, to attack the great and dreaded
+baboon, to save his keeper. Such actions as the above
+appear to be the simple result of the greater strength of
+the social or maternal instincts than of any other instinct
+or motive; for they are performed too instantaneously
+for reflection, or for the sensation of pleasure or pain;
+though if prevented distress would be caused.</p>
+
+<p>I am aware that some persons maintain that actions
+performed impulsively, as in the above cases, do not
+come under the dominion of the moral sense, and
+cannot be called moral. They confine this term to
+actions done deliberately, after a victory over opposing
+desires, or to actions prompted by some lofty motive.
+But it appears scarcely possible to draw any clear line<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">88</a></span>
+of distinction of this kind; though the distinction may
+be real. As far as exalted motives are concerned, many
+instances have been recorded of barbarians, destitute of
+any feeling of general benevolence towards mankind,
+and not guided by any religious motive, who have deliberately
+as prisoners sacrificed their lives,<a name="FNanchor_121" id="FNanchor_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121" class="fnanchor">121</a> rather than
+betray their comrades; and surely their conduct ought
+to be considered as moral. As far as deliberation and
+the victory over opposing motives are concerned, animals
+may be seen doubting between opposed instincts,
+as in rescuing their offspring or comrades from danger;
+yet their actions, though done for the good of
+others, are not called moral. Moreover, an action
+repeatedly performed by us, will at last be done without
+deliberation or hesitation, and can then hardly be
+distinguished from an instinct; yet surely no one will
+pretend that an action thus done ceases to be moral.
+On the contrary, we all feel that an act cannot be
+considered as perfect, or as performed in the most
+noble manner, unless it be done impulsively, without
+deliberation or effort, in the same manner as by a man
+in whom the requisite qualities are innate. He
+who is forced to overcome his fear or want of sympathy
+before he acts, deserves, however, in one way
+higher credit than the man whose innate disposition
+leads him to a good act without effort. As we cannot
+distinguish between motives, we rank all actions of a
+certain class as moral, when they are performed by a
+moral being. A moral being is one who is capable of
+comparing his past and future actions or motives, and
+of approving or disapproving of them. We have no
+reason to suppose that any of the lower animals have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">89</a></span>this capacity; therefore when a monkey faces danger
+to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an orphan-monkey,
+we do not call its conduct moral. But in the
+case of man, who alone can with certainty be ranked as
+a moral being, actions of a certain class are called moral,
+whether performed deliberately after a struggle with
+opposing motives, or from the effects of slowly-gained
+habit, or impulsively through instinct.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to our more immediate subject; although
+some instincts are more powerful than others,
+thus leading to corresponding actions, yet it cannot
+be maintained that the social instincts are ordinarily
+stronger in man, or have become stronger through
+long-continued habit, than the instincts, for instance,
+of self-preservation, hunger, lust, vengeance, &amp;c. Why
+then does man regret, even though he may endeavour
+to banish any such regret, that he has followed the
+one natural impulse, rather than the other; and why
+does he further feel that he ought to regret his conduct?
+Man in this respect differs profoundly from the lower
+animals. Nevertheless we can, I think, see with some
+degree of clearness the reason of this difference.</p>
+
+<p>Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, cannot
+avoid reflection: past impressions and images are incessantly
+passing through his mind with distinctness.
+Now with those animals which live permanently in a
+body, the social instincts are ever present and persistent.
+Such animals are always ready to utter the
+danger-signal, to defend the community, and to give
+aid to their fellows in accordance with their habits;
+they feel at all times, without the stimulus of any
+special passion or desire, some degree of love and
+sympathy for them; they are unhappy if long separated
+from them, and always happy to be in their company.
+So it is with ourselves. A man who possessed no trace<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">90</a></span>
+of such feelings would be an unnatural monster. On
+the other hand, the desire to satisfy hunger, or any
+passion, such as vengeance, is in its nature temporary,
+and can for a time be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy,
+perhaps hardly possible, to call up with complete vividness
+the feeling, for instance, of hunger; nor indeed, as
+has often been remarked, of any suffering. The instinct
+of self-preservation is not felt except in the presence
+of danger; and many a coward has thought himself
+brave until he has met his enemy face to face.
+The wish for another man&#8217;s property is perhaps as
+persistent a desire as any that can be named; but even
+in this case the satisfaction of actual possession is generally
+a weaker feeling than the desire: many a thief, if
+not an habitual one, after success has wondered why he
+stole some article.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, as man cannot prevent old impressions continually
+repassing through his mind, he will be compelled
+to compare the weaker impressions of, for instance,
+past hunger, or of vengeance satisfied or danger
+avoided at the cost of other men, with the instinct of
+sympathy and good-will to his fellows, which is still present
+and ever in some degree active in his mind. He
+will then feel in his imagination that a stronger instinct
+has yielded to one which now seems comparatively
+weak; and then that sense of dissatisfaction will inevitably
+be felt with which man is endowed, like every
+other animal, in order that his instincts may be obeyed.
+The case before given, of the swallow, affords an illustration,
+though of a reversed nature, of a temporary
+though for the time strongly persistent instinct conquering
+another instinct which is usually dominant over
+all others. At the proper season these birds seem all
+day long to be impressed with the desire to migrate;
+their habits change; they become restless, are noisy,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">91</a></span>
+and congregate in flocks. Whilst the mother-bird is
+feeding or brooding over her nestlings, the maternal
+instinct is probably stronger than the migratory; but
+the instinct which is more persistent gains the victory,
+and at last, at a moment when her young ones are not
+in sight, she takes flight and deserts them. When
+arrived at the end of her long journey, and the migratory
+instinct ceases to act, what an agony of remorse
+each bird would feel, if, from being endowed with great
+mental activity, she could not prevent the image continually
+passing before her mind of her young ones
+perishing in the bleak north from cold and hunger.</p>
+
+<p>At the moment of action, man will no doubt be apt
+to follow the stronger impulse; and though this may
+occasionally prompt him to the noblest deeds, it will
+far more commonly lead him to gratify his own desires
+at the expense of other men. But after their gratification,
+when past and weaker impressions are contrasted
+with the ever-enduring social instincts, retribution
+will surely come. Man will then feel dissatisfied
+with himself, and will resolve with more or less
+force to act differently for the future. This is conscience;
+for conscience looks backwards and judges past
+actions, inducing that kind of dissatisfaction, which if
+weak we call regret, and if severe remorse.</p>
+
+<p>These sensations are, no doubt, different from those
+experienced when other instincts or desires are left
+unsatisfied; but every unsatisfied instinct has its own
+proper prompting sensation, as we recognise with hunger,
+thirst, &amp;c. Man thus prompted, will through long
+habit acquire such perfect self-command, that his desires
+and passions will at last instantly yield to his social
+sympathies, and there will no longer be a struggle
+between them. The still hungry, or the still revengeful
+man will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">92</a></span>
+vengeance. It is possible, or, as we shall hereafter
+see, even probable, that the habit of self-command
+may, like other habits, be inherited. Thus at last
+man comes to feel, through acquired and perhaps inherited
+habit, that it is best for him to obey his more
+persistent instincts. The imperious word <i>ought</i> seems
+merely to imply the consciousness of the existence of a
+persistent instinct, either innate or partly acquired,
+serving him as a guide, though liable to be disobeyed.
+We hardly use the word <i>ought</i> in a metaphorical sense,
+when we say hounds ought to hunt, pointers to point,
+and retrievers to retrieve their game. If they fail thus
+to act, they fail in their duty and act wrongly.</p>
+
+<p>If any desire or instinct, leading to an action opposed
+to the good of others, still appears to a man, when recalled
+to mind, as strong as, or stronger than, his social
+instinct, he will feel no keen regret at having followed
+it; but he will be conscious that if his conduct were
+known to his fellows, it would meet with their disapprobation;
+and few are so destitute of sympathy as not
+to feel discomfort when this is realised. If he has no
+such sympathy, and if his desires leading to bad actions
+are at the time strong, and when recalled are not overmastered
+by the persistent social instincts, then he is
+essentially a bad man;<a name="FNanchor_122" id="FNanchor_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122" class="fnanchor">122</a> and the sole restraining motive
+left is the fear of punishment, and the conviction that
+in the long run it would be best for his own selfish
+interests to regard the good of others rather than his
+own.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience
+gratify his own desires, if they do not interfere
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">93</a></span>with his social instincts, that is with the good of others;
+but in order to be quite free from self-reproach, or at
+least of anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to avoid
+the disapprobation, whether reasonable or not, of his
+fellow men. Nor must he break through the fixed habits
+of his life, especially if these are supported by reason;
+for if he does, he will assuredly feel dissatisfaction.
+He must likewise avoid the reprobation of the one
+God or gods, in whom according to his knowledge or
+superstition he may believe; but in this case the additional
+fear of divine punishment often supervenes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The strictly Social Virtues at first alone regarded.</i>&mdash;The
+above view of the first origin and nature of the moral
+sense, which tells us what we ought to do, and of
+the conscience which reproves us if we disobey it,
+accords well with what we see of the early and undeveloped
+condition of this faculty in mankind. The
+virtues which must be practised, at least generally, by
+rude men, so that they may associate in a body, are
+those which are still recognised as the most important.
+But they are practised almost exclusively in relation to
+the men of the same tribe; and their opposites are not
+regarded as crimes in relation to the men of other tribes.
+No tribe could hold together if murder, robbery, treachery,
+&amp;c., were common; consequently such crimes
+within the limits of the same tribe &#8220;are branded
+with everlasting infamy;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_123" id="FNanchor_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123" class="fnanchor">123</a> but excite no such sentiment
+beyond these limits. A North-American Indian
+is well pleased with himself, and is honoured by others,
+when he scalps a man of another tribe; and a Dyak
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">94</a></span>cuts off the head of an unoffending person and dries it
+as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on
+the largest scale throughout the world,<a name="FNanchor_124" id="FNanchor_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124" class="fnanchor">124</a> and has met
+with no reproach; but infanticide, especially of females,
+has been thought to be good for the tribe, or at least
+not injurious. Suicide during former times was not
+generally considered as a crime,<a name="FNanchor_125" id="FNanchor_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125" class="fnanchor">125</a> but rather from the
+courage displayed as an honourable act; and it is still
+largely practised by some semi-civilised nations without
+reproach, for the loss to a nation of a single individual
+is not felt: whatever the explanation may be, suicide,
+as I hear from Sir J. Lubbock, is rarely practised by the
+lowest barbarians. It has been recorded that an Indian
+Thug conscientiously regretted that he had not strangled
+and robbed as many travellers as did his father before
+him. In a rude state of civilisation the robbery of
+strangers is, indeed, generally considered as honourable.</p>
+
+<p>The great sin of Slavery has been almost universal, and
+slaves have often been treated in an infamous manner.
+As barbarians do not regard the opinion of their women,
+wives are commonly treated like slaves. Most savages
+are utterly indifferent to the sufferings of strangers, or
+even delight in witnessing them. It is well known that
+the women and children of the North-American Indians
+aided in torturing their enemies. Some savages take a
+horrid pleasure in cruelty to animals,<a name="FNanchor_126" id="FNanchor_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126" class="fnanchor">126</a> and humanity
+with them is an unknown virtue. Nevertheless, feelings
+of sympathy and kindness are common, especially
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">95</a></span>during sickness, between the members of the same tribe,
+and are sometimes extended beyond the limits of the
+tribe. Mungo Park&#8217;s touching account of the kindness
+of the negro women of the interior to him is well known.
+Many instances could be given of the noble fidelity of
+savages towards each other, but not to strangers;
+common experience justifies the maxim of the Spaniard,
+&#8220;Never, never trust an Indian.&#8221; There cannot be
+fidelity without truth; and this fundamental virtue is
+not rare between the members of the same tribe: thus
+Mungo Park heard the negro women teaching their
+young children to love the truth. This, again, is one of
+the virtues which becomes so deeply rooted in the mind
+that it is sometimes practised by savages even at a high
+cost, towards strangers; but to lie to your enemy has
+rarely been thought a sin, as the history of modern
+diplomacy too plainly shews. As soon as a tribe has
+a recognised leader, disobedience becomes a crime, and
+even abject submission is looked at as a sacred virtue.</p>
+
+<p>As during rude times no man can be useful or faithful
+to his tribe without courage, this quality has universally
+been placed in the highest rank; and although, in
+civilised countries, a good, yet timid, man may be far
+more useful to the community than a brave one, we
+cannot help instinctively honouring the latter above
+a coward, however benevolent. Prudence, on the other
+hand, which does not concern the welfare of others,
+though a very useful virtue, has never been highly
+esteemed. As no man can practise the virtues necessary
+for the welfare of his tribe without self-sacrifice, self-command,
+and the power of endurance, these qualities
+have been at all times highly and most justly valued.
+The American savage voluntarily submits without
+a groan to the most horrid tortures to prove and
+strengthen his fortitude and courage; and we cannot<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">96</a></span>
+help admiring him, or even an Indian Fakir, who, from
+a foolish religious motive, swings suspended by a hook
+buried in his flesh.</p>
+
+<p>The other self-regarding virtues, which do not obviously,
+though they may really, affect the welfare of
+the tribe, have never been esteemed by savages, though
+now highly appreciated by civilised nations. The
+greatest intemperance with savages is no reproach.
+Their utter licentiousness, not to mention unnatural
+crimes, is something astounding.<a name="FNanchor_127" id="FNanchor_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127" class="fnanchor">127</a> As soon, however, as
+marriage, whether polygamous or monogamous, becomes
+common, jealousy will lead to the inculcation of female
+virtue; and this being honoured will tend to spread to the
+unmarried females. How slowly it spreads to the male
+sex we see at the present day. Chastity eminently
+requires self-command; therefore it has been honoured
+from a very early period in the moral history of civilised
+man. As a consequence of this, the senseless practice
+of celibacy has been ranked from a remote period as
+a virtue.<a name="FNanchor_128" id="FNanchor_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128" class="fnanchor">128</a> The hatred of indecency, which appears to
+us so natural as to be thought innate, and which is so
+valuable an aid to chastity, is a modern virtue, appertaining
+exclusively, as Sir G. Staunton remarks,<a name="FNanchor_129" id="FNanchor_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129" class="fnanchor">129</a> to
+civilised life. This is shewn by the ancient religious
+rites of various nations, by the drawings on the walls of
+Pompeii, and by the practices of many savages.</p>
+
+<p>We have now seen that actions are regarded by
+savages, and were probably so regarded by primeval
+man, as good or bad, solely as they affect in an obvious
+manner the welfare of the tribe,&mdash;not that of the
+species, nor that of man as an individual member of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">97</a></span>tribe. This conclusion agrees well with the belief that
+the so-called moral sense is aboriginally derived from
+the social instincts, for both relate at first exclusively to
+the community. The chief causes of the low morality
+of savages, as judged by our standard, are, firstly, the
+confinement of sympathy to the same tribe. Secondly,
+insufficient powers of reasoning, so that the bearing of
+many virtues, especially of the self-regarding virtues, on
+the general welfare of the tribe is not recognised.
+Savages, for instance, fail to trace the multiplied evils
+consequent on a want of temperance, chastity, &amp;c.
+And, thirdly, weak power of self-command; for this
+power has not been strengthened through long-continued,
+perhaps inherited, habit, instruction and religion.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">I have entered into the above details on the immorality
+of savages,<a name="FNanchor_130" id="FNanchor_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130" class="fnanchor">130</a> because some authors have recently
+taken a high view of their moral nature, or have attributed
+most of their crimes to mistaken benevolence.<a name="FNanchor_131" id="FNanchor_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131" class="fnanchor">131</a>
+These authors appear to rest their conclusion on savages
+possessing, as they undoubtedly do possess, and often
+in a high degree, those virtues which are serviceable,
+or even necessary, for the existence of a tribal community.</p>
+
+<p><i>Concluding Remarks.</i>&mdash;Philosophers of the derivative<a name="FNanchor_132" id="FNanchor_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132" class="fnanchor">132</a>
+school of morals formerly assumed that the foundation
+of morality lay in a form of Selfishness; but more
+recently in the &#8220;Greatest Happiness principle.&#8221; According
+to the view given above, the moral sense is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">98</a></span>fundamentally identical with the social instincts; and
+in the case of the lower animals it would be absurd to
+speak of these instincts as having been developed from
+selfishness, or for the happiness of the community.
+They have, however, certainly been developed for the
+general good of the community. The term, general
+good, may be defined as the means by which the greatest
+possible number of individuals can be reared in
+full vigour and health, with all their faculties perfect,
+under the conditions to which they are exposed. As
+the social instincts both of man and the lower animals
+have no doubt been developed by the same steps, it
+would be advisable, if found practicable, to use the
+same definition in both cases, and to take as the test
+of morality, the general good or welfare of the community,
+rather than the general happiness; but this
+definition would perhaps require some limitation on
+account of political ethics.</p>
+
+<p>When a man risks his life to save that of a fellow-creature,
+it seems more appropriate to say that he acts
+for the general good or welfare, rather than for the
+general happiness of mankind. No doubt the welfare
+and the happiness of the individual usually coincide;
+and a contented, happy tribe will flourish better than
+one that is discontented and unhappy. We have seen
+that at an early period in the history of man, the expressed
+wishes of the community will have naturally
+influenced to a large extent the conduct of each member;
+and as all wish for happiness, the &#8220;greatest happiness
+principle&#8221; will have become a most important
+secondary guide and object; the social instincts, including
+sympathy, always serving as the primary impulse
+and guide. Thus the reproach of laying the foundation
+of the most noble part of our nature in the base principle
+of selfishness is removed; unless indeed the satis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">99</a></span>faction
+which every animal feels when it follows its
+proper instincts, and the dissatisfaction felt when prevented,
+be called selfish.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of the wishes and judgment of the
+members of the same community, at first by oral and
+afterwards by written language, serves, as just remarked,
+as a most important secondary guide of
+conduct, in aid of the social instincts, but sometimes
+in opposition to them. This latter fact is well exemplified
+by the <i>Law of Honour</i>, that is the law of the
+opinion of our equals, and not of all our countrymen.
+The breach of this law, even when the breach
+is known to be strictly accordant with true morality,
+has caused many a man more agony than a real
+crime. We recognise the same influence in the burning
+sense of shame which most of us have felt even
+after the interval of years, when calling to mind some
+accidental breach of a trifling though fixed rule of etiquette.
+The judgment of the community will generally
+be guided by some rude experience of what is best in
+the long run for all the members; but this judgment
+will not rarely err from ignorance and from weak powers
+of reasoning. Hence the strangest customs and superstitions,
+in complete opposition to the true welfare and
+happiness of mankind, have become all-powerful throughout
+the world. We see this in the horror felt by a
+Hindoo who breaks his caste, in the shame of a Mahometan
+woman who exposes her face, and in innumerable
+other instances. It would be difficult to distinguish
+between the remorse felt by a Hindoo who has eaten
+unclean food, from that felt after committing a theft;
+but the former would probably be the more severe.</p>
+
+<p>How so many absurd rules of conduct, as well as so
+many absurd religious beliefs, have originated we do
+not know; nor how it is that they have become, in all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">100</a></span>
+quarters of the world, so deeply impressed on the mind
+of men; but it is worthy of remark that a belief constantly
+inculcated during the early years of life, whilst
+the brain is impressible, appears to acquire almost the
+nature of an instinct; and the very essence of an instinct
+is that it is followed independently of reason.
+Neither can we say why certain admirable virtues, such
+as the love of truth, are much more highly appreciated
+by some savage tribes than by others;<a name="FNanchor_133" id="FNanchor_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133" class="fnanchor">133</a> nor,
+again, why similar differences prevail even amongst
+civilised nations. Knowing how firmly fixed many
+strange customs and superstitions have become, we
+need feel no surprise that the self-regarding virtues
+should now appear to us so natural, supported as they
+are by reason, as to be thought innate, although they
+were not valued by man in his early condition.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding many sources of doubt, man can
+generally and readily distinguish between the higher
+and lower moral rules. The higher are founded on the
+social instincts, and relate to the welfare of others.
+They are supported by the approbation of our fellow-men
+and by reason. The lower rules, though some of
+them when implying self-sacrifice hardly deserve to be
+called lower, relate chiefly to self, and owe their origin
+to public opinion, when matured by experience and
+cultivated; for they are not practised by rude tribes.</p>
+
+<p>As man advances in civilisation, and small tribes
+are united into larger communities, the simplest reason
+would tell each individual that he ought to extend his
+social instincts and sympathies to all the members of
+the same nation, though personally unknown to him.
+This point being once reached, there is only an arti<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">101</a></span>ficial
+barrier to prevent his sympathies extending to the
+men of all nations and races. If, indeed, such men are
+separated from him by great differences in appearance
+or habits, experience unfortunately shews us how long
+it is before we look at them as our fellow-creatures.
+Sympathy beyond the confines of man, that is humanity
+to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest
+moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages,
+except towards their pets. How little the old Romans
+knew of it is shewn by their abhorrent gladiatorial
+exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as I
+could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos of the
+Pampas. This virtue, one of the noblest with which
+man is endowed, seems to arise incidentally from our
+sympathies becoming more tender and more widely diffused,
+until they are extended to all sentient beings.
+As soon as this virtue is honoured and practised by some
+few men, it spreads through instruction and example to
+the young, and eventually through public opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The highest stage in moral culture at which we can
+arrive, is when we recognise that we ought to control
+our thoughts, and &#8220;not even in inmost thought to think
+again the sins that made the past so pleasant to us.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_134" id="FNanchor_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134" class="fnanchor">134</a>
+Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind,
+renders its performance by so much the easier. As
+Marcus Aurelius long ago said, &#8220;Such as are thy habitual
+thoughts, such also will be the character of thy
+mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_135" id="FNanchor_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135" class="fnanchor">135</a></p>
+
+<p>Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently
+explained his views on the moral sense. He says,<a name="FNanchor_136" id="FNanchor_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136" class="fnanchor">136</a> &#8220;I
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">102</a></span>believe that the experiences of utility organised and
+consolidated through all past generations of the human
+race, have been producing corresponding modifications,
+which, by continued transmission and accumulation,
+have become in us certain faculties of moral intuition&mdash;certain
+emotions responding to right and wrong conduct,
+which have no apparent basis in the individual
+experiences of utility.&#8221; There is not the least inherent
+improbability, as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies
+being more or less strongly inherited; for, not
+to mention the various dispositions and habits transmitted
+by many of our domestic animals, I have heard
+of cases in which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie
+appeared to run in families of the upper ranks; and
+as stealing is so rare a crime in the wealthy classes,
+we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the
+tendency occurring in two or three members of the
+same family. If bad tendencies are transmitted, it is
+probable that good ones are likewise transmitted. Excepting
+through the principle of the transmission of
+moral tendencies, we cannot understand the differences
+believed to exist in this respect between the various
+races of mankind. We have, however, as yet, hardly
+sufficient evidence on this head.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies
+would be an immense assistance to the primary impulse
+derived directly from the social instincts, and indirectly
+from the approbation of our fellow-men. Admitting
+for the moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited,
+it appears probable, at least in such cases as chastity,
+temperance, humanity to animals, &amp;c., that they become
+first impressed on the mental organisation through
+habit, instruction, and example, continued during several
+generations in the same family, and in a quite subordinate
+degree, or not at all, by the individuals pos<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">103</a></span>sessing
+such virtues, having succeeded best in the
+struggle for life. My chief source of doubt with respect
+to any such inheritance, is that senseless customs, superstitions,
+and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for
+unclean food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted.
+Although this in itself is perhaps not less probable
+than that animals should acquire inherited tastes
+for certain kinds of food or fear of certain foes, I have
+not met with any evidence in support of the transmission
+of superstitious customs or senseless habits.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the social instincts which no doubt were
+acquired by man, as by the lower animals, for the good
+of the community, will from the first have given to him
+some wish to aid his fellows, and some feeling of sympathy.
+Such impulses will have served him at a very
+early period as a rude rule of right and wrong. But as
+man gradually advanced in intellectual power and was
+enabled to trace the more remote consequences of his
+actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to reject
+baneful customs and superstitions; as he regarded
+more and more not only the welfare but the happiness
+of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on
+beneficial experience, instruction, and example, his
+sympathies became more tender and widely diffused,
+so as to extend to the men of all races, to the imbecile,
+the maimed, and other useless members of
+society, and finally to the lower animals,&mdash;so would the
+standard of his morality rise higher and higher. And
+it is admitted by moralists of the derivative school and
+by some intuitionists, that the standard of morality has
+risen since an early period in the history of man.<a name="FNanchor_137" id="FNanchor_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137" class="fnanchor">137</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">104</a></span>between the various instincts of the lower animals, it is
+not surprising that there should be a struggle in man
+between his social instincts, with their derived virtues,
+and his lower, though at the moment, stronger impulses
+or desires. This, as Mr. Galton<a name="FNanchor_138" id="FNanchor_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138" class="fnanchor">138</a> has remarked, is all
+the less surprising, as man has emerged from a state of
+barbarism within a comparatively recent period. After
+having yielded to some temptation we feel a sense of
+dissatisfaction, analogous to that felt from other unsatisfied
+instincts, called in this case conscience; for we
+cannot prevent past images and impressions continually
+passing through our minds, and these in their weakened
+state we compare with the ever-present social instincts,
+or with habits gained in early youth and strengthened
+during our whole lives, perhaps inherited, so that they
+are at last rendered almost as strong as instincts.
+Looking to future generations, there is no cause to fear
+that the social instincts will grow weaker, and we may
+expect that virtuous habits will grow stronger, becoming
+perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle
+between our higher and lower impulses will be less
+severe, and virtue will be triumphant.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Summary of the two last Chapters.</i>&mdash;There can be no
+doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest
+man and that of the highest animal is immense. An
+anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a dispassionate
+view of his own case, would admit that though he could
+form an artful plan to plunder a garden&mdash;though he
+could use stones for fighting or for breaking open nuts,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">105</a></span>yet that the thought of fashioning a stone into a tool
+was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would
+admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical
+reasoning, or solve a mathematical problem, or reflect
+on God, or admire a grand natural scene. Some apes,
+however, would probably declare that they could and
+did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of
+their partners in marriage. They would admit, that
+though they could make other apes understand by cries
+some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the notion
+of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had
+never crossed their minds. They might insist that they
+were ready to aid their fellow-apes of the same troop in
+many ways, to risk their lives for them, and to take
+charge of their orphans; but they would be forced to
+acknowledge that disinterested love for all living creatures,
+the most noble attribute of man, was quite beyond
+their comprehension.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the difference in mind between man
+and the higher animals, great as it is, is certainly one
+of degree and not of kind. We have seen that the
+senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties,
+such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation,
+reason, &amp;c., of which man boasts, may be found in an
+incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition,
+in the lower animals. They are also capable of
+some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic
+dog compared with the wolf or jackal. If it be maintained
+that certain powers, such as self-consciousness,
+abstraction, &amp;c., are peculiar to man, it may well be
+that these are the incidental results of other highly-advanced
+intellectual faculties; and these again are
+mainly the result of the continued use of a highly
+developed language. At what age does the new-born
+infant possess the power of abstraction, or become self<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">106</a></span>conscious
+and reflect on its own existence? We cannot
+answer; nor can we answer in regard to the ascending
+organic scale. The half-art and half-instinct of language
+still bears the stamp of its gradual evolution.
+The ennobling belief in God is not universal with man;
+and the belief in active spiritual agencies naturally follows
+from his other mental powers. The moral sense
+perhaps affords the best and highest distinction between
+man and the lower animals; but I need not say anything
+on this head, as I have so lately endeavoured
+to shew that the social instincts,&mdash;the prime principle
+of man&#8217;s moral constitution<a name="FNanchor_139" id="FNanchor_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139" class="fnanchor">139</a>&mdash;with the aid of active
+intellectual powers and the effects of habit, naturally
+lead to the golden rule, &#8220;As ye would that men should
+do to you, do ye to them likewise;&#8221; and this lies at
+the foundation of morality.</p>
+
+<p>In a future chapter I shall make some few remarks
+on the probable steps and means by which the several
+mental and moral faculties of man have been gradually
+evolved. That this at least is possible ought not
+to be denied, when we daily see their development in
+every infant; and when we may trace a perfect gradation
+from the mind of an utter idiot, lower than that of
+the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">107</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IV.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">On the Manner of Development of Man from some
+lower Form.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Variability of body and mind in man&mdash;Inheritance&mdash;Causes of
+variability&mdash;Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+animals&mdash;Direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Effects of the
+increased use and disuse of parts&mdash;Arrested development&mdash;Reversion&mdash;Correlated
+variation&mdash;Rate of increase&mdash;Checks to
+increase&mdash;Natural selection&mdash;Man the most dominant animal
+in the world&mdash;Importance of his corporeal structure&mdash;The
+causes which have led to his becoming erect&mdash;Consequent changes
+of structure&mdash;Decrease in size of the canine teeth&mdash;Increased
+size and altered shape of the skull&mdash;Nakedness&mdash;Absence of
+a tail&mdash;Defenceless condition of man.</p></div>
+
+<p>We have seen in the first chapter that the homological
+structure of man, his embryological development and
+the rudiments which he still retains, all declare in the
+plainest manner that he is descended from some lower
+form. The possession of exalted mental powers is no
+insuperable objection to this conclusion. In order that
+an ape-like creature should have been transformed into
+man, it is necessary that this early form, as well as
+many successive links, should all have varied in mind
+and body. It is impossible to obtain direct evidence on
+this head; but if it can be shewn that man now varies&mdash;that
+his variations are induced by the same general
+causes, and obey the same general laws, as in the case
+of the lower animals&mdash;there can be little doubt that
+the preceding intermediate links varied in a like
+manner. The variations at each successive stage of
+descent must, also, have been in some manner accumulated
+and fixed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">108</a></span>The facts and conclusions to be given in this chapter
+relate almost exclusively to the probable means by
+which the transformation of man has been effected,
+as far as his bodily structure is concerned. The following
+chapter will be devoted to the development of
+his intellectual and moral faculties. But the present
+discussion likewise bears on the origin of the different
+races or species of mankind, whichever term may be
+preferred.</p>
+
+<p>It is manifest that man is now subject to much
+variability. No two individuals of the same race are
+quite alike. We may compare millions of faces, and
+each will be distinct. There is an equally great
+amount of diversity in the proportions and dimensions
+of the various parts of the body; the length of the legs
+being one of the most variable points.<a name="FNanchor_140" id="FNanchor_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140" class="fnanchor">140</a> Although in
+some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in
+other quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great
+diversity of shape even within the limits of the same
+race, as with the aborigines of America and South
+Australia,&mdash;the latter a race &#8220;probably as pure and
+homogeneous in blood, customs, and language as any
+in existence&#8221;&mdash;and even with the inhabitants of so
+confined an area as the Sandwich Islands.<a name="FNanchor_141" id="FNanchor_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141" class="fnanchor">141</a> An eminent
+dentist assures me that there is nearly as much
+diversity in the teeth, as in the features. The chief
+arteries so frequently run in abnormal courses, that it
+has been found useful for surgical purposes to calculate
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">109</a></span>from 12,000 corpses how often each course prevails.<a name="FNanchor_142" id="FNanchor_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142" class="fnanchor">142</a>
+The muscles are eminently variable: thus those of the
+foot were found by Prof. Turner<a name="FNanchor_143" id="FNanchor_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143" class="fnanchor">143</a> not to be strictly
+alike in any two out of fifty bodies; and in some the
+deviations were considerable. Prof. Turner adds that
+the power of performing the appropriate movements
+must have been modified in accordance with the several
+deviations. Mr. J. Wood has recorded<a name="FNanchor_144" id="FNanchor_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144" class="fnanchor">144</a> the occurrence
+of 295 muscular variations in thirty-six subjects, and in
+another set of the same number no less than 558 variations,
+reckoning both sides of the body as one. In the
+last set, not one body out of the thirty-six was &#8220;found
+totally wanting in departures from the standard descriptions
+of the muscular system given in anatomical
+text-books.&#8221; A single body presented the extraordinary
+number of twenty-five distinct abnormalities. The
+same muscle sometimes varies in many ways: thus
+Prof. Macalister describes<a name="FNanchor_145" id="FNanchor_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145" class="fnanchor">145</a> no less than twenty distinct
+variations in the <i>palmaris accessorius</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The famous old anatomist, Wolff,<a name="FNanchor_146" id="FNanchor_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146" class="fnanchor">146</a> insists that the
+internal viscera are more variable than the external
+parts: <i>Nulla particula est qu&aelig; non aliter et aliter in
+aliis se habeat hominibus.</i> He has even written a treatise
+on the choice of typical examples of the viscera for
+representation. A discussion on the beau-ideal of the
+liver, lungs, kidneys, &amp;c., as of the human face divine,
+sounds strange in our ears.</p>
+
+<p>The variability or diversity of the mental faculties
+in men of the same race, not to mention the greater
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">110</a></span>differences between the men of distinct races, is so
+notorious that not a word need here be said. So it
+is with the lower animals, as has been illustrated by
+a few examples in the last chapter. All who have had
+charge of menageries admit this fact, and we see it
+plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Brehm
+especially insists that each individual monkey of those
+which he kept under confinement in Africa had its own
+peculiar disposition and temper: he mentions one baboon
+remarkable for its high intelligence; and the keepers
+in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey,
+belonging to the New World division, equally remarkable
+for intelligence. Rengger, also, insists on the diversity
+in the various mental characters of the monkeys
+of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and
+this diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly
+the result of the manner in which they have been
+treated or educated.<a name="FNanchor_147" id="FNanchor_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147" class="fnanchor">147</a></p>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere<a name="FNanchor_148" id="FNanchor_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148" class="fnanchor">148</a> so fully discussed the subject of
+Inheritance that I need here add hardly anything. A
+greater number of facts have been collected with respect
+to the transmission of the most trifling, as well as of the
+most important characters in man than in any of the
+lower animals; though the facts are copious enough
+with respect to the latter. So in regard to mental
+qualities, their transmission is manifest in our dogs,
+horses, and other domestic animals. Besides special
+tastes and habits, general intelligence, courage, bad and
+good temper, &amp;c., are certainly transmitted. With man
+we see similar facts in almost every family; and we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">111</a></span>now know through the admirable labours of Mr. Galton<a name="FNanchor_149" id="FNanchor_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149" class="fnanchor">149</a>
+that genius, which implies a wonderfully complex combination
+of high faculties, tends to be inherited; and,
+on the other hand, it is too certain that insanity and
+deteriorated mental powers likewise run in the same
+families.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the causes of variability we are in
+all cases very ignorant; but we can see that in man as
+in the lower animals, they stand in some relation with
+the conditions to which each species has been exposed
+during several generations. Domesticated animals vary
+more than those in a state of nature; and this is apparently
+due to the diversified and changing nature of
+their conditions. The different races of man resemble
+in this respect domesticated animals, and so do the
+individuals of the same race when inhabiting a very
+wide area, like that of America. We see the influence
+of diversified conditions in the more civilised nations,
+the members of which belong to different grades of rank
+and follow different occupations, presenting a greater
+range of character than the members of barbarous
+nations. But the uniformity of savages has often been
+exaggerated, and in some cases can hardly be said
+to exist.<a name="FNanchor_150" id="FNanchor_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150" class="fnanchor">150</a> It is nevertheless an error to speak of man,
+even if we look only to the conditions to which he
+has been subjected, as &#8220;far more domesticated&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_151" id="FNanchor_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151" class="fnanchor">151</a> than
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">112</a></span>any other animal. Some savage races, such as the
+Australians, are not exposed to more diversified conditions
+than are many species which have very wide
+ranges. In another and much more important respect,
+man differs widely from any strictly domesticated
+animal; for his breeding has not been controlled,
+either through methodical or unconscious selection. No
+race or body of men has been so completely subjugated
+by other men, that certain individuals have been preserved
+and thus unconsciously selected, from being in
+some way more useful to their masters. Nor have
+certain male and female individuals been intentionally
+picked out and matched, except in the well-known
+case of the Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man
+obeyed, as might have been expected, the law of methodical
+selection; for it is asserted that many tall men
+were reared in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers
+with their tall wives.</p>
+
+<p>If we consider all the races of man, as forming a single
+species, his range is enormous; but some separate races,
+as the Americans and Polynesians, have very wide
+ranges. It is a well-known law that widely-ranging
+species are much more variable than species with restricted
+ranges; and the variability of man may with
+more truth be compared with that of widely-ranging
+species, than with that of domesticated animals.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Not only does variability appear to be induced in
+man and the lower animals by the same general causes,
+but in both the same characters are affected in a closely
+analogous manner. This has been proved in such full
+detail by Godron and Quatrefages, that I need here
+only refer to their works.<a name="FNanchor_152" id="FNanchor_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152" class="fnanchor">152</a> Monstrosities, which gra<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">113</a></span>duate
+into slight variations, are likewise so similar in
+man and the lower animals, that the same classification
+and the same terms can be used for both, as may
+be seen in Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire&#8217;s great work.<a name="FNanchor_153" id="FNanchor_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153" class="fnanchor">153</a>
+This is a necessary consequence of the same laws of
+change prevailing throughout the animal kingdom. In
+my work on the variation of domestic animals, I have
+attempted to arrange in a rude fashion the laws of
+variation under the following heads:&mdash;The direct and
+definite action of changed conditions, as shewn by all or
+nearly all the individuals of the same species varying
+in the same manner under the same circumstances.
+The effects of the long-continued use or disuse of
+parts. The cohesion of homologous parts. The variability
+of multiple parts. Compensation of growth;
+but of this law I have found no good instances in the
+case of man. The effects of the mechanical pressure of
+one part on another; as of the pelvis on the cranium
+of the infant in the womb. Arrests of development,
+leading to the diminution or suppression of parts. The
+reappearance of long-lost characters through reversion.
+And lastly, correlated variation. All these so-called
+laws apply equally to man and the lower animals; and
+most of them even to plants. It would be superfluous
+here to discuss all of them;<a name="FNanchor_154" id="FNanchor_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154" class="fnanchor">154</a> but several are so important
+for us, that they must be treated at considerable
+length.</p>
+
+<p><i>The direct and definite action of changed conditions.</i>&mdash;This
+is a most perplexing subject. It cannot be denied
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">114</a></span>that changed conditions produce some effect, and occasionally
+a considerable effect, on organisms of all kinds;
+and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time
+were allowed this would be the invariable result. But
+I have failed to obtain clear evidence in favour of this
+conclusion; and valid reasons may be urged on the
+other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures
+are concerned, which are adapted for special ends.
+There can, however, be no doubt that changed conditions
+induce an almost indefinite amount of fluctuating
+variability, by which the whole organisation is rendered
+in some degree plastic.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States, above 1,000,000 soldiers, who
+served in the late war, were measured, and the States
+in which they were born and reared recorded.<a name="FNanchor_155" id="FNanchor_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155" class="fnanchor">155</a> From
+this astonishing number of observations it is proved that
+local influences of some kind act directly on stature;
+and we further learn that &#8220;the State where the physical
+growth has in great measure taken place, and the State
+of birth, which indicates the ancestry, seem to exert
+a marked influence on the stature.&#8221; For instance it
+is established, &#8220;that residence in the Western States,
+during the years of growth, tends to produce increase
+of stature.&#8221; On the other hand, it is certain that with
+sailors, their manner of life delays growth, as shewn &#8220;by
+the great difference between the statures of soldiers and
+sailors at the ages of 17 and 18 years.&#8221; Mr. B. A. Gould
+endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the influences
+which thus act on stature; but he arrived only at negative
+results, namely, that they did not relate to climate,
+the elevation of the land, soil, nor even &#8220;in any controlling
+degree&#8221; to the abundance or need of the com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">115</a></span>forts
+of life. This latter conclusion is directly opposed
+to that arrived at by Villerm&eacute; from the statistics of the
+height of the conscripts in different parts of France.
+When we compare the differences in stature between the
+Polynesian chiefs and the lower orders within the same
+islands, or between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic
+and low barren coral islands of the same ocean,<a name="FNanchor_156" id="FNanchor_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156" class="fnanchor">156</a> or
+again between the Fuegians on the eastern and western
+shores of their country, where the means of subsistence
+are very different, it is scarcely possible to avoid the
+conclusion that better food and greater comfort do influence
+stature. But the preceding statements shew
+how difficult it is to arrive at any precise result. Dr.
+Beddoe has lately proved that, with the inhabitants of
+Britain, residence in towns and certain occupations have
+a deteriorating influence on height; and he infers that
+the result is to a certain extent inherited, as is likewise
+the case in the United States. Dr. Beddoe further
+believes that wherever a &#8220;race attains its maximum of
+physical development, it rises highest in energy and
+moral vigour.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_157" id="FNanchor_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157" class="fnanchor">157</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Whether external conditions produce any other
+direct effect on man is not known. It might have been
+expected that differences of climate would have had a
+marked influence, as the lungs and kidneys are brought
+into fuller activity under a low temperature, and the
+liver and skin under a high one.<a name="FNanchor_158" id="FNanchor_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158" class="fnanchor">158</a> It was formerly
+thought that the colour of the skin and the character
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span>of the hair were determined by light or heat; and
+although it can hardly be denied that some effect is
+thus produced, almost all observers now agree that the
+effect has been very small, even after exposure during
+many ages. But this subject will be more properly
+discussed when we treat of the different races of mankind.
+With our domestic animals there are grounds
+for believing that cold and damp directly affect the
+growth of the hair; but I have not met with any evidence
+on this head in the case of man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts.</i>&mdash;It
+is well known that use strengthens the muscles in
+the individual, and complete disuse, or the destruction
+of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye
+is destroyed the optic nerve often becomes atrophied.
+When an artery is tied, the lateral channels increase
+not only in diameter, but in the thickness and strength
+of their coats. When one kidney ceases acting from
+disease, the other increases in size and does double
+work. Bones increase not only in thickness, but in
+length, from carrying a greater weight.<a name="FNanchor_159" id="FNanchor_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159" class="fnanchor">159</a> Different
+occupations habitually followed lead to changed proportions
+in various parts of the body. Thus it was
+clearly ascertained by the United States Commission<a name="FNanchor_160" id="FNanchor_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160" class="fnanchor">160</a>
+that the legs of the sailors employed in the late war
+were longer by 0.217 of an inch than those of the soldiers,
+though the sailors were on an average shorter
+men; whilst their arms were shorter by 1.09 of an inch,
+and therefore out of proportion shorter in relation to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">117</a></span>their lesser height. This shortness of the arms is
+apparently due to their greater use, and is an unexpected
+result; but sailors chiefly use their arms in
+pulling and not in supporting weights. The girth of
+the neck and the depth of the instep are greater, whilst
+the circumference of the chest, waist, and hips is less in
+sailors than in soldiers.</p>
+
+<p>Whether the several foregoing modifications would
+become hereditary, if the same habits of life were followed
+during many generations, is not known, but is
+probable. Rengger<a name="FNanchor_161" id="FNanchor_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161" class="fnanchor">161</a> attributes the thin legs and thick
+arms of the Payaguas Indians to successive generations
+having passed nearly their whole lives in canoes, with
+their lower extremities motionless. Other writers have
+come to a similar conclusion in other analogous cases.
+According to Cranz,<a name="FNanchor_162" id="FNanchor_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162" class="fnanchor">162</a> who lived for a long time with the
+Esquimaux, &#8220;the natives believe that ingenuity and
+dexterity in seal-catching (their highest art and virtue)
+is hereditary; there is really something in it, for the
+son of a celebrated seal-catcher will distinguish himself
+though he lost his father in childhood.&#8221; But in
+this case it is mental aptitude, quite as much as bodily
+structure, which appears to be inherited. It is asserted
+that the hands of English labourers are at birth larger
+than those of the gentry.<a name="FNanchor_163" id="FNanchor_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163" class="fnanchor">163</a> From the correlation which
+exists, at least in some cases,<a name="FNanchor_164" id="FNanchor_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164" class="fnanchor">164</a> between the development
+of the extremities and of the jaws, it is possible that
+in those classes which do not labour much with their
+hands and feet, the jaws would be reduced in size from
+this cause. That they are generally smaller in refined
+and civilised men than in hard-working men or savages,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">118</a></span>is certain. But with savages, as Mr. Herbert Spencer<a name="FNanchor_165" id="FNanchor_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165" class="fnanchor">165</a>
+has remarked, the greater use of the jaws in chewing
+coarse, uncooked food, would act in a direct manner on
+the masticatory muscles and on the bones to which
+they are attached. In infants long before birth, the
+skin on the soles of the feet is thicker than on any
+other part of the body;<a name="FNanchor_166" id="FNanchor_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166" class="fnanchor">166</a> and it can hardly be doubted
+that this is due to the inherited effects of pressure
+during a long series of generations.</p>
+
+<p>It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and
+engravers are liable to become short-sighted, whilst
+sailors and especially savages are generally long-sighted.
+Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend to be inherited.<a name="FNanchor_167" id="FNanchor_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167" class="fnanchor">167</a>
+The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison
+with savages, in eyesight and in the other
+senses, is no doubt the accumulated and transmitted
+effect of lessened use during many generations; for
+Rengger<a name="FNanchor_168" id="FNanchor_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168" class="fnanchor">168</a> states that he has repeatedly observed Europeans,
+who had been brought up and spent their whole
+lives with the wild Indians, who nevertheless did not
+equal them in the sharpness of their senses. The same
+naturalist observes that the cavities in the skull for
+the reception of the several sense-organs are larger in
+the American aborigines than in Europeans; and this
+no doubt indicates a corresponding difference in the
+dimensions of the organs themselves. Blumenbach has
+also remarked on the large size of the nasal cavities
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">119</a></span>in the skulls of the American aborigines, and connects
+this fact with their remarkably acute power of smell.
+The Mongolians of the plains of Northern Asia, according
+to Pallas, have wonderfully perfect senses; and Prichard
+believes that the great breadth of their skulls across
+the zygomas follows from their highly-developed sense-organs.<a name="FNanchor_169" id="FNanchor_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169" class="fnanchor">169</a></p>
+
+<p>The Quechua Indians inhabit the lofty plateaux of
+Peru, and Alcide d&#8217;Orbigny states<a name="FNanchor_170" id="FNanchor_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170" class="fnanchor">170</a> that from continually
+breathing a highly rarefied atmosphere they
+have acquired chests and lungs of extraordinary dimensions.
+The cells, also, of the lungs are larger and more
+numerous than in Europeans. These observations
+have been doubted; but Mr. D. Forbes carefully
+measured many Aymaras, an allied race, living at the
+height of between ten and fifteen thousand feet; and
+he informs me<a name="FNanchor_171" id="FNanchor_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171" class="fnanchor">171</a> that they differ conspicuously from the
+men of all other races seen by him, in the circumference
+and length of their bodies. In his table of
+measurements, the stature of each man is taken at
+1000, and the other measurements are reduced to this
+standard. It is here seen that the extended arms
+of the Aymaras are shorter than those of Europeans,
+and much shorter than those of Negroes. The legs are
+likewise shorter, and they present this remarkable peculiarity,
+that in every Aymara measured the femur is
+actually shorter than the tibia. On an average the
+length of the femur to that of the tibia is as 211 to
+252; whilst in two Europeans measured at the same
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">120</a></span>time, the femora to the tibi&aelig; were as 244 to 230; and
+in three Negroes as 258 to 241. The humerus is likewise
+shorter relatively to the fore-arm. This shortening
+of that part of the limb which is nearest to the body,
+appears to be, as suggested to me by Mr. Forbes, a case
+of compensation in relation with the greatly increased
+length of the trunk. The Aymaras present some other
+singular points of structure, for instance, the very small
+projection of the heel.</p>
+
+<p>These men are so thoroughly acclimatised to their
+cold and lofty abode, that when formerly carried down
+by the Spaniards to the low Eastern plains, and when
+now tempted down by high wages to the gold-washings,
+they suffer a frightful rate of mortality. Nevertheless
+Mr. Forbes found a few pure families which had survived
+during two generations; and he observed that
+they still inherited their characteristic peculiarities.
+But it was manifest, even without measurement, that
+these peculiarities had all decreased; and on measurement
+their bodies were found not to be so much elongated
+as those of the men on the high plateau; whilst
+their femora had become somewhat lengthened, as had
+their tibi&aelig; but in a less degree. The actual measurements
+may be seen by consulting Mr. Forbes&#8216; memoir.
+From these valuable observations, there can, I think,
+be no doubt that residence during many generations at
+a great elevation tends, both directly and indirectly, to
+induce inherited modifications in the proportions of the
+body.<a name="FNanchor_172" id="FNanchor_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172" class="fnanchor">172</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Although man may not have been much modified
+during the latter stages of his existence through the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">121</a></span>increased or decreased use of parts, the facts now given
+shew that his liability in this respect has not been lost;
+and we positively know that the same law holds good
+with the lower animals. Consequently we may infer,
+that when at a remote epoch the progenitors of man
+were in a transitional state, and were changing from
+quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would probably
+have been greatly aided by the inherited effects of the
+increased or diminished use of the different parts of the
+body.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Arrests of Development.</i>&mdash;Arrested development differs
+from arrested growth, as parts in the former state continue
+to grow whilst still retaining their early condition.
+Various monstrosities come under this head, and some
+are known to be occasionally inherited, as a cleft-palate.
+It will suffice for our purpose to refer to the arrested
+brain-development of microcephalous idiots, as described
+in Vogt&#8217;s great memoir.<a name="FNanchor_173" id="FNanchor_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173" class="fnanchor">173</a> Their skulls are smaller, and
+the convolutions of the brain are less complex than in
+normal men. The frontal sinus, or the projection over
+the eyebrows, is largely developed, and the jaws are
+prognathous to an &#8220;<i>effrayant</i>&#8221; degree; so that these idiots
+somewhat resemble the lower types of mankind. Their
+intelligence and most of their mental faculties are
+extremely feeble. They cannot acquire the power of
+speech, and are wholly incapable of prolonged attention,
+but are much given to imitation. They are strong and
+remarkably active, continually gamboling and jumping
+about, and making grimaces. They often ascend stairs
+on all-fours; and are curiously fond of climbing up
+furniture or trees. We are thus reminded of the delight
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">122</a></span>shewn by almost all boys in climbing trees; and this
+again reminds us how lambs and kids, originally alpine
+animals, delight to frisk on any hillock, however small.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reversion.</i>&mdash;Many of the cases to be here given
+might have been introduced under the last heading.
+Whenever a structure is arrested in its development,
+but still continues growing until it closely resembles a
+corresponding structure in some lower and adult member
+of the same group, we may in one sense consider it as a case
+of reversion. The lower members in a group give us
+some idea how the common progenitor of the group was
+probably constructed; and it is hardly credible that a
+part arrested at an early phase of embryonic development
+should be enabled to continue growing so as ultimately
+to perform its proper function, unless it had
+acquired this power of continued growth during some
+earlier state of existence, when the present exceptional
+or arrested structure was normal. The simple brain of
+a microcephalous idiot, in as far as it resembles that
+of an ape, may in this sense be said to offer a case of
+reversion. There are other cases which come more
+strictly under our present heading of reversion. Certain
+structures, regularly occurring in the lower members of
+the group to which man belongs, occasionally make
+their appearance in him, though not found in the normal
+human embryo; or, if present in the normal human
+embryo, they become developed in an abnormal manner,
+though this manner of development is proper to the
+lower members of the same group. These remarks will
+be rendered clearer by the following illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>In various mammals the uterus graduates from a
+double organ with two distinct orifices and two passages,
+as in the marsupials, into a single organ, showing no
+signs of doubleness except a slight internal fold, as in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">123</a></span>
+the higher apes and man. The rodents exhibit a perfect
+series of gradations between these two extreme
+states. In all mammals the uterus is developed from
+two simple primitive tubes, the inferior portions of
+which form the cornua; and it is in the words of
+Dr. Farre &#8220;by the coalescence of the two cornua at
+their lower extremities that the body of the uterus is
+formed in man; while in those animals in which no
+middle portion or body exists, the cornua remain ununited.
+As the development of the uterus proceeds,
+the two cornua become gradually shorter, until at
+length they are lost, or, as it were, absorbed into the
+body of the uterus.&#8221; The angles of the uterus are
+still produced into cornua, even so high in the scale as
+in the lower apes, and their allies the lemurs.</p>
+
+<p>Now in women anomalous cases are not very infrequent,
+in which the mature uterus is furnished with
+cornua, or is partially divided into two organs; and
+such cases, according to Owen, repeat &#8220;the grade of concentrative
+development,&#8221; attained by certain rodents.
+Here perhaps we have an instance of a simple arrest of
+embryonic development, with subsequent growth and
+perfect functional development, for either side of the
+partially double uterus is capable of performing the
+proper office of gestation. In other and rarer cases,
+two distinct uterine cavities are formed, each having
+its proper orifice and passage.<a name="FNanchor_174" id="FNanchor_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174" class="fnanchor">174</a> No such stage is passed
+through during the ordinary development of the embryo,
+and it is difficult to believe, though perhaps not impossible,
+that the two simple, minute, primitive tubes
+could know how (if such an expression may be used) to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">124</a></span>grow into two distinct uteri, each with a well-constructed
+orifice and passage, and each furnished with numerous
+muscles, nerves, glands and vessels, if they had not
+formerly passed through a similar course of development,
+as in the case of existing marsupials. No one will
+pretend that so perfect a structure as the abnormal
+double uterus in woman could be the result of mere
+chance. But the principle of reversion, by which long-lost
+dormant structures are called back into existence,
+might serve as the guide for the full development of
+the organ, even after the lapse of an enormous interval
+of time.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Canestrini,<a name="FNanchor_175" id="FNanchor_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175" class="fnanchor">175</a> after discussing the foregoing
+and various analogous cases, arrives at the same conclusion
+as that just given. He adduces, as another
+instance, the malar bone, which, in some of the Quadrumana
+and other mammals, normally consists of two
+portions. This is its condition in the two-months-old
+human f&oelig;tus; and thus it sometimes remains, through
+arrested development, in man when adult, more especially
+in the lower prognathous races. Hence Canestrini concludes
+that some ancient progenitor of man must have
+possessed this bone normally divided into two portions,
+which subsequently became fused together. In man
+the frontal bone consists of a single piece, but in the
+embryo and in children, and in almost all the lower
+mammals, it consists of two pieces separated by a distinct
+suture. This suture occasionally persists, more
+or less distinctly, in man after maturity, and more fre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">125</a></span>quently
+in ancient than in recent crania, especially as
+Canestrini has observed in those exhumed from the
+Drift and belonging to the brachycephalic type. Here
+again he comes to the same conclusion as in the analogous
+case of the malar bones. In this and other
+instances presently to be given, the cause of ancient
+races approaching the lower animals in certain characters
+more frequently than do the modern races,
+appears to be that the latter stand at a somewhat greater
+distance in the long line of descent from their early
+semi-human progenitors.</p>
+
+<p>Various other anomalies in man, more or less analogous
+with the foregoing, have been advanced by different
+authors<a name="FNanchor_176" id="FNanchor_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176" class="fnanchor">176</a> as cases of reversion; but these seem
+not a little doubtful, for we have to descend extremely
+low in the mammalian series before we find such structures
+normally present.<a name="FNanchor_177" id="FNanchor_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177" class="fnanchor">177</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">126</a></span></p><p>In man the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments
+for mastication. But their true canine character,
+as Owen<a name="FNanchor_178" id="FNanchor_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178" class="fnanchor">178</a> remarks, &#8220;is indicated by the conical form
+of the crown, which terminates in an obtuse point, is
+convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the
+base of which surface there is a feeble prominence.
+The conical form is best expressed in the Melanian
+races, especially the Australian. The canine is more
+deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the
+incisors.&#8221; Nevertheless this tooth no longer serves
+man as a special weapon for tearing his enemies or prey;
+it may, therefore, as far as its proper function is concerned,
+be considered as rudimentary. In every large
+collection of human skulls some may be found, as
+H&auml;ckel<a name="FNanchor_179" id="FNanchor_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179" class="fnanchor">179</a> observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably
+beyond the others in the same manner, but
+in a less degree, as in the anthropomorphous apes. In
+these cases, open spaces between the teeth in the one
+jaw are left for the reception of the canines belonging
+to the opposite jaw. An interspace of this kind in a
+Kaffir skull, figured by Wagner, is surprisingly wide.<a name="FNanchor_180" id="FNanchor_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180" class="fnanchor">180</a>
+Considering how few ancient skulls have been examined
+in comparison with recent skulls, it is an interesting
+fact that in at least three cases the canines project
+largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as
+enormous.<a name="FNanchor_181" id="FNanchor_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181" class="fnanchor">181</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">127</a></span></p><p>The males alone of the anthropomorphous apes have
+their canines fully developed; but in the female gorilla,
+and in a less degree in the female orang, these teeth
+project considerably beyond the others; therefore the
+fact that women sometimes have, as I have been assured,
+considerably projecting canines, is no serious objection
+to the belief that their occasional great development in
+man is a case of reversion to an ape-like progenitor.
+He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape of
+his own canines, and their occasional great development
+in other men, are due to our early progenitors having
+been provided with these formidable weapons, will probably
+reveal by sneering the line of his descent. For
+though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use
+these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his
+&#8220;snarling muscles&#8221; (thus named by Sir C. Bell)<a name="FNanchor_182" id="FNanchor_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182" class="fnanchor">182</a> so as
+to expose them ready for action, like a dog prepared to
+fight.</p>
+
+<p>Many muscles are occasionally developed in man,
+which are proper to the Quadrumana or other mammals.
+Professor Vlacovich<a name="FNanchor_183" id="FNanchor_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183" class="fnanchor">183</a> examined forty male subjects,
+and found a muscle, called by him the ischiopubic,
+in nineteen of them; in three others there was
+a ligament which represented this muscle; and in the
+remaining eighteen no trace of it. Out of thirty female
+subjects this muscle was developed on both sides in only
+two, but in three others the rudimentary ligament was
+present. This muscle, therefore, appears to be much
+more common in the male than in the female sex; and
+on the principle of the descent of man from some lower
+form, its presence can be understood; for it has been
+detected in several of the lower animals, and in all of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">128</a></span>these it serves exclusively to aid the male in the act
+of reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. J. Wood, in his valuable series of papers,<a name="FNanchor_184" id="FNanchor_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184" class="fnanchor">184</a> has
+minutely described a vast number of muscular variations
+in man, which resemble normal structures in the
+lower animals. Looking only to the muscles which
+closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest
+allies, the Quadrumana, they are too numerous to be
+here even specified. In a single male subject, having
+a strong bodily frame and well-formed skull, no less
+than seven muscular variations were observed, all of
+which plainly represented muscles proper to various
+kinds of apes. This man, for instance, had on both
+sides of his neck a true and powerful &#8220;<i>levator clavicul&aelig;</i>,&#8221;
+such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which
+is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects.<a name="FNanchor_185" id="FNanchor_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185" class="fnanchor">185</a>
+Again, this man had &#8220;a special abductor of
+the metatarsal bone of the fifth digit, such as Professor
+Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn to exist
+uniformly in the higher and lower apes.&#8221; The hands
+and arms of man are eminently characteristic structures,
+but their muscles are extremely liable to vary, so as to
+resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower animals.<a name="FNanchor_186" id="FNanchor_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186" class="fnanchor">186</a>
+Such resemblances are either complete and per<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">129</a></span>fect
+or imperfect, yet in this latter case manifestly of
+a transitional nature. Certain variations are more common
+in man, and others in woman, without our being
+able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing
+numerous cases, makes the following pregnant remark:
+&#8220;Notable departures from the ordinary type of the
+muscular structures run in grooves or directions, which
+must be taken to indicate some unknown factor, of
+much importance to a comprehensive knowledge of
+general and scientific anatomy.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_187" id="FNanchor_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187" class="fnanchor">187</a></p>
+
+<p>That this unknown factor is reversion to a former
+state of existence may be admitted as in the highest
+degree probable. It is quite incredible that a man
+should through mere accident abnormally resemble, in
+no less than seven of his muscles, certain apes, if there
+had been no genetic connection between them. On the
+other hand, if man is descended from some ape-like
+creature, no valid reason can be assigned why certain
+muscles should not suddenly reappear after an interval of
+many thousand generations, in the same manner as with
+horses, asses, and mules, dark-coloured stripes suddenly
+reappear on the legs and shoulders, after an interval of
+hundreds, or more probably thousands, of generations.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">These various cases of reversion are so closely related
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">130</a></span>to those of rudimentary organs given in the first chapter,
+that many of them might have been indifferently introduced
+in either chapter. Thus a human uterus furnished
+with cornua may be said to represent in a rudimentary
+condition the same organ in its normal state in certain
+mammals. Some parts which are rudimental in man,
+as the os coccyx in both sexes and the mamm&aelig; in the
+male sex, are always present; whilst others, such as
+the supra-condyloid foramen, only occasionally appear,
+and therefore might have been introduced under the
+head of reversion. These several reversionary, as well
+as the strictly rudimentary, structures reveal the descent
+of man from some lower form in an unmistakeable
+manner.</p>
+
+<p><i>Correlated Variation.</i>&mdash;In man, as in the lower animals,
+many structures are so intimately related, that
+when one part varies so does another, without our being
+able, in most cases, to assign any reason. We cannot say
+whether the one part governs the other, or whether both
+are governed by some earlier developed part. Various
+monstrosities, as I. Geoffroy repeatedly insists, are thus
+intimately connected. Homologous structures are particularly
+liable to change together, as we see on the
+opposite sides of the body, and in the upper and lower
+extremities. Meckel long ago remarked that when the
+muscles of the arm depart from their proper type, they
+almost always imitate those of the leg; and so conversely
+with the muscles of the legs. The organs of sight and
+hearing, the teeth and hair, the colour of the skin and
+hair, colour and constitution, are more or less correlated.<a name="FNanchor_188" id="FNanchor_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188" class="fnanchor">188</a>
+Professor Schaaffhausen first drew attention to the rela<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">131</a></span>tion
+apparently existing between a muscular frame and
+strongly-pronounced supra-orbital ridges, which are so
+characteristic of the lower races of man.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Besides the variations which can be grouped with
+more or less probability under the foregoing heads,
+there is a large class of variations which may be provisionally
+called spontaneous, for they appear, owing to our
+ignorance, to arise without any exciting cause. It can,
+however, be shewn that such variations, whether consisting
+of slight individual differences, or of strongly-marked
+and abrupt deviations of structure, depend
+much more on the constitution of the organism than
+on the nature of the conditions to which it has been
+subjected.<a name="FNanchor_189" id="FNanchor_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189" class="fnanchor">189</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Rate of Increase.</i>&mdash;Civilised populations have been
+known under favourable conditions, as in the United
+States, to double their number in twenty-five years;
+and according to a calculation by Euler, this might
+occur in a little over twelve years.<a name="FNanchor_190" id="FNanchor_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190" class="fnanchor">190</a> At the former rate
+the present population of the United States, namely,
+thirty millions, would in 657 years cover the whole
+terraqueous globe so thickly, that four men would have
+to stand on each square yard of surface. The primary
+or fundamental check to the continued increase of man
+is the difficulty of gaining subsistence and of living in
+comfort. We may infer that this is the case from what
+we see, for instance, in the United States, where subsistence
+is easy and there is plenty of room. If such means
+were suddenly doubled in Great Britain, our number
+would be quickly doubled. With civilised nations the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">132</a></span>above primary check acts chiefly by restraining marriages.
+The greater death-rate of infants in the poorest
+classes is also very important; as well as the greater
+mortality at all ages, and from various diseases, of the
+inhabitants of crowded and miserable houses. The
+effects of severe epidemics and wars are soon counterbalanced,
+and more than counterbalanced, in nations
+placed under favourable conditions. Emigration also
+comes in aid as a temporary check, but not to any
+great extent with the extremely poor classes.</p>
+
+<p>There is reason to suspect, as Malthus has remarked,
+that the reproductive power is actually less in barbarous
+than in civilised races. We know nothing positively on
+this head, for with savages no census has been taken;
+but from the concurrent testimony of missionaries, and
+of others who have long resided with such people, it
+appears that their families are usually small, and large
+ones rare. This may be partly accounted for, as it is
+believed, by the women suckling their infants for a prolonged
+period; but it is highly probable that savages,
+who often suffer much hardship, and who do not obtain so
+much nutritious food as civilised men, would be actually
+less prolific. I have shewn in a former work,<a name="FNanchor_191" id="FNanchor_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191" class="fnanchor">191</a> that
+all our domesticated quadrupeds and birds, and all
+our cultivated plants, are more fertile than the corresponding
+species in a state of nature. It is no valid
+objection to this conclusion that animals suddenly
+supplied with an excess of food, or when rendered very
+fat, and that most plants when suddenly removed from
+very poor to very rich soil, are rendered more or less
+sterile. We might, therefore, expect that civilised
+men, who in one sense are highly domesticated, would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">133</a></span>be more prolific than wild men. It is also probable
+that the increased fertility of civilised nations would
+become, as with our domestic animals, an inherited
+character: it is at least known that with mankind a
+tendency to produce twins runs in families.<a name="FNanchor_192" id="FNanchor_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192" class="fnanchor">192</a></p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding that savages appear to be less prolific
+than civilised people, they would no doubt rapidly
+increase if their numbers were not by some means
+rigidly kept down. The Santali, or hill-tribes of India,
+have recently afforded a good illustration of this fact;
+for they have increased, as shewn by Mr. Hunter,<a name="FNanchor_193" id="FNanchor_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193" class="fnanchor">193</a>
+at an extraordinary rate since vaccination has been
+introduced, other pestilences mitigated, and war sternly
+repressed. This increase, however, would not have been
+possible had not these rude people spread into the
+adjoining districts and worked for hire. Savages almost
+always marry; yet there is some prudential restraint,
+for they do not commonly marry at the earliest possible
+age. The young men are often required to show that
+they can support a wife, and they generally have first
+to earn the price with which to purchase her from her
+parents. With savages the difficulty of obtaining subsistence
+occasionally limits their number in a much
+more direct manner than with civilised people, for all
+tribes periodically suffer from severe famines. At such
+times savages are forced to devour much bad food,
+and their health can hardly fail to be injured. Many
+accounts have been published of their protruding stomachs
+and emaciated limbs after and during famines.
+They are then, also, compelled to wander much about,
+and their infants, as I was assured in Australia, perish
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">134</a></span>in large numbers. As famines are periodical, depending
+chiefly on extreme seasons, all tribes must fluctuate in
+number. They cannot steadily and regularly increase,
+as there is no artificial increase in the supply of food.
+Savages when hardly pressed encroach on each other&#8217;s
+territories, and war is the result; but they are indeed
+almost always at war with their neighbours. They are
+liable to many accidents on land and water in their search
+for food; and in some countries they must suffer much
+from the larger beasts of prey. Even in India, districts
+have been depopulated by the ravages of tigers.</p>
+
+<p>Malthus has discussed these several checks, but he
+does not lay stress enough on what is probably the most
+important of all, namely infanticide, especially of female
+infants, and the habit of procuring abortion. These
+practices now prevail in many quarters of the world,
+and infanticide seems formerly to have prevailed, as
+Mr. M&#8217;Lennan<a name="FNanchor_194" id="FNanchor_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194" class="fnanchor">194</a> has shewn, on a still more extensive
+scale. These practices appear to have originated in
+savages recognising the difficulty, or rather the impossibility
+of supporting all the infants that are born.
+Licentiousness may also be added to the foregoing
+checks; but this does not follow from failing means of
+subsistence; though there is reason to believe that in
+some cases (as in Japan) it has been intentionally
+encouraged as a means of keeping down the population.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">If we look back to an extremely remote epoch, before
+man had arrived at the dignity of manhood, he would
+have been guided more by instinct and less by reason
+than are savages at the present time. Our early semi-human
+progenitors would not have practised infanticide,
+for the instincts of the lower animals are never so perverted
+as to lead them regularly to destroy their own
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">135</a></span>offspring. There would have been no prudential restraint
+from marriage, and the sexes would have freely
+united at an early age. Hence the progenitors of
+man would have tended to increase rapidly, but checks
+of some kind, either periodical or constant, must have
+kept down their numbers, even more severely than with
+existing savages. What the precise nature of these
+checks may have been, we cannot say, any more than
+with most other animals. We know that horses and
+cattle, which are not highly prolific animals, when first
+turned loose in South America, increased at an enormous
+rate. The slowest breeder of all known animals, namely
+the elephant, would in a few thousand years stock the
+whole world. The increase of every species of monkey
+must be checked by some means; but not, as Brehm
+remarks, by the attacks of beasts of prey. No one
+will assume that the actual power of reproduction in
+the wild horses and cattle of America, was at first in
+any sensible degree increased; or that, as each district
+became fully stocked, this same power was diminished.
+No doubt in this case and in all others, many checks
+concur, and different checks under different circumstances;
+periodical dearths, depending on unfavourable
+seasons, being probably the most important of all. So
+it will have been with the early progenitors of man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Selection.</i>&mdash;We have now seen that man is
+variable in body and mind; and that the variations
+are induced, either directly or indirectly, by the same
+general causes, and obey the same general laws, as with
+the lower animals. Man has spread widely over the
+face of the earth, and must have been exposed, during
+his incessant migrations,<a name="FNanchor_195" id="FNanchor_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195" class="fnanchor">195</a> to the most diversified con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">136</a></span>ditions.
+The inhabitants of Tierra del Fuego, the Cape
+of Good Hope, and Tasmania in the one hemisphere,
+and of the Arctic regions in the other, must have passed
+through many climates and changed their habits many
+times, before they reached their present homes.<a name="FNanchor_196" id="FNanchor_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196" class="fnanchor">196</a> The
+early progenitors of man must also have tended, like all
+other animals, to have increased beyond their means of
+subsistence; they must therefore occasionally have been
+exposed to a struggle for existence, and consequently to
+the rigid law of natural selection. Beneficial variations
+of all kinds will thus, either occasionally or habitually,
+have been preserved, and injurious ones eliminated. I
+do not refer to strongly-marked deviations of structure,
+which occur only at long intervals of time, but to mere
+individual differences. We know, for instance, that the
+muscles of our hands and feet, which determine our
+powers of movement, are liable, like those of the lower
+animals,<a name="FNanchor_197" id="FNanchor_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197" class="fnanchor">197</a> to incessant variability. If then the ape-like
+progenitors of man which inhabited any district, especially
+one undergoing some change in its conditions, were
+divided into two equal bodies, the one half which included
+all the individuals best adapted by their powers
+of movement for gaining subsistence or for defending
+themselves, would on an average survive in greater
+number and procreate more offspring than the other
+and less well endowed half.</p>
+
+<p>Man in the rudest state in which he now exists is
+the most dominant animal that has ever appeared
+on the earth. He has spread more widely than any
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">137</a></span>other highly organised form; and all others have
+yielded before him. He manifestly owes this immense
+superiority to his intellectual faculties, his social habits,
+which lead him to aid and defend his fellows, and to
+his corporeal structure. The supreme importance of
+these characters has been proved by the final arbitrament
+of the battle for life. Through his powers of intellect,
+articulate language has been evolved; and on
+this his wonderful advancement has mainly depended.
+He has invented and is able to use various weapons,
+tools, traps, &amp;c., with which he defends himself, kills or
+catches prey, and otherwise obtains food. He has made
+rafts or canoes on which to fish or cross over to neighbouring
+fertile islands. He has discovered the art of
+making fire, by which hard and stringy roots can be
+rendered digestible, and poisonous roots or herbs innocuous.
+This last discovery, probably the greatest,
+excepting language, ever made by man, dates from
+before the dawn of history. These several inventions,
+by which man in the rudest state has become so preeminent,
+are the direct result of the development of
+his powers of observation, memory, curiosity, imagination,
+and reason. I cannot, therefore, understand how
+it is that Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_198" id="FNanchor_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198" class="fnanchor">198</a> maintains, that &#8220;natural selection
+could only have endowed the savage with a brain
+a little superior to that of an ape.&#8221;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">138</a></span></p>
+<p>Although the intellectual powers and social habits of
+man are of paramount importance to him, we must not
+underrate the importance of his bodily structure, to which
+subject the remainder of this chapter will be devoted.
+The development of the intellectual and social or moral
+faculties will be discussed in the following chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Even to hammer with precision is no easy matter, as
+every one who has tried to learn carpentry will admit.
+To throw a stone with as true an aim as can a Fuegian in
+defending himself, or in killing birds, requires the most
+consummate perfection in the correlated action of the
+muscles of the hand, arm, and shoulder, not to mention
+a fine sense of touch. In throwing a stone or spear, and
+in many other actions, a man must stand firmly on his
+feet; and this again demands the perfect coadaptation of
+numerous muscles. To chip a flint into the rudest tool,
+or to form a barbed spear or hook from a bone, demands
+the use of a perfect hand; for, as a most capable judge,
+Mr. Schoolcraft,<a name="FNanchor_199" id="FNanchor_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199" class="fnanchor">199</a> remarks, the shaping fragments of
+stone into knives, lances, or arrow-heads, shews &#8220;extraordinary
+ability and long practice.&#8221; We have evidence
+of this in primeval men having practised a division of
+labour; each man did not manufacture his own flint
+tools or rude pottery; but certain individuals appear to
+have devoted themselves to such work, no doubt receiving
+in exchange the produce of the chase. Arch&aelig;ologists
+are convinced that an enormous interval of time
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">139</a></span>elapsed before our ancestors thought of grinding chipped
+flints into smooth tools. A man-like animal who possessed
+a hand and arm sufficiently perfect to throw a
+stone with precision or to form a flint into a rude tool,
+could, it can hardly be doubted, with sufficient practice make
+almost anything, as far as mechanical skill alone
+is concerned, which a civilised man can make. The
+structure of the hand in this respect may be compared
+with that of the vocal organs, which in the apes are
+used for uttering various signal-cries, or, as in one species,
+musical cadences; but in man closely similar vocal
+organs have become adapted through the inherited
+effects of use for the utterance of articulate language.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to the nearest allies of man, and therefore
+to the best representatives of our early progenitors,
+we find that the hands in the Quadrumana are constructed
+on the same general pattern as in us, but are
+far less perfectly adapted for diversified uses. Their
+hands do not serve so well as the feet of a dog for locomotion;
+as may be seen in those monkeys which walk
+on the outer margins of the palms, or on the backs of
+their bent fingers, as in the chimpanzee and orang.<a name="FNanchor_200" id="FNanchor_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200" class="fnanchor">200</a>
+Their hands, however, are admirably adapted for climbing
+trees. Monkeys seize thin branches or ropes, with
+the thumb on one side and the fingers and palm on
+the other side, in the same manner as we do. They
+can thus also carry rather large objects, such as the
+neck of a bottle, to their mouths. Baboons turn over
+stones and scratch up roots with their hands. They
+seize nuts, insects, or other small objects with the
+thumb in opposition to the fingers, and no doubt they
+thus extract eggs and the young from the nests of
+birds. American monkeys beat the wild oranges on the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">140</a></span>branches until the rind is cracked, and then tear it off
+with the fingers of the two hands. Other monkeys open
+mussel-shells with the two thumbs. With their fingers
+they pull out thorns and burrs, and hunt for each other&#8217;s
+parasites. In a state of nature they break open hard
+fruits with the aid of stones. They roll down stones
+or throw them at their enemies; nevertheless, they
+perform these various actions clumsily, and they are
+quite unable, as I have myself seen, to throw a stone
+with precision.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to me far from true that because &#8220;objects
+are grasped clumsily&#8221; by monkeys, &#8220;a much less
+specialised organ of prehension&#8221; would have served
+them<a name="FNanchor_201" id="FNanchor_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201" class="fnanchor">201</a> as well as their present hands. On the contrary,
+I see no reason to doubt that a more perfectly
+constructed hand would have been an advantage to them,
+provided, and it is important to note this, that their
+hands had not thus been rendered less well adapted for
+climbing trees. We may suspect that a perfect hand
+would have been disadvantageous for climbing; as the
+most arboreal monkeys in the world, namely Ateles in
+America and Hylobates in Asia, either have their thumbs
+much reduced in size and even rudimentary, or their
+fingers partially coherent, so that their hands are converted
+into mere grasping-hooks.<a name="FNanchor_202" id="FNanchor_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202" class="fnanchor">202</a></p>
+
+<p>As soon as some ancient member in the great series
+of the Primates came, owing to a change in its manner
+of procuring subsistence, or to a change in the conditions
+of its native country, to live somewhat less on
+trees and more on the ground, its manner of progression
+would have been modified; and in this case it
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">141</a></span>would have had to become either more strictly quadrupedal
+or bipedal. Baboons frequent hilly and rocky
+districts, and only from necessity climb up high trees;<a name="FNanchor_203" id="FNanchor_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203" class="fnanchor">203</a>
+and they have acquired almost the gait of a dog. Man
+alone has become a biped; and we can, I think, partly
+see how he has come to assume his erect attitude, which
+forms one of the most conspicuous differences between
+him and his nearest allies. Man could not have
+attained his present dominant position in the world
+without the use of his hands which are so admirably
+adapted to act in obedience to his will. As Sir C. Bell<a name="FNanchor_204" id="FNanchor_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204" class="fnanchor">204</a>
+insists &#8220;the hand supplies all instruments, and by its
+correspondence with the intellect gives him universal
+dominion.&#8221; But the hands and arms could hardly
+have become perfect enough to have manufactured
+weapons, or to have hurled stones and spears with a
+true aim, as long as they were habitually used for
+locomotion and for supporting the whole weight of the
+body, or as long as they were especially well adapted,
+as previously remarked, for climbing trees. Such rough
+treatment would also have blunted the sense of touch,
+on which their delicate use largely depends. From
+these causes alone it would have been an advantage to
+man to have become a biped; but for many actions it is
+almost necessary that both arms and the whole upper
+part of the body should be free; and he must for this
+end stand firmly on his feet. To gain this great
+advantage, the feet have been rendered flat, and the
+great toe peculiarly modified, though this has entailed
+the loss of the power of prehension. It accords with
+the principle of the division of physiological labour,
+which prevails throughout the animal kingdom, that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">142</a></span>as the hands became perfected for prehension, the
+feet should have become perfected for support and
+locomotion. With some savages, however, the foot has
+not altogether lost its prehensile power, as shewn by
+their manner of climbing trees and of using them in
+other ways.<a name="FNanchor_205" id="FNanchor_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205" class="fnanchor">205</a></p>
+
+<p>If it be an advantage to man to have his hands and
+arms free and to stand firmly on his feet, of which there
+can be no doubt from his preeminent success in the
+battle of life, then I can see no reason why it should
+not have been advantageous to the progenitors of man
+to have become more and more erect or bipedal. They
+would thus have been better able to have defended
+themselves with stones or clubs, or to have attacked
+their prey, or otherwise obtained food. The best constructed
+individuals would in the long run have succeeded
+best, and have survived in larger numbers. If the
+gorilla and a few allied forms had become extinct, it
+might have been argued with great force and apparent
+truth, that an animal could not have been gradually
+converted from a quadruped into a biped; as all the
+individuals in an intermediate condition would have
+been miserably ill-fitted for progression. But we know
+(and this is well worthy of reflection) that several kinds
+of apes are now actually in this intermediate condition;
+and no one doubts that they are on the whole well
+adapted for their conditions of life. Thus the gorilla
+runs with a sidelong shambling gait, but more commonly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">143</a></span>progresses by resting on its bent hands. The long-armed
+apes occasionally use their arms like crutches,
+swinging their bodies forward between them, and some
+kinds of Hylobates, without having been taught, can
+walk or run upright with tolerable quickness; yet they
+move awkwardly, and much less securely than man.
+We see, in short, with existing monkeys various gradations
+between a form of progression strictly like that of
+a quadruped and that of a biped or man.</p>
+
+<p>As the progenitors of man became more and more
+erect, with their hands and arms more and more modified
+for prehension and other purposes, with their feet
+and legs at the same time modified for firm support
+and progression, endless other changes of structure
+would have been necessary. The pelvis would have
+had to be made broader, the spine peculiarly curved
+and the head fixed in an altered position, and all these
+changes have been attained by man. Prof. Schaaffhausen<a name="FNanchor_206" id="FNanchor_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206" class="fnanchor">206</a>
+maintains that &#8220;the powerful mastoid processes
+of the human skull are the result of his erect position;&#8221;
+and these processes are absent in the orang, chimpanzee,
+&amp;c., and are smaller in the gorilla than in man.
+Various other structures might here have been specified,
+which appear connected with man&#8217;s erect position. It
+is very difficult to decide how far all these correlated
+modifications are the result of natural selection, and
+how far of the inherited effects of the increased use of
+certain parts, or of the action of one part on another.
+No doubt these means of change act and react on each
+other: thus when certain muscles, and the crests of
+bone to which they are attached, become enlarged by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">144</a></span>habitual use, this shews that certain fictions are
+habitually performed and must be serviceable. Hence
+the individuals which performed them best, would tend
+to survive in greater numbers.</p>
+
+<p>The free use of the arms and hands, partly the cause
+and partly the result of man&#8217;s erect position, appears to
+have led in an indirect manner to other modifications of
+structure. The early male progenitors of man were, as
+previously stated, probably furnished with great canine
+teeth; but as they gradually acquired the habit of using
+stones, clubs, or other weapons, for fighting with their
+enemies, they would have used their jaws and teeth less
+and less. In this case, the jaws, together with the
+teeth, would have become reduced in size, as we may
+feel sure from innumerable analogous cases. In a future
+chapter we shall meet with a closely-parallel case, in
+the reduction or complete disappearance of the canine
+teeth in male ruminants, apparently in relation with the
+development of their horns; and in horses, in relation
+with their habit of fighting with their incisor teeth and
+hoofs.</p>
+
+<p>In the adult male anthropomorphous apes, as R&uuml;timeyer,<a name="FNanchor_207" id="FNanchor_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207" class="fnanchor">207</a>
+and others have insisted, it is precisely the effect
+which the jaw-muscles by their great development have
+produced on the skull, that causes it to differ so greatly
+in many respects from that of man, and has given to
+it &#8220;a truly frightful physiognomy.&#8221; Therefore as the
+jaws and teeth in the progenitors of man gradually
+become reduced in size, the adult skull would have
+presented nearly the same characters which it offers in
+the young of the anthropomorphous apes, and would
+thus have come to resemble more nearly that of existing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">145</a></span>man. A great reduction of the canine teeth in the
+males would almost certainly, as we shall hereafter see,
+have affected through inheritance the teeth of the
+females.</p>
+
+<p>As the various mental faculties were gradually developed,
+the brain would almost certainly have become
+larger. No one, I presume, doubts that the large size
+of the brain in man, relatively to his body, in comparison
+with that of the gorilla or orang, is closely connected
+with his higher mental powers. We meet with
+closely analogous facts with insects, in which the cerebral
+ganglia are of extraordinary dimensions in ants; these
+ganglia in all the Hymenoptera being many times larger
+than in the less intelligent orders, such as beetles.<a name="FNanchor_208" id="FNanchor_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208" class="fnanchor">208</a>
+On the other hand, no one supposes that the intellect of
+any two animals or of any two men can be accurately
+gauged by the cubic contents of their skulls. It is
+certain that there may be extraordinary mental activity
+with an extremely small absolute mass of nervous
+matter: thus the wonderfully diversified instincts,
+mental powers, and affections of ants are generally
+known, yet their cerebral ganglia are not so large as the
+quarter of a small pin&#8217;s head. Under this latter point
+of view, the brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous
+atoms of matter in the world, perhaps more marvellous
+than the brain of man.</p>
+
+<p>The belief that there exists in man some close relation
+between the size of the brain and the development of
+the intellectual faculties is supported by the comparison
+of the skulls of savage and civilised races, of ancient and
+modern people, and by the analogy of the whole verte<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">146</a></span>brate
+series. Dr. J. Barnard Davis has proved<a name="FNanchor_209" id="FNanchor_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209" class="fnanchor">209</a> by
+many careful measurements, that the mean internal
+capacity of the skull in Europeans is 92&middot;3 cubic inches;
+in Americans 87&middot;5; in Asiatics 87&middot;1; and in Australians
+only 81&middot;9 inches. Professor Broca<a name="FNanchor_210" id="FNanchor_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210" class="fnanchor">210</a> found that skulls
+from graves in Paris of the nineteenth century, were
+larger than those from vaults of the twelfth century, in
+the proportion of 1484 to 1426; and Prichard is persuaded
+that the present inhabitants of Britain have
+&#8220;much more capacious brain-cases&#8221; than the ancient
+inhabitants. Nevertheless it must be admitted that
+some skulls of very high antiquity, such as the famous
+one of Neanderthal, are well developed and capacious.
+With respect to the lower animals, M. E. Lartet,<a name="FNanchor_211" id="FNanchor_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211" class="fnanchor">211</a> by comparing
+the crania of tertiary and recent mammals, belonging
+to the same groups, has come to the remarkable
+conclusion that the brain is generally larger and the
+convolutions more complex in the more recent form.
+On the other hand I have shewn<a name="FNanchor_212" id="FNanchor_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212" class="fnanchor">212</a> that the brains of
+domestic rabbits are considerably reduced in bulk, in
+comparison with those of the wild rabbit or hare; and
+this may be attributed to their having been closely confined
+during many generations, so that they have exerted
+but little their intellect, instincts, senses, and voluntary
+movements.</p>
+
+<p>The gradually increasing weight of the brain and
+skull in man must have influenced the development of
+the supporting spinal column, more especially whilst
+he was becoming erect. As this change of position was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">147</a></span>being brought about, the internal pressure of the brain,
+will, also, have influenced the form of the skull; for
+many facts shew how easily the skull is thus affected.
+Ethnologists believe that it is modified by the kind of
+cradle in which infants sleep. Habitual spasms of the
+muscles and a cicatrix from a severe burn have permanently
+modified the facial bones. In young persons
+whose heads from disease have become fixed either
+sideways or backwards, one of the eyes has changed
+its position, and the bones of the skull have been
+modified; and this apparently results from the brain
+pressing in a new direction.<a name="FNanchor_213" id="FNanchor_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213" class="fnanchor">213</a> I have shewn that with
+long-eared rabbits, even so trifling a cause as the lopping
+forward of one ear drags forward on that side almost
+every bone of the skull; so that the bones on the opposite
+sides no longer strictly correspond. Lastly, if any
+animal were to increase or diminish much in general
+size, without any change in its mental powers; or if
+the mental powers were to be much increased or
+diminished without any great change in the size of the
+body; the shape of the skull would almost certainly be
+altered. I infer this from my observations on domestic
+rabbits, some kinds of which have become very much
+larger than the wild animal, whilst others have retained
+nearly the same size, but in both cases the brain has
+been much reduced relatively to the size of the body.
+Now I was at first much surprised by finding that in all
+these rabbits the skull had become elongated or dolicho<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">148</a></span>cephalic;
+for instance, of two skulls of nearly equal
+breadth, the one from a wild rabbit and the other from
+a large domestic kind, the former was only 3&middot;15 and the
+latter 4&middot;3 inches in length.<a name="FNanchor_214" id="FNanchor_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214" class="fnanchor">214</a> One of the most marked
+distinctions in different races of man is that the skull
+in some is elongated, and in others rounded; and here
+the explanation suggested by the case of the rabbits
+may partially hold good; for Welcker finds that short
+&#8220;men incline more to brachycephaly, and tall men to
+dolichocephaly;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_215" id="FNanchor_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215" class="fnanchor">215</a> and tall men may be compared with
+the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have
+elongated skulls, or are dolichocephalic.</p>
+
+<p>From these several facts we can to a certain extent
+understand the means through which the great
+size and more or less rounded form of the skull has
+been acquired by man; and these are characters eminently
+distinctive of him in comparison with the lower
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>Another most conspicuous difference between man and
+the lower animals is the nakedness of his skin. Whales
+and dolphins (Cetacea), dugongs (Sirenia) and the hippopotamus
+are naked; and this may be advantageous
+to them for gliding through the water; nor would it
+be injurious to them from the loss of warmth, as the
+species which inhabit the colder regions are protected
+by a thick layer of blubber, serving the same purpose
+as the fur of seals and otters. Elephants and rhinoceroses
+are almost hairless; and as certain extinct
+species which formerly lived under an arctic climate
+were covered with long wool or hair, it would almost
+appear as if the existing species of both genera had lost
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">149</a></span>their hairy covering from exposure to heat. This appears
+the more probable, as the elephants in India which live
+on elevated and cool districts are more hairy<a name="FNanchor_216" id="FNanchor_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216" class="fnanchor">216</a> than those
+on the lowlands. May we then infer that man became
+divested of hair from having aboriginally inhabited some
+tropical land? The fact of the hair being chiefly
+retained in the male sex on the chest and face, and in
+both sexes at the junction of all four limbs with the
+trunk, favours this inference, assuming that the hair was
+lost before man became erect; for the parts which now
+retain most hair would then have been most protected
+from the heat of the sun. The crown of the head,
+however, offers a curious exception, for at all times it
+must have been one of the most exposed parts, yet
+it is thickly clothed with hair. In this respect man
+agrees with the great majority of quadrupeds, which
+generally have their upper and exposed surfaces more
+thickly clothed than the lower surface. Nevertheless,
+the fact that the other members of the order of Primates,
+to which man belongs, although inhabiting various
+hot regions, are well clothed with hair, generally
+thickest on the upper surface,<a name="FNanchor_217" id="FNanchor_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217" class="fnanchor">217</a> is strongly opposed
+to the supposition that man became naked through the
+action of the sun. I am inclined to believe, as we
+shall see under sexual selection, that man, or rather
+primarily woman, became divested of hair for ornamental
+purposes; and according to this belief it is not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">150</a></span>surprising that man should differ so greatly in hairiness
+from all his lower brethren, for characters gained
+through sexual selection often differ in closely-related
+forms to an extraordinary degree.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">According to a popular impression, the absence of a
+tail is eminently distinctive of man; but as those apes
+which come nearest to man are destitute of this organ,
+its disappearance does not especially concern us. Nevertheless
+it may be well to own that no explanation, as
+far as I am aware, has ever been given of the loss of the
+tail by certain apes and man. Its loss, however, is not
+surprising, for it sometimes differs remarkably in length
+in species of the same genera: thus in some species
+of Macacus the tail is longer than the whole body, consisting
+of twenty-four vertebr&aelig;; in others it consists of a
+scarcely visible stump, containing only three or four
+vertebr&aelig;. In some kinds of baboons there are twenty-five,
+whilst in the mandrill there are ten very small
+stunted caudal vertebr&aelig;, or, according to Cuvier,<a name="FNanchor_218" id="FNanchor_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218" class="fnanchor">218</a> sometimes
+only five. This great diversity in the structure and
+length of the tail in animals belonging to the same genera,
+and following nearly the same habits of life, renders it
+probable that the tail is not of much importance to
+them; and if so, we might have expected that it would
+sometimes have become more or less rudimentary, in
+accordance with what we incessantly see with other structures.
+The tail almost always tapers towards the end
+whether it be long or short; and this, I presume, results
+from the atrophy, through disuse, of the terminal
+muscles together with their arteries and nerves, leading
+to the atrophy of the terminal bones. With respect
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">151</a></span>to the os coccyx, which in man and the higher apes
+manifestly consists of the few basal and tapering segments
+of an ordinary tail, I have heard it asked how
+could these have become completely embedded within
+the body; but there is no difficulty in this respect,
+for in many monkeys the basal segments of the true
+tail are thus embedded. For instance, Mr. Murie informs
+me that in the skeleton of a not full-grown
+<i>Macacus inornatus</i>, he counted nine or ten caudal vertebr&aelig;,
+which altogether were only 1&middot;8 inch in length.
+Of these the three basal ones appeared to have been
+embedded; the remainder forming the free part of the
+tail, which was only one inch in length, and half an
+inch in diameter. Here, then, the three embedded
+caudal vertebr&aelig; plainly correspond with the four coalesced
+vertebr&aelig; of the human os coccyx.</p>
+
+<p>I have now endeavoured to shew that some of the
+most distinctive characters of man have in all probability
+been acquired, either directly, or more commonly
+indirectly, through natural selection. We should bear
+in mind that modifications in structure or constitution,
+which are of no service to an organism in adapting
+it to its habits of life, to the food which it consumes,
+or passively to the surrounding conditions, cannot
+have been thus acquired. We must not, however,
+be too confident in deciding what modifications are of
+service to each being: we should remember how little
+we know about the use of many parts, or what changes
+in the blood or tissues may serve to fit an organism for
+a new climate or some new kind of food. Nor must
+we forget the principle of correlation, by which, as
+Isidore Geoffroy has shewn in the case of man, many
+fit-range deviations of structure are tied together. Independently
+of correlation, a change in one part often leads<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">152</a></span>
+through the increased or decreased use of other parts,
+to other changes of a quite unexpected nature. It is
+also well to reflect on such facts, as the wonderful
+growth of galls on plants caused by the poison of an
+insect, and on the remarkable changes of colour in the
+plumage of parrots when fed on certain fishes, or inoculated
+with the poison of toads;<a name="FNanchor_219" id="FNanchor_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219" class="fnanchor">219</a> for we can thus
+see that the fluids of the system, if altered for some
+special purpose, might induce other strange changes.
+We should especially bear in mind that modifications
+acquired and continually used during past ages for
+some useful purpose would probably become firmly
+fixed and might be long inherited.</p>
+
+<p>Thus a very large yet undefined extension may safely
+be given to the direct and indirect results of natural
+selection; but I now admit, after reading the essay by
+N&auml;geli on plants, and the remarks by various authors
+with respect to animals, more especially those recently
+made by Professor Broca, that in the earlier editions of
+my &#8216;Origin of Species&#8217; I probably attributed too much
+to the action of natural selection or the survival of the
+fittest. I have altered the fifth edition of the Origin
+so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of
+structure. I had not formerly sufficiently considered
+the existence of many structures which appear to be,
+as far as we can judge, neither beneficial nor injurious;
+and this I believe to be one of the greatest oversights as
+yet detected in my work. I may be permitted to say
+as some excuse, that I had two distinct objects in view,
+firstly, to shew that species had not been separately
+created, and secondly, that natural selection had been
+the chief agent of change, though largely aided by the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">153</a></span>inherited effects of habit, and slightly by the direct
+action of the surrounding conditions. Nevertheless I
+was not able to annul the influence of my former
+belief, then widely prevalent, that each species had
+been purposely created; and this led to my tacitly
+assuming that every detail of structure, excepting rudiments,
+was of some special, though unrecognised, service.
+Any one with this assumption in his mind would
+naturally extend the action of natural selection, either
+during past or present times, too far. Some of those
+who admit the principle of evolution, but reject natural
+selection, seem to forget, when criticising my book, that
+I had the above two objects in view; hence if I have
+erred in giving to natural selection great power, which
+I am far from admitting, or in having exaggerated its
+power, which is in itself probable, I have at least, as I
+hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the
+dogma of separate creations.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">That all organic beings, including man, present many
+modifications of structure which are of no service to
+them at present, nor have been formerly, is, as I can
+now see, probable. We know not what produces the
+numberless slight differences between the individuals of
+each species, for reversion only carries the problem a few
+steps backwards; but each peculiarity must have had
+its own efficient cause. If these causes, whatever they
+may be, were to act more uniformly and energetically
+during a lengthened period (and no reason can be
+assigned why this should not sometimes occur), the
+result would probably be not mere slight individual
+differences, but well-marked, constant modifications.
+Modifications which are in no way beneficial cannot
+have been kept uniform through natural selection,
+though any which were injurious would have been thus
+eliminated. Uniformity of character would, however,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">154</a></span>
+naturally follow from, the assumed uniformity of the
+exciting causes, and likewise from the free intercrossing
+of many individuals. The same organism might
+acquire in this manner during successive periods successive
+modifications, and these would be transmitted
+in a nearly uniform state as long as the exciting causes
+remained the same and there was free intercrossing.
+With respect to the exciting causes we can only say, as
+when speaking of so-called spontaneous variations, that
+they relate much more closely to the constitution of the
+varying organism, than to the nature of the conditions
+to which it has been subjected.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conclusion.</i>&mdash;In this chapter we have seen that as man
+at the present day is liable, like every other animal, to
+multiform individual differences or slight variations, so
+no doubt were the early progenitors of man; the variations
+being then as now induced by the same general
+causes, and governed by the same general and complex
+laws. As all animals tend to multiply beyond their
+means of subsistence, so it must have been with the
+progenitors of man; and this will inevitably have led
+to a struggle for existence and to natural selection.
+This latter process will have been greatly aided by
+the inherited effects of the increased use of parts;
+these two processes incessantly reacting on each other.
+It appears, also, as we shall hereafter see, that various
+unimportant characters have been acquired by man
+through sexual selection. An unexplained residuum
+of change, perhaps a large one, must be left to the
+assumed uniform action of those unknown agencies,
+which occasionally induce strongly-marked and abrupt
+deviations of structure in our domestic productions.</p>
+
+<p>Judging from the habits of savages and of the greater
+number of the Quadrumana, primeval men, and even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">155</a></span>
+the ape-like progenitors of man, probably lived in
+society. With strictly social animals, natural selection
+sometimes acts indirectly on the individual, through
+the preservation of variations which are beneficial only
+to the community. A community including a large
+number of well-endowed individuals increases in number
+and is victorious over other and less well-endowed communities;
+although each separate member may gain no
+advantage over the other members of the same community.
+With associated insects many remarkable
+structures, which are of little or no service to the individual
+or its own offspring, such as the pollen-collecting
+apparatus, or the sting of the worker-bee, or the
+great jaws of soldier-ants, have been thus acquired.
+With the higher social animals, I am not aware that
+any structure has been modified solely for the good of
+the community, though some are of secondary service
+to it. For instance, the horns of ruminants and the
+great canine teeth of baboons appear to have been
+acquired by the males as weapons for sexual strife, but
+they are used in defence of the herd or troop. In
+regard to certain mental faculties the case, as we shall
+see in the following chapter, is wholly different; for
+these faculties have been chiefly, or even exclusively,
+gained for the benefit of the community; the individuals
+composing the community being at the same
+time indirectly benefited.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been objected to such views as the foregoing,
+that man is one of the most helpless and defenceless
+creatures in the world; and that during his early
+and less well-developed condition he would have been
+still more helpless. The Duke of Argyll, for instance,
+insists<a name="FNanchor_220" id="FNanchor_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220" class="fnanchor">220</a> that &#8220;the human frame has diverged from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">156</a></span>the structure of brutes, in the direction of greater
+physical helplessness and weakness. That is to say,
+it is a divergence which of all others it is most
+impossible to ascribe to mere natural selection.&#8221; He
+adduces the naked and unprotected state of the body,
+the absence of great teeth or claws for defence, the
+little strength of man, his small speed in running, and
+his slight power of smell, by which to discover food or
+to avoid danger. To these deficiencies there might
+have been added the still more serious loss of the power
+of quickly climbing trees, so as to escape from enemies.
+Seeing that the unclothed Fuegians can exist under
+their wretched climate, the loss of hair would not
+have been a great injury to primeval man, if he inhabited
+a warm country. When we compare defenceless
+man with the apes, many of which are provided with
+formidable canine teeth, we must remember that these
+in their fully-developed condition are possessed by the
+males alone, being chiefly used by them for fighting
+with their rivals; yet the females which are not thus
+provided, are able to survive.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to bodily size or strength, we do not know
+whether man is descended from some comparatively
+small species, like the chimpanzee, or from one as
+powerful as the gorilla; and, therefore, we cannot say
+whether man has become larger and stronger, or smaller
+and weaker, in comparison with his progenitors. We
+should, however, bear in mind that an animal possessing
+great size, strength, and ferocity, and which, like the
+gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies, would
+probably, though not necessarily, have failed to become
+social; and this would most effectually have checked
+the acquirement by man of his higher mental qualities,
+such as sympathy and the love of his fellow-creatures.
+Hence it might have been an immense<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">157</a></span>
+advantage to man to have sprung from some comparatively
+weak creature.</p>
+
+<p>The slight corporeal strength of man, his little speed,
+his want of natural weapons, &amp;c., are more than counterbalanced,
+firstly by his intellectual powers, through
+which he has, whilst still remaining in a barbarous state,
+formed for himself weapons, tools, &amp;c., and secondly by
+his social qualities which lead him to give aid to his
+fellow-men and to receive it in return. No country
+in the world abounds in a greater degree with dangerous
+beasts than Southern Africa; no country presents
+more fearful physical hardships than the Arctic
+regions; yet one of the puniest races, namely, the
+Bushmen, maintain themselves in Southern Africa, as
+do the dwarfed Esquimaux in the Arctic regions. The
+early progenitors of man were, no doubt, inferior in
+intellect, and probably in social disposition, to the
+lowest existing savages; but it is quite conceivable that
+they might have existed, or even flourished, if, whilst
+they gradually lost their brute-like powers, such as
+climbing trees, &amp;c., they at the same time advanced
+in intellect. But granting that the progenitors of man
+were far more helpless and defenceless than any existing
+savages, if they had inhabited some warm continent
+or large island, such as Australia or New Guinea, or
+Borneo (the latter island being now tenanted by the
+orang), they would not have been exposed to any special
+danger. In an area as large as one of these islands,
+the competition between tribe and tribe would have
+been sufficient, under favourable conditions, to have
+raised man, through the survival of the fittest, combined
+with the inherited effects of habit, to his present high
+position in the organic scale.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">158</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER V.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">On the Development of the Intellectual and Moral
+Faculties during Primeval and Civilised Times.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural selection&mdash;Importance
+of imitation&mdash;Social and moral faculties&mdash;Their
+development within the limits of the same tribe&mdash;Natural
+selection as affecting civilised nations&mdash;Evidence that civilised
+nations were once barbarous.</p></div>
+
+<p>The subjects to be discussed in this chapter are of
+the highest interest, but are treated by me in a most
+imperfect and fragmentary manner. Mr. Wallace,
+in an admirable paper before referred to,<a name="FNanchor_221" id="FNanchor_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221" class="fnanchor">221</a> argues that
+man after he had partially acquired those intellectual
+and moral faculties which distinguish him from the
+lower animals, would have been but little liable to
+have had his bodily structure modified through natural
+selection or any other means. For man is enabled
+through his mental faculties &#8220;to keep with an unchanged
+body in harmony with the changing universe.&#8221;
+He has great power of adapting his habits to new
+conditions of life. He invents weapons, tools and
+various stratagems, by which he procures food and
+defends himself. When he migrates into a colder
+climate he uses clothes, builds sheds, and makes fires;
+and, by the aid of fire, cooks food otherwise indigestible.
+He aids his fellow-men in many ways, and anticipates
+future events. Even at a remote period he practised
+some subdivision of labour.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">159</a></span></p>
+<p>The lower animals, on the other hand, must have
+their bodily structure modified in order to survive under
+greatly changed conditions. They must be rendered
+stronger, or acquire more effective teeth or claws, in
+order to defend themselves from new enemies; or they
+must be reduced in size so as to escape detection and
+danger. When they migrate into a colder climate they
+must become clothed with thicker fur, or have their
+constitutions altered. If they fail to be thus modified,
+they will cease to exist.</p>
+
+<p>The case, however, is widely different, as Mr. Wallace
+has with justice insisted, in relation to the intellectual
+and moral faculties of man. These faculties are
+variable; and we have every reason to believe that the
+variations tend to be inherited. Therefore, if they were
+formerly of high importance to primeval man and to
+his ape-like progenitors, they would have been perfected
+or advanced through natural selection. Of the
+high importance of the intellectual faculties there can
+be no doubt, for man mainly owes to them his preeminent
+position in the world. We can see that, in
+the rudest state of society, the individuals who were the
+most sagacious, who invented and used the best weapons
+or traps, and who were best able to defend themselves,
+would rear the greatest number of offspring. The tribes
+which included the largest number of men thus endowed
+would increase in number and supplant other tribes.
+Numbers depend primarily on the means of subsistence,
+and this, partly on the physical nature of the country,
+but in a much higher degree on the arts which are there
+practised. As a tribe increases and is victorious, it is
+often still further increased by the absorption of other
+tribes.<a name="FNanchor_222" id="FNanchor_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222" class="fnanchor">222</a> The stature and strength of the men of a tribe
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">160</a></span>are likewise of some importance for its success, and
+these depend in part on the nature and amount of the
+food which can be obtained. In Europe the men of the
+Bronze period were supplanted by a more powerful and,
+judging from their sword-handles, larger-handed race;<a name="FNanchor_223" id="FNanchor_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223" class="fnanchor">223</a>
+but their success was probably due in a much higher
+degree to their superiority in the arts.</p>
+
+<p>All that we know about savages, or may infer from
+their traditions and from old monuments, the history
+of which is quite forgotten by the present inhabitants,
+shew that from the remotest times successful tribes have
+supplanted other tribes. Relics of extinct or forgotten
+tribes have been discovered throughout the civilised
+regions of the earth, on the wild plains of America, and
+on the isolated islands in the Pacific Ocean. At the
+present day civilised nations are everywhere supplanting
+barbarous nations, excepting where the climate opposes
+a deadly barrier; and they succeed mainly, though not
+exclusively, through their arts, which are the products
+of the intellect. It is, therefore, highly probable that
+with mankind the intellectual faculties have been
+gradually perfected through natural selection; and this
+conclusion is sufficient for our purpose. Undoubtedly
+it would have been very interesting to have traced the
+development of each separate faculty from the state in
+which it exists in the lower animals to that in which it
+exists in man; but neither my ability nor knowledge
+permit the attempt.</p>
+
+<p>It deserves notice that as soon as the progenitors of
+man became social (and this probably occurred at a
+very early period), the advancement of the intellectual
+faculties will have been aided and modified in an
+important manner, of which we see only traces in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">161</a></span>the lower animals, namely, through the principle
+of imitation, together with reason and experience.
+Apes are much given to imitation, as are the lowest
+savages; and the simple fact previously referred to,
+that after a time no animal can be caught in the same
+place by the same sort of trap, shews that animals learn
+by experience, and imitate each others&#8217; caution. Now,
+if some one man in a tribe, more sagacious than the
+others, invented a new snare or weapon, or other means
+of attack or defence, the plainest self-interest, without
+the assistance of much reasoning power, would prompt
+the other members to imitate him; and all would thus
+profit. The habitual practice of each new art must
+likewise in some slight degree strengthen the intellect.
+If the new invention were an important one, the tribe
+would increase in number, spread, and supplant other
+tribes. In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there
+would always be a rather better chance of the birth of
+other superior and inventive members. If such men
+left children to inherit their mental superiority, the
+chance of the birth of still more ingenious members
+would be somewhat better, and in a very small tribe
+decidedly better. Even if they left no children, the
+tribe would still include their blood-relations; and it has
+been ascertained by agriculturists<a name="FNanchor_224" id="FNanchor_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224" class="fnanchor">224</a> that by preserving
+and breeding from the family of an animal, which
+when slaughtered was found to be valuable, the desired
+character has been obtained.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to the social and moral faculties. In
+order that primeval men, or the ape-like progenitors
+of man, should have become social, they must have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">162</a></span>acquired the same instinctive feelings which impel other
+animals to live in a body; and they no doubt exhibited
+the same general disposition. They would have
+felt uneasy when separated from their comrades, for
+whom they would have felt some degree of love; they
+would have warned each other of danger, and have
+given mutual aid in attack or defence. All this implies
+some degree of sympathy, fidelity, and courage. Such
+social qualities, the paramount importance of which
+to the lower animals is disputed by no one, were no
+doubt acquired by the progenitors of man in a similar
+manner, namely, through natural selection, aided by
+inherited habit. When two tribes of primeval man,
+living in the same country, came into competition,
+if the one tribe included (other circumstances being
+equal) a greater number of courageous, sympathetic,
+and faithful members, who were always ready to warn
+each other of danger, to aid and defend each other, this
+tribe would without doubt succeed best and conquer the
+other. Let it be borne in mind how all-important, in
+the never-ceasing wars of savages, fidelity and courage
+must be. The advantage which disciplined soldiers
+have over undisciplined hordes follows chiefly from the
+confidence which each man feels in his comrades.
+Obedience, as Mr. Bagehot has well shewn,<a name="FNanchor_225" id="FNanchor_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225" class="fnanchor">225</a> is of the
+highest value, for any form of government is better
+than none. Selfish and contentious people will not
+cohere, and without coherence nothing can be effected.
+A tribe possessing the above qualities in a high degree
+would spread and be victorious over other tribes;
+but in the course of time it would, judging from all
+past history, be in its turn overcome by some other
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">163</a></span>and still more highly endowed tribe. Thus the social
+and moral qualities would tend slowly to advance and
+be diffused throughout the world.</p>
+
+<p>But it may be asked, how within the limits of the
+same tribe did a large number of members first become
+endowed with these social and moral qualities, and
+how was the standard of excellence raised? It is
+extremely doubtful whether the offspring of the more
+sympathetic and benevolent parents, or of those which
+were the most faithful to their comrades, would be
+reared in greater number than the children of selfish
+and treacherous parents of the same tribe. He who
+was ready to sacrifice his life, as many a savage has
+been, rather than betray his comrades, would often leave
+no offspring to inherit his noble nature. The bravest
+men, who were always willing to come to the front in
+war, and who freely risked their lives for others, would
+on an average perish in larger number than other men.
+Therefore it seems scarcely possible (bearing in mind
+that we are not here speaking of one tribe being victorious
+over another) that the number of men gifted
+with such virtues, or that the standard of their excellence,
+could be increased through natural selection, that
+is, by the survival of the fittest.</p>
+
+<p>Although the circumstances which lead to an increase
+in the number of men thus endowed within the same
+tribe are too complex to be clearly followed out, we can
+trace some of the probable steps. In the first place, as
+the reasoning powers and foresight of the members
+became improved, each man would soon learn from
+experience that if he aided his fellow-men, he would
+commonly receive aid in return. From this low motive
+he might acquire the habit of aiding his fellows; and
+the habit of performing benevolent actions certainly
+strengthens the feeling of sympathy, which gives the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">164</a></span>
+first impulse to benevolent actions. Habits, moreover,
+followed during many generations probably tend to be
+inherited.</p>
+
+<p>But there is another and much more powerful stimulus
+to the development of the social virtues, namely,
+the praise and the blame of our fellow-men. The love
+of approbation and the dread of infamy, as well as the
+bestowal of praise or blame, are primarily due, as we
+have seen in the third chapter, to the instinct of sympathy;
+and this instinct no doubt was originally acquired,
+like all the other social instincts, through natural selection.
+At how early a period the progenitors of man, in
+the course of their development, became capable of feeling
+and being impelled by the praise or blame of their
+fellow-creatures, we cannot, of course, say. But it appears
+that even dogs appreciate encouragement, praise, and
+blame. The rudest savages feel the sentiment of glory,
+as they clearly show by preserving the trophies of their
+prowess, by their habit of excessive boasting, and even
+by the extreme care which they take of their personal
+appearance and decorations; for unless they regarded
+the opinion of their comrades, such habits would be
+senseless.</p>
+
+<p>They certainly feel shame at the breach of some of
+their lesser rules; but how far they experience remorse
+is doubtful. I was at first surprised that I could not recollect
+any recorded instances of this feeling in savages;
+and Sir J. Lubbock<a name="FNanchor_226" id="FNanchor_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226" class="fnanchor">226</a> states that he knows of none.
+But if we banish from our minds all cases given in
+novels and plays and in death-bed confessions made
+to priests, I doubt whether many of us have actually
+witnessed remorse; though we may have often seen
+shame and contrition for smaller offences. Remorse is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">165</a></span>a deeply hidden feeling. It is incredible that a savage,
+who will sacrifice his life rather than betray his tribe,
+or one who will deliver himself up as a prisoner rather
+than break his parole,<a name="FNanchor_227" id="FNanchor_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227" class="fnanchor">227</a> would not feel remorse in his
+inmost soul, though he might conceal it, if he had failed
+in a duty which he held sacred.</p>
+
+<p>We may therefore conclude that primeval man, at a
+very remote period, would have been influenced by the
+praise and blame of his fellows. It is obvious, that the
+members of the same tribe would approve of conduct
+which appeared to them to be for the general good, and
+would reprobate that which appeared evil. To do good
+unto others&mdash;to do unto others as ye would they should
+do unto you,&mdash;is the foundation-stone of morality. It
+is, therefore, hardly possible to exaggerate the importance
+during rude times of the love of praise and the
+dread of blame. A man who was not impelled by any
+deep, instinctive feeling, to sacrifice his life for the good
+of others, yet was roused to such actions by a sense
+of glory, would by his example excite the same wish
+for glory in other men, and would strengthen by exercise
+the noble feeling of admiration. He might thus
+do far more good to his tribe than by begetting offspring
+with a tendency to inherit his own high character.</p>
+
+<p>With increased experience and reason, man perceives
+the more remote consequences of his actions, and the
+self-regarding virtues, such as temperance, chastity, &amp;c.,
+which during early times are, as we have before seen,
+utterly disregarded, come to be highly esteemed or even
+held sacred. I need not, however, repeat what I have
+said on this head in the third chapter. Ultimately a
+highly complex sentiment, having its first origin in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">166</a></span>social instincts, largely guided by the approbation of
+our fellow-men, ruled by reason, self-interest, and in
+later times by deep religious feelings, confirmed by
+instruction and habit, all combined, constitute our moral
+sense or conscience.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be forgotten that although a high standard
+of morality gives but a slight or no advantage to
+each individual man and his children over the other
+men of the same tribe, yet that an advancement in the
+standard of morality and an increase in the number
+of well-endowed men will certainly give an immense
+advantage to one tribe over another. There can be no
+doubt that a tribe including many members who, from
+possessing in a high degree the spirit of patriotism,
+fidelity, obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always
+ready to give aid to each other and to sacrifice themselves
+for the common good, would be victorious over
+most other tribes; and this would be natural selection.
+At all times throughout the world tribes have supplanted
+other tribes; and as morality is one element
+in their success, the standard of morality and the number
+of well-endowed men will thus everywhere tend to
+rise and increase.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It is, however, very difficult to form any judgment why
+one particular tribe and not another has been successful
+and has risen in the scale of civilisation. Many savages
+are in the same condition as when first discovered several
+centuries ago. As Mr. Bagehot has remarked, we are
+apt to look at progress as the normal rule in human
+society; but history refutes this. The ancients did not
+even entertain the idea; nor do the oriental nations at
+the present day. According to another high authority,
+Mr. Maine,<a name="FNanchor_228" id="FNanchor_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228" class="fnanchor">228</a> &#8220;the greatest part of mankind has never
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">167</a></span>shewn a particle of desire that its civil institutions
+should be improved.&#8221; Progress seems to depend on
+many concurrent favourable conditions, far too complex
+to be followed out. But it has often been remarked, that
+a cool climate from leading to industry and the various
+arts has been highly favourable, or even indispensable
+for this end. The Esquimaux, pressed by hard necessity,
+have succeeded in many ingenious inventions, but their
+climate has been too severe for continued progress.
+Nomadic habits, whether over wide plains, or through
+the dense forests of the tropics, or along the shores of
+the sea, have in every case been highly detrimental.
+Whilst observing the barbarous inhabitants of Tierra
+del Fuego, it struck me that the possession of some
+property, a fixed abode, and the union of many families
+under a chief, were the indispensable requisites for
+civilisation. Such habits almost necessitate the cultivation
+of the ground; and the first steps in cultivation
+would probably result, as I have elsewhere shewn,<a name="FNanchor_229" id="FNanchor_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229" class="fnanchor">229</a> from
+some such accident as the seeds of a fruit-tree falling
+on a heap of refuse and producing an unusually fine
+variety. The problem, however, of the first advance of
+savages towards civilisation is at present much too difficult
+to be solved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Selection as affecting Civilised Nations.</i>&mdash;In
+the last and present chapters I have considered the
+advancement of man from a former semi-human condition
+to his present state as a barbarian. But some
+remarks on the agency of natural selection on civilised
+nations may be here worth adding. This subject has
+been ably discussed by Mr. W. R. Greg,<a name="FNanchor_230" id="FNanchor_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230" class="fnanchor">230</a> and previously
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">168</a></span>by Mr. Wallace and Mr. Galton.<a name="FNanchor_231" id="FNanchor_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231" class="fnanchor">231</a> Most of my remarks
+are taken from these three authors. With savages, the
+weak in body or mind are soon eliminated; and those
+that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of
+health. We civilised men, on the other hand, do our
+utmost to check the process of elimination; we build
+asylums for the imbecile, the maimed, and the sick; we
+institute poor-laws; and our medical men exert their
+utmost skill to save the life of every one to the last
+moment. There is reason to believe that vaccination
+has preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution
+would formerly have succumbed to small-pox. Thus
+the weak members of civilised societies propagate their
+kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of
+domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly
+injurious to the race of man. It is surprising how soon
+a want of care, or care wrongly directed, leads to the
+degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in the
+case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as
+to allow his worst animals to breed.</p>
+
+<p>The aid which we feel impelled to give to the helpless
+is mainly an incidental result of the instinct of
+sympathy, which was originally acquired as part of
+the social instincts, but subsequently rendered, in the
+manner previously indicated, more tender and more
+widely diffused. Nor could we check our sympathy, if
+so urged by hard reason, without deterioration in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">169</a></span>noblest part of our nature. The surgeon may harden
+himself whilst performing an operation, for he knows
+that he is acting for the good of his patient; but if we
+were intentionally to neglect the weak and helpless, it
+could only be for a contingent benefit, with a certain
+and great present evil. Hence we must bear without
+complaining the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak
+surviving and propagating their kind; but there appears
+to be at least one check in steady action, namely the
+weaker and inferior members of society not marrying
+so freely as the sound; and this check might be indefinitely
+increased, though this is more to be hoped for
+than expected, by the weak in body or mind refraining
+from marriage.</p>
+
+<p>In all civilised countries man accumulates property
+and bequeaths it to his children. So that the children
+in the same country do not by any means start fair in
+the race for success. But this is far from an unmixed
+evil; for without the accumulation of capital the arts
+could not progress; and it is chiefly through their power
+that the civilised races have extended, and are now
+everywhere extending, their range, so as to take the place
+of the lower races. Nor does the moderate accumulation
+of wealth interfere with the process of selection. When
+a poor man becomes rich, his children enter trades or
+professions in which there is struggle enough, so that
+the able in body and mind succeed best. The presence
+of a body of well-instructed men, who have not to
+labour for their daily bread, is important to a degree
+which cannot be over-estimated; as all high intellectual
+work is carried on by them, and on such work material
+progress of all kinds mainly depends, not to mention
+other and higher advantages. No doubt wealth when
+very great tends to convert men into useless drones, but
+their number is never large; and some degree of elimi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">170</a></span>nation
+here occurs, as we daily see rich men, who happen
+to be fools or profligate, squandering away all their
+wealth.</p>
+
+<p>Primogeniture with entailed estates is a more direct
+evil, though it may formerly have been a great advantage
+by the creation of a dominant class, and any
+government is better than anarchy. The eldest sons,
+though they may be weak in body or mind, generally
+marry, whilst the younger sons, however superior in these
+respects, do not so generally marry. Nor can worthless
+eldest sons with entailed estates squander their wealth.
+But here, as elsewhere, the relations of civilised life are
+so complex that some compensatory checks intervene.
+The men who are rich through primogeniture are able
+to select generation after generation the more beautiful
+and charming women; and these must generally be
+healthy in body and active in mind. The evil consequences,
+such as they may be, of the continued preservation
+of the same line of descent, without any
+selection, are checked by men of rank always wishing to
+increase their wealth and power; and this they effect
+by marrying heiresses. But the daughters of parents
+who have produced single children, are themselves, as
+Mr. Galton has shewn,<a name="FNanchor_232" id="FNanchor_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232" class="fnanchor">232</a> apt to be sterile; and thus
+noble families are continually cut off in the direct line,
+and their wealth flows into some side channel; but
+unfortunately this channel is not determined by superiority
+of any kind.</p>
+
+<p>Although civilisation thus checks in many ways the
+action of natural selection, it apparently favours, by
+means of improved food and the freedom from occasional
+hardships, the better development of the body.
+This may be inferred from civilised men having been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">171</a></span>found, wherever compared, to be physically stronger than
+savages. They appear also to have equal powers of
+endurance, as has been proved in many adventurous
+expeditions. Even the great luxury of the rich can be
+but little detrimental; for the expectation of life of our
+aristocracy, at all ages and of both sexes, is very little
+inferior to that of healthy English lives in the lower
+classes.<a name="FNanchor_233" id="FNanchor_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233" class="fnanchor">233</a></p>
+
+<p>We will now look to the intellectual faculties alone.
+If in each grade of society the members were divided
+into two equal bodies, the one including the intellectually
+superior and the other the inferior, there can
+be little doubt that the former would succeed best in
+all occupations and rear a greater number of children.
+Even in the lowest walks of life, skill and ability must
+be of some advantage, though in many occupations,
+owing to the great division of labour, a very small
+one. Hence in civilised nations there will be some
+tendency to an increase both in the number and in
+the standard of the intellectually able. But I do not
+wish to assert that this tendency may not be more than
+counterbalanced in other ways, as by the multiplication
+of the reckless and improvident; but even to such as
+these, ability must be some advantage.</p>
+
+<p>It has often been objected to views like the foregoing,
+that the most eminent men who have ever lived
+have left no offspring to inherit their great intellect.
+Mr. Galton says,<a name="FNanchor_234" id="FNanchor_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234" class="fnanchor">234</a> &#8220;I regret I am unable to solve the
+simple question whether, and how far, men and women
+who are prodigies of genius are infertile. I have, however,
+shewn that men of eminence are by no means so.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">172</a></span></p><p>Great lawgivers, the founders of beneficent religions,
+great philosophers and discoverers in science, aid the
+progress of mankind in a far higher degree by their
+works than by leaving a numerous progeny. In the
+case of corporeal structures, it is the selection of
+the slightly better-endowed and the elimination of the
+slightly less well-endowed individuals, and not the preservation
+of strongly-marked and rare anomalies, that
+leads to the advancement of a species.<a name="FNanchor_235" id="FNanchor_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235" class="fnanchor">235</a> So it will be
+with the intellectual faculties, namely from the somewhat
+more able men in each grade of society succeeding
+rather better than the less able, and consequently increasing
+in number, if not otherwise prevented. When
+in any nation the standard of intellect and the number
+of intellectual men have increased, we may expect from
+the law of the deviation from an average, as shewn by
+Mr. Galton, that prodigies of genius will appear somewhat
+more frequently than before.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the moral qualities, some elimination of
+the worst dispositions is always in progress even in the
+most civilised nations. Malefactors are executed, or
+imprisoned for long periods, so that they cannot freely
+transmit their bad qualities. Melancholic and insane
+persons are confined, or commit suicide. Violent and
+quarrelsome men often come to a bloody end. Restless
+men who will not follow any steady occupation&mdash;and
+this relic of barbarism is a great check to civilisation<a name="FNanchor_236" id="FNanchor_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236" class="fnanchor">236</a>&mdash;emigrate
+to newly-settled countries, where they prove
+useful pioneers. Intemperance is so highly destructive,
+that the expectation of life of the intemperate, at the
+age, for instance, of thirty, is only 13.8 years; whilst for
+the rural labourers of England at the same age it is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">173</a></span>40&middot;59 years.<a name="FNanchor_237" id="FNanchor_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237" class="fnanchor">237</a> Profligate women bear few children, and
+profligate men rarely marry; both suffer from disease.
+In the breeding of domestic animals, the elimination of
+those individuals, though few in number, which are in
+any marked manner inferior, is by no means an unimportant
+element towards success. This especially holds
+good with injurious characters which tend to reappear
+through reversion, such as blackness in sheep; and
+with mankind some of the worst dispositions, which
+occasionally without any assignable cause make their
+appearance in families, may perhaps be reversions to
+a savage state, from which we are not removed by very
+many generations. This view seems indeed recognised
+in the common expression that such men are the black
+sheep of the family.</p>
+
+<p>With civilised nations, as far as an advanced standard
+of morality, and an increased number of fairly
+well-endowed men are concerned, natural selection apparently
+effects but little; though the fundamental
+social instincts were originally thus gained. But I
+have already said enough, whilst treating of the lower
+races, on the causes which lead to the advance of
+morality, namely, the approbation of our fellow-men&mdash;the
+strengthening of our sympathies by habit&mdash;example
+and imitation&mdash;reason&mdash;experience and even self-interest&mdash;instruction
+during youth, and religious feelings.</p>
+
+<p>A most important obstacle in civilised countries to
+an increase in the number of men of a superior class has
+been strongly urged by Mr. Greg and Mr. Galton,<a name="FNanchor_238" id="FNanchor_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238" class="fnanchor">238</a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">174</a></span>namely, the fact that the very poor and reckless, who
+are often degraded by vice, almost invariably marry
+early, whilst the careful and frugal, who are generally
+otherwise virtuous, marry late in life, so that they may
+be able to support themselves and their children in
+comfort. Those who marry early produce within a
+given period not only a greater number of generations,
+but, as shewn by Dr. Duncan,<a name="FNanchor_239" id="FNanchor_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239" class="fnanchor">239</a> they produce many more
+children. The children, moreover, that are born by
+mothers during the prime of life are heavier and larger,
+and therefore probably more vigorous, than those born
+at other periods. Thus the reckless, degraded, and
+often vicious members of society, tend to increase at a
+quicker rate than the provident and generally virtuous
+members. Or as Mr. Greg puts the case: &#8220;The careless,
+squalid, unaspiring Irishman multiplies like
+rabbits: the frugal, foreseeing, self-respecting, ambitious
+Scot, stern in his morality, spiritual in his
+faith, sagacious and disciplined in his intelligence,
+passes his best years in struggle and in celibacy,
+marries late, and leaves few behind him. Given a
+land originally peopled by a thousand Saxons and a
+thousand Celts&mdash;and in a dozen generations five-sixths
+of the population would be Celts, but five-sixths of
+the property, of the power, of the intellect, would
+belong to the one-sixth of Saxons that remained.
+In the eternal &#8216;struggle for existence,&#8217; it would be
+the inferior and <i>less</i> favoured race that had prevailed&mdash;and
+prevailed by virtue not of its good qualities
+but of its faults.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, some checks to this downward
+tendency. We have seen that the intemperate suffer
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">175</a></span>from a high rate of mortality, and the extremely profligate
+leave few offspring. The poorest classes crowd
+into towns, and it has been proved by Dr. Stark from
+the statistics of ten years in Scotland,<a name="FNanchor_240" id="FNanchor_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240" class="fnanchor">240</a> that at all ages
+the death-rate is higher in towns than in rural districts,
+&#8220;and during the first five years of life the town death-rate
+is almost exactly double that of the rural districts.&#8221;
+As these returns include both the rich and the poor, no
+doubt more than double the number of births would be
+requisite to keep up the number of the very poor inhabitants
+in the towns, relatively to those in the country.
+With women, marriage at too early an age is highly
+injurious; for it has been found in France that, &#8220;twice
+as many wives under twenty die in the year, as died out
+of the same number of the unmarried.&#8221; The mortality,
+also, of husbands under twenty is &#8220;excessively high,&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_241" id="FNanchor_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241" class="fnanchor">241</a>
+but what the cause of this may be seems doubtful.
+Lastly, if the men who prudently delay marrying until
+they can bring up their families in comfort, were to
+select, as they often do, women in the prime of life, the
+rate of increase in the better class would be only slightly
+lessened.</p>
+
+<p>It was established from an enormous body of statistics,
+taken during 1853, that the unmarried men throughout
+France, between the ages of twenty and eighty, die in a
+much larger proportion than the married: for instance,
+out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the ages of
+twenty and thirty, 11&middot;3 annually died, whilst of the
+married only 6&middot;5 died.<a name="FNanchor_242" id="FNanchor_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242" class="fnanchor">242</a> A similar law was proved to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">176</a></span>hold good, during the years 1863 and 1864, with the
+entire population above the age of twenty in Scotland:
+for instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between
+the ages of twenty and thirty, 14&middot;97 annually died,
+whilst of the married only 7&middot;24 died, that is less than
+half.<a name="FNanchor_243" id="FNanchor_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243" class="fnanchor">243</a> Dr. Stark remarks on this, &#8220;Bachelorhood is
+more destructive to life than the most unwholesome
+trades, or than residence in an unwholesome house or
+district where there has never been the most distant
+attempt at sanitary improvement.&#8221; He considers that
+the lessened mortality is the direct result of &#8220;marriage,
+and the more regular domestic habits which attend that
+state.&#8221; He admits, however, that the intemperate,
+profligate, and criminal classes, whose duration of life
+is low, do not commonly marry; and it must likewise
+be admitted that men with a weak constitution,
+ill health, or any great infirmity in body or mind, will
+often not wish to marry, or will be rejected. Dr. Stark
+seems to have come to the conclusion that marriage in
+itself is a main cause of prolonged life, from finding
+that aged married men still have a considerable advantage
+in this respect over the unmarried of the same
+advanced age; but every one must have known instances
+of men, who with weak health during youth did not
+marry, and yet have survived to old age, though
+remaining weak and therefore always with a lessened
+chance of life. There is another remarkable circumstance
+which seems to support Dr. Stark&#8217;s conclusion,
+namely, that widows and widowers in France suffer in
+comparison with the married a very heavy rate of mortality;
+but Dr. Farr attributes this to the poverty and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">177</a></span>evil habits consequent on the disruption of the family,
+and to grief. On the whole we may conclude with Dr.
+Farr that the lesser mortality of married than of unmarried
+men, which seems to be a general law, &#8220;is mainly
+due to the constant elimination of imperfect types, and
+to the skilful selection of the finest individuals out of
+each successive generation;&#8221; the selection relating only
+to the marriage state, and acting on all corporeal, intellectual,
+and moral qualities. We may, therefore,
+infer that sound and good men who out of prudence
+remain for a time unmarried do not suffer a high rate
+of mortality.</p>
+
+<p>If the various checks specified in the two last paragraphs,
+and perhaps others as yet unknown, do not
+prevent the reckless, the vicious and otherwise inferior
+members of society from increasing at a quicker rate
+than the better class of men, the nation will retrograde,
+as has occurred too often in the history of the
+world. We must remember that progress is no invariable
+rule. It is most difficult to say why one civilised
+nation rises, becomes more powerful, and spreads more
+widely, than another; or why the same nation progresses
+more at one time than at another. We can only say
+that it depends on an increase in the actual number of
+the population, on the number of the men endowed
+with high intellectual and moral faculties, as well as
+on their standard of excellence. Corporeal structure,
+except so far as vigour of body leads to vigour of mind,
+appears to have little influence.</p>
+
+<p>It has been urged by several writers that as high
+intellectual powers are advantageous to a nation, the
+old Greeks, who stood some grades higher in intellect
+than any race that has ever existed,<a name="FNanchor_244" id="FNanchor_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244" class="fnanchor">244</a> ought to have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">178</a></span>risen, if the power of natural selection were real, still
+higher in the scale, increased in number, and stocked
+the whole of Europe. Here we have the tacit assumption,
+so often made with respect to corporeal structures,
+that there is some innate tendency towards continued
+development in mind and body. But development of
+all kinds depends on many concurrent favourable circumstances.
+Natural selection acts only in a tentative
+manner. Individuals and races may have acquired
+certain indisputable advantages, and yet have perished
+from failing in other characters. The Greeks may have
+retrograded from a want of coherence between the many
+small states, from the small size of their whole country,
+from the practice of slavery, or from extreme sensuality;
+for they did not succumb until &#8220;they were enervated
+and corrupt to the very core.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_245" id="FNanchor_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245" class="fnanchor">245</a> The western nations
+of Europe, who now so immeasurably surpass their
+former savage progenitors and stand at the summit of
+civilisation, owe little or none of their superiority to
+direct inheritance from the old Greeks; though they
+owe much to the written works of this wonderful people.</p>
+
+<p>Who can positively say why the Spanish nation,
+so dominant at one time, has been distanced in the
+race. The awakening of the nations of Europe from
+the dark ages is a still more perplexing problem. At
+this early period, as Mr. Galton<a name="FNanchor_246" id="FNanchor_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246" class="fnanchor">246</a> has remarked, almost
+all the men of a gentle nature, those given to meditation
+or culture of the mind, had no refuge except in
+the bosom of the Church which demanded celibacy;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">179</a></span>and this could hardly fail to have had a deteriorating
+influence on each successive generation. During this
+same period the Holy Inquisition selected with extreme
+care the freest and boldest men in order to burn or
+imprison them. In Spain alone some of the best men&mdash;those
+who doubted and questioned, and without doubting
+there can be no progress&mdash;were eliminated during three
+centuries at the rate of a thousand a year. The evil
+which the Catholic Church has thus effected, though
+no doubt counterbalanced to a certain, perhaps large
+extent in other ways, is incalculable; nevertheless,
+Europe has progressed at an unparalleled rate.</p>
+
+<p>The remarkable success of the English as colonists
+over other European nations, which is well illustrated by
+comparing the progress of the Canadians of English and
+French extraction, has been ascribed to their &#8220;daring
+and persistent energy;&#8221; but who can say how the
+English gained their energy. There is apparently
+much truth in the belief that the wonderful progress
+of the United States, as well as the character of the
+people, are the results of natural selection; the more
+energetic, restless, and courageous men from all parts
+of Europe having emigrated during the last ten or
+twelve generations to that great country, and having there
+succeeded best.<a name="FNanchor_247" id="FNanchor_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247" class="fnanchor">247</a> Looking to the distant future, I do
+not think that the Rev. Mr. Zincke takes an exaggerated
+view when he says:<a name="FNanchor_248" id="FNanchor_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248" class="fnanchor">248</a> &#8220;All other series of events&mdash;as
+that which resulted in the culture of mind in Greece,
+and that which resulted in the empire of Rome&mdash;only
+appear to have purpose and value when viewed in
+connection with, or rather as subsidiary to ... the
+great stream of Anglo-Saxon emigration to the west.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">180</a></span></p><p>Obscure as is the problem of the advance of civilisation,
+we can at least see that a nation which produced during
+a lengthened period the greatest number of highly intellectual,
+energetic, brave, patriotic, and benevolent men,
+would generally prevail over less favoured nations.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Natural selection follows from the struggle for existence;
+and this from a rapid rate of increase. It is
+impossible not bitterly to regret, but whether wisely
+is another question, the rate at which man tends to
+increase; for this leads in barbarous tribes to infanticide
+and many other evils, and in civilised nations to
+abject poverty, celibacy, and to the late marriages of
+the prudent. But as man suffers from the same physical
+evils with the lower animals, he has no right to expect
+an immunity from the evils consequent on the struggle
+for existence. Had he not been subjected to natural
+selection, assuredly he would never have attained to
+the rank of manhood. When we see in many parts
+of the world enormous areas of the most fertile land
+peopled by a few wandering savages, but which are
+capable of supporting numerous happy homes, it might
+be argued that the struggle for existence had not been
+sufficiently severe to force man upwards to his highest
+standard. Judging from all that we know of man and
+the lower animals, there has always been sufficient
+variability in the intellectual and moral faculties, for
+their steady advancement through natural selection.
+No doubt such advancement demands many favourable
+concurrent circumstances; but it may well be doubted
+whether the most favourable would have sufficed, had
+not the rate of increase been rapid, and the consequent
+struggle for existence severe to an extreme degree.</p>
+
+<p><i>On the evidence that all civilised nations were once barbarous.</i>&mdash;As
+we have had to consider the steps by which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">181</a></span>
+some semi-human creature has been gradually raised to
+the rank of man in his most perfect state, the present
+subject cannot be quite passed over. But it has been
+treated in so full and admirable a manner by Sir J.
+Lubbock,<a name="FNanchor_249" id="FNanchor_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249" class="fnanchor">249</a> Mr. Tylor, Mr. M&#8217;Lennan, and others, that
+I need here give only the briefest summary of their
+results. The arguments recently advanced by the
+Duke of Argyll<a name="FNanchor_250" id="FNanchor_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250" class="fnanchor">250</a> and formerly by Archbishop Whately,
+in favour of the belief that man came into the world
+as a civilised being and that all savages have since
+undergone degradation, seem to me weak in comparison
+with those advanced on the other side. Many nations,
+no doubt, have fallen away in civilisation, and some
+may have lapsed into utter barbarism, though on this
+latter head I have not met with any evidence. The
+Fuegians were probably compelled by other conquering
+hordes to settle in their inhospitable country, and they
+may have become in consequence somewhat more
+degraded; but it would be difficult to prove that they
+have fallen much below the Botocudos who inhabit the
+finest parts of Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>The evidence that all civilised nations are the descendants
+of barbarians, consists, on the one side, of
+clear traces of their former low condition in still-existing
+customs, beliefs, language, &amp;c.; and on the other side,
+of proofs that savages are independently able to raise
+themselves a few steps in the scale of civilisation, and
+have actually thus risen. The evidence on the first
+head is extremely curious, but cannot be here given:
+I refer to such cases as that, for instance, of the art of
+enumeration, which, as Mr. Tylor clearly shews by the
+words still used in some places, originated in counting
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">182</a></span>the fingers, first of one hand and then of the other,
+and lastly of the toes. We have traces of this in our
+own decimal system, and in the Roman numerals, which
+after reaching to the number V., change into VI., &amp;c.,
+when the other hand no doubt was used. So again,
+&#8220;when we speak of three-score and ten, we are counting
+by the vigesimal system, each score thus ideally
+made, standing for 20&mdash;for &#8216;one man&#8217; as a Mexican
+or Carib would put it.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_251" id="FNanchor_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251" class="fnanchor">251</a> According to a large and
+increasing school of philologists, every language bears
+the marks of its slow and gradual evolution. So it
+is with the art of writing, as letters are rudiments of
+pictorial representations. It is hardly possible to read
+Mr. M&#8217;Lennan&#8217;s work<a name="FNanchor_252" id="FNanchor_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252" class="fnanchor">252</a> and not admit that almost all
+civilised nations still retain some traces of such rude
+habits as the forcible capture of wives. What ancient
+nation, as the same author asks, can be named that was
+originally monogamous? The primitive idea of justice,
+as shewn by the law of battle and other customs of
+which traces still remain, was likewise most rude. Many
+existing superstitions are the remnants of former false
+religious beliefs. The highest form of religion&mdash;the
+grand idea of God hating sin and loving righteousness&mdash;was
+unknown during primeval times.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to the other kind of evidence: Sir J. Lubbock
+has shewn that some savages have recently improved
+a little in some of their simpler arts. From the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">183</a></span>extremely curious account which he gives of the weapons,
+tools, and arts, used or practised by savages in various
+parts of the world, it cannot be doubted that these have
+nearly all been independent discoveries, excepting perhaps
+the art of making fire.<a name="FNanchor_253" id="FNanchor_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253" class="fnanchor">253</a> The Australian boomerang
+is a good instance of one such independent discovery.
+The Tahitians when first visited had advanced in many
+respects beyond the inhabitants of most of the other
+Polynesian islands. There are no just grounds for the
+belief that the high culture of the native Peruvians
+and Mexicans was derived from any foreign source;<a name="FNanchor_254" id="FNanchor_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254" class="fnanchor">254</a>
+many native plants were there cultivated, and a few
+native animals domesticated. We should bear in mind
+that a wandering crew from some semi-civilised land,
+if washed to the shores of America, would not, judging
+from the small influence of most missionaries, have produced
+any marked effect on the natives, unless they had
+already become somewhat advanced. Looking to a very
+remote period in the history of the world, we find, to
+use Sir J. Lubbock&#8217;s well-known terms, a paleolithic
+and neolithic period; and no one will pretend that the
+art of grinding rough flint tools was a borrowed one.
+In all parts of Europe, as far east as Greece, in Palestine,
+India, Japan, New Zealand, and Africa, including Egypt,
+flint tools have been discovered in abundance; and of
+their use the existing inhabitants retain no tradition.
+There is also indirect evidence of their former use by the
+Chinese and ancient Jews. Hence there can hardly be a
+doubt that the inhabitants of these many countries, which
+include nearly the whole civilised world, were once in a
+barbarous condition. To believe that man was aboriginally
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">184</a></span>
+civilised and then suffered utter degradation in
+so many regions, is to take a pitiably low view of
+human nature. It is apparently a truer and more
+cheerful view that progress has been much more general
+than retrogression; that man has risen, though by slow
+and interrupted steps, from a lowly condition to the
+highest standard as yet attained by him in knowledge,
+morals, and religion.</p>
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">185</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VI.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">On the Affinities and Genealogy of Man.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Position of man in the animal series&mdash;The natural system genealogical&mdash;Adaptive
+characters of slight value&mdash;Various small
+points of resemblance between man and the Quadrumana&mdash;Rank
+of man in the natural system&mdash;Birthplace and antiquity
+of man&mdash;Absence of fossil connecting-links&mdash;Lower stages in
+the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his affinities and
+secondly from his structure&mdash;Early androgynous condition of
+the Vertebrata&mdash;Conclusion.</p></div>
+
+<p>Even if it be granted that the difference between man
+and his nearest allies is as great in corporeal structure as
+some naturalists maintain, and although we must grant
+that the difference between them is immense in mental
+power, yet the facts given in the previous chapters
+declare, as it appears to me, in the plainest manner,
+that man is descended from some lower form, notwithstanding
+that connecting-links have not hitherto been
+discovered.</p>
+
+<p>Man is liable to numerous, slight, and diversified
+variations, which are induced by the same general
+causes, are governed and transmitted in accordance
+with the same general laws, as in the lower animals.
+Man tends to multiply at so rapid a rate that his offspring
+are necessarily exposed to a struggle for existence,
+and consequently to natural selection. He has given
+rise to many races, some of which are so different that
+they have often been ranked by naturalists as distinct
+species. His body is constructed on the same homological
+plan as that of other mammals, independently
+of the uses to which the several parts may be put. He<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">186</a></span>
+passes through the same phases of embryological development.
+He retains many rudimentary and useless
+structures, which no doubt were once serviceable. Characters
+occasionally make their reappearance in him,
+which we have every reason to believe were possessed by
+his early progenitors. If the origin of man had been
+wholly different from that of all other animals, these
+various appearances would be mere empty deceptions;
+but such an admission is incredible. These appearances,
+on the other hand, are intelligible, at least to a large
+extent, if man is the co-descendant with other mammals
+of some unknown and lower form.</p>
+
+<p>Some naturalists, from being deeply impressed with
+the mental and spiritual powers of man, have divided the
+whole organic world into three kingdoms, the Human,
+the Animal, and the Vegetable, thus giving to man a
+separate kingdom.<a name="FNanchor_255" id="FNanchor_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255" class="fnanchor">255</a> Spiritual powers cannot be compared
+or classed by the naturalist; but he may endeavour
+to shew, as I have done, that the mental faculties
+of man and the lower animals do not differ in kind,
+although immensely in degree. A difference in degree,
+however great, does not justify us in placing man in a
+distinct kingdom, as will perhaps be best illustrated
+by comparing the mental powers of two insects, namely,
+a coccus or scale-insect and an ant, which undoubtedly
+belong to the same class. The difference is here
+greater, though of a somewhat different kind, than
+that between man and the highest mammal. The
+female coccus, whilst young, attaches itself by its proboscis
+to a plant; sucks the sap but never moves again;
+is fertilised and lays eggs; and this is its whole history.
+On the other hand, to describe the habits and mental
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">187</a></span>powers of a female ant, would require, as Pierre Huber
+has shewn, a large volume; I may, however, briefly
+specify a few points. Ants communicate information
+to each other, and several unite for the same work,
+or games of play. They recognise their fellow-ants
+after months of absence. They build great edifices,
+keep them clean, close the doors in the evening, and
+post sentries. They make roads, and even tunnels
+under rivers. They collect food for the community,
+and when an object, too large for entrance, is brought
+to the nest, they enlarge the door, and afterwards
+build it up again.<a name="FNanchor_256" id="FNanchor_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256" class="fnanchor">256</a> They go out to battle in regular
+bands, and freely sacrifice their lives for the common
+weal. They emigrate in accordance with a preconcerted
+plan. They capture slaves. They keep Aphides
+as milch-cows. They move the eggs of their aphides,
+as well as their own eggs and cocoons, into warm parts
+of the nest, in order that they may be quickly hatched;
+and endless similar facts could be given. On the
+whole, the difference in mental power between an ant
+and a coccus is immense; yet no one has ever dreamed
+of placing them in distinct classes, much less in distinct
+kingdoms. No doubt this interval is bridged over by
+the intermediate mental powers of many other insects;
+and this is not the case with man and the higher apes.
+But we have every reason to believe that breaks in the
+series are simply the result of many forms having become
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Owen, relying chiefly on the structure of
+the brain, has divided the mammalian series into four
+sub-classes. One of these he devotes to man; in another
+he places both the marsupials and the monotremata;
+so that he makes man as distinct from all other mam<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">188</a></span>mals
+as are these two latter groups conjoined. This
+view has not been accepted, as far as I am aware, by
+any naturalist capable of forming an independent judgment,
+and therefore need not here be further considered.</p>
+
+<p>We can understand why a classification founded on
+any single character or organ&mdash;even an organ so wonderfully
+complex and important as the brain&mdash;or on the
+high development of the mental faculties, is almost sure
+to prove unsatisfactory. This principle has indeed been
+tried with hymenopterous insects; but when thus classed
+by their habits or instincts, the arrangement proved
+thoroughly artificial.<a name="FNanchor_257" id="FNanchor_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257" class="fnanchor">257</a> Classifications may, of course, be
+based on any character whatever, as on size, colour, or
+the element inhabited; but naturalists have long felt a
+profound conviction that there is a natural system. This
+system, it is now generally admitted, must be, as far
+as possible, genealogical in arrangement,&mdash;that is, the
+co-descendants of the same form must be kept together
+in one group, separate from the co-descendants of any
+other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will
+be their descendants, and the two groups together will
+form a larger group. The amount of difference between
+the several groups&mdash;that is the amount of modification
+which each has undergone&mdash;will be expressed by such
+terms as genera, families, orders, and classes. As we
+have no record of the lines of descent, these lines can
+be discovered only by observing the degrees of resemblance
+between the beings which are to be classed.
+For this object numerous points of resemblance are of
+much more importance than the amount of similarity
+or dissimilarity in a few points. If two languages
+were found to resemble each other in a multitude of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">189</a></span>words and points of construction, they would be universally
+recognised as having sprung from a common
+source, notwithstanding that they differed greatly in
+some few words or points of construction. But with
+organic beings the points of resemblance must not consist
+of adaptations to similar habits of life: two animals
+may, for instance, have had their whole frames modified
+for living in the water, and yet they will not be brought
+any nearer to each other in the natural system. Hence
+we can see how it is that resemblances in unimportant
+structures, in useless and rudimentary organs, and in
+parts not as yet fully developed or functionally active,
+are by far the most serviceable for classification; for
+they can hardly be due to adaptations within a late
+period; and thus they reveal the old lines of descent
+or of true affinity.</p>
+
+<p>We can further see why a great amount of modification
+in some one character ought not to lead us to
+separate widely any two organisms. A part which
+already differs much from the same part in other allied
+forms has already, according to the theory of evolution,
+varied much; consequently it would (as long as the
+organism remained exposed to the same exciting conditions)
+be liable to further variations of the same kind;
+and these, if beneficial, would be preserved, and thus
+continually augmented. In many cases the continued
+development of a part, for instance, of the beak of a
+bird, or of the teeth of a mammal, would not be advantageous
+to the species for gaining its food, or for any
+other object; but with man we can see no definite limit,
+as far as advantage is concerned, to the continued development
+of the brain and mental faculties. Therefore
+in determining the position of man in the natural or
+genealogical system, the extreme development of his
+brain ought not to outweigh a multitude of resem<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">190</a></span>blances
+in other less important or quite unimportant
+points.</p>
+
+<p>The greater number of naturalists who have taken
+into consideration the whole structure of man, including
+his mental faculties, have followed Blumenbach and
+Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under
+the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality
+with the Orders of the Quadrumana, Carnivora, &amp;c.
+Recently many of our best naturalists have recurred to
+the view first propounded by Linn&aelig;us, so remarkable for
+his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order
+with the Quadrumana, under the title of the Primates.
+The justice of this conclusion will be admitted if, in
+the first place, we bear in mind the remarks just
+made on the comparatively small importance for classification
+of the great development of the brain in man;
+bearing, also, in mind that the strongly-marked differences
+between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana
+(lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others)
+apparently follow from their differently developed brains.
+In the second place, we must remember that nearly all
+the other and more important differences between man
+and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their
+nature, and relate chiefly to the erect position of man;
+such as the structure of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the
+curvature of his spine, and the position of his head.
+The family of seals offers a good illustration of the
+small importance of adaptive characters for classification.
+These animals differ from all other Carnivora in the
+form of their bodies and in the structure of their limbs,
+far more than does man from the higher apes; yet in
+every system, from that of Cuvier to the most recent
+one by Mr. Flower,<a name="FNanchor_258" id="FNanchor_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258" class="fnanchor">258</a> seals are ranked as a mere family
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">191</a></span>in the Order of the Carnivora. If man had not been
+his own classifier, he would never have thought of
+founding a separate order for his own reception.</p>
+
+<p>It would be beyond my limits, and quite beyond my
+knowledge, even to name the innumerable points of
+structure in which man agrees with the other Primates.
+Our great anatomist and philosopher, Prof. Huxley, has
+fully discussed this subject,<a name="FNanchor_259" id="FNanchor_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259" class="fnanchor">259</a> and has come to the conclusion
+that man in all parts of his organisation differs
+less from the higher apes, than these do from the lower
+members of the same group. Consequently there &#8220;is
+no justification for placing man in a distinct order.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>In an early part of this volume I brought forward
+various facts, shewing how closely man agrees in constitution
+with the higher mammals; and this agreement,
+no doubt, depends on our close similarity in minute
+structure and chemical composition. I gave, as
+instances, our liability to the same diseases, and to the
+attacks of allied parasites; our tastes in common for the
+same stimulants, and the similar effects thus produced,
+as well as by various drugs; and other such facts.</p>
+
+<p>As small unimportant points of resemblance between
+man and the higher apes are not commonly noticed in
+systematic works, and as, when numerous, they clearly
+reveal our relationship, I will specify a few such points.
+The relative position of the features are manifestly the
+same in man and the Quadrumana; and the various
+emotions are displayed by nearly similar movements of
+the muscles and skin, chiefly above the eyebrows and
+round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed,
+almost the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of
+monkeys, and in the laughing noise made by others,
+during which the corners of the mouth are drawn back<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">192</a></span>wards,
+and the lower eyelids wrinkled. The external
+ears are curiously alike. In man the nose is much
+more prominent than in most monkeys; but we may
+trace the commencement of an aquiline curvature in
+the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon; and this in the <i>Semnopithecus
+nasica</i> is carried to a ridiculous extreme.</p>
+
+<p>The faces of many monkeys are ornamented with
+beards, whiskers, or moustaches. The hair on the head
+grows to a great length in some species of Semnopithecus;<a name="FNanchor_260" id="FNanchor_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260" class="fnanchor">260</a>
+and in the Bonnet monkey (<i>Macacus
+radiatus</i>) it radiates from a point on the crown, with a
+parting down the middle, as in man. It is commonly
+said that the forehead gives to man his noble and intellectual
+appearance; but the thick hair on the head of
+the Bonnet monkey terminates abruptly downwards,
+and is succeeded by such short and fine hair, or down,
+that at a little distance the forehead, with the exception
+of the eyebrows, appears quite naked. It has been
+erroneously asserted that eyebrows are not present in
+any monkey. In the species just named the degree of
+nakedness of the forehead differs in different individuals;
+and Eschricht states<a name="FNanchor_261" id="FNanchor_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261" class="fnanchor">261</a> that in our children the limit
+between the hairy scalp and the naked forehead is
+sometimes not well defined; so that here we seem to
+have a trifling case of reversion to a progenitor, in whom
+the forehead had not as yet become quite naked.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that the hair on our arms tends to
+converge from above and below to a point at the elbow.
+This curious arrangement, so unlike that in most of the
+lower mammals, is common to the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some few
+American monkeys. But in <i>Hylobates agilis</i> the hair
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">193</a></span>on the fore-arm is directed downwards or towards the
+wrist in the ordinary manner; and in <i>H. lar</i> it is nearly
+erect, with only a very slight forward inclination; so
+that in this latter species it is in a transitional state.
+It can hardly be doubted that with most mammals the
+thickness of the hair and its direction on the back is
+adapted to throw off the rain; even the transverse hairs
+on the fore-legs of a dog may serve for this end when he
+is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence
+of the hair towards the elbow on the arms
+of the orang (whose habits he has so carefully studied)
+serves to throw off the rain, when, as is the custom
+of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands
+clasped round a branch or over its own head. We
+should, however, bear in mind that the attitude of an
+animal may perhaps be in part determined by the
+direction of the hair; and not the direction of the hair
+by the attitude. If the above explanation is correct in
+the case of the orang, the hair on our fore-arms offers a
+curious record of our former state; for no one supposes
+that it is now of any use in throwing off the rain, nor in
+our present erect condition is it properly directed for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>It would, however, be rash to trust too much to the
+principle of adaptation in regard to the direction of the
+hair in man or his early progenitors; for it is impossible
+to study the figures given by Eschricht of the arrangement
+of the hair on the human f&oelig;tus (this being the
+same as in the adult) and not agree with this excellent
+observer that other and more complex causes have
+intervened. The points of convergence seem to stand
+in some relation to those points in the embryo which
+are last closed in during development. There appears,
+also, to exist some relation between the arrangement<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">194</a></span>
+of the hair on the limbs, and the course of the medullary
+arteries.<a name="FNanchor_262" id="FNanchor_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262" class="fnanchor">262</a></p>
+
+<p>It must not be supposed that the resemblances between
+man and certain apes in the above and many
+other points&mdash;such as in having a naked forehead,
+long tresses on the head, &amp;c.&mdash;are all necessarily the
+result of unbroken inheritance from a common progenitor
+thus characterised, or of subsequent reversion.
+Many of these resemblances are more probably due
+to analogous variation, which follows, as I have elsewhere
+attempted to shew,<a name="FNanchor_263" id="FNanchor_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263" class="fnanchor">263</a> from co-descended organisms
+having a similar constitution and having been acted
+on by similar causes inducing variability. With respect
+to the similar direction of the hair on the fore-arms
+of man and certain monkeys, as this character is
+common to almost all the anthropomorphous apes, it
+may probably be attributed to inheritance; but not
+certainly so, as some very distinct American monkeys
+are thus characterised. The same remark is applicable
+to the tailless condition of man; for the tail is absent
+in all the anthropomorphous apes. Nevertheless this
+character cannot with certainty be attributed to inheritance,
+as the tail, though not absent, is rudimentary
+in several other Old World and in some New World
+species, and is quite absent in several species belonging
+to the allied group of Lemurs.</p>
+
+<p>Although, as we have now seen, man has no just right
+to form a separate Order for his own reception, he may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">195</a></span>perhaps claim a distinct Sub-order or Family. Prof.
+Huxley, in his last work,<a name="FNanchor_264" id="FNanchor_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264" class="fnanchor">264</a> divides the Primates into
+three Sub-orders; namely, the Anthropid&aelig; with man
+alone, the Simiad&aelig; including monkeys of all kinds, and
+the Lemurid&aelig; with the diversified genera of lemurs. As
+far as differences in certain important points of structure
+are concerned, man may no doubt rightly claim the
+rank of a Sub-order; and this rank is too low, if we look
+chiefly to his mental faculties. Nevertheless, under a
+genealogical point of view it appears that this rank is
+too high, and that man ought to form merely a Family,
+or possibly even only a Sub-family. If we imagine
+three lines of descent proceeding from a common source,
+it is quite conceivable that two of them might after
+the lapse of ages be so slightly changed as still to
+remain as species of the same genus; whilst the third
+line might become so greatly modified as to deserve
+to rank as a distinct Sub-family, Family, or even
+Order. But in this case it is almost certain that
+the third line would still retain through inheritance
+numerous small points of resemblance with the other
+two lines. Here then would occur the difficulty, at
+present insoluble, how much weight we ought to assign
+in our classifications to strongly-marked differences in
+some few points,&mdash;that is to the amount of modification
+undergone; and how much to close resemblance in
+numerous unimportant points, as indicating the lines of
+descent or genealogy. The former alternative is the
+most obvious, and perhaps the safest, though the latter
+appears the most correct as giving a truly natural
+classification.</p>
+
+<p>To form a judgment on this head, with reference
+to man we must glance at the classification of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">196</a></span>Simiad&aelig;. This family is divided by almost all naturalists
+into the Catarhine group, or Old World monkeys,
+all of which are characterised (as their name expresses)
+by the peculiar structure of their nostrils and by having
+four premolars in each jaw; and into the Platyrhine
+group or New World monkeys (including two very
+distinct sub-groups), all of which are characterised by
+differently-constructed nostrils and by having six premolars
+in each jaw. Some other small differences might
+be mentioned. Now man unquestionably belongs in
+his dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and some
+other respects, to the Catarhine or Old World division;
+nor does he resemble the Platyrhines more closely than
+the Catarhines in any characters, excepting in a few
+of not much importance and apparently of an adaptive
+nature. Therefore it would be against all probability
+to suppose that some ancient New World species had
+varied, and had thus produced a man-like creature with
+all the distinctive characters proper to the Old World
+division; losing at the same time all its own distinctive
+characters. There can consequently hardly be a doubt
+that man is an offshoot from the Old World Simian stem;
+and that under a genealogical point of view, he must
+be classed with the Catarhine division.<a name="FNanchor_265" id="FNanchor_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265" class="fnanchor">265</a></p>
+
+<p>The anthropomorphous apes, namely the gorilla,
+chimpanzee, orang, and hylobates, are separated as a
+distinct sub-group from the other Old World monkeys
+by most naturalists. I am aware that Gratiolet, relying
+on the structure of the brain, does not admit the exist<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">197</a></span>ence
+of this sub-group, and no doubt it is a broken
+one; thus the orang, as Mr. St. G. Mivart remarks,<a name="FNanchor_266" id="FNanchor_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266" class="fnanchor">266</a>
+&#8220;is one of the most peculiar and aberrant forms to be
+found in the Order.&#8221; The remaining, non-anthropomorphous,
+Old World monkeys, are again divided by
+some naturalists into two or three smaller sub-groups;
+the genus Semnopithecus, with its peculiar sacculated
+stomach, being the type of one such sub-group. But
+it appears from M. Gaudry&#8217;s wonderful discoveries in
+Attica, that during the Miocene period a form existed
+there, which connected Semnopithecus and Macacus;
+and this probably illustrates the manner in which the
+other and higher groups were once blended together.</p>
+
+<p>If the anthropomorphous apes be admitted to form
+a natural sub-group, then as man agrees with them,
+not only in all those characters which he possesses in
+common with the whole Catarhine group, but in other
+peculiar characters, such as the absence of a tail and
+of callosities and in general appearance, we may infer
+that some ancient member of the anthropomorphous
+sub-group gave birth to man. It is not probable
+that a member of one of the other lower sub-groups
+should, through the law of analogous variation, have
+given rise to a man-like creature, resembling the higher
+anthropomorphous apes in so many respects. No
+doubt man, in comparison with most of his allies, has
+undergone an extraordinary amount of modification,
+chiefly in consequence of his greatly developed brain
+and erect position; nevertheless we should bear in
+mind that he &#8220;is but one of several exceptional forms
+of Primates.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_267" id="FNanchor_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267" class="fnanchor">267</a></p>
+
+<p>Every naturalist, who believes in the principle of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">198</a></span>evolution, will grant that the two main divisions of the
+Simiad&aelig;, namely the Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys,
+with their sub-groups, have all proceeded from
+some one extremely ancient progenitor. The early
+descendants of this progenitor, before they had diverged
+to any considerable extent from each other, would still
+have formed a single natural group; but some of the
+species or incipient genera would have already begun
+to indicate by their diverging characters the future
+distinctive marks of the Catarhine and Platyrhine divisions.
+Hence the members of this supposed ancient
+group would not have been so uniform in their dentition
+or in the structure of their nostrils, as are the existing
+Catarhine monkeys in one way and the Platyrhines in
+another way, but would have resembled in this respect
+the allied Lemurid&aelig; which differ greatly from each
+other in the form of their muzzles,<a name="FNanchor_268" id="FNanchor_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268" class="fnanchor">268</a> and to an extraordinary
+degree in their dentition.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in
+a multitude of characters, as is shewn by their unquestionably
+belonging to one and the same Order. The
+many characters which they possess in common can
+hardly have been independently acquired by so many
+distinct species; so that these characters must have
+been inherited. But an ancient form which possessed
+many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine
+monkeys, and others in an intermediate condition,
+and some few perhaps distinct from those now present
+in either group, would undoubtedly have been ranked,
+if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or monkey. And as
+man under a genealogical point of view belongs to the
+Catarhine or Old World stock, we must conclude, how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">199</a></span>ever
+much the conclusion may revolt our pride, that
+our early progenitors would have been properly thus
+designated.<a name="FNanchor_269" id="FNanchor_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269" class="fnanchor">269</a> But we must not fall into the error of
+supposing that the early progenitor of the whole Simian
+stock, including man, was identical with, or even closely
+resembled, any existing ape or monkey.</p>
+
+<p><i>On the Birthplace and Antiquity of Man.</i>&mdash;We are
+naturally led to enquire where was the birthplace of
+man at that stage of descent when our progenitors
+diverged from the Catarhine stock. The fact that
+they belonged to this stock clearly shews that they
+inhabited the Old World; but not Australia nor any
+oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws of geographical
+distribution. In each great region of the world
+the living mammals are closely related to the extinct
+species of the same region. It is therefore probable
+that Africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes
+closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as
+these two species are now man&#8217;s nearest allies, it is
+somewhat more probable that our early progenitors
+lived on the African continent than elsewhere. But
+it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape
+nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus
+of Lartet, which was closely allied to the anthropomorphous
+Hylobates, existed in Europe during the
+Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period
+the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions,
+and there has been ample time for migration
+on the largest scale.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">200</a></span></p>
+<p>At the period and place, whenever and wherever it
+may have been, when man first lost his hairy covering,
+he probably inhabited a hot country; and this would
+have been favourable for a frugiferous diet, on which,
+judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from
+knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged
+from the Catarhine stock; but this may have occurred
+at an epoch as remote as the Eocene period; for the
+higher apes had diverged from the lower apes as
+early as the Upper Miocene period, as shewn by the
+existence of the Dryopithecus. We are also quite
+ignorant at how rapid a rate organisms, whether high
+or low in the scale, may under favourable circumstances
+be modified: we know, however, that some have retained
+the same form during an enormous lapse of time. From
+what we see going on under domestication, we learn that
+within the same period some of the co-descendants of
+the same species may be not at all changed, some a
+little, and some greatly changed. Thus it may have
+been with man, who has undergone a great amount of
+modification in certain characters in comparison with
+the higher apes.</p>
+
+<p>The great break in the organic chain between man
+and his nearest allies, which cannot be bridged over
+by any extinct or living species, has often been advanced
+as a grave objection to the belief that man
+is descended from some lower form; but this objection
+will not appear of much weight to those who, convinced
+by general reasons, believe in the general principle
+of evolution. Breaks incessantly occur in all parts
+of the series, some being wide, sharp and defined, others
+less so in various degrees; as between the orang and
+its nearest allies&mdash;between the Tarsius and the other
+Lemurid&aelig;&mdash;between the elephant and in a more
+striking manner between the Ornithorhynchus or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">201</a></span>
+Echidna, and other mammals. But all these breaks
+depend merely on the number of related forms which
+have become extinct. At some future period, not
+very distant as measured by centuries, the civilised races
+of man will almost certainly exterminate and replace
+throughout the world the savage races. At the
+same time the anthropomorphous apes, as Professor
+Schaaffhausen has remarked,<a name="FNanchor_270" id="FNanchor_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270" class="fnanchor">270</a> will no doubt be exterminated.
+The break will then be rendered wider, for
+it will intervene between man in a more civilised state,
+as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as
+low as a baboon, instead of as at present between the
+negro or Australian and the gorilla.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">With respect to the absence of fossil remains, serving to
+connect man with his ape-like progenitors, no one will
+lay much stress on this fact, who will read Sir C. Lyell&#8217;s
+discussion,<a name="FNanchor_271" id="FNanchor_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271" class="fnanchor">271</a> in which he shews that in all the vertebrate
+classes the discovery of fossil remains has been an
+extremely slow and fortuitous process. Nor should it
+be forgotten that those regions which are the most
+likely to afford remains connecting man with some
+extinct ape-like creature, have not as yet been searched
+by geologists.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Lower Stages in the Genealogy of Man.</i>&mdash;We have seen
+that man appears to have diverged from the Catarhine
+or Old World division of the Simiad&aelig;, after these had
+diverged from the New World division. We will now
+endeavour to follow the more remote traces of his
+genealogy, trusting in the first place to the mutual
+affinities between the various classes and orders, with
+some slight aid from the periods, as far as ascertained,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">202</a></span>of their successive appearance on the earth. The
+Lemurid&aelig; stand below and close to the Simiad&aelig;, constituting
+a very distinct family of the Primates, or,
+according to H&auml;ckel, a distinct Order. This group is
+diversified and broken to an extraordinary degree, and
+includes many aberrant forms. It has, therefore, probably
+suffered much extinction. Most of the remnants
+survive on islands, namely in Madagascar and in the
+islands of the Malayan archipelago, where they have
+not been exposed to such severe competition as they
+would have been on well-stocked continents. This
+group likewise presents many gradations, leading, as
+Huxley remarks,<a name="FNanchor_272" id="FNanchor_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272" class="fnanchor">272</a> &#8220;insensibly from the crown and
+summit of the animal creation down to creatures
+from which there is but a step, as it seems, to the
+lowest, smallest, and least intelligent of the placental
+mammalia.&#8221; From these various considerations it is
+probable that the Simiad&aelig; were originally developed
+from the progenitors of the existing Lemurid&aelig;; and
+these in their turn from forms standing very low in the
+mammalian series.</p>
+
+<p>The Marsupials stand in many important characters
+below the placental mammals. They appeared at an
+earlier geological period, and their range was formerly
+much more extensive than what it now is. Hence the
+Placentata are generally supposed to have been derived
+from the Implacentata or Marsupials; not, however, from
+forms closely like the existing Marsupials, but from
+their early progenitors. The Monotremata are plainly
+allied to the Marsupials; forming a third and still
+lower division in the great mammalian series. They
+are represented at the present day solely by the Ornithorhynchus
+and Echidna; and these two forms may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">203</a></span>be safely considered as relics of a much larger group
+which have been preserved in Australia through some
+favourable concurrence of circumstances. The Monotremata
+are eminently interesting, as in several
+important points of structure they lead towards the
+class of reptiles.</p>
+
+<p>In attempting to trace the genealogy of the Mammalia,
+and therefore of man, lower down in the series,
+we become involved in greater and greater obscurity.
+He who wishes to see what ingenuity and knowledge
+can effect, may consult Prof. H&auml;ckel&#8217;s works.<a name="FNanchor_273" id="FNanchor_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273" class="fnanchor">273</a> I will
+content myself with a few general remarks. Every
+evolutionist will admit that the five great vertebrate
+classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians,
+and fishes, are all descended from some one prototype;
+for they have much in common, especially during their
+embryonic state. As the class of fishes is the most
+lowly organised and appeared before the others, we may
+conclude that all the members of the vertebrate kingdom
+are derived from some fish-like animal, less highly
+organised than any as yet found in the lowest known
+formations. The belief that animals so distinct as a
+monkey or elephant and a humming-bird, a snake, frog,
+and fish, &amp;c., could all have sprung from the same
+parents, will appear monstrous to those who have not
+attended to the recent progress of natural history. For
+this belief implies the former existence of links closely
+binding together all these forms, now so utterly unlike.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">204</a></span></p>
+<p>Nevertheless it is certain that groups of animals have
+existed, or do now exist, which serve to connect more or
+less closely the several great vertebrate classes. We
+have seen that the Ornithorhynchus graduates towards
+reptiles; and Prof. Huxley has made the remarkable
+discovery, confirmed by Mr. Cope and others, that the
+old Dinosaurians are intermediate in many important
+respects between certain reptiles and certain birds&mdash;the
+latter consisting of the ostrich-tribe (itself evidently a
+widely-diffused remnant of a larger group) and of the
+Archeopteryx, that strange Secondary bird having a
+long tail like that of the lizard. Again, according to
+Prof. Owen,<a name="FNanchor_274" id="FNanchor_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274" class="fnanchor">274</a> the Ichthyosaurians&mdash;great sea-lizards furnished
+with paddles&mdash;present many affinities with fishes,
+or rather, according to Huxley, with amphibians. This
+latter class (including in its highest division frogs and
+toads) is plainly allied to the Ganoid fishes. These
+latter fishes swarmed during the earlier geological
+periods, and were constructed on what is called a highly
+generalised type, that is they presented diversified affinities
+with other groups of organisms. The amphibians
+and fishes are also so closely united by the Lepidosiren,
+that naturalists long disputed in which of these two
+classes it ought to be placed. The Lepidosiren and
+some few Ganoid fishes have been preserved from utter
+extinction by inhabiting our rivers, which are harbours
+of refuge, bearing the same relation to the great waters
+of the ocean that islands bear to continents.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Lastly, one single member of the immense and diversified
+class of fishes, namely the lancelet or amphioxus,
+is so different from all other fishes, that H&auml;ckel maintains
+that it ought to form a distinct class in the
+vertebrate kingdom. This fish is remarkable for its
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">205</a></span>negative characters; it can hardly be said to possess a
+brain, vertebral column, or heart, &amp;c.; so that it was
+classed by the older naturalists amongst the worms.
+Many years ago Prof. Goodsir perceived that the
+lancelet presented some affinities with the Ascidians,
+which are invertebrate, hermaphrodite, marine creatures
+permanently attached to a support. They hardly
+appear like animals, and consist of a simple, tough,
+leathery sack, with two small projecting orifices. They
+belong to the Molluscoida of Huxley&mdash;a lower division
+of the great kingdom of the Mollusca; but they have
+recently been placed by some naturalists amongst the
+Vermes or worms. Their larv&aelig; somewhat resemble
+tadpoles in shape,<a name="FNanchor_275" id="FNanchor_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275" class="fnanchor">275</a> and have the power of swimming
+freely about. Some observations lately made by M.
+Kowalevsky,<a name="FNanchor_276" id="FNanchor_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276" class="fnanchor">276</a> since confirmed by Prof. Kuppfer, will
+form a discovery of extraordinary interest, if still further
+extended, as I hear from M. Kowalevsky in Naples he
+has now effected. The discovery is that the larv&aelig; of
+Ascidians are related to the Vertebrata, in their manner
+of development, in the relative position of the nervous
+system, and in possessing a structure closely like the
+<i>chorda dorsalis</i> of vertebrate animals. It thus appears,
+if we may rely on embryology, which has always proved
+the safest guide in classification, that we have at last
+gained a clue to the source whence the Vertebrata have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">206</a></span>been derived. We should thus be justified in believing
+that at an extremely remote period a group of animals
+existed, resembling in many respects the larv&aelig; of our
+present Ascidians, which diverged into two great
+branches&mdash;the one retrograding in development and
+producing the present class of Ascidians, the other rising
+to the crown and summit of the animal kingdom by
+giving birth to the Vertebrata.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus far endeavoured rudely to trace the
+genealogy of the Vertebrata by the aid of their mutual
+affinities. We will now look to man as he exists; and
+we shall, I think, be able partially to restore during
+successive periods, but not in due order of time, the
+structure of our early progenitors. This can be effected
+by means of the rudiments which man still retains, by
+the characters which occasionally make their appearance
+in him through reversion, and by the aid of the
+principles of morphology and embryology. The various
+facts, to which I shall here allude, have been given in
+the previous chapters. The early progenitors of man
+were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes
+having beards; their ears were pointed and capable of
+movement; and their bodies were provided with a tail,
+having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies
+were also acted on by many muscles which now
+only occasionally reappear, but are normally present
+in the Quadrumana. The great artery and nerve of
+the humerus ran through a supra-condyloid foramen.
+At this or some earlier period, the intestine gave forth
+a much larger diverticulum or c&aelig;cum than that now
+existing. The foot, judging from the condition of the
+great toe in the f&oelig;tus, was then prehensile; and our
+progenitors, no doubt, were arboreal in their habits,
+frequenting some warm, forest-clad land. The males<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">207</a></span>
+were provided with great canine teeth, which served
+them as formidable weapons.</p>
+
+<p>At a much earlier period the uterus was double; the
+excreta were voided through a cloaca; and the eye
+was protected by a third eyelid or nictitating membrane.
+At a still earlier period the progenitors of
+man must have been aquatic in their habits; for
+morphology plainly tells us that our lungs consist of a
+modified swim-bladder, which once served as a float.
+The clefts on the neck in the embryo of man show
+where the branchi&aelig; once existed. At about this period
+the true kidneys were replaced by the corpora Wolffiana.
+The heart existed as a simple pulsating vessel; and
+the chorda dorsalis took the place of a vertebral column.
+These early predecessors of man, thus seen in the dim
+recesses of time, must have been as lowly organised
+as the lancelet or amphioxus, or even still more lowly
+organised.</p>
+
+<p>There is one other point deserving a fuller notice.
+It has long been known that in the vertebrate kingdom
+one sex bears rudiments of various accessory
+parts, appertaining to the reproductive system, which
+properly belong to the opposite sex; and it has now
+been ascertained that at a very early embryonic period
+both sexes possess true male and female glands. Hence
+some extremely remote progenitor of the whole vertebrate
+kingdom appears to have been hermaphrodite or
+androgynous.<a name="FNanchor_277" id="FNanchor_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277" class="fnanchor">277</a> But here we encounter a singular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">208</a></span>difficulty. In the mammalian class the males possess
+in their vesicul&aelig; prostratic&aelig; rudiments of a uterus with
+the adjacent passage; they bear also rudiments of
+mamm&aelig;, and some male marsupials have rudiments
+of a marsupial sack.<a name="FNanchor_278" id="FNanchor_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278" class="fnanchor">278</a> Other analogous facts could be
+added. Are we, then, to suppose that some extremely
+ancient mammal possessed organs proper to both sexes,
+that is, continued androgynous after it had acquired
+the chief distinctions of its proper class, and therefore
+after it had diverged from the lower classes of the
+vertebrate kingdom? This seems improbable in the
+highest degree; for had this been the case, we might
+have expected that some few members of the two
+lower classes, namely fishes<a name="FNanchor_279" id="FNanchor_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279" class="fnanchor">279</a> and amphibians, would
+still have remained androgynous. We must, on the
+contrary, believe that when the five vertebrate classes
+diverged from their common progenitor the sexes
+had already become separated. To account, however,
+for male mammals possessing rudiments of the accessory
+female organs, and for female mammals possessing
+rudiments of the masculine organs, we need not suppose
+that their early progenitors were still androgynous after
+they had assumed their chief mammalian characters.
+It is quite possible that as the one sex gradually
+acquired the accessory organs proper to it, some of the
+successive steps or modifications were transmitted to
+the opposite sex. When we treat of sexual selection,
+we shall meet with innumerable instances of this form
+of transmission,&mdash;as in the case of the spurs, plumes,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">209</a></span>and brilliant colours, acquired by male birds for battle
+or ornament, and transferred to the females in an imperfect
+or rudimentary condition.</p>
+
+<p>The possession by male mammals of functionally
+imperfect mammary organs is, in some respects, especially
+curious. The Monotremata have the proper milk-secreting
+glands with orifices, but no nipples; and as
+these animals stand at the very base of the mammalian
+series, it is probable that the progenitors of the
+class possessed, in like manner, the milk-secreting
+glands, but no nipples. This conclusion is supported
+by what is known of their manner of development;
+for Professor Turner informs me, on the authority of
+K&ouml;lliker and Lauger, that in the embryo the mammary
+glands can be distinctly traced before the nipples are
+in the least visible; and it should be borne in mind that
+the development of successive parts in the individual
+generally seems to represent and accord with the development
+of successive beings in the same line of descent.
+The Marsupials differ from the Monotremata by possessing
+nipples; so that these organs were probably first
+acquired by the Marsupials after they had diverged
+from, and risen above, the Monotremata, and were
+then transmitted to the placental mammals. No one
+will suppose that after the Marsupials had approximately
+acquired their present structure, and therefore
+at a rather late period in the development of the
+mammalian series, any of its members still remained
+androgynous. We seem, therefore, compelled to recur
+to the foregoing view, and to conclude that the nipples
+were first developed in the females of some very early
+marsupial form, and were then, in accordance with a
+common law of inheritance, transferred in a functionally
+imperfect condition to the males.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Nevertheless a suspicion has sometimes crossed my<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">210</a></span>
+mind that long after the progenitors of the whole
+mammalian class had ceased to be androgynous, both
+sexes might have yielded milk and thus nourished
+their young; and in the case of the Marsupials, that
+both sexes might have carried their young in marsupial
+sacks. This will not appear utterly incredible, if
+we reflect that the males of syngnathous fishes receive
+the eggs of the females in their abdominal pouches,
+hatch them, and afterwards, as some believe, nourish
+the young;<a name="FNanchor_280" id="FNanchor_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280" class="fnanchor">280</a>&mdash;that certain other male fishes hatch the
+eggs within their mouths or branchial cavities;&mdash;that
+certain male toads take the chaplets of eggs from the
+females and wind them round their own thighs, keeping
+them there until the tadpoles are born;&mdash;that certain
+male birds undertake the whole duty of incubation,
+and that male pigeons, as well as the females, feed their
+nestlings with a secretion from their crops. But the
+above suspicion first occurred to me from the mammary
+glands in male mammals being developed so much more
+perfectly than the rudiments of those other accessory
+reproductive parts, which are found in the one sex
+though proper to the other. The mammary glands
+and nipples, as they exist in male mammals, can indeed
+hardly be called rudimentary; they are simply not
+fully developed and not functionally active. They are
+sympathetically affected under the influence of certain
+diseases, like the same organs in the female. At birth
+they often secrete a few drops of milk; and they have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">211</a></span>been known occasionally in man and other mammals to
+become well developed, and to yield a fair supply of
+milk. Now if we suppose that during a former prolonged
+period male mammals aided the females in
+nursing their offspring, and that afterwards from some
+cause, as from a smaller number of young being produced,
+the males ceased giving this aid, disuse of the
+organs during maturity would lead to their becoming
+inactive; and from two well-known principles of inheritance
+this state of inactivity would probably be
+transmitted to the males at the corresponding age of
+maturity. But at all earlier ages these organs would
+be left unaffected, so that they would be equally well
+developed in the young of both sexes.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Conclusion.</i>&mdash;The best definition of advancement or
+progress in the organic scale ever given, is that by
+Von Baer; and this rests on the amount of differentiation
+and specialisation of the several parts of
+the same being, when arrived, as I should be inclined
+to add, at maturity. Now as organisms have become
+slowly adapted by means of natural selection for
+diversified lines of life, their parts will have become,
+from the advantage gained by the division of physiological
+labour, more and more differentiated and specialised
+for various functions. The same part appears
+often to have been modified first for one purpose, and
+then long afterwards for some other and quite distinct
+purpose; and thus all the parts are rendered more and
+more complex. But each organism will still retain the
+general type of structure of the progenitor from which
+it was aboriginally derived. In accordance with this
+view it seems, if we turn to geological evidence, that
+organisation on the whole has advanced throughout the
+world by slow and interrupted steps. In the great<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">212</a></span>
+kingdom of the Vertebrata it has culminated in man.
+It must not, however, be supposed that groups of organic
+beings are always supplanted and disappear as soon as
+they have given birth to other and more perfect groups.
+The latter, though victorious over their predecessors,
+may not have become better adapted for all places in
+the economy of nature. Some old forms appear to have
+survived from inhabiting protected sites, where they
+have not been exposed to very severe competition; and
+these often aid us in constructing our genealogies,
+by giving us a fair idea of former and lost populations.
+But we must not fall into the error of looking at the
+existing members of any lowly-organised group as perfect
+representatives of their ancient predecessors.</p>
+
+<p>The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the
+Vertebrata, at which we are able to obtain an obscure
+glance, apparently consisted of a group of marine animals,<a name="FNanchor_281" id="FNanchor_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281" class="fnanchor">281</a>
+resembling the larv&aelig; of existing Ascidians. These
+animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes, as lowly
+organised as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids,
+and other fishes like the Lepidosiren, must have been
+developed. From such fish a very small advance would
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">213</a></span>carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
+birds and reptiles were once intimately connected
+together; and the Monotremata now, in a slight degree,
+connect mammals with reptiles. But no one can at
+present say by what line of descent the three higher
+and related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles,
+were derived from either of the two lower vertebrate
+classes, namely amphibians and fishes. In the
+class of mammals the steps are not difficult to conceive
+which led from the ancient Monotremata to
+the ancient Marsupials; and from these to the early
+progenitors of the placental mammals. We may thus
+ascend to the Lemurid&aelig;; and the interval is not wide
+from these to the Simiad&aelig;. The Simiad&aelig; then branched
+off into two great stems, the New World and Old World
+monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period, Man,
+the wonder and glory of the Universe, proceeded.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious
+length, but not, it may be said, of noble quality. The
+world, it has often been remarked, appears as if it had
+long been preparing for the advent of man; and this, in
+one sense is strictly true, for he owes his birth to a long
+line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain
+had never existed, man would not have been exactly
+what he now is. Unless we wilfully close our eyes, we
+may, with our present knowledge, approximately recognise
+our parentage; nor need we feel ashamed of it.
+The most humble organism is something much higher
+than the inorganic dust under our feet; and no one
+with an unbiassed mind can study any living creature,
+however humble, without being struck with enthusiasm
+at its marvellous structure and properties.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">214</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER VII.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">On the Races of Man.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The nature and value of specific characters&mdash;Application to the races
+of man&mdash;Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking the
+so-called races of man as distinct species&mdash;Sub-species&mdash;Monogenists
+and polygenists&mdash;Convergence of character&mdash;Numerous
+points of resemblance in body and mind between the most distinct
+races of man&mdash;The state of man when he first spread over the
+earth&mdash;Each race not descended from a single pair&mdash;The extinction
+of races&mdash;The formation of races&mdash;The effects of crossing&mdash;Slight
+influence of the direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Slight
+or no influence of natural selection&mdash;Sexual selection.</p></div>
+
+<p>It is not my intention here to describe the several
+so-called races of men; but to inquire what is the
+value of the differences between them under a classificatory
+point of view, and how they have originated.
+In determining whether two or more allied forms
+ought to be ranked as species or varieties, naturalists
+are practically guided by the following considerations;
+namely, the amount of difference between
+them, and whether such differences relate to few or
+many points of structure, and whether they are of
+physiological importance; but more especially whether
+they are constant. Constancy of character is what is
+chiefly valued and sought for by naturalists. Whenever
+it can be shewn, or rendered probable, that the forms
+in question have remained distinct for a long period,
+this becomes an argument of much weight in favour
+of treating them as species. Even a slight degree of
+sterility between any two forms when first crossed, or
+in their offspring, is generally considered as a decisive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">215</a></span>
+test of their specific distinctness; and their continued
+persistence without blending within the same area, is
+usually accepted as sufficient evidence, either of some
+degree of mutual sterility, or in the case of animals of
+some repugnance to mutual pairing.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of blending from intercrossing, the
+complete absence, in a well-investigated region, of
+varieties linking together any two closely-allied forms,
+is probably the most important of all the criterions
+of their specific distinctness; and this is a somewhat
+different consideration from mere constancy of character,
+for two forms may be highly variable and yet not
+yield intermediate varieties. Geographical distribution
+is often unconsciously and sometimes consciously brought
+into play; so that forms living in two widely separated
+areas, in which most of the other inhabitants are specifically
+distinct, are themselves usually looked at as distinct;
+but in truth this affords no aid in distinguishing
+geographical races from so-called good or true species.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us apply these generally-admitted principles
+to the races of man, viewing him in the same spirit as
+a naturalist would any other animal. In regard to the
+amount of difference between the races, we must make
+some allowance for our nice powers of discrimination
+gained by the long habit of observing ourselves. In
+India, as Elphinstone remarks,<a name="FNanchor_282" id="FNanchor_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282" class="fnanchor">282</a> although a newly-arrived
+European cannot at first distinguish the various native
+races, yet they soon appear to him extremely dissimilar;
+and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any difference
+between the several European nations. Even the most
+distinct races of man, with the exception of certain
+negro tribes, are much more like each other in form
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">216</a></span>than would at first be supposed. This is well shewn by
+the French photographs in the Collection Anthropologique
+du Mus&eacute;um of the men belonging to various
+races, the greater number of which, as many persons
+to whom I have shown them have remarked, might
+pass for Europeans. Nevertheless, these men if seen
+alive would undoubtedly appear very distinct, so that
+we are clearly much influenced in our judgment by
+the mere colour of the skin and hair, by slight differences
+in the features, and by expression.</p>
+
+<p>There is, however, no doubt that the various races,
+when carefully compared and measured, differ much
+from each other,&mdash;as in the texture of the hair, the
+relative proportions of all parts of the body,<a name="FNanchor_283" id="FNanchor_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283" class="fnanchor">283</a> the capacity
+of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull,
+and even in the convolutions of the brain.<a name="FNanchor_284" id="FNanchor_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284" class="fnanchor">284</a> But it
+would be an endless task to specify the numerous points
+of structural difference. The races differ also in constitution,
+in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain
+diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very
+distinct; chiefly as it would appear in their emotional,
+but partly in their intellectual, faculties. Every one
+who has had the opportunity of comparison, must have
+been struck with the contrast between the taciturn,
+even morose, aborigines of S. America and the light-hearted,
+talkative negroes. There is a nearly similar
+contrast between the Malays and the Papuans,<a name="FNanchor_285" id="FNanchor_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285" class="fnanchor">285</a> who live
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">217</a></span>under the same physical conditions, and are separated
+from each other only by a narrow space of sea.</p>
+
+<p>We will first consider the arguments which may be
+advanced in favour of classing the races of man as
+distinct species, and then those on the other side. If a
+naturalist, who had never before seen such beings, were
+to compare a Negro, Hottentot, Australian, or Mongolian,
+he would at once perceive that they differed in a multitude
+of characters, some of slight and some of considerable
+importance. On inquiry he would find that they
+were adapted to live under widely different climates, and
+that they differed somewhat in bodily constitution and
+mental disposition. If he were then told that hundreds
+of similar specimens could be brought from the same
+countries, he would assuredly declare that they were as
+good species as many to which he had been in the
+habit of affixing specific names. This conclusion would
+be greatly strengthened as soon as he had ascertained
+that these forms had all retained the same character for
+many centuries; and that negroes, apparently identical
+with existing negroes, had lived at least 4000 years
+ago.<a name="FNanchor_286" id="FNanchor_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286" class="fnanchor">286</a> He would also hear from an excellent observer,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">218</a></span>
+Dr. Lund,<a name="FNanchor_287" id="FNanchor_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287" class="fnanchor">287</a> that the human skulls found in the caves of
+Brazil, entombed with many extinct mammals, belonged
+to the same type as that now prevailing throughout the
+American Continent.</p>
+
+<p>Our naturalist would then perhaps turn to geographical
+distribution, and he would probably declare that
+forms differing not only in appearance, but fitted for
+the hottest and dampest or driest countries, as well as
+for the arctic regions, must be distinct species. He
+might appeal to the fact that no one species in the
+group next to man, namely the Quadrumana, can resist
+a low temperature or any considerable change of climate;
+and that those species which come nearest to man have
+never been reared to maturity, even under the temperate
+climate of Europe. He would be deeply impressed with
+the fact, first noticed by Agassiz,<a name="FNanchor_288" id="FNanchor_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288" class="fnanchor">288</a> that the different
+races of man are distributed over the world in the same
+zoological provinces, as those inhabited by undoubtedly
+distinct species and genera of mammals. This is manifestly
+the case with the Australian, Mongolian, and
+Negro races of man; in a less well-marked manner with
+the Hottentots; but plainly with the Papuans and
+Malays, who are separated, as Mr. Wallace has shewn,
+by nearly the same line which divides the great Malayan
+and Australian zoological provinces. The aborigines
+of America range throughout the Continent; and this
+at first appears opposed to the above rule, for most of
+the productions of the Southern and Northern halves
+differ widely; yet some few living forms, as the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">219</a></span>opossum, range from the one into the other, as did
+formerly some of the gigantic Edentata. The Esquimaux,
+like other Arctic animals, extend round the
+whole polar regions. It should be observed that the
+mammalian forms which inhabit the several zoological
+provinces, do not differ from each other in the same
+degree; so that it can hardly be considered as an
+anomaly that the Negro differs more, and the American
+much less, from the other races of man than do the
+mammals of the same continents from those of the other
+provinces. Man, it may be added, does not appear to
+have aboriginally inhabited any oceanic island; and in
+this respect he resembles the other members of his class.</p>
+
+<p>In determining whether the varieties of the same
+kind of domestic animal should be ranked as specifically
+distinct, that is, whether any of them are descended from
+distinct wild species, every naturalist would lay much
+stress on the fact, if established, of their external parasites
+being specifically distinct. All the more stress would be
+laid on this fact, as it would be an exceptional one, for
+I am informed by Mr. Denny that the most different
+kinds of dogs, fowls, and pigeons, in England, are infested
+by the same species of Pediculi or lice. Now Mr. A.
+Murray has carefully examined the Pediculi collected in
+different countries from the different races of man;<a name="FNanchor_289" id="FNanchor_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289" class="fnanchor">289</a>
+and he finds that they differ, not only in colour, but
+in the structure of their claws and limbs. In every
+case in which numerous specimens were obtained the
+differences were constant. The surgeon of a whaling
+ship in the Pacific assured me that when the Pediculi,
+with which some Sandwich Islanders on board swarmed,
+strayed on to the bodies of the English sailors, they
+died in the course of three or four days. These Pediculi
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">220</a></span>were darker coloured and appeared different from those
+proper to the natives of Chiloe in South America, of
+which he gave me specimens. These, again, appeared
+larger and much softer than European lice. Mr. Murray
+procured four kinds from Africa, namely from the
+Negroes of the Eastern and Western coasts, from the
+Hottentots and Caffres; two kinds from the natives
+of Australia; two from North, and two from South
+America. In these latter cases it may be presumed
+that the Pediculi came from natives inhabiting different
+districts. With insects slight structural differences, if
+constant, are generally esteemed of specific value: and
+the fact of the races of man being infested by parasites,
+which appear to be specifically distinct, might fairly
+be urged as an argument that the races themselves
+ought to be classed as distinct species.</p>
+
+<p>Our supposed naturalist having proceeded thus far
+in his investigation, would next inquire whether the
+races of men, when crossed, were in any degree sterile.
+He might consult the work<a name="FNanchor_290" id="FNanchor_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290" class="fnanchor">290</a> of a cautious and philosophical
+observer, Professor Broca; and in this he would
+find good, evidence that some races were quite fertile
+together; but evidence of an opposite nature in regard to
+other races. Thus it has been asserted that the native
+women of Australia and Tasmania rarely produce
+children to European men; the evidence, however, on
+this head has now been shewn to be almost valueless.
+The half-castes are killed by the pure blacks; and an
+account has lately been published of eleven half-caste
+youths murdered and burnt at the same time, whose
+remains were found by the police.<a name="FNanchor_291" id="FNanchor_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291" class="fnanchor">291</a> Again, it has often
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">221</a></span>been said that when mulattoes intermarry they produce
+few children; on the other hand, Dr. Bachman of
+Charlestown<a name="FNanchor_292" id="FNanchor_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292" class="fnanchor">292</a> positively asserts that he has known
+mulatto families which have intermarried for several
+generations, and have continued on an average as fertile
+as either pure whites or pure blacks. Inquiries formerly
+made by Sir C. Lyell on this subject led him, as he
+informs me, to the same conclusion. In the United
+States the census for the year 1854 included, according
+to Dr. Bachman, 405,751 mulattoes; and this number,
+considering all the circumstances of the case, seems
+small; but it may partly be accounted for by the degraded
+and anomalous position of the class, and by the
+profligacy of the women. A certain amount of absorption
+of mulattoes into negroes must always be in progress;
+and this would lead to an apparent diminution
+of the former. The inferior vitality of mulattoes is
+spoken of in a trustworthy work<a name="FNanchor_293" id="FNanchor_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293" class="fnanchor">293</a> as a well-known
+phenomenon; but this is a different consideration from
+their lessened fertility; and can hardly be advanced as
+a proof of the specific distinctness of the parent races.
+No doubt both animal and vegetable hybrids, when
+produced from extremely distinct species, are liable to
+premature death; but the parents of mulattoes cannot
+be put under the category of extremely distinct species.
+The common Mule, so notorious for long life and vigour,
+and yet so sterile, shews how little necessary connection
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">222</a></span>there is in hybrids between lessened fertility and vitality:
+other analogous cases could be added.</p>
+
+<p>Even if it should hereafter be proved that all the
+races of men were perfectly fertile together, he who was
+inclined from other reasons to rank them as distinct
+species, might with justice argue that fertility and
+sterility are not safe criterions of specific distinctness.
+We know that these qualities are easily affected by
+changed conditions of life or by close inter-breeding,
+and that they are governed by highly complex laws, for
+instance that of the unequal fertility of reciprocal crosses
+between the same two species. With forms which must
+be ranked as undoubted species, a perfect series exists
+from those which are absolutely sterile when crossed,
+to those which are almost or quite fertile. The degrees
+of sterility do not coincide strictly with the degrees of
+difference in external structure or habits of life. Man
+in many respects may be compared with those animals
+which have long been domesticated, and a large body
+of evidence can be advanced in favour of the Pallasian
+doctrine<a name="FNanchor_294" id="FNanchor_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294" class="fnanchor">294</a> that domestication tends to eliminate the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">223</a></span>sterility which is so general a result of the crossing of
+species in a state of nature. From these several considerations,
+it may be justly urged that the perfect fertility
+of the intercrossed races of man, if established,
+would not absolutely preclude us from ranking them as
+distinct species.</p>
+
+<p>Independently of fertility, the character of the offspring
+from a cross has sometimes been thought to
+afford evidence whether the parent-forms ought to be
+ranked as species or varieties; but after carefully studying
+the evidence, I have come to the conclusion that no
+general rules of this kind can be trusted. Thus with
+mankind the offspring of distinct races resemble in all
+respects the offspring of true species and of varieties.
+This is shewn, for instance, by the manner in which
+the characters of both parents are blended, and by
+one form absorbing another through repeated crosses.
+In this latter case the progeny both of crossed species
+and varieties retain for a long period a tendency to
+revert to their ancestors, especially to that one which
+is prepotent in transmission. When any character has
+suddenly appeared in a race or species as the result of a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">224</a></span>single act of variation, as is general with monstrosities,<a name="FNanchor_295" id="FNanchor_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295" class="fnanchor">295</a>
+and this race is crossed with another not thus characterised,
+the characters in question do not commonly
+appear in a blended condition in the young, but are
+transmitted to them either perfectly developed or not at
+all. As with the crossed races of man cases of this kind
+rarely or never occur, this may be used as an argument
+against the view suggested by some ethnologists, namely
+that certain characters, for instance the blackness of the
+negro, first appeared as a sudden variation or sport.
+Had this occurred, it is probable that mulattoes would
+often have been born, either completely black or completely
+white.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">We have now seen that a naturalist might feel himself
+fully justified in ranking the races of man as distinct
+species; for he has found that they are distinguished by
+many differences in structure and constitution, some
+being of importance. These differences have, also, remained
+nearly constant for very long periods of time.
+He will have been in some degree influenced by the
+enormous range of man, which is a great anomaly in
+the class of mammals, if mankind be viewed as a single
+species. He will have been struck with the distribution
+of the several so-called races, in accordance with that
+of other undoubtedly distinct species of mammals.
+Finally he might urge that the mutual fertility of all
+the races has not as yet been fully proved; and even if
+proved would not be an absolute proof of their specific
+identity.</p>
+
+<p>On the other side of the question, if our supposed
+naturalist were to enquire whether the forms of man
+kept distinct like ordinary species, when mingled to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">225</a></span>gether
+in large numbers in the same country, he would
+immediately discover that this was by no means the
+case. In Brazil he would behold an immense mongrel
+population of Negroes and Portuguese; in Chiloe and
+other parts of South America, he would behold the
+whole population consisting of Indians and Spaniards
+blended in various degrees.<a name="FNanchor_296" id="FNanchor_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296" class="fnanchor">296</a> In many parts of the
+same continent he would meet with the most complex
+crosses between Negroes, Indians, and Europeans; and
+such triple crosses afford the severest test, judging from
+the vegetable kingdom, of the mutual fertility of the
+parent-forms. In one island of the Pacific he would
+find a small population of mingled Polynesian and
+English blood; and in the Viti Archipelago a population
+of Polynesians and Negritos crossed in all degrees.
+Many analogous cases could be added, for instance, in
+South Africa. Hence the races of man are not sufficiently
+distinct to co-exist without fusion; and this it
+is, which in all ordinary cases affords the usual test of
+specific distinctness.</p>
+
+<p>Our naturalist would likewise be much disturbed as
+soon as he perceived that the distinctive characters of
+every race of man were highly variable. This strikes
+every one when he first beholds the negro-slaves in
+Brazil, who have been imported from all parts of Africa.
+The same remark holds good with the Polynesians, and
+with many other races. It may be doubted whether
+any character can be named which is distinctive of a
+race and is constant. Savages, even within the limits of
+the same tribe, are not nearly so uniform in character,
+as has often been said. Hottentot women offer certain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">226</a></span>peculiarities, more strongly marked than those occurring
+in any other race, but these are known not to
+be of constant occurrence. In the several American
+tribes, colour and hairyness differ considerably; as does
+colour to a certain degree, and the shape of the features
+greatly, in the Negroes of Africa. The shape of the
+skull varies much in some races;<a name="FNanchor_297" id="FNanchor_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297" class="fnanchor">297</a> and so it is with
+every other character. Now all naturalists have learnt
+by dearly-bought experience, how rash it is to attempt
+to define species by the aid of inconstant characters.</p>
+
+<p>But the most weighty of all the arguments against
+treating the races of man as distinct species, is that they
+graduate into each other, independently in many cases,
+as far as we can judge, of their having intercrossed.
+Man has been studied more carefully than any other
+organic being, and yet there is the greatest possible
+diversity amongst capable judges whether he should be
+classed as a single species or race, or as two (Virey), as
+three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach),
+six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven
+(Pickering), fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins),
+twenty-two (Morton), sixty (Crawfurd), or as
+sixty-three, according to Burke.<a name="FNanchor_298" id="FNanchor_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298" class="fnanchor">298</a> This diversity of
+judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be
+ranked as species, but it shews that they graduate into
+each other, and that it is hardly possible to discover
+clear distinctive characters between them.</p>
+
+<p>Every naturalist who has had the misfortune to under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">227</a></span>take
+the description of a group of highly varying
+organisms, has encountered cases (I speak after experience)
+precisely like that of man; and if of a cautious
+disposition, he will end by uniting all the forms which
+graduate into each other as a single species; for he will
+say to himself that he has no right to give names to
+objects which he cannot define. Cases of this kind occur
+in the Order which includes man, namely in certain
+genera of monkeys; whilst in other genera, as in Cercopithecus,
+most of the species can be determined with
+certainty. In the American genus Cebus, the various
+forms are ranked by some naturalists as species, by
+others as mere geographical races. Now if numerous
+specimens of Cebus were collected from all parts of
+South America, and those forms which at present appear
+to be specifically distinct, were found to graduate
+into each other by close steps, they would be ranked by
+most naturalists as mere varieties or races; and thus the
+greater number of naturalists have acted with respect
+to the races of man. Nevertheless it must be confessed
+that there are forms, at least in the vegetable kingdom,<a name="FNanchor_299" id="FNanchor_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299" class="fnanchor">299</a>
+which we cannot avoid naming as species, but
+which are connected together, independently of intercrossing,
+by numberless gradations.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Some naturalists have lately employed the term
+&#8220;sub-species&#8221; to designate forms which possess many of
+the characteristics of true species, but which hardly deserve
+so high a rank. Now if we reflect on the weighty
+arguments, above given, for raising the races of man to
+the dignity of species, and the insuperable difficulties
+on the other side in defining them, the term &#8220;sub-species&#8221;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">228</a></span>
+might here be used with much propriety. But
+from long habit the term &#8220;race&#8221; will perhaps always
+be employed. The choice of terms is only so far important
+as it is highly desirable to use, as far as that
+may be possible, the same terms for the same degrees of
+difference. Unfortunately this is rarely possible; for
+within the same family the larger genera generally
+include closely-allied forms, which can be distinguished
+only with much difficulty, whilst the smaller genera
+include forms that are perfectly distinct; yet all must
+equally be ranked as species. So again the species
+within the same large genus by no means resemble
+each other to the same degree: on the contrary, in
+most cases some of them can be arranged in little groups
+round other species, like satellites round planets.<a name="FNanchor_300" id="FNanchor_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300" class="fnanchor">300</a></p>
+
+<p>The question whether mankind consists of one or
+several species has of late years been much agitated by
+anthropologists, who are divided into two schools of
+monogenists and polygenists. Those who do not admit
+the principle of evolution, must look at species either
+as separate creations or as in some manner distinct
+entities; and they must decide what forms to rank as
+species by the analogy of other organic beings which
+are commonly thus received. But it is a hopeless endeavour
+to decide this point on sound grounds, until
+some definition of the term &#8220;species&#8221; is generally accepted;
+and the definition must not include an element
+which cannot possibly be ascertained, such as an act of
+creation. We might as well attempt without any definition
+to decide whether a certain number of houses
+should be called a village, or town, or city. We have a
+practical illustration of the difficulty in the never-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">229</a></span>ending
+doubts whether many closely-allied mammals,
+birds, insects, and plants, which represent each other in
+North America and Europe, should be ranked species
+or geographical races; and so it is with the productions
+of many islands situated at some little distance from the
+nearest continent.</p>
+
+<p>Those naturalists, on the other hand, who admit the
+principle of evolution, and this is now admitted by the
+greater number of rising men, will feel no doubt that
+all the races of man are descended from a single primitive
+stock; whether or not they think fit to designate
+them as distinct species, for the sake of expressing their
+amount of difference.<a name="FNanchor_301" id="FNanchor_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301" class="fnanchor">301</a> With our domestic animals the
+question whether the various races have arisen from
+one or more species is different. Although all such
+races, as well as all the natural species within the same
+genus, have undoubtedly sprung from the same primitive
+stock, yet it is a fit subject for discussion, whether,
+for instance, all the domestic races of the dog have
+acquired their present differences since some one species
+was first domesticated and bred by man; or whether they
+owe some of their characters to inheritance from distinct
+species, which had already been modified in a state of
+nature. With mankind no such question can arise, for
+he cannot be said to have been domesticated at any
+particular period.</p>
+
+<p>When the races of man diverged at an extremely
+remote epoch from their common progenitor, they will
+have differed but little from each other, and been few
+in number; consequently they will then, as far as their
+distinguishing characters are concerned, have had less
+claim to rank as distinct species, than the existing so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">230</a></span>-called
+races. Nevertheless such early races would perhaps
+have been ranked by some naturalists as distinct
+species, so arbitrary is the term, if their differences,
+although extremely slight, had been more constant than
+at present, and had not graduated into each other.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, possible, though far from probable,
+that the early progenitors of man might at first have
+diverged much in character, until they became more
+unlike each other than are any existing races; but that
+subsequently, as suggested by Vogt,<a name="FNanchor_302" id="FNanchor_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302" class="fnanchor">302</a> they converged
+in character. When man selects for the same object
+the offspring of two distinct species, he sometimes
+induces, as far as general appearance is concerned,
+a considerable amount of convergence. This is the
+case, as shewn by Von Nathusius,<a name="FNanchor_303" id="FNanchor_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303" class="fnanchor">303</a> with the improved
+breeds of pigs, which are descended from two distinct
+species; and in a less well-marked manner with the
+improved breeds of cattle. A great anatomist, Gratiolet,
+maintains that the anthropomorphous apes do not form
+a natural sub-group; but that the orang is a highly
+developed gibbon or semnopithecus; the chimpanzee
+a highly developed macacus; and the gorilla a highly
+developed mandrill. If this conclusion, which rests
+almost exclusively on brain-characters, be admitted,
+we should have a case of convergence at least in
+external characters, for the anthropomorphous apes are
+certainly more like each other in many points than
+they are to other apes. All analogical resemblances,
+as of a whale to a fish, may indeed be said to be
+cases of convergence; but this term has never been
+applied to superficial and adaptive resemblances. It
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">231</a></span>would be extremely rash in most cases to attribute to
+convergence close similarity in many points of structure
+in beings which had once been widely different.
+The form of a crystal is determined solely by the
+molecular forces, and it is not surprising that dissimilar
+substances should sometimes assume the same form;
+but with organic beings we should bear in mind that
+the form of each depends on an infinitude of complex
+relations, namely on the variations which have arisen,
+these being due to causes far too intricate to be followed
+out,&mdash;on the nature of the variations which have been
+preserved, and this depends on the surrounding physical
+conditions, and in a still higher degree on the surrounding
+organisms with which each has come into
+competition,&mdash;and lastly, on inheritance (in itself a
+fluctuating element) from innumerable progenitors, all
+of which have had their forms determined through
+equally complex relations. It appears utterly incredible
+that two organisms, if differing in a marked manner,
+should ever afterwards converge so closely as to lead
+to a near approach to identity throughout their whole
+organisation. In the case of the convergent pigs above
+referred to, evidence of their descent from two primitive
+stocks is still plainly retained, according to Von Nathusius,
+in certain bones of their skulls. If the races of man
+were descended, as supposed by some naturalists, from
+two or more distinct species, which had differed as much,
+or nearly as much, from each other, as the orang differs
+from the gorilla, it can hardly be doubted that marked
+differences in the structure of certain bones would still
+have been discoverable in man as he now exists.</p>
+
+<p>Although the existing races of man differ in many
+respects, as in colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions
+of the body, &amp;c., yet if their whole organisation be taken<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">232</a></span>
+into consideration they are found to resemble each
+other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these
+points are of so unimportant or of so singular a nature,
+that it is extremely improbable that they should have
+been independently acquired by aboriginally distinct
+species or races. The same remark holds good with
+equal or greater force with respect to the numerous
+points of mental similarity between the most distinct
+races of man. The American aborigines, Negroes and
+Europeans differ as much from each other in mind as any
+three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly
+struck, whilst living with the Fuegians on board the
+&#8220;Beagle,&#8221; with the many little traits of character,
+shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and so
+it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened
+once to be intimate.</p>
+
+<p>He who will carefully read Mr. Tylor&#8217;s and Sir
+J. Lubbock&#8217;s interesting works<a name="FNanchor_304" id="FNanchor_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304" class="fnanchor">304</a> can hardly fail to be
+deeply impressed with the close similarity between
+the men of all races in tastes, dispositions and habits.
+This is shewn by the pleasure which they all take in
+dancing, rude music, acting, painting, tattooing, and
+otherwise decorating themselves,&mdash;in their mutual
+comprehension of gesture-language&mdash;and, as I shall be
+able to shew in a future essay, by the same expression
+in their features, and by the same inarticulate cries,
+when they are excited by various emotions. This
+similarity, or rather identity, is striking, when contrasted
+with the different expressions which may be observed
+in distinct species of monkeys. There is good evidence
+that the art of shooting with bows and arrows has
+not been handed down from any common progenitor of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">233</a></span>mankind, yet the stone arrow-heads, brought from the
+most distant parts of the world and manufactured at the
+most remote periods, are, as Nilsson has shewn,<a name="FNanchor_305" id="FNanchor_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305" class="fnanchor">305</a> almost
+identical; and this fact can only be accounted for by
+the various races having similar inventive or mental
+powers. The same observation has been made by
+arch&aelig;ologists<a name="FNanchor_306" id="FNanchor_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306" class="fnanchor">306</a> with respect to certain widely-prevalent
+ornaments, such as zigzags, &amp;c.; and with respect to
+various simple beliefs and customs, such as the burying
+of the dead under megalithic structures. I remember
+observing in South America,<a name="FNanchor_307" id="FNanchor_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307" class="fnanchor">307</a> that there, as in so many
+other parts of the world, man has generally chosen the
+summits of lofty hills, on which to throw up piles of
+stones, either for the sake of recording some remarkable
+event, or for burying his dead.</p>
+
+<p>Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in
+numerous small details of habits, tastes and dispositions
+between two or more domestic races, or between nearly-allied
+natural forms, they use this fact as an argument
+that all are descended from a common progenitor who
+was thus endowed; and consequently that all should be
+classed under the same species. The same argument
+may be applied with much force to the races of man.</p>
+
+<p>As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant
+points of resemblance between the several races
+of man in bodily structure and mental faculties (I do
+not here refer to similar customs) should all have been
+independently acquired, they must have been inherited
+from progenitors who were thus characterised. We
+thus gain some insight into the early state of man,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">234</a></span>before he had spread step by step over the face of the
+earth. The spreading of man to regions widely separated
+by the sea, no doubt, preceded any considerable
+amount of divergence of character in the several races;
+for otherwise we should sometimes meet with the same
+race in distinct continents; and this is never the case.
+Sir J. Lubbock, after comparing the arts now practised
+by savages in all parts of the world, specifies those
+which man could not have known, when he first wandered
+from his original birthplace; for if once learnt
+they would never have been forgotten.<a name="FNanchor_308" id="FNanchor_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308" class="fnanchor">308</a> He thus shews
+that &#8220;the spear, which is but a development of the
+knife-point, and the club, which is but a long hammer,
+are the only things left.&#8221; He admits, however, that
+the art of making fire probably had already been discovered,
+for it is common to all the races now existing,
+and was known to the ancient cave-inhabitants of
+Europe. Perhaps the art of making rude canoes or
+rafts was likewise known; but as man existed at a remote
+epoch, when the land in many places stood at a
+very different level, he would have been able, without
+the aid of canoes, to have spread widely. Sir J. Lubbock
+further remarks how improbable it is that our earliest
+ancestors could have &#8220;counted as high as ten, considering
+that so many races now in existence cannot get
+beyond four.&#8221; Nevertheless, at this early period, the
+intellectual and social faculties of man could hardly have
+been inferior in any extreme degree to those now possessed
+by the lowest savages; otherwise primeval man
+could not have been so eminently successful in the
+struggle for life, as proved by his early and wide
+diffusion.</p>
+
+<p>From the fundamental differences between certain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">235</a></span>languages, some philologists have inferred that when
+man first became widely diffused he was not a speaking
+animal; but it may be suspected that languages, far
+less perfect than any now spoken, aided by gestures,
+might have been used, and yet have left no traces
+on subsequent and more highly-developed tongues.
+Without the use of some language, however imperfect,
+it appears doubtful whether man&#8217;s intellect could have
+risen to the standard implied by his dominant position
+at an early period.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Whether primeval man, when he possessed very few
+arts of the rudest kind, and when his power of language
+was extremely imperfect, would have deserved to be
+called man, must depend on the definition which we
+employ. In a series of forms graduating insensibly
+from some ape-like creature to man as he now exists,
+it would be impossible to fix on any definite point when
+the term &#8220;man&#8221; ought to be used. But this is a matter
+of very little importance. So again it is almost a
+matter of indifference whether the so-called races of
+man are thus designated, or are ranked as species
+or sub-species; but the latter term appears the most
+appropriate. Finally, we may conclude that when
+the principles of evolution are generally accepted, as
+they surely will be before long, the dispute between the
+monogenists and the polygenists will die a silent and
+unobserved death.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">One other question ought not to be passed over
+without notice, namely, whether, as is sometimes
+assumed, each sub-species or race of man has sprung
+from a single pair of progenitors. With our domestic
+animals a new race can readily be formed from a single
+pair possessing some new character, or even from a
+single individual thus characterised, by carefully match<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">236</a></span>ing
+the varying offspring; but most of our races have
+been formed, not intentionally from a selected pair,
+but unconsciously by the preservation of many individuals
+which have varied, however slightly, in some
+useful or desired manner. If in one country stronger
+and heavier horses, and in another country lighter and
+fleeter horses, were habitually preferred, we may feel
+sure that two distinct sub-breeds would, in the course
+of time, be produced, without any particular pairs
+or individuals having been separated and bred from
+in either country. Many races have been thus formed,
+and their manner of formation is closely analogous with
+that of natural species. We know, also, that the
+horses which have been brought to the Falkland
+Islands have become, during successive generations,
+smaller and weaker, whilst those which have run wild
+on the Pampas have acquired larger and coarser
+heads; and such changes are manifestly due, not to
+any one pair, but to all the individuals having been
+subjected to the same conditions, aided, perhaps, by
+the principle of reversion. The new sub-breeds in
+none of these cases are descended from any single
+pair, but from many individuals which have varied in
+different degrees, but in the same general manner;
+and we may conclude that the races of man have been
+similarly produced, the modifications being either the
+direct result of exposure to different conditions, or the
+indirect result of some form of selection. But to this
+latter subject we shall presently return.</p>
+
+<p><i>On the Extinction of the Races of Man.</i>&mdash;The partial
+and complete extinction of many races and sub-races
+of man are historically known events. Humboldt saw
+in South America a parrot which was the sole living
+creature that could speak the language of a lost tribe.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">237</a></span>
+Ancient monuments and stone implements found in
+all parts of the world, of which no tradition is preserved
+by the present inhabitants, indicate much
+extinction. Some small and broken tribes, remnants
+of former races, still survive in isolated and generally
+mountainous districts. In Europe the ancient
+races were all, according to Schaaffhausen,<a name="FNanchor_309" id="FNanchor_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309" class="fnanchor">309</a> &#8220;lower in
+the scale than the rudest living savages;&#8221; they must
+therefore have differed, to a certain extent, from any
+existing race. The remains described by Professor
+Broca<a name="FNanchor_310" id="FNanchor_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310" class="fnanchor">310</a> from Les Eyzies, though they unfortunately
+appear to have belonged to a single family, indicate a
+race with a most singular combination of low or simious
+and high characteristics, and is &#8220;entirely different
+from any other race, ancient or modern, that we have
+ever heard of.&#8221; It differed, therefore, from the quaternary
+race of the caverns of Belgium.</p>
+
+<p>Unfavourable physical conditions appear to have had
+but little effect in the extinction of races.<a name="FNanchor_311" id="FNanchor_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311" class="fnanchor">311</a> Man has
+long lived in the extreme regions of the North, with
+no wood wherewith to make his canoes or other implements,
+and with blubber alone for burning and giving
+him warmth, but more especially for melting the snow.
+In the Southern extremity of America the Fuegians
+survive without the protection of clothes, or of any
+building worthy to be called a hovel. In South Africa
+the aborigines wander over the most arid plains, where
+dangerous beasts abound. Man can withstand the
+deadly influence of the Terai at the foot of the Himalaya,
+and the pestilential shores of tropical Africa.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">238</a></span></p><p>Extinction follows chiefly from the competition of
+tribe with tribe, and race with race. Various checks
+are always in action, as specified in a former chapter,
+which serve to keep down the numbers of each savage
+tribe,&mdash;such as periodical famines, the wandering of
+the parents and the consequent deaths of infants, prolonged
+suckling, the stealing of women, wars, accidents,
+sickness, licentiousness, especially infanticide, and,
+perhaps, lessened fertility from less nutritious food, and
+many hardships. If from any cause any one of these
+checks is lessened, even in a slight degree, the tribe
+thus favoured will tend to increase; and when one
+of two adjoining tribes becomes more numerous and
+powerful than the other, the contest is soon settled by
+war, slaughter, cannibalism, slavery, and absorption.
+Even when a weaker tribe is not thus abruptly swept
+away, if it once begins to decrease, it generally goes on
+decreasing until it is extinct.<a name="FNanchor_312" id="FNanchor_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312" class="fnanchor">312</a></p>
+
+<p>When civilised nations come into contact with barbarians
+the struggle is short, except where a deadly climate
+gives its aid to the native race. Of the causes which
+lead to the victory of civilised nations, some are plain
+and some very obscure. We can see that the cultivation
+of the land will be fatal in many ways to savages, for
+they cannot, or will not, change their habits. New
+diseases and vices are highly destructive; and it appears
+that in every nation a new disease causes much death,
+until those who are most susceptible to its destructive
+influence are gradually weeded out;<a name="FNanchor_313" id="FNanchor_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313" class="fnanchor">313</a> and so it may be
+with the evil effects from spirituous liquors, as well as
+with the unconquerably strong taste for them shewn by
+so many savages. It further appears, mysterious as is
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">239</a></span>the fact, that the first meeting of distinct and separated
+people generates disease.<a name="FNanchor_314" id="FNanchor_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314" class="fnanchor">314</a> Mr. Sproat, who in Vancouver
+Island closely attended to the subject of extinction,
+believes that changed habits of life, which always
+follow from the advent of Europeans, induces much ill-health.
+He lays, also, great stress on so trifling a cause
+as that the natives become &#8220;bewildered and dull by the
+new life around them; they lose the motives for exertion,
+and get no new ones in their place.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_315" id="FNanchor_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315" class="fnanchor">315</a></p>
+
+<p>The grade of civilisation seems a most important
+element in the success of nations which come in competition.
+A few centuries ago Europe feared the inroads
+of Eastern barbarians; now, any such fear would be ridiculous.
+It is a more curious fact, that savages did not
+formerly waste away, as Mr. Bagehot has remarked,
+before the classical nations, as they now do before
+modern civilised nations; had they done so, the old
+moralists would have mused over the event; but there
+is no lament in any writer of that period over the perishing
+barbarians.<a name="FNanchor_316" id="FNanchor_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316" class="fnanchor">316</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Although the gradual decrease and final extinction
+of the races of man is an obscure problem, we can see
+that it depends on many causes, differing in different
+places and at different times. It is the same difficult
+problem as that presented by the extinction of one of
+the higher animals&mdash;of the fossil horse, for instance,
+which disappeared from South America, soon afterwards
+to be replaced, within the same districts, by countless
+troops of the Spanish horse. The New Zealander seems
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">240</a></span>conscious of this parallelism, for he compares his future
+fate with that of the native rat almost exterminated by
+the European rat. The difficulty, though great to our
+imagination, and really great if we wish to ascertain
+the precise causes, ought not to be so to our reason,
+as long as we keep steadily in mind that the increase of
+each species and each race is constantly hindered by
+various checks; so that if any new check, or cause of
+destruction, even a slight one, be superadded, the race
+will surely decrease in number; and as it has everywhere
+been observed that savages are much opposed to
+any change of habits, by which means injurious checks
+could be counterbalanced, decreasing numbers will
+sooner or later lead to extinction; the end, in most
+cases, being promptly determined by the inroads of
+increasing and conquering tribes.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>On the Formation of the Races of Man.</i>&mdash;It may be
+premised that when we find the same race, though
+broken up into distinct tribes, ranging over a great
+area, as over America, we may attribute their general
+resemblance to descent from a common stock. In some
+cases the crossing of races already, distinct has led to
+the formation of new races. The singular fact that
+Europeans and Hindoos, who belong to the same Aryan
+stock and speak a language fundamentally the same,
+differ widely in appearance, whilst Europeans differ
+but little from Jews, who belong to the Semitic stock
+and speak quite another language, has been accounted
+for by Broca<a name="FNanchor_317" id="FNanchor_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317" class="fnanchor">317</a> through the Aryan branches having been
+largely crossed during their wide diffusion by various
+indigenous tribes. When two races in close contact
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">241</a></span>cross, the first result is a heterogeneous mixture:
+thus Mr. Hunter, in describing the Santali or hill-tribes
+of India, says that hundreds of imperceptible
+gradations may be traced &#8220;from the black, squat tribes
+of the mountains to the tall olive-coloured Brahman,
+with his intellectual brow, calm eyes, and high but
+narrow head;&#8221; so that it is necessary in courts of
+justice to ask the witnesses whether they are Santalis
+or Hindoos.<a name="FNanchor_318" id="FNanchor_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318" class="fnanchor">318</a> Whether a heterogeneous people, such
+as the inhabitants of some of the Polynesian islands,
+formed by the crossing of two distinct races, with few
+or no pure members left, would ever become homogeneous,
+is not known from direct evidence. But as
+with our domesticated animals, a crossed breed can
+certainly, in the course of a few generations, be fixed
+and made uniform by careful selection,<a name="FNanchor_319" id="FNanchor_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319" class="fnanchor">319</a> we may infer
+that the free and prolonged intercrossing during many
+generations of a heterogeneous mixture would supply
+the place of selection, and overcome any tendency to
+reversion, so that a crossed race would ultimately become
+homogeneous, though it might not partake in an
+equal degree of the characters of the two parent-races.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the differences between the races of man, the
+colour of the skin is the most conspicuous and one of
+the best marked. Differences of this kind, it was formerly
+thought, could be accounted for by long exposure
+under different climates; but Pallas first shewed
+that this view is not tenable, and he has been followed
+by almost all anthropologists.<a name="FNanchor_320" id="FNanchor_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320" class="fnanchor">320</a> The view has been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">242</a></span>rejected chiefly because the distribution of the variously
+coloured races, most of whom must have long inhabited
+their present homes, does not coincide with corresponding
+differences of climate. Weight must also be given
+to such cases as that of the Dutch families, who, as
+we hear on excellent authority,<a name="FNanchor_321" id="FNanchor_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321" class="fnanchor">321</a> have not undergone
+the least change of colour, after residing for three centuries
+in South Africa. The uniform appearance in
+various parts of the world of gypsies and Jews, though
+the uniformity of the latter has been somewhat exaggerated,<a name="FNanchor_322" id="FNanchor_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322" class="fnanchor">322</a>
+is likewise an argument on the same side. A
+very damp or a very dry atmosphere has been supposed
+to be more influential in modifying the colour of the
+skin than mere heat; but as D&#8217;Orbigny in South
+America, and Livingstone in Africa, arrived at diametrically
+opposite conclusions with respect to dampness
+and dryness, any conclusion on this head must be considered
+as very doubtful.<a name="FNanchor_323" id="FNanchor_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323" class="fnanchor">323</a></p>
+
+<p>Various facts, which I have elsewhere given, prove
+that the colour of the skin and hair is sometimes correlated
+in a surprising manner with a complete immunity
+from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from
+the attacks of certain parasites. Hence it occurred to
+me, that negroes and other dark races might have
+acquired their dark tints by the darker individuals
+escaping during a long series of generations from
+the deadly influence of the miasmas of their native
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>I afterwards found that the same idea had long ago
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">243</a></span>occurred to Dr. Wells.<a name="FNanchor_324" id="FNanchor_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324" class="fnanchor">324</a> That negroes, and even mulattoes,
+are almost completely exempt from the yellow-fever,
+which is so destructive in tropical America, has
+long been known.<a name="FNanchor_325" id="FNanchor_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325" class="fnanchor">325</a> They likewise escape to a large
+extent the fatal intermittent fevers that prevail along,
+at least, 2600 miles of the shores of Africa, and which
+annually cause one-fifth of the white settlers to die, and
+another fifth to return home invalided.<a name="FNanchor_326" id="FNanchor_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326" class="fnanchor">326</a> This immunity
+in the negro seems to be partly inherent, depending
+on some unknown peculiarity of constitution,
+and partly the result of acclimatisation. Pouchet<a name="FNanchor_327" id="FNanchor_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327" class="fnanchor">327</a>
+states that the negro regiments, borrowed from the
+Viceroy of Egypt for the Mexican war, which had been
+recruited near the Soudan, escaped the yellow-fever
+almost equally well with the negroes originally brought
+from various parts of Africa, and accustomed to the
+climate of the West Indies. That acclimatisation plays
+a part is shewn by the many cases in which negroes,
+after having resided for some time in a colder climate,
+have become to a certain extent liable to tropical
+fevers.<a name="FNanchor_328" id="FNanchor_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328" class="fnanchor">328</a> The nature of the climate under which the
+white races have long resided, likewise has some influence
+on them; for during the fearful epidemic of
+yellow-fever in Demerara during 1837, Dr. Blair found
+that the death-rate of the immigrants was proportional
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">244</a></span>to the latitude of the country whence they had come.
+With the negro the immunity, as far as it is the result
+of acclimatisation, implies exposure during a prodigious
+length of time; for the aborigines of tropical America,
+who have resided there from time immemorial, are not
+exempt from yellow-fever; and the Rev. B. Tristram
+states, that there are districts in Northern Africa which
+the native inhabitants are compelled annually to leave,
+though the negroes can remain with safety.</p>
+
+<p>That the immunity of the negro is in any degree
+correlated with the colour of his skin is a mere conjecture:
+it may be correlated with some difference in his
+blood, nervous system, or other tissues. Nevertheless,
+from the facts above alluded to, and from some connection
+apparently existing between complexion and a
+tendency to consumption, the conjecture seemed to me
+not improbable. Consequently I endeavoured, with but
+little success,<a name="FNanchor_329" id="FNanchor_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329" class="fnanchor">329</a> to ascertain how far it held good. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">245</a></span>late Dr. Daniell, who had long lived on the West Coast
+of Africa, told me that he did not believe in any such
+relation. He was himself unusually fair, and had withstood
+the climate in a wonderful manner. When he
+first arrived as a boy on the coast, an old and experienced
+negro chief predicted from his appearance that
+this would prove the case. Dr. Nicholson, of Antigua,
+after having attended to this subject, wrote to me that
+he did not think that dark-coloured Europeans escaped
+the yellow-fever better than those that were light-coloured.
+Mr. J. M. Harris altogether denies<a name="FNanchor_330" id="FNanchor_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330" class="fnanchor">330</a> that
+Europeans with dark hair withstand a hot climate
+better than other men; on the contrary, experience has
+taught him in making a selection of men for service
+on the coast of Africa, to choose those with red hair.
+As far, therefore, as these slight indications serve, there
+seems no foundation for the hypothesis, which has been
+accepted by several writers, that the colour of the black
+races may have resulted from darker and darker individuals
+having survived in greater numbers, during
+their exposure to the fever-generating miasmas of their
+native countries.</p>
+
+<p>Although with our present knowledge we cannot
+account for the strongly-marked differences in colour
+between the races of man, either through correlation
+with constitutional peculiarities, or through the direct
+action of climate; yet we must not quite ignore the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">246</a></span>latter agency, for there is good reason to believe that
+some inherited effect is thus produced.<a name="FNanchor_331" id="FNanchor_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331" class="fnanchor">331</a></p>
+
+<p>We have seen in our third chapter that the conditions
+of life, such as abundant food and general comfort,
+affect in a direct manner the development of the bodily
+frame, the effects being transmitted. Through the
+combined influences of climate and changed habits of
+life, European settlers, in the United States undergo, as
+is generally admitted, a slight but extraordinarily rapid
+change of appearance. There is, also, a considerable
+body of evidence shewing that in the Southern States
+the house-slaves of the third generation present a
+markedly different appearance from the field-slaves.<a name="FNanchor_332" id="FNanchor_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332" class="fnanchor">332</a></p>
+
+<p>If, however, we look to the races of man, as distributed
+over the world, we must infer that their characteristic
+differences cannot be accounted for by the
+direct action of different conditions of life, even after
+exposure to them for an enormous period of time. The
+Esquimaux live exclusively on animal food; they are
+clothed in thick fur, and are exposed to intense cold
+and to prolonged darkness; yet they do not differ in
+any extreme degree from the inhabitants of Southern
+China, who live entirely on vegetable food and are exposed
+almost naked to a hot, glaring climate. The unclothed
+Fuegians live on the marine productions of their
+inhospitable shores; the Botocudos of Brazil wander
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">247</a></span>about the hot forests of the interior and live chiefly on
+vegetable productions; yet these tribes resemble each
+other so closely that the Fuegians on board the &#8220;Beagle&#8221;
+were mistaken by some Brazilians for Botocudos. The
+Botocudos again, as well as the other inhabitants of
+tropical America, are wholly different from the Negroes
+who inhabit the opposite shores of the Atlantic, are
+exposed to a nearly similar climate, and follow nearly
+the same habits of life.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can the differences between the races of man be
+accounted for, except to a quite insignificant degree, by
+the inherited effects of the increased or decreased use of
+parts. Men who habitually live in canoes, may have
+their legs somewhat stunted; those who inhabit lofty
+regions have their chests enlarged; and those who constantly
+use certain sense-organs have the cavities in
+which they are lodged somewhat increased in size, and
+their features consequently a little modified. With
+civilised nations, the reduced size of the jaws from
+lessened use, the habitual play of different muscles
+serving to express different emotions, and the increased
+size of the brain from greater intellectual activity, have
+together produced a considerable effect on their general
+appearance in comparison with savages.<a name="FNanchor_333" id="FNanchor_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333" class="fnanchor">333</a> It is also
+possible that increased bodily stature, with no corresponding
+increase in the size of the brain, may have
+given to some races (judging from the previously adduced
+cases of the rabbits) an elongated skull of the
+dolichocephalic type.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Lastly, the little-understood principle of correlation
+will almost certainly have come into action, as in the
+case of great muscular development and strongly pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">248</a></span>jecting
+supra-orbital ridges. It is not improbable that
+the texture of the hair, which differs much in the different
+races, may stand in some kind of correlation with
+the structure of the skin; for the colour of the hair
+and skin are certainly correlated, as is its colour and
+texture with the Mandans.<a name="FNanchor_334" id="FNanchor_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334" class="fnanchor">334</a> The colour of the skin
+and the odour emitted by it are likewise in some manner
+connected. With the breeds of sheep the number
+of hairs within a given space and the number of the
+excretory pores stand in some relation to each other.<a name="FNanchor_335" id="FNanchor_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335" class="fnanchor">335</a>
+If we may judge from the analogy of our domesticated
+animals, many modifications of structure in man probably
+come under this principle of correlated growth.</p>
+
+<p>We have now seen that the characteristic differences
+between the races of man cannot be accounted for in a
+satisfactory manner by the direct action of the conditions
+of life, nor by the effects of the continued use of
+parts, nor through the principle of correlation. We
+are therefore led to inquire whether slight individual
+differences, to which man is eminently liable, may
+not have been preserved and augmented during a long
+series of generations through natural selection. But
+here we are at once met by the objection that beneficial
+variations alone can be thus preserved; and as far as
+we are enabled to judge (although always liable to
+error on this head) not one of the external differences
+between the races of man are of any direct or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">249</a></span>special service to him. The intellectual and moral or
+social faculties must of course be excepted from this remark;
+but differences in these faculties can have had
+little or no influence on external characters. The variability
+of all the characteristic differences between the
+races, before referred to, likewise indicates that these
+differences cannot be of much importance; for, had
+they been important, they would long ago have been
+either fixed and preserved, or eliminated. In this
+respect man resembles those forms, called by naturalists
+protean or polymorphic, which have remained extremely
+variable, owing, as it seems, to their variations being of
+an indifferent nature, and consequently to their having
+escaped the action of natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>We have thus far been baffled in all our attempts
+to account for the differences between the races of man;
+but there remains one important agency, namely Sexual
+Selection, which appears to have acted as powerfully
+on man, as on many other animals. I do not intend
+to assert that sexual selection will account for all the
+differences between the races. An unexplained residuum
+is left, about which we can in our ignorance
+only say, that as individuals are continually born with,
+for instance, heads a little rounder or narrower, and
+with noses a little longer or shorter, such slight differences
+might become fixed and uniform, if the unknown
+agencies which induced them were to act in a
+more constant manner, aided by long-continued intercrossing.
+Such modifications come under the provisional
+class, alluded to in our fourth chapter, which for
+the want of a better term have been called spontaneous
+variations. Nor do I pretend that the effects of sexual
+selection can be indicated with scientific precision; but
+it can be shewn that it would be an inexplicable fact if
+man had not been modified by this agency, which has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">250</a></span>
+acted so powerfully on innumerable animals, both high
+and low in the scale. It can further be shewn that the
+differences between the races of man, as in colour, hairyness,
+form of features, &amp;c., are of the nature which it
+might have been expected would have been acted on by
+sexual selection. But in order to treat this subject in a
+fitting manner, I have found it necessary to pass the
+whole animal kingdom in review; I have therefore devoted
+to it the Second Part of this work. At the close
+I shall return to man, and, after attempting to shew
+how far he has been modified through sexual selection,
+will give a brief summary of the chapters in this First
+Part.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">253</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span class="smcap">Part II.&mdash;SEXUAL SELECTION.</span></h2>
+
+<hr />
+<h3>CHAPTER VIII.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Principles of Sexual Selection.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Secondary sexual characters&mdash;Sexual selection&mdash;Manner of action&mdash;Excess
+of males&mdash;Polygamy&mdash;The male alone generally
+modified through sexual selection&mdash;Eagerness of the male&mdash;Variability
+of the male&mdash;Choice exerted by the female&mdash;Sexual
+compared with natural selection&mdash;Inheritance, at corresponding
+periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the year, and as limited
+by sex&mdash;Relations between the several forms of inheritance&mdash;Causes
+why one sex and the young are not modified through
+sexual selection&mdash;Supplement on the proportional numbers of
+the two sexes throughout the animal kingdom&mdash;On the limitation
+of the numbers of the two sexes through natural selection.</p></div>
+
+<p>With animals which have their sexes separated, the
+males necessarily differ from the females in their organs
+of reproduction; and these afford the primary sexual
+characters. But the sexes often differ in what Hunter
+has called secondary sexual characters, which are not
+directly connected with the act of reproduction; for
+instance, in the male possessing certain organs of sense
+or locomotion, of which the female is quite destitute, or
+in having them more highly-developed, in order that
+he may readily find or reach her; or again, in the male
+having special organs of prehension so as to hold her
+securely. These latter organs of infinitely diversified
+kinds graduate into, and in some cases can hardly be
+distinguished from, those which are commonly ranked
+as primary, such as the complex appendages at the
+apex of the abdomen in male insects. Unless indeed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">254</a></span>
+we confine the term &#8220;primary&#8221; to the reproductive
+glands, it is scarcely possible to decide, as far as the
+organs of prehension are concerned, which ought to
+be called primary and which secondary.</p>
+
+<p>The female often differs from the male in having
+organs for the nourishment or protection of her young,
+as the mammary glands of mammals, and the abdominal
+sacks of the marsupials. The male, also, in
+some few cases differs from the female in possessing
+analogous organs, as the receptacles for the ova possessed
+by the males of certain fishes, and those temporarily
+developed in certain male frogs. Female bees
+have a special apparatus for collecting and carrying
+pollen, and their ovipositor is modified into a sting for
+the defence of their larv&aelig; and the community. In the
+females of many insects the ovipositor is modified in
+the most complex manner for the safe placing of the
+eggs. Numerous similar cases could be given, but they
+do not here concern us. There are, however, other
+sexual differences quite disconnected with the primary
+organs with which we are more especially concerned&mdash;such
+as the greater size, strength, and pugnacity of the
+male, his weapons of offence or means of defence
+against rivals, his gaudy colouring and various ornaments,
+his power of song, and other such characters.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the foregoing primary and secondary sexual
+differences, the male and female sometimes differ in
+structures connected with different habits of life, and
+not at all, or only indirectly, related to the reproductive
+functions. Thus the females of certain flies (Culicid&aelig;
+and Tabanid&aelig;) are blood-suckers, whilst the males live
+on flowers and have their mouths destitute of mandibles.<a name="FNanchor_336" id="FNanchor_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336" class="fnanchor">336</a>
+The males alone of certain moths and of some
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">255</a></span>crustaceans (<i>e.g.</i> Tanais) have imperfect, closed mouths,
+and cannot feed. The Complemental males of certain
+cirripedes live like epiphytic plants either on the female
+or hermaphrodite form, and are destitute of a mouth
+and prehensile limbs. In these cases it is the male
+which has been modified and has lost certain important
+organs, which the other members of the same
+group possess. In other cases it is the female which
+has lost such parts; for instance, the female glow-worm
+is destitute of wings, as are many female moths, some
+of which never leave their cocoons. Many female parasitic
+crustaceans have lost their natatory legs. In
+some weevil-beetles (Curculionid&aelig;) there is a great
+difference between the male and female in the length
+of the rostrum or snout;<a name="FNanchor_337" id="FNanchor_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337" class="fnanchor">337</a> but the meaning of this and
+of many analogous differences, is not at all understood.
+Differences of structure between the two sexes in relation
+to different habits of life are generally confined to
+the lower animals; but with some few birds the beak
+of the male differs from that of the female. No doubt
+in most, but apparently not in all these cases, the differences
+are indirectly connected with the propagation
+of the species: thus a female which has to nourish a
+multitude of ova will require more food than the male,
+and consequently will require special means for procuring
+it. A male animal which lived for a very short
+time might without detriment lose through disuse its
+organs for procuring food; but he would retain his
+locomotive organs in a perfect state, so that he might
+reach the female. The female, on the other hand,
+might safely lose her organs for flying, swimming,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">256</a></span>or walking, if she gradually acquired habits which rendered
+such powers useless.</p>
+
+<p>We are, however, here concerned only with that kind
+of selection, which I have called sexual selection. This
+depends on the advantage which certain individuals have
+over other individuals of the same sex and species, in
+exclusive relation to reproduction. When the two sexes
+differ in structure in relation to different habits of life,
+as in the cases above mentioned, they have no doubt
+been modified through natural selection, accompanied
+by inheritance limited to one and the same sex. So
+again the primary sexual organs, and those for nourishing
+or protecting the young, come under this same head;
+for those individuals which generated or nourished their
+offspring best, would leave, <i>c&aelig;teris paribus</i>, the greatest
+number to inherit their superiority; whilst those which
+generated or nourished their offspring badly, would leave
+but few to inherit their weaker powers. As the male
+has to search for the female, he requires for this purpose
+organs of sense and locomotion, but if these organs are
+necessary for the other purposes of life, as is generally
+the case, they will have been developed through natural
+selection. When the male has found the female he
+sometimes absolutely requires prehensile organs to hold
+her; thus Dr. Wallace informs me that the males of certain
+moths cannot unite with the females if their tarsi
+or feet are broken. The males of many oceanic crustaceans
+have their legs and antenn&aelig; modified in an extraordinary
+manner for the prehension of the female;
+hence we may suspect that owing to these animals
+being washed about by the waves of the open sea, they
+absolutely require these organs in order to propagate
+their kind, and if so their development will have been
+the result of ordinary or natural selection.</p>
+
+<p>When the two sexes follow exactly the same habits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">257</a></span>
+of life, and the male has more highly developed sense
+or locomotive organs than the female, it may be that
+these in their perfected state are indispensable to the
+male for finding the female; but in the vast majority
+of cases, they serve only to give one male an advantage
+over another, for the less well-endowed males,
+if time were allowed them, would succeed in pairing
+with the females; and they would in all other
+respects, judging from the structure of the female, be
+equally well adapted for their ordinary habits of life.
+In such cases sexual selection must have come into
+action, for the males have acquired their present structure,
+not from being better fitted to survive in the
+struggle for existence, but from having gained an advantage
+over other males, and from having transmitted
+this advantage to their male offspring alone. It was the
+importance of this distinction which led me to designate
+this form of selection as sexual selection. So again,
+if the chief service rendered to the male by his prehensile
+organs is to prevent the escape of the female
+before the arrival of other males, or when assaulted by
+them, these organs will have been perfected through
+sexual selection, that is by the advantage acquired by
+certain males over their rivals. But in most cases it
+is scarcely possible to distinguish between the effects
+of natural and sexual selection. Whole chapters could
+easily be filled with details on the differences between
+the sexes in their sensory, locomotive, and prehensile
+organs. As, however, these structures are not more
+interesting than others adapted for the ordinary purposes
+of life, I shall almost pass them over, giving only
+a few instances under each class.</p>
+
+<p>There are many other structures and instincts which
+must have been developed through sexual selection&mdash;such
+as the weapons of offence and the means of defence<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">258</a></span>
+possessed by the males for fighting with and driving
+away their rivals&mdash;their courage and pugnacity&mdash;their
+ornaments of many kinds&mdash;their organs for producing
+vocal or instrumental music&mdash;and their glands for
+emitting odours; most of these latter structures serving
+only to allure or excite the female. That these
+characters are the result of sexual and not of ordinary
+selection is clear, as unarmed, unornamented, or unattractive
+males would succeed equally well in the
+battle for life and in leaving a numerous progeny, if
+better endowed males were not present. We may infer
+that this would be the case, for the females, which are
+unarmed and unornamented, are able to survive and
+procreate their kind. Secondary sexual characters of
+the kind just referred to, will be fully discussed in the
+following chapters, as they are in many respects interesting,
+but more especially as they depend on the
+will, choice, and rivalry of the individuals of either sex.
+When we behold two males fighting for the possession
+of the female, or several male birds displaying their
+gorgeous plumage, and performing the strangest antics
+before an assembled body of females, we cannot doubt
+that, though led by instinct, they know what they are
+about, and consciously exert their mental and bodily
+powers.</p>
+
+<p>In the same manner as man can improve the breed
+of his game-cocks by the selection of those birds which
+are victorious in the cockpit, so it appears that the
+strongest and most vigorous males, or those provided
+with the best weapons, have prevailed under nature,
+and have led to the improvement of the natural breed
+or species. Through repeated deadly contests, a slight
+degree of variability, if it led to some advantage, however
+slight, would suffice for the work of sexual selection;
+and it is certain that secondary sexual characters<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">259</a></span>
+are eminently variable. In the same manner as man
+can give beauty, according to his standard of taste, to his
+male poultry&mdash;can give to the Sebright bantam a new
+and elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar carriage&mdash;so
+it appears that in a state of nature female birds, by
+having long selected the more attractive males, have
+added to their beauty. No doubt this implies powers
+of discrimination and taste on the part of the female
+which will at first appear extremely improbable; but
+I hope hereafter to shew that this is not the case.</p>
+
+<p>From our ignorance on several points, the precise
+manner in which sexual selection acts is to a certain
+extent uncertain. Nevertheless if those naturalists who
+already believe in the mutability of species, will read
+the following chapters, they will, I think, agree with
+me that sexual selection has played an important part
+in the history of the organic world. It is certain that
+with almost all animals there is a struggle between the
+males for the possession of the female. This fact is so
+notorious that it would be superfluous to give instances.
+Hence the females, supposing that their mental capacity
+sufficed for the exertion of a choice, could select one out
+of several males. But in numerous cases it appears as
+if it had been specially arranged that there should be
+a struggle between many males. Thus with migratory
+birds, the males generally arrive before the females at
+their place of breeding, so that many males are ready
+to contend for each female. The bird-catchers assert
+that this is invariably the case with the nightingale
+and blackcap, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir,
+who confirms the statement with respect to the latter
+species.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Swaysland of Brighton, who has been in the habit,
+during the last forty years, of catching our migratory
+birds on their first arrival, writes to me that he has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">260</a></span>
+never known the females of any species to arrive before
+their males. During one spring he shot thirty-nine
+males of Ray&#8217;s wagtail (<i>Budytes Raii</i>) before he saw a
+single female. Mr. Gould has ascertained by dissection,
+as he informs me, that male snipes arrive in this
+country before the females. In the case of fish, at the
+period when the salmon ascend our rivers, the males in
+large numbers are ready to breed before the females.
+So it apparently is with frogs and toads. Throughout
+the great class of insects the males almost always
+emerge from the pupal state before the other sex, so
+that they generally swarm for a time before any females
+can be seen.<a name="FNanchor_338" id="FNanchor_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338" class="fnanchor">338</a> The cause of this difference between
+the males and females in their periods of arrival and
+maturity is sufficiently obvious. Those males which
+annually first migrated into any country, or which in
+the spring were first ready to breed, or were the most
+eager, would leave the largest number of offspring;
+and these would tend to inherit similar instincts and
+constitutions. On the whole there can be no doubt that
+with almost all animals, in which the sexes are separate,
+there is a constantly recurrent struggle between the
+males for the possession of the females.</p>
+
+<p>Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in
+understanding how it is that the males which conquer
+other males, or those which prove the most attractive
+to the females, leave a greater number of offspring
+to inherit their superiority than the beaten and less
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">261</a></span>attractive males. Unless this result followed, the characters
+which gave to certain males an advantage over
+others, could not be perfected and augmented through
+sexual selection. When the sexes exist in exactly
+equal numbers, the worst-endowed males will ultimately
+find females (excepting where polygamy prevails), and
+leave as many offspring, equally well fitted for their
+general habits of life, as the best-endowed males. From
+various facts and considerations, I formerly inferred
+that with most animals, in which secondary sexual
+characters were well developed, the males considerably
+exceeded the females in number; and this does hold
+good in some few cases. If the males were to the
+females as two to one, or as three to two, or even in
+a somewhat lower ratio, the whole affair would be
+simple; for the better-armed or more attractive males
+would leave the largest number of offspring. But after
+investigating, as far as possible, the numerical proportions
+of the sexes, I do not believe that any great
+inequality in number commonly exists. In most cases
+sexual selection appears to have been effective in the
+following manner.</p>
+
+<p>Let us take any species, a bird for instance, and
+divide the females inhabiting a district into two equal
+bodies: the one consisting of the more vigorous and
+better-nourished individuals, and the other of the less
+vigorous and healthy. The former, there can be little
+doubt, would be ready to breed in the spring before the
+others; and this is the opinion of Mr. Jenner Weir, who
+has during many years carefully attended to the habits
+of birds. There can also be no doubt that the most
+vigorous, healthy, and best-nourished females would on
+an average succeed in rearing the largest number of
+offspring. The males, as we have seen, are generally
+ready to breed before the females; of the males the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">262</a></span>
+strongest, and with some species the best armed, drive
+away the weaker males; and the former would then
+unite with the more vigorous and best-nourished females,
+as these are the first to breed. Such vigorous
+pairs would surely rear a larger number of offspring
+than the retarded females, which would be compelled,
+supposing the sexes to be numerically equal, to unite
+with the conquered and less powerful males; and this
+is all that is wanted to add, in the course of successive
+generations, to the size, strength and courage of the
+males, or to improve their weapons.</p>
+
+<p>But in a multitude of cases the males which conquer
+other males, do not obtain possession of the females,
+independently of choice on the part of the latter. The
+courtship of animals is by no means so simple and short
+an affair as might be thought. The females are most
+excited by, or prefer pairing with, the more ornamented
+males, or those which are the best songsters, or play the
+best antics; but it is obviously probable, as has been
+actually observed in some cases, that they would at the
+same time prefer the more vigorous and lively males.<a name="FNanchor_339" id="FNanchor_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339" class="fnanchor">339</a>
+Thus the more vigorous females, which are the first to
+breed, will have the choice of many males; and though
+they may not always select the strongest or best armed,
+they will select those which are vigorous and well armed,
+and in other respects the most attractive. Such early
+pairs would have the same advantage in rearing offspring
+on the female side as above explained, and nearly
+the same advantage on the male side. And this apparently
+has sufficed during a long course of generations
+to add not only to the strength and fighting-powers of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">263</a></span>the males, but likewise to their various ornaments or
+other attractions.</p>
+
+<p>In the converse and much rarer case of the males
+selecting particular females, it is plain that those which
+were the most vigorous and had conquered others, would
+have the freest choice; and it is almost certain that they
+would select vigorous as well as attractive females. Such
+pairs would have an advantage in rearing offspring, more
+especially if the male had the power to defend the
+female during the pairing-season, as occurs with some
+of the higher animals, or aided in providing for the
+young. The same principles would apply if both sexes
+mutually preferred and selected certain individuals of
+the opposite sex; supposing that they selected not only
+the more attractive, but likewise the more vigorous
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Numerical Proportion of the Two Sexes.</i>&mdash;I have
+remarked that sexual selection would be a simple
+affair if the males considerably exceeded in number
+the females. Hence I was led to investigate, as far
+as I could, the proportions between the two sexes of
+as many animals as possible; but the materials are
+scanty. I will here give only a brief abstract of the
+results, retaining the details for a supplementary discussion,
+so as not to interfere with the course of my
+argument. Domesticated animals alone afford the
+opportunity of ascertaining the proportional numbers
+at birth; but no records have been specially kept for
+this purpose. By indirect means, however, I have
+collected a considerable body of statistical data, from
+which it appears that with most of our domestic
+animals the sexes are nearly equal at birth. Thus with
+race-horses, 25,560 births have been recorded during
+twenty-one years, and the male births have been to the
+female births as 99&middot;7 to 100. With greyhounds the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">264</a></span>
+inequality is greater than with any other animal, for
+during twelve years, out of 6878 births, the male births
+have been as 110&middot;1 to 100 female births. It is, however,
+in some degree doubtful whether it is safe to infer that
+the same proportional numbers would hold good under
+natural conditions as under domestication; for slight
+and unknown differences in the conditions affect to a
+certain extent the proportion of the sexes. Thus with
+mankind, the male births in England are as 104&middot;5,
+in Russia as 108&middot;9, and with the Jews of Livornia as
+120 <i>to</i> 100 females. The proportion is also mysteriously
+affected by the circumstance of the births being legitimate
+or illegitimate.</p>
+
+<p>For our present purpose we are concerned with the
+proportion of the sexes, not at birth, but at maturity,
+and this adds another element of doubt; for it is a well
+ascertained fact that with man a considerably larger
+proportion of males than of females die before or during
+birth, and during the first few years of infancy. So it
+almost certainly is with male lambs, and so it may be
+with the males of other animals. The males of some
+animals kill each other by fighting; or they drive
+each other about until they become greatly emaciated.
+They must, also, whilst wandering about in eager search
+for the females, be often exposed to various dangers.
+With many kinds of fish the males are much smaller
+than the females, and they are believed often to be
+devoured by the latter or by other fishes. With some
+birds the females appear to die in larger proportion
+than the males: they are also liable to be destroyed on
+their nests, or whilst in charge of their young. With
+insects the female larv&aelig; are often larger than those of
+the males, and would consequently be more likely to be
+devoured: in some cases the mature females are less
+active and less rapid in their movements than the males,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">265</a></span>
+and would not be so well able to escape from danger.
+Hence, with animals in a state of nature, in order to
+judge of the proportions of the sexes at maturity, we
+must rely on mere estimation; and this, except perhaps
+when the inequality is strongly marked, is but little
+trustworthy. Nevertheless, as far as a judgment can
+be formed, we may conclude from the facts given in the
+supplement, that the males of some few mammals, of
+many birds, of some fish and insects, considerably
+exceed in number the females.</p>
+
+<p>The proportion between the sexes fluctuates slightly
+during successive years: thus with race-horses, for every
+100 females born, the males varied from 1O7.1 in one
+year to 92.6 in another year, and with greyhounds from
+116.3 to 95.3. But had larger numbers been tabulated
+throughout a more extensive area than England, these
+fluctuations would probably have disappeared; and such
+as they are, they would hardly suffice to lead under
+a state of nature to the effective action of sexual selection.
+Nevertheless with some few wild animals, the
+proportions seem, as shewn in the supplement, to fluctuate
+either during different seasons or in different
+localities in a sufficient degree to lead to such action.
+For it should be observed that any advantage gained
+during certain years or in certain localities by those
+males which were able to conquer other males, or were
+the most attractive to the females, would probably be
+transmitted to the offspring and would not subsequently
+be eliminated. During the succeeding seasons, when
+from the equality of the sexes every male was everywhere
+able to procure a female, the stronger or more
+attractive males previously produced would still have
+at least as good a chance of leaving offspring as the
+less strong or less attractive.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Polygamy.</i>&mdash;The practice of polygamy leads to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">266</a></span>
+same results as would follow from an actual inequality
+in the number of the sexes; for if each male secures
+two or more females, many males will not be able to
+pair; and the latter assuredly will be the weaker or
+less attractive individuals. Many mammals and some
+few birds are polygamous, but with animals belonging to
+the lower classes I have found no evidence of this habit.
+The intellectual powers of such animals are, perhaps,
+not sufficient to lead them to collect and guard a harem
+of females. That some relation exists between polygamy
+and the development of secondary sexual characters,
+appears nearly certain; and this supports the
+view that a numerical preponderance of males would
+be eminently favourable to the action of sexual selection.
+Nevertheless many animals, especially birds, which are
+strictly monogamous, display strongly-marked secondary
+sexual characters; whilst some few animals, which are
+polygamous, are not thus characterised.</p>
+
+<p>We will first briefly run through the class of mammals,
+and then turn to birds. The gorilla seems to be
+a polygamist, and the male differs considerably from
+the female; so it is with some baboons which live in
+herds containing twice as many adult females as males.
+In South America the <i>Mycetes caraya</i> presents well-marked
+sexual differences in colour, beard, and vocal
+organs, and the male generally lives with two or three
+wives: the male of the <i>Cebus capucinus</i> differs somewhat
+from the female, and appears to be polygamous.<a name="FNanchor_340" id="FNanchor_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340" class="fnanchor">340</a>
+Little is known on this head with respect to most other
+monkeys, but some species are strictly monogamous.
+The ruminants are eminently polygamous, and they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">267</a></span>more frequently present sexual differences than almost
+any other group of mammals, especially in their weapons,
+but likewise in other characters. Most deer, cattle, and
+sheep are polygamous; as are most antelopes, though
+some of the latter are monogamous. Sir Andrew
+Smith, in speaking of the antelopes of South Africa,
+says that in herds of about a dozen there was rarely
+more than one mature male. The Asiatic <i>Antilope
+saiga</i> appears to be the most inordinate polygamist
+in the world; for Pallas<a name="FNanchor_341" id="FNanchor_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341" class="fnanchor">341</a> states that the male drives
+away all rivals, and collects a herd of about a hundred,
+consisting of females and kids: the female is hornless
+and has softer hair, but does not otherwise differ much
+from the male. The horse is polygamous, but, except
+in his greater size and in the proportions of his body,
+differs but little from the mare. The wild boar, in his
+great tusks and some other characters, presents well-marked
+sexual characters; in Europe and in India he
+leads a solitary life, except during the breeding-season;
+but at this season he consorts in India with several
+females, as Sir W. Elliot, who has had large experience
+in observing this animal, believes: whether this holds
+good in Europe is doubtful, but is supported by some
+statements. The adult male Indian elephant, like the
+boar, passes much of his time in solitude; but when
+associating with others, &#8220;it is rare to find,&#8221; as Dr.
+Campbell states, &#8220;more than one male with a whole
+herd of females.&#8221; The larger males expel or kill the
+smaller and weaker ones. The male differs from the
+female by his immense tusks and greater size, strength,
+and endurance; so great is the difference in these latter
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">268</a></span>respects, that the males when caught are valued at
+twenty per cent. above the females.<a name="FNanchor_342" id="FNanchor_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342" class="fnanchor">342</a> With other pachydermatous
+animals the sexes differ very little or not at
+all, and they are not, as far as known, polygamists.
+Hardly a single species amongst the Cheiroptera and
+Edentata, or in the great Orders of the Rodents and
+Insectivora, presents well-developed secondary sexual
+differences; and I can find no account of any species
+being polygamous, excepting, perhaps, the common rat,
+the males of which, as some rat-catchers affirm, live
+with several females.</p>
+
+<p>The lion in South Africa, as I hear from Sir Andrew
+Smith, sometimes lives with a single female, but generally
+with more than one, and, in one case, was found
+with as many as five females, so that he is polygamous.
+He is, as far as I can discover, the sole polygamist in
+the whole group of the terrestrial Carnivora, and he
+alone presents well-marked sexual characters. If, however,
+we turn to the marine Carnivora, the case is widely
+different; for many species of seals offer, as we shall
+hereafter see, extraordinary sexual differences, and they
+are eminently polygamous. Thus the male sea-elephant
+of the Southern Ocean, always possesses, according
+to P&eacute;ron, several females, and the sea-lion of Forster
+is said to be surrounded by from twenty to thirty females.
+In the North, the male sea-bear of Steller is accompanied
+by even a greater number of females.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to birds, many species, the sexes of
+which differ greatly from each other, are certainly
+monogamous. In Great Britain we see well-marked
+sexual differences in, for instance, the wild-duck which
+pairs with a single female, with the common blackbird,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">269</a></span>and with the bullfinch which is said to pair for life. So
+it is, as I am informed by Mr. Wallace, with the Chatterers
+or Cotingid&aelig; of South America, and numerous
+other birds. In several groups I have not been able to
+discover whether the species are polygamous or monogamous.
+Lesson says that birds of paradise, so remarkable
+for their sexual differences, are polygamous,
+but Mr. Wallace doubts whether he had sufficient evidence.
+Mr. Salvin informs me that he has been led
+to believe that humming-birds are polygamous. The
+male widow-bird; remarkable for his caudal plumes,
+certainly seems to be a polygamist.<a name="FNanchor_343" id="FNanchor_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343" class="fnanchor">343</a> I have been
+assured by Mr. Jenner Weir and by others, that three
+starlings not rarely frequent the same nest; but whether
+this is a case of polygamy or polyandry has not been
+ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>The Gallinace&aelig; present almost as strongly marked
+sexual differences as birds of paradise or humming-birds,
+and many of the species are, as is well known,
+polygamous; others being strictly monogamous. What
+a contrast is presented between the sexes by the polygamous
+peacock or pheasant, and the monogamous
+guinea-fowl or partridge! Many similar cases could
+be given, as in the grouse tribe, in which the males
+of the polygamous capercailzie and black-cock differ
+greatly from the females; whilst the sexes of the monogamous
+red grouse and ptarmigan differ very little.
+Amongst the Cursores, no great number of species
+offer strongly-marked sexual differences, except the
+bustards, and the great bustard (<i>Otis tarda</i>), is said to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">270</a></span>be polygamous. With the Grallatores, extremely few
+species differ sexually, but the ruff (<i>Machetes pugnax</i>)
+affords a strong exception, and this species is believed
+by Montagu to be a polygamist. Hence it appears
+that with birds there often exists a close relation
+between polygamy and the development of strongly-marked
+sexual differences. On asking Mr. Bartlett, at
+the Zoological Gardens, who has had such large experience
+with birds, whether the male tragopan (one of
+the Gallinace&aelig;) was polygamous, I was struck by his
+answering, &#8220;I do not know, but should think so from
+his splendid colours.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It deserves notice that the instinct of pairing with a
+single female is easily lost under domestication. The
+wild-duck is strictly monogamous, the domestic-duck
+highly polygamous. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me
+that with some half-tamed wild-ducks, kept on a large
+pond in his neighbourhood, so many mallards were shot
+by the gamekeeper that only one was left for every
+seven or eight females; yet unusually large broods
+were reared. The guinea-fowl is strictly monogamous;
+but Mr. Fox finds that his birds succeed best when he
+keeps one cock to two or three hens.<a name="FNanchor_344" id="FNanchor_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344" class="fnanchor">344</a> Canary-birds
+pair in a state of nature, but the breeders in England
+successfully put one male to four or five females; nevertheless
+the first female, as Mr. Fox has been assured,
+is alone treated as the wife, she and her young ones
+being fed by him; the others are treated as concubines.
+I have noticed these cases, as it renders it in some
+degree probable that monogamous species, in a state of
+nature, might readily become either temporarily or permanently
+polygamous.</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">271</a></span></p>
+<p>With respect to reptiles and fishes, too little is known
+of their habits to enable us to speak of their marriage
+arrangements. The stickle-back Gasterosteus, however,
+is said to be a polygamist;<a name="FNanchor_345" id="FNanchor_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345" class="fnanchor">345</a> and the male during the
+breeding-season differs conspicuously from the female.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">To sum up on the means through which, as far as
+we can judge, sexual selection has led to the development
+of secondary sexual characters. It has been shewn
+that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be
+reared from the pairing of the strongest and best-armed
+males, which have conquered other males, with the
+most vigorous and best-nourished females, which are
+the first to breed in the spring. Such females, if
+they select the more attractive, and at the same time
+vigorous, males, will rear a larger number of offspring
+than the retarded females, which must pair with the
+less vigorous and less attractive males. So it will be
+if the more vigorous males select the more attractive
+and at the same time healthy and vigorous females;
+and this will especially hold good if the male defends
+the female, and aids in providing food for the young.
+The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs
+in rearing a larger number of offspring has apparently
+sufficed to render sexual selection efficient. But a large
+preponderance in number of the males over the females
+would be still more efficient; whether the preponderance
+was only occasional and local, or permanent;
+whether it occurred at birth, or subsequently from the
+greater destruction of the females; or whether it indirectly
+followed from the practice of polygamy.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>The Male generally more modified than the Female.</i>&mdash;Throughout
+the animal kingdom, when the sexes differ
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">272</a></span>from each other in external appearance, it is the male
+which, with rare exceptions, has been chiefly modified;
+for the female still remains more like the young of her
+own species, and more like the other members of the
+same group. The cause of this seems to lie in the
+males of almost all animals having stronger passions
+than the females. Hence it is the males that fight
+together and sedulously display their charms before
+the females; and those which are victorious transmit
+their superiority to their male offspring. Why the
+males do not transmit their characters to both sexes
+will hereafter be considered. That the males of all
+mammals eagerly pursue the females is notorious to
+every one. So it is with birds; but many male birds
+do not so much pursue the female, as display their
+plumage, perform strange antics, and pour forth their
+song, in her presence. With the few fish which have
+been observed, the male seems much more eager than
+the female; and so it is with alligators, and apparently
+with Batrachians. Throughout the enormous class of
+insects, as Kirby remarks,<a name="FNanchor_346" id="FNanchor_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346" class="fnanchor">346</a> &#8220;the law is, that the male
+shall seek the female.&#8221; With spiders and crustaceans,
+as I hear from two great authorities, Mr. Blackwall and
+Mr. C. Spence Bate, the males are more active and more
+erratic in their habits than the females. With insects and
+crustaceans, when the organs of sense or locomotion are
+present in the one sex and absent in the other, or when,
+as is frequently the case, they are more highly developed
+in the one than the other, it is almost invariably the male,
+as far as I can discover, which retains such organs, or has
+them most developed; and this shews that the male is
+the more active member in the courtship of the sexes.<a name="FNanchor_347" id="FNanchor_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347" class="fnanchor">347</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">273</a></span></p><p>The female, on the other hand, with the rarest exception,
+is less eager than the male. As the illustrious
+Hunter<a name="FNanchor_348" id="FNanchor_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348" class="fnanchor">348</a> long ago observed, she generally &#8220;requires to
+be courted;&#8221; she is coy, and may often be seen endeavouring
+for a long time to escape from the male.
+Every one who has attended to the habits of animals
+will be able to call to mind instances of this kind.
+Judging from various facts, hereafter to be given, and
+from the results which may fairly be attributed to
+sexual selection, the female, though comparatively
+passive, generally exerts some choice and accepts one
+male in preference to others. Or she may accept, as
+appearances would sometimes lead us to believe, not
+the male which is the most attractive to her, but the
+one which is the least distasteful. The exertion of
+some choice on the part of the female seems almost as
+general a law as the eagerness of the male.</p>
+
+<p>We are naturally led to enquire why the male in so
+many and such widely distinct classes has been rendered
+more eager than the female, so that he searches
+for her and plays the more active part in courtship.
+It would be no advantage and some loss of power if
+both sexes were mutually to search for each other; but
+why should the male almost always be the seeker?
+With plants, the ovules after fertilisation have to be
+nourished for a time; hence the pollen is necessarily
+brought to the female organs&mdash;being placed on the
+stigma, through the agency of insects or of the wind,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">274</a></span>or by the spontaneous movements of the stamens; and
+with the Alg&aelig;, &amp;c., by the locomotive power of the
+antherozooids. With lowly-organised animals permanently
+affixed to the same spot and having their sexes
+separate, the male element is invariably brought to
+the female; and we can see the reason; for the ova,
+even if detached before being fertilised and not requiring
+subsequent nourishment or protection, would
+be, from their larger relative size, less easily transported
+than the male element. Hence plants<a name="FNanchor_349" id="FNanchor_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349" class="fnanchor">349</a> and many of
+the lower animals are, in this respect, analogous. In
+the case of animals not affixed to the same spot, but
+enclosed within a shell with no power of protruding any
+part of their bodies, and in the case of animals having
+little power of locomotion, the males must trust the
+fertilising element to the risk of at least a short transit
+through the waters of the sea. It would, therefore, be
+a great advantage to such animals, as their organisation
+became perfected, if the males when ready to emit the
+fertilising element, were to acquire the habit of approaching
+the female as closely as possible. The males
+of various lowly-organised animals having thus aboriginally
+acquired the habit of approaching and seeking
+the females, the same habit would naturally be transmitted
+to their more highly developed male descendants;
+and in order that they should become efficient
+seekers, they would have to be endowed with strong
+passions. The acquirement of such passions would
+naturally follow from the more eager males leaving a
+larger number of offspring than the less eager.</p>
+
+<p>The great eagerness of the male has thus indirectly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">275</a></span>led to the much more frequent development of secondary
+sexual characters in the male than in the female.
+But the development of such characters will have been
+much aided, if the conclusion at which I arrived after
+studying domesticated animals, can be trusted, namely,
+that the male is more liable to vary than the female.
+I am aware how difficult it is to verify a conclusion of
+this kind. Some slight evidence, however, can be gained
+by comparing the two sexes in mankind, as man has
+been more carefully observed than any other animal.
+During the Novara Expedition<a name="FNanchor_350" id="FNanchor_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350" class="fnanchor">350</a> a vast number of measurements
+of various parts of the body in different races
+were made, and the men were found in almost every
+case to present a greater range of variation than the
+women; but I shall have to recur to this subject in
+a future chapter. Mr. J. Wood,<a name="FNanchor_351" id="FNanchor_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351" class="fnanchor">351</a> who has carefully
+attended to the variation of the muscles in man, puts
+in italics the conclusion that &#8220;the greatest number of
+abnormalities in each subject is found in the males.&#8221;
+He had previously remarked that &#8220;altogether in 102
+subjects the varieties of redundancy were found to
+be half as many again as in females, contrasting
+widely with the greater frequency of deficiency in
+females before described.&#8221; Professor Macalister like
+wise remarks<a name="FNanchor_352" id="FNanchor_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352" class="fnanchor">352</a> that variations in the muscles &#8220;are
+probably more common in males than females.&#8221;
+Certain muscles which are not normally present in mankind
+are also more frequently developed in the male
+than in the female sex, although exceptions to this rule
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">276</a></span>are said to occur. Dr. Burt Wilder<a name="FNanchor_353" id="FNanchor_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353" class="fnanchor">353</a> has tabulated
+the cases of 152 individuals with supernumerary digits,
+of which 86 were males, and 39, or less than half,
+females; the remaining 27 being of unknown sex. It
+should not, however, be overlooked that women would
+more frequently endeavour to conceal a deformity of
+this kind than men. Whether the large proportional
+number of deaths of the male offspring of man and
+apparently of sheep, compared with the female offspring,
+before, during, and shortly after birth (see supplement),
+has any relation to a stronger tendency in the organs
+of the male to vary and thus to become abnormal in
+structure or function, I will not pretend to conjecture.</p>
+
+<p>In various classes of animals a few exceptional cases
+occur, in which the female instead of the male has
+acquired well pronounced secondary sexual characters,
+such as brighter colours, greater size, strength, or pugnacity.
+With birds, as we shall hereafter see, there
+has sometimes been a complete transposition of the
+ordinary characters proper to each sex; the females
+having become the more eager in courtship, the males
+remaining comparatively passive, but apparently selecting,
+as we may infer from the results, the more attractive
+females. Certain female birds have thus been rendered
+more highly coloured or otherwise ornamented, as well
+as more powerful and pugnacious than the males, these
+characters being transmitted to the female offspring
+alone.</p>
+
+<p>It may be suggested that in some cases a double
+process of selection has been carried on; the males
+having selected the more attractive females, and the
+latter the more attractive males. This process however,
+though it might lead to the modification of both sexes,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">277</a></span>would not make the one sex different from the other,
+unless indeed their taste for the beautiful differed; but
+this is a supposition too improbable in the case of any
+animal, excepting man, to be worth considering. There
+are, however, many animals, in which the sexes resemble
+each other, both being furnished with the same ornaments,
+which analogy would lead us to attribute to the
+agency of sexual selection. In such cases it may be
+suggested with more plausibility, that there has been a
+double or mutual process of sexual selection; the more
+vigorous and precocious females having selected the
+more attractive and vigorous males, the latter having
+rejected all except the more attractive females. But
+from what we know of the habits of animals, this view is
+hardly probable, the male being generally eager to
+pair with any female. It is more probable that the
+ornaments common to both sexes were acquired by one
+sex, generally the male, and then transmitted to the offspring
+of both sexes. If, indeed, during a lengthened
+period the males of any species were greatly to exceed
+the females in number, and then during another
+lengthened period under different conditions the reverse
+were to occur, a double, but not simultaneous, process
+of sexual selection might easily be carried on, by which
+the two sexes might be rendered widely different.</p>
+
+<p>We shall hereafter see that many animals exist, of
+which neither sex is brilliantly coloured or provided
+with special ornaments, and yet the members of both
+sexes or of one alone have probably been modified
+through sexual selection. The absence of bright tints
+or other ornaments may be the result of variations of
+the right kind never having occurred, or of the animals
+themselves preferring simple colours, such as plain black
+or white. Obscure colours have often been acquired
+through natural selection for the sake of protection, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">278</a></span>
+the acquirement through sexual selection of conspicuous
+colours, may have been checked from the danger thus
+incurred. But in other cases the males have probably
+struggled together during long ages, through brute
+force, or by the display of their charms, or by both
+means combined, and yet no effect will have been produced
+unless a larger number of offspring were left by
+the more successful males to inherit their superiority,
+than by the less successful males; and this, as previously
+shewn, depends on various complex contingencies.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual selection acts in a less rigorous manner than
+natural selection. The latter produces its effects by the
+life or death at all ages of the more or less successful
+individuals. Death, indeed, not rarely ensues from the
+conflicts of rival males. But generally the less successful
+male merely fails to obtain a female, or obtains later
+in the season a retarded and less vigorous female, or,
+if polygamous, obtains fewer females; so that they
+leave fewer, or less vigorous, or no offspring. In
+regard to structures acquired through ordinary or
+natural selection, there is in most cases, as long as the
+conditions of life remain the same, a limit to the amount
+of advantageous modification in relation to certain special
+ends; but in regard to structures adapted to make one
+male victorious over another, either in fighting or in
+charming the female, there is no definite limit to the
+amount of advantageous modification; so that as long as
+the proper variations arise the work of sexual selection
+will go on. This circumstance may partly account for
+the frequent and extraordinary amount of variability
+presented by secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless,
+natural selection will determine that characters of this
+kind shall not be acquired by the victorious males,
+which would be injurious to them in any high degree,
+either by expending too much of their vital powers, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">279</a></span>
+by exposing them to any great danger. The development,
+however, of certain structures&mdash;of the horns, for
+instance, in certain stags&mdash;has been carried to a
+wonderful extreme; and in some instances to an
+extreme which, as far as the general conditions of life
+are concerned, must be slightly injurious to the male.
+From this fact we learn that the advantages which
+favoured males have derived from conquering other
+males in battle or courtship, and thus leaving a
+numerous progeny, have been in the long run greater
+than those derived from rather more perfect adaptation
+to the external conditions of life. We shall further see,
+and this could never have been anticipated, that the
+power to charm the female has been in some few instances
+more important than the power to conquer other
+males in battle.</p>
+
+<h4>LAWS OF INHERITANCE.</h4>
+
+<p class="tb">In order to understand how sexual selection has
+acted, and in the course of ages has produced conspicuous
+results with many animals of many classes, it is necessary
+to bear in mind the laws of inheritance, as far as
+they are known. Two distinct elements are included
+under the term &#8220;inheritance,&#8221; namely the transmission
+and the development of characters; but as these
+generally go together, the distinction is often overlooked.
+We see this distinction in those characters
+which are transmitted through the early years of life,
+but are developed only at maturity or during old
+age. We see the same distinction more clearly with
+secondary sexual characters, for these are transmitted
+through both sexes, though developed in one alone.
+That they are present in both sexes, is manifest when
+two species, having strongly-marked sexual characters,
+are crossed, for each transmits the characters proper to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">280</a></span>
+its own male and female sex to the hybrid offspring of
+both sexes. The same fact is likewise manifest, when
+characters proper to the male are occasionally developed
+in the female when she grows old or becomes
+diseased; and so conversely with the male. Again,
+characters occasionally appear, as if transferred from
+the male to the female, as when, in certain breeds of the
+fowl, spurs regularly appear in the young and healthy
+females; but in truth they are simply developed in the
+female; for in every breed each detail in the structure
+of the spur is transmitted through the female to her
+male offspring. In all cases of reversion, characters
+are transmitted through two, three, or many generations,
+and are then under certain unknown favourable conditions
+developed. This important distinction between
+transmission and development will be easiest kept in
+mind by the aid of the hypothesis of pangenesis, whether
+or not it be accepted as true. According to this hypothesis,
+every unit or cell of the body throws off gemmules
+or undeveloped atoms, which are transmitted to the
+offspring of both sexes, and are multiplied by self-division.
+They may remain undeveloped during the
+early years of life or during successive generations;
+their development into units or cells, like those from
+which they were derived, depending on their affinity
+for, and union with, other units or cells previously
+developed in the due order of growth.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Inheritance at Corresponding Periods of Life.</i>&mdash;This
+tendency is well established. If a new character appears
+in an animal whilst young, whether it endures throughout
+life or lasts only for a time, it will reappear, as a
+general rule, at the same age and in the same manner
+in the offspring. If, on the other hand, a new character
+appears at maturity, or even during old age, it tends<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">281</a></span>
+to reappear in the offspring at the same advanced age.
+When deviations from this rule occur, the transmitted
+characters much oftener appear before than after the
+corresponding age. As I have discussed this subject
+at sufficient length in another work,<a name="FNanchor_354" id="FNanchor_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354" class="fnanchor">354</a> I will here merely
+give two or three instances, for the sake of recalling the
+subject to the reader&#8217;s mind. In several breeds of the
+Fowl, the chickens whilst covered with down, in their
+first true plumage, and in their adult plumage, differ
+greatly from each other, as well as from their common
+parent-form, the <i>Gallus bankiva</i>; and these characters
+are faithfully transmitted by each breed to their
+offspring at the corresponding period of life. For
+instance, the chickens of spangled Hamburghs, whilst
+covered with down, have a few dark spots on the head
+and rump, but are not longitudinally striped, as in
+many other breeds; in their first true plumage, &#8220;they
+are beautifully pencilled,&#8221; that is each feather is
+transversely marked by numerous dark bars; but in
+their second plumage the feathers all become spangled
+or tipped with a dark round spot.<a name="FNanchor_355" id="FNanchor_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355" class="fnanchor">355</a> Hence in this
+breed variations have occurred and have been transmitted
+at three distinct periods of life. The Pigeon offers
+a more remarkable case, because the aboriginal parent-species
+does not undergo with advancing age any change
+of plumage, excepting that at maturity the breast
+becomes more iridescent; yet there are breeds which
+do not acquire their characteristic colours until they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">282</a></span>have moulted two, three, or four times; and these
+modifications of plumage are regularly transmitted.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Inheritance at Corresponding Seasons of the Year.</i>&mdash;With
+animals in a state of nature innumerable
+instances occur of characters periodically appearing at
+different seasons. We see this with the horns of the
+stag, and with the fur of arctic animals which becomes
+thick and white during the winter. Numerous birds
+acquire bright colours and other decorations during the
+breeding-season alone. I can throw but little light on
+this form of inheritance from facts observed under
+domestication. Pallas states,<a name="FNanchor_356" id="FNanchor_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356" class="fnanchor">356</a> that in Siberia domestic
+cattle and horses periodically become lighter-coloured
+during the winter; and I have observed a similar
+marked change of colour in certain ponies in England.
+Although I do not know that this tendency to assume a
+differently coloured coat during different seasons of the
+year is transmitted, yet it probably is so, as all shades of
+colour are strongly inherited by the horse. Nor is this
+form of inheritance, as limited by season, more remarkable
+than inheritance as limited by age or sex.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inheritance as Limited by Sex.</i>&mdash;The equal transmission
+of characters to both, sexes is the commonest
+form of inheritance, at least with those animals which
+do not present strongly-marked sexual differences, and
+indeed with many of these. But characters are not
+rarely transferred exclusively to that sex, in which they
+first appeared. Ample evidence on this head has been
+advanced in my work on Variation under Domestica<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">283</a></span>tion;
+but a few instances may here be given. There
+are breeds of the sheep and goat, in which the horns
+of the male differ greatly in shape from those of the
+female; and these differences, acquired under domestication,
+are regularly transmitted to the same sex.
+With tortoise-shell cats the females alone, as a general
+rule, are thus coloured, the males being rusty-red.
+With most breeds of the fowl, the characters proper
+to each sex are transmitted to the same sex alone. So
+general is this form of transmission that it is an anomaly
+when we see in certain breeds variations transmitted
+equally to both sexes. There are also certain
+sub-breeds of the fowl in which the males can hardly
+be distinguished from each other, whilst the females
+differ considerably in colour. With the pigeon the
+sexes of the parent-species do not differ in any external
+character; nevertheless in certain domesticated breeds
+the male is differently coloured from the female.<a name="FNanchor_357" id="FNanchor_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357" class="fnanchor">357</a>
+The wattle in the English Carrier pigeon and the crop
+in the Pouter are more highly developed in the male
+than in the female; and although these characters have
+been gained through long-continued selection by man,
+the difference between the two sexes is wholly due to
+the form of inheritance which has prevailed; for it
+has arisen, not from, but rather in opposition to, the
+wishes of the breeder.</p>
+
+<p>Most of our domestic races have been formed by the
+accumulation of many slight variations; and as some
+of the successive steps have been transmitted to one
+sex alone, and some to both sexes, we find in the different
+breeds of the same species all gradations between
+great sexual dissimilarity and complete similarity. In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">284</a></span>stances
+have already been given with the breeds of the
+fowl and pigeon; and under nature analogous cases are
+of frequent occurrence. With animals under domestication,
+but whether under nature I will not venture to
+say, one sex may lose characters proper to it, and may
+thus come to resemble to a certain extent the opposite
+sex; for instance, the males of some breeds of the fowl
+have lost their masculine plumes and hackles. On the
+other hand the differences between the sexes may be
+increased under domestication, as with merino sheep, in
+which the ewes have lost their horns. Again, characters
+proper to one sex may suddenly appear in the other
+sex; as with those sub-breeds of the fowl in which the
+hens whilst young acquire spurs; or, as in certain
+Polish sub-breeds, in which the females, as there is
+reason to believe, originally acquired a crest, and subsequently
+transferred it to the males. All these cases
+are intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis; for
+they depend on the gemmules of certain units of the
+body, although present in both sexes, becoming through
+the influence of domestication dormant in the one sex;
+or if naturally dormant, becoming developed.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">There is one difficult question which it will be convenient
+to defer to a future chapter; namely, whether
+a character at first developed in both sexes, can be rendered
+through selection limited in its development to
+one sex alone. If, for instance, a breeder observed that
+some of his pigeons (in which species characters are
+usually transferred in an equal degree to both sexes)
+varied into pale blue; could he by long-continued
+selection make a breed, in which the males alone should
+be of this tint, whilst the females remained unchanged?
+I will here only say, that this, though perhaps not
+impossible, would be extremely difficult; for the natural
+result of breeding from the pale-blue males would be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">285</a></span>
+to change his whole stock, including both sexes, into
+this tint. If, however, variations of the desired tint
+appeared, which were from the first limited in their
+development to the male sex, there would not be the
+least difficulty in making a breed characterised by the
+two sexes being of a different colour, as indeed has been
+effected with a Belgian breed, in which the males alone
+are streaked with black. In a similar manner, if any
+variation appeared in a female pigeon, which was from
+the first sexually limited in its development, it would
+be easy to make a breed with the females alone thus
+characterised; but if the variation was not thus originally
+limited, the process would be extremely difficult, perhaps
+impossible.</p>
+
+<p><i>On the Relation between the period of Development of a
+Character and its transmission to one sex or to both sexes.</i>&mdash;Why
+certain characters should be inherited by both
+sexes, and other characters by one sex alone, namely by
+that sex in which the character first appeared, is in most
+cases quite unknown. We cannot even conjecture why
+with certain sub-breeds of the pigeon, black stri&aelig;, though
+transmitted through the female, should be developed in
+the male alone, whilst every other character is equally
+transferred to both sexes. Why, again, with cats, the
+tortoise-shell colour should, with rare exceptions, be
+developed in the female alone. The very same characters,
+such as deficient or supernumerary digits, colour-blindness,
+&amp;c., may with mankind be inherited by the
+males alone of one family, and in another family by the
+females alone, though in both cases transmitted through
+the opposite as well as the same sex.<a name="FNanchor_358" id="FNanchor_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358" class="fnanchor">358</a> Although we
+are thus ignorant, two rules often hold good, namely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">286</a></span>that variations which, first appear in either sex at a late
+period of life, tend to be developed in the same sex
+alone; whilst variations which first appear early in life
+in either sex tend to be developed in both sexes. I am,
+however, far from supposing that this is the sole determining
+cause. As I have not elsewhere discussed
+this subject, and as it has an important bearing on
+sexual selection, I must here enter into lengthy and
+somewhat intricate details.</p>
+
+<p>It is in itself probable that any character appearing
+at an early age would tend to be inherited equally by
+both sexes, for the sexes do not differ much in constitution,
+before the power of reproduction is gained. On
+the other hand, after this power has been gained and the
+sexes have come to differ in constitution, the gemmules
+(if I may again use the language of pangenesis) which
+are cast off from each varying part in the one sex would
+be much more likely to possess the proper affinities
+for uniting with the tissues of the same sex, and thus
+becoming developed, than with those of the opposite
+sex.</p>
+
+<p>I was first led to infer that a relation of this kind
+exists, from the fact that whenever and in whatever
+manner the adult male has come to differ from the
+adult female, he differs in the same manner from the
+young of both sexes. The generality of this fact is quite
+remarkable: it holds good with almost all mammals,
+birds, amphibians, and fishes; also with many crustaceans,
+spiders and some few insects, namely certain
+orthoptera and libellul&aelig;. In all these cases the variations,
+through the accumulation of which the male acquired
+his proper masculine characters, must have occurred
+at a somewhat late period of life; otherwise the
+young males would have been similarly characterised;
+and conformably with our rule, they are transmitted to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">287</a></span>
+and developed in the adult males alone. When, on the
+other hand, the adult male closely resembles the young
+of both sexes (these, with rare exceptions, being alike),
+he generally resembles the adult female; and in most of
+these cases the variations through which the young and
+old acquired their present characters, probably occurred
+in conformity with our rule during youth. But there is
+here room for doubt, as characters are sometimes transferred
+to the offspring at an earlier age than that at
+which they first appeared in the parents, so that the
+parents may have varied when adult, and have transferred
+their characters to their offspring whilst young.
+There are, moreover, many animals, in which the two
+sexes closely resemble each other, and yet both differ
+from their young; and here the characters of the adults
+must have been acquired late in life; nevertheless,
+these characters in apparent contradiction to our rule,
+are transferred to both sexes. We must not, however,
+overlook the possibility or even probability of successive
+variations of the same nature sometimes occurring,
+under exposure to similar conditions, simultaneously in
+both sexes at a rather late period of life; and in this case
+the variations would be transferred to the offspring of
+both sexes at a corresponding late age; and there would
+be no real contradiction to our rule of the variations
+which occur late in life being transferred exclusively to
+the sex in which they first appeared. This latter rule
+seems to hold true more generally than the second rule,
+namely, that variations which occur in either sex early
+in life tend to be transferred to both sexes. As it was
+obviously impossible even to estimate in how large a
+number of cases throughout the animal kingdom these
+two propositions hold good, it occurred to me to investigate
+some striking or crucial instances, and to rely
+on the result.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">288</a></span>An excellent case for investigation is afforded by the
+Deer Family. In all the species, excepting one, the
+horns are developed in the male alone, though certainly
+transmitted through the female, and capable of occasional
+abnormal development in her. In the reindeer, on the
+other hand, the female is provided with horns; so that
+in this species, the horns ought, according to our rule,
+to appear early in life, long before the two sexes had
+arrived at maturity and had come to differ much in
+constitution. In all the other species of deer the horns
+ought to appear later in life, leading to their development
+in that sex alone, in which they first appeared
+in the progenitor of the whole Family. Now in seven
+species, belonging to distinct sections of the family and
+inhabiting different regions, in which the stags alone
+bear horns, I find that the horns first appear at periods
+varying from nine months after birth in the roebuck to
+ten or twelve or even more months in the stags of the
+six other larger species.<a name="FNanchor_359" id="FNanchor_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359" class="fnanchor">359</a> But with the reindeer the
+case is widely different, for as I hear from Prof. Nilsson,
+who kindly made special enquiries for me in Lapland,
+the horns appear in the young animals within four or
+five weeks after birth, and at the same time in both
+sexes. So that here we have a structure, developed at
+a most unusually early age in one species of the family,
+and common to both sexes in this one species.</p>
+
+<p>In several kinds of antelopes the males alone are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">289</a></span>provided with horns, whilst in the greater number both
+sexes have horns. With respect to the period of development,
+Mr. Blyth informs me that there lived
+at one time in the Zoological Gardens a young koodoo
+(<i>Ant. strepsiceros</i>), in which species the males alone
+are horned, and the young of a closely-allied species,
+viz. the eland (<i>Ant. oreas</i>), in which both sexes are
+horned. Now in strict conformity with our rule, in the
+young male koodoo, although arrived at the age of ten
+months, the horns were remarkably small considering
+the size ultimately attained by them: whilst in the
+young male eland, although only three months old, the
+horns were already very much larger than in the koodoo.
+It is also worth notice that in the prong-horned antelope,<a name="FNanchor_360" id="FNanchor_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360" class="fnanchor">360</a>
+in which species the horns, though present in both
+sexes, are almost rudimentary in the female, they do not
+appear until about five or six months after birth. With
+sheep, goats, and cattle, in which the horns are well
+developed in both sexes, though not quite equal in size,
+they can be felt, or even seen, at birth or soon afterwards.<a name="FNanchor_361" id="FNanchor_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361" class="fnanchor">361</a>
+Our rule, however, fails in regard to some
+breeds of sheep, for instance merinos, in which the rams
+alone are horned; for I cannot find on enquiry,<a name="FNanchor_362" id="FNanchor_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362" class="fnanchor">362</a> that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">290</a></span>the horns are developed later in life in this breed than
+in ordinary sheep in which both sexes are horned. But
+with domesticated sheep the presence or absence of
+horns is not a firmly fixed character; a certain proportion
+of the merino ewes bearing small horns, and some of the
+rams being hornless; whilst with ordinary sheep hornless
+ewes are occasionally produced.</p>
+
+<p>In most of the species of the splendid family of the
+Pheasants, the males differ conspicuously from the
+females, and they acquire their ornaments at a rather
+late period of life. The eared pheasant (<i>Crossoptilon
+auritum</i>), however, offers a remarkable exception, for
+both sexes possess the fine caudal plumes, the large ear-tufts
+and the crimson velvet about the head; and I find
+on enquiry in the Zoological Gardens that all these
+characters, in accordance with our rule, appear very
+early in life. The adult male can, however, be distinguished
+from the adult female by one character, namely
+by the presence of spurs; and conformably with our
+rule, these do not begin to be developed, as I am assured
+by Mr. Bartlett, before the age of six months, and even
+at this age, can hardly be distinguished in the two
+sexes.<a name="FNanchor_363" id="FNanchor_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363" class="fnanchor">363</a> The male and female Peacock differ con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">291</a></span>spicuously
+from each other in almost every part of their
+plumage, except in the elegant head-crest, which is
+common to both sexes; and this is developed very early
+in life, long before the other ornaments which are confined
+to the male. The wild-duck offers an analogous
+case, for the beautiful green speculum on the wings
+is common to both sexes, though duller and somewhat
+smaller in the female, and it is developed early in life,
+whilst the curled tail-feathers and other ornaments
+peculiar to the male are developed later.<a name="FNanchor_364" id="FNanchor_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364" class="fnanchor">364</a> Between
+such extreme cases of close sexual resemblance and
+wide dissimilarity, as those of the Crossoptilon and
+peacock, many intermediate ones could be given, in
+which the characters follow in their order of development
+our two rules.</p>
+
+<p>As most insects emerge from their pupal state in a
+mature condition, it is doubtful whether the period of
+development determines the transference of their characters
+to one or both sexes. But we do not know that
+the coloured scales, for instance, in two species of butterflies,
+in one of which the sexes differ in colour, whilst
+in the other they are alike, are developed at the same
+relative age in the cocoon. Nor do we know whether
+all the scales are simultaneously developed on the wings
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">292</a></span>of the same species of butterfly, in which certain coloured
+marks are confined to one sex, whilst other marks are
+common to both sexes. A difference of this kind in the
+period of development is not so improbable as it may
+at first appear; for with the Orthoptera, which assume
+their adult state, not by a single metamorphosis, but by
+a succession of moults, the young males of some species
+at first resemble the females, and acquire their distinctive
+masculine characters only during a later moult.
+Strictly analogous cases occur during the successive
+moults of certain male crustaceans.</p>
+
+<p>We have as yet only considered the transference of
+characters, relatively to their period of development, with
+species in a natural state; we will now turn to domesticated
+animals; first touching on monstrosities and
+diseases. The presence of supernumerary digits, and
+the absence of certain phalanges, must be determined
+at an early embryonic period&mdash;the tendency to profuse
+bleeding is at least congenital, as is probably colour-blindness&mdash;yet
+these peculiarities, and other similar
+ones, are often limited in their transmission to one sex;
+so that the rule that characters which are developed
+at an early period tend to be transmitted to both sexes,
+here wholly fails. But this rule, as before remarked,
+does not appear to be nearly so generally true as the
+converse proposition, namely, that characters which
+appear late in life in one sex are transmitted exclusively
+to the same sex. From the fact of the above
+abnormal peculiarities becoming attached to one sex.
+long before the sexual functions are active, we may
+infer that there must be a difference of some kind
+between the sexes at an extremely early age. With
+respect to sexually-limited diseases, we know too little
+of the period at which they originate, to draw any
+fair conclusion. Gout, however, seems to fall under<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">293</a></span>
+our rule; for it is generally caused by intemperance
+after early youth, and is transmitted from the father
+to his sons in a much more marked manner than to his
+daughters.</p>
+
+<p>In the various domestic breeds of sheep, goats, and
+cattle, the males differ from their respective females
+in the shape or development of their horns, forehead,
+mane, dewlap, tail, and hump on the shoulders; and
+these peculiarities, in accordance with our rule, are not
+fully developed until rather late in life. With dogs,
+the sexes do not differ, except that in certain breeds,
+especially in the Scotch deer-hound, the male is much
+larger and heavier than the female; and as we shall see
+in a future chapter, the male goes on increasing in size
+to an unusually late period of life, which will account,
+according to our rule, for his increased size being transmitted
+to his male offspring alone. On the other hand,
+the tortoise-shell colour of the hair, which is confined
+to female cats, is quite distinct at birth, and this case
+violates our rule. There is a breed of pigeons in which
+the males alone are streaked with black, and the streaks
+can be detected even in the nestlings; but they become
+more conspicuous at each successive moult, so that this
+case partly opposes and partly supports the rule. With
+the English Carrier and Pouter pigeon the full development
+of the wattle and the crop occurs rather late in
+life, and these characters, conformably with our rule,
+are transmitted in full perfection to the males alone.
+The following cases perhaps come within the class previously
+alluded to, in which the two sexes have varied
+in the same manner at a rather late period of life, and
+have consequently transferred their new characters to
+both sexes at a corresponding late period; and if so,
+such cases are not opposed to our rule. Thus there
+are sub-breeds of the pigeon, described by Neumeis<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">294</a></span>ter,<a name="FNanchor_365" id="FNanchor_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365" class="fnanchor">365</a>
+both sexes of which change colour after moulting
+twice or thrice, as does likewise the Almond Tumbler;
+nevertheless these changes, though occurring rather
+late in life, are common to both sexes. One variety
+of the Canary-bird, namely the London Prize, offers a
+nearly analogous case.</p>
+
+<p>With the breeds of the Fowl the inheritance of various
+characters by one sex or by both sexes, seems generally
+determined by the period at which such characters are
+developed. Thus in all the many breeds in which the
+adult male differs greatly in colour from the female and
+from the adult male parent-species, he differs from the
+young male, so that the newly acquired characters must
+have appeared at a rather late period of life. On the
+other hand with most of the breeds in which the two sexes
+resemble each other, the young are coloured in nearly
+the same manner as their parents, and this renders it
+probable that their colours first appeared early in life.
+We have instances of this fact in all black and white
+breeds, in which the young and old of both sexes are
+alike; nor can it be maintained that there is something
+peculiar in a black or white plumage, leading to its
+transference to both sexes; for the males alone of many
+natural species are either black or white, the females
+being very differently coloured. With the so-called
+Cuckoo sub-breeds of the fowl, in which the feathers are
+transversely pencilled with dark stripes, both sexes and
+the chickens are coloured in nearly the same manner.
+The laced plumage of the Sebright bantam is the same
+in both sexes, and in the chickens the feathers are tipped
+with black, which makes a near approach to lacing.
+Spangled Hamburghs, however, offer a partial exception,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">295</a></span>for the two sexes, though not quite alike, resemble each
+other more closely than do the sexes of the aboriginal
+parent-species, yet they acquire their characteristic
+plumage late in life, for the chickens are distinctly
+pencilled. Turning to other characters besides colour:
+the males alone of the wild parent-species and of most
+domestic breeds possess a fairly well developed comb, but
+in the young of the Spanish fowl it is largely developed
+at a very early age, and apparently in consequence of
+this it is of unusual size in the adult females. In the
+Game breeds pugnacity is developed at a wonderfully
+early age, of which curious proofs could be given; and
+this character is transmitted to both sexes, so that the
+hens, from their extreme pugnacity, are now generally
+exhibited in separate pens. With the Polish breeds the
+bony protuberance of the skull which supports the crest
+is partially developed even before the chickens are
+hatched, and the crest itself soon begins to grow, though
+at first feebly;<a name="FNanchor_366" id="FNanchor_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366" class="fnanchor">366</a> and in this breed a great bony protuberance
+and an immense crest characterise the adults of
+both sexes.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Finally, from what we have now seen of the relation
+which exists in many natural species and domesticated
+races, between the period of the development of their
+characters and the manner of their transmission&mdash;for
+example the striking fact of the early growth of the
+horns in the reindeer, in which both sexes have horns,
+in comparison with their much later growth in the
+other species in which the male alone bears horns&mdash;we
+may conclude that one cause, though not the sole
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">296</a></span>cause, of characters being exclusively inherited by one
+sex, is their development at a late age. And secondly,
+that one, though apparently a less efficient, cause of
+characters being inherited by both sexes is their development
+at an early age, whilst the sexes differ but
+little in constitution. It appears, however, that some
+difference must exist between the sexes even during an
+early embryonic period, for characters developed at this
+age not rarely become attached to one sex.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summary and concluding remarks.</i>&mdash;From the foregoing
+discussion on the various laws of inheritance, we
+learn that characters often or even generally tend to
+become developed in the same sex, at the same age,
+and periodically at the same season of the year, in
+which they first appeared in the parents. But these
+laws, from unknown causes, are very liable to change.
+Hence the successive steps in the modification of a
+species might readily be transmitted in different ways;
+some of the steps being transmitted to one sex,
+and some to both; some to the offspring at one age,
+and some at all ages. Not only are the laws of inheritance
+extremely complex, but so are the causes which
+induce and govern variability. The variations thus
+caused are preserved and accumulated by sexual selection,
+which is in itself an extremely complex affair,
+depending, as it does, on ardour in love, courage, and
+the rivalry of the males, and on the powers of perception,
+taste, and will of the female. Sexual selection will
+also be dominated by natural selection for the general
+welfare of the species. Hence the manner in which the
+individuals of either sex or of both sexes are affected
+through sexual selection cannot fail to be complex in
+the highest degree.</p>
+
+<p>When variations occur late in life in one sex, and are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">297</a></span>
+transmitted to the same sex at the same age, the other
+sex and the young are necessarily left unmodified.
+When they occur late in life, but are transmitted to
+both sexes at the same age, the young alone are left unmodified.
+Variations, however, may occur at any period
+of life in one sex or in both, and be transmitted to both
+sexes at all ages, and then all the individuals of the
+species will be similarly modified. In the following chapters
+it will be seen that all these cases frequently
+occur under nature.</p>
+
+<p>Sexual selection can never act on any animal whilst
+young, before the age for reproduction has arrived.
+From the great eagerness of the male it has generally
+acted on this sex and not on the females. The
+males have thus become provided with weapons for
+fighting with their rivals, or with organs for discovering
+and securely holding the female, or for exciting and
+charming her. When the sexes differ in these respects,
+it is also, as we have seen, an extremely general law
+that the adult male differs more or less from the young
+male; and we may conclude from this fact that the
+successive variations, by which the adult male became
+modified, cannot have occurred much before the age
+for reproduction. How then are we to account for this
+general and remarkable coincidence between the period
+of variability and that of sexual selection,&mdash;principles
+which are quite independent of each other? I think
+we can see the cause: it is not that the males have
+never varied at an early age, but that such variations
+have commonly been lost, whilst those occurring at a
+later age have been preserved.</p>
+
+<p>All animals produce more offspring than can survive
+to maturity; and we have every reason to believe that
+death falls heavily on the weak and inexperienced
+young. If then a certain proportion of the offspring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">298</a></span>
+were to vary at birth or soon afterwards, in some
+manner which at this age was of no service to them,
+the chance of the preservation of such variations would
+be small. We have good evidence under domestication
+how soon variations of all kinds are lost, if not selected.
+But variations which occurred at or near maturity, and
+which were of immediate service to either sex, would
+probably be preserved; as would similar variations
+occurring at an earlier period in any individuals which
+happened to survive. As this principle has an important
+bearing on sexual selection, it may be advisable to
+give an imaginary illustration. We will take a pair of
+animals, neither very fertile nor the reverse, and assume
+that after arriving at maturity they live on an average
+for five years, producing each year five young. They
+would thus produce 25 offspring; and it would not, I
+think, be an unfair estimate to assume that 18 or 20
+out of the 25 would perish before maturity, whilst still
+young and inexperienced; the remaining seven or five
+sufficing to keep up the stock of mature individuals.
+If so, we can see that variations which occurred during
+youth, for instance in brightness, and which were not
+of the least service to the young, would run a good
+chance of being utterly lost. Whilst similar variations,
+which occurring at or near maturity in the comparatively
+few individuals surviving to this age, and which
+immediately gave an advantage to certain males, by
+rendering them more attractive to the females, would be
+likely to be preserved. No doubt some of the variations
+in brightness which occurred at an earlier age
+would by chance be preserved, and eventually give to
+the male the same advantage as those which appeared
+later; and this will account for the young males commonly
+partaking to a certain extent (as may be observed
+with many birds) of the bright colours of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">299</a></span>
+adult male parents. If only a few of the successive
+variations in brightness were to occur at a late age,
+the adult male would be only a little brighter than the
+young male; and such cases are common.</p>
+
+<p>In this illustration I have assumed that the young
+varied in a manner which was of no service to them;
+but many characters proper to the adult male would be
+actually injurious to the young,&mdash;as bright colours from
+making them conspicuous, or horns of large size from
+expending much vital force. Such variations in the
+young would promptly be eliminated through natural
+selection. With the adult and experienced males, on
+the other hand, the advantage thus derived in their
+rivalry with other males would often more than counterbalance
+exposure to some degree of danger. Thus we
+can understand how it is that variations which must
+originally have appeared rather late in life have alone
+or in chief part been preserved for the development of
+secondary sexual characters; and the remarkable coincidence
+between the periods of variability and of sexual
+selection is intelligible.</p>
+
+<p>As variations which give to the male an advantage
+in lighting with other males, or in finding, securing,
+or charming the female, would be of no use to the
+female, they will not have been preserved in this sex
+either during youth or maturity. Consequently such
+variations would be extremely liable to be lost; and the
+female, as far as these characters are concerned, would be
+left unmodified, excepting in so far as she may have received
+them by transference from the male. No doubt if
+the female varied and transferred serviceable characters
+to her male offspring, these would be favoured through
+sexual selection; and then both sexes would thus far be
+modified in the same manner. But I shall hereafter
+have to recur to these more intricate contingencies.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">300</a></span>In the following chapters, I shall treat of the
+secondary sexual characters in animals of all classes,
+and shall endeavour in each case to apply the principles
+explained in the present chapter. The lowest
+classes will detain us for a very short time, but the
+higher animals, especially birds, must be treated at
+considerable length. It should be borne in mind that
+for reasons already assigned, I intend to give only a few
+illustrative instances of the innumerable structures by
+the aid of which the male finds the female, or, when
+found, holds her. On the other hand, all structures
+and instincts by which the male conquers other males,
+and by which he allures or excites the female, will be
+fully discussed, as these are in many ways the most
+interesting.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Supplement on the proportional numbers of the two sexes
+in animals belonging to various classes.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="tb">As no one, as far as I can discover, has paid attention
+to the relative numbers of the two sexes throughout
+the animal kingdom, I will here give such materials
+as I have been able to collect, although they are extremely
+imperfect. They consist in only a few instances
+of actual enumeration, and the numbers are not very
+large. As the proportions are known with certainty on
+a large scale in the case of man alone, I will first give
+them, as a standard of comparison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Man.</i>&mdash;In England during ten years (from 1857 to
+1866) 707,120 children on an annual average have
+been born alive, in the proportion of 104.5 males to
+100 females. But in 1857 the male births throughout
+England were as 105.2, and in 1865 as 104.0 to
+100. Looking to separate districts, in Buckinghamshire
+(where on an average 5000 children are annually born)<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">301</a></span>
+the <i>mean</i> proportion of male to female births, during
+the whole period of the above ten years, was as 102.8
+to 100; whilst in N. Wales (where the average annual
+births are 12,873) it was as high as 106.2 to 100.
+Taking a still smaller district, viz., Rutlandshire (where
+the annual births average only 739), in 1864 the male
+births were as 114.6, and in 1862 as 97.0 to 100; but
+even in this small district the average of the 7385
+births during the whole ten years was as 104.5 to 100;
+that is in the same ratio as throughout England.<a name="FNanchor_367" id="FNanchor_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367" class="fnanchor">367</a>
+The proportions are sometimes slightly disturbed by
+unknown causes; thus Prof. Faye states &#8220;that in
+some districts of Norway there has been during a
+decennial period a steady deficiency of boys, whilst
+in others the opposite condition has existed.&#8221; In
+France during forty-four years the male to the female
+births have been as 106.2 to 100; but during this
+period it has occurred five times in one department,
+and six times in another, that the female births have
+exceeded the males. In Russia the average proportion
+is as high as 108.9 to 100.<a name="FNanchor_368" id="FNanchor_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368" class="fnanchor">368</a> It is a singular fact that
+with Jews the proportion of male births is decidedly
+larger than with Christians: thus in Prussia the proportion
+is as 113, in Breslau as 114, and in Livonia as 120
+to 100; the Christian births in these countries being
+the same as usual, for instance, in Livonia as 104 to
+100.<a name="FNanchor_369" id="FNanchor_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369" class="fnanchor">369</a> It is a still more singular fact that in different
+nations, under different conditions and climates, in
+Naples, Prussia, Westphalia, France and England, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">302</a></span>excess of male over female births is less when they are
+illegitimate than when legitimate.<a name="FNanchor_370" id="FNanchor_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370" class="fnanchor">370</a></p>
+
+<p>In various parts of Europe, according to Prof. Faye
+and other authors, &#8220;a still greater preponderance of
+males would be met with, if death struck both sexes
+in equal proportion in the womb and during birth.
+But the fact is, that for every 100 still-born females,
+we have in several countries from 134.6 to 144.9
+still-born males.&#8221; Moreover during the first four or
+five years of life more male children die than females;
+&#8220;for example in England, during the first year, 126
+boys die for every 100 girls,&mdash;a proportion which in
+France is still more unfavourable.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_371" id="FNanchor_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371" class="fnanchor">371</a> As a consequence
+of this excess in the death-rate of male children, and of
+the exposure of men when adult to various dangers, and of
+their tendency to emigrate, the females in all old-settled
+countries, where statistical records have been kept,<a name="FNanchor_372" id="FNanchor_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372" class="fnanchor">372</a> are
+found to preponderate considerably over the males.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It has often been supposed that the relative ages
+of the parents determine the sex of the offspring;
+and Prof. Leuckart<a name="FNanchor_373" id="FNanchor_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373" class="fnanchor">373</a> has advanced what he considers
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">303</a></span>sufficient evidence, with respect to man and certain
+domesticated animals, to shew that this is one important
+factor in the result. So again the period of
+impregnation has been thought to be the efficient cause;
+but recent observations discountenance this belief.
+Again, with mankind polygamy has been supposed to
+lead to the birth of a greater proportion of female
+infants; but Dr. J. Campbell<a name="FNanchor_374" id="FNanchor_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374" class="fnanchor">374</a> carefully attended to
+this subject in the harems of Siam, and he concludes
+that the proportion of male to female births is the
+same as from monogamous unions. Hardly any animal
+has been rendered so highly polygamous as our English
+race-horses, and we shall immediately see that their
+male and female offspring are almost exactly equal in
+number.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p class="tb"><i>Horses.</i>&mdash;Mr. Tegetmeier has been so kind as to tabulate for me
+from the &#8216;Racing Calendar&#8217; the births of race-horses during a period
+of twenty-one years, viz. from 1846 to 1867; 1849 being omitted,
+as no returns were that year published. The total births have
+been 25,560,<a name="FNanchor_375" id="FNanchor_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375" class="fnanchor">375</a> consisting of 12,763 males and 12,797 females, or in
+the proportion of 99.7 males to 100 females. As these numbers are
+tolerably large, and as they are drawn from all parts of England,
+during several years, we may with much confidence conclude that
+with the domestic horse, or at least with the race-horse, the two
+sexes are produced in almost equal numbers. The fluctuations in
+the proportions during successive years are closely like those which
+occur with mankind, when a small and thinly-populated area is considered:
+thus in 1856 the male horses were as 107.1, and in 1867
+as only 92.6 to 100 females. In the tabulated returns the proportions
+vary in cycles, for the males exceeded the females during six
+successive years; and the females exceeded the males during two
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">304</a></span>periods each of four years: this, however, may be accidental; at
+least I can detect nothing of the kind with man in the decennial
+table in the Registrar&#8217;s Report for 1866. I may add that certain,
+mares, and this holds good with certain cows and with women,
+tend to produce more of one sex than of the other; Mr. Wright of
+Yeldersley House, informs me that one of his Arab mares, though
+put seven times to different horses, produced seven fillies.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Dogs.</i>&mdash;During a period of twelve years, from 1857 to 1868, the
+births of a large number of greyhounds, throughout England, have
+been sent to the &#8216;Field&#8217; newspaper; and I am again indebted to
+Mr. Tegetmeier for carefully tabulating the results. The recorded,
+births have been 6878, consisting of 3605 males and 3273 females,
+that is, in the proportion of 110.1 males to 100 females. The
+greatest fluctuations occurred in 1864, when the proportion was as
+95.3 males, and in 1867, as 116.3 males to 100 females. The above
+average proportion of 110.1 to 100 is probably nearly correct in the
+case of the greyhound, but whether it would hold with other domesticated
+breeds is in some degree doubtful. Mr. Cupples has enquired
+from several great breeders of dogs, and finds that all without
+exception believe that females are produced in excess; he suggests
+that this belief may have arisen from females being less valued and
+the consequent disappointment producing a stronger impression on
+the mind.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Sheep.</i>&mdash;The sexes of sheep are not ascertained by agriculturists
+until several months after birth, at the period when the males are
+castrated; so that the following returns do not give the proportions
+at birth. Moreover, I find that several great breeders in Scotland,
+who annually raise some thousand sheep, are firmly convinced that
+a larger proportion of males than of females die during the first one
+or two years; therefore the proportion of males would be somewhat
+greater at birth than at the age of castration. This is a remarkable
+coincidence with what occurs, as we have seen, with mankind, and
+both cases probably depend on some common cause. I have received
+returns from four gentlemen in England who have bred lowland
+sheep, chiefly Leicesters, during the last ten or sixteen years;
+they amount altogether to 8965 births, consisting of 4407 males
+and 4558 females; that is in the proportion of 96.7 males to 100
+females. With respect to Cheviot and black-faced sheep bred in
+Scotland, I have received returns from six breeders, two of them on
+a large scale, chiefly for the years 1867-1869, but some of the
+returns extending back to 1862. The total number recorded
+amounts to 50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 females,
+or in the proportion of 97.9 males to 100 females. If we take the
+English and Scotch returns together, the total number amounts
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">305</a></span>to 59,650, consisting of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or as
+97&middot;7 to 100. So that with sheep at the age of castration the females
+are certainly in excess of the males; but whether this would hold
+good at birth is doubtful, owing to the greater liability in the males
+to early death.<a name="FNanchor_376" id="FNanchor_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376" class="fnanchor">376</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Of <i>Cattle</i> I have received returns from nine gentlemen of 982
+births, too few to be trusted; these consisted of 477 bull-calves and
+505 cow-calves; <i>i.e.</i> in the proportion of 94&middot;4 males to 100 females.
+The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that in 1867 out of 34 calves born
+on a farm in Derbyshire only one was a bull. Mr. Harrison Weir
+writes to me that he has enquired from several breeders of <i>Pigs</i>, and
+most of them estimate the male to the female births as about
+7 to 6. This same gentleman has bred <i>Rabbits</i> for many years,
+and has noticed that a far greater number of bucks are produced
+than does.</p>
+
+<p>Of mammalia in a state of nature I have been able to learn very
+little. In regard to the common rat, I have received conflicting
+statements. Mr. R. Elliot of Laighwood, informs me that a rat-catcher
+assured him that he had always found the males in
+great excess, even with the young in the nest. In consequence
+of this, Mr. Elliot himself subsequently examined some hundred
+old ones, and found the statement true. Mr. F. Buckland has
+bred a large number of white rats, and he also believes that the
+males greatly exceed the females. In regard to Moles, it is said
+that &#8220;the males are much more numerous than the females;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_377" id="FNanchor_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377" class="fnanchor">377</a>
+and as the catching of these animals is a special occupation, the
+statement may perhaps be trusted. Sir A. Smith, in describing
+an antelope of S. Africa<a name="FNanchor_378" id="FNanchor_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378" class="fnanchor">378</a> (<i>Kobus ellipsiprymnus</i>), remarks, that
+in the herds of this and other species, the males are few in number
+compared with the females: the natives believe that they are born
+in this proportion; others believe that the younger males are expelled
+from the herds, and Sir A. Smith says, that though he has
+himself never seen herds consisting of young males alone, others
+affirm that this does occur. It appears probable that the young
+males when expelled from the herd, would be likely to fell a prey
+to the many beasts of prey of the country.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">306</a></span></p>
+<h4>BIRDS.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p>With respect to the <i>Fowl</i>, I have received only one account,
+namely, that out of 1001 chickens of a highly-bred stock of Cochins,
+reared during eight years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved males and 514
+females: <i>i.e.</i> as 94.7 to 100. In regard to domestic pigeons there is
+good evidence that the males are produced in excess, or that their
+lives are longer; for these birds invariably pair, and single males,
+as Mr. Tegetmeier informs me, can always be purchased cheaper
+than females. Usually the two birds reared from the two eggs
+laid in the same nest consist of a male and female; but Mr. Harrison
+Weir, who has been so large a breeder, says that he has often bred
+two cocks from the same nest, and seldom two hens; moreover the
+hen is generally the weaker of the two, and more liable to perish.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to birds in a state of nature, Mr. Gould and others<a name="FNanchor_379" id="FNanchor_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379" class="fnanchor">379</a>
+are convinced that the males are generally the more numerous; and
+as the young males of many species resemble the females, the latter
+would naturally appear to be the most numerous. Large numbers of
+pheasants are reared by Mr. Baker of Leadenhall from eggs laid
+by wild birds, and he informs Mr. Jenner Weir that four or five
+males to one female are generally produced. An experienced observer
+remarks<a name="FNanchor_380" id="FNanchor_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380" class="fnanchor">380</a> that in Scandinavia the broods of the capercailzie
+and black-cock contain more males than females; and that with the
+Dal-ripa (a kind of ptarmigan) more males than females attend the
+<i>leks</i> or places of courtship; but this latter circumstance is accounted
+for by some observers by a greater number of hen birds being killed
+by vermin. From various facts given by White of Selbourne,<a name="FNanchor_381" id="FNanchor_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381" class="fnanchor">381</a> it
+seems clear that the males of the partridge must be in considerable excess
+in the south of England; and I have been assured that this
+is the case in Scotland. Mr. Weir on enquiring from the dealers
+who receive at certain seasons large numbers of ruffs (<i>Machetes
+pugnax</i>) was told that the males are much the most numerous.
+This same naturalist has also enquired for me from the bird-catchers,
+who annually catch an astonishing number of various small
+species alive for the London market, and he was unhesitatingly
+answered by an old and trustworthy man, that with the chaffinch
+the males are in large excess; he thought as high as 2 males to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">307</a></span>1 female, or at least as high as 5 to 3.<a name="FNanchor_382" id="FNanchor_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382" class="fnanchor">382</a> The males of the blackbird,
+he likewise maintained, were by far the most numerous, whether
+caught by traps or by netting at night. These statements
+may apparently be trusted, because the same man said that the
+sexes are about equal with the lark, the twite (<i>Linaria montana</i>),
+and goldfinch. On the other hand he is certain that with the
+common linnet, the females preponderate greatly, but unequally
+during different years; during some years he has found the females
+to the males as four to one. It should, however, be borne in mind,
+that the chief season for catching birds does not begin till September,
+so that with some species partial migrations may have begun,
+and the flocks at this period often consist of hens alone. Mr. Salvin
+paid particular attention to the sexes of the humming-birds in
+Central America, and he is convinced that with most of the species
+the males are in excess; thus one year he procured 204 specimens
+belonging to ten species, and these consisted of 166 males and of
+38 females. With two other species the females were in excess:
+but the proportions apparently vary either during different seasons
+or in different localities; for on one occasion the males of <i>Campylopterus
+hemileucurus</i> were to the females as five to two, and
+on another occasion<a name="FNanchor_383" id="FNanchor_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383" class="fnanchor">383</a> in exactly the reversed ratio. As bearing on
+this latter point, I may add, that Mr. Powys found in Corfu and
+Epirus the sexes of the chaffinch keeping apart, and &#8220;the females
+by far the most numerous;&#8221; whilst in Palestine Mr. Tristram
+found &#8220;the male flocks appearing greatly to exceed the female in
+number.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_384" id="FNanchor_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384" class="fnanchor">384</a> So again with the <i>Quiscalus major</i>, Mr. G. Taylor<a name="FNanchor_385" id="FNanchor_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385" class="fnanchor">385</a>
+says, that in Florida there were &#8220;very few females in proportion to
+the males,&#8221; whilst in Honduras the proportion was the other way,
+the species there having the character of a polygamist.</p></div>
+
+<h4>FISH.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p>With Fish the proportional numbers of the sexes can be ascertained
+only by catching them in the adult or nearly adult state; and there
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">308</a></span>are many difficulties in arriving at any just conclusion.<a name="FNanchor_386" id="FNanchor_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386" class="fnanchor">386</a> Infertile
+females might readily be mistaken for males, as Dr. G&uuml;nther has
+remarked to me in regard to trout. With some species the males
+are believed to die soon after fertilising the ova. With many species
+the males are of much smaller size than the females, so that a large
+number of males would escape from the same net by which the females
+were caught. M. Carbonnier,<a name="FNanchor_387" id="FNanchor_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387" class="fnanchor">387</a> who has especially attended
+to the natural history of the pike (<i>Esox lucius</i>) states that many
+males, owing to their small size, are devoured by the larger females;
+and he believes that the males of almost all fish are exposed from
+the same cause to greater danger than the females. Nevertheless
+in the few cases in which the proportional numbers have been
+actually observed, the males appear to be largely in excess. Thus
+Mr. R. Buist, the superintendent of the Stormontfield experiments,
+says that in 1865, out of 70 salmon first landed for the
+purpose of obtaining the ova, upwards of 60 were males. In
+1867 he again &#8220;calls attention to the vast disproportion of the
+males to the females. We had at the outset at least ten males
+to one female.&#8221; Afterwards sufficient females for obtaining ova
+were procured. He adds, &#8220;from the great proportion of the
+males, they are constantly fighting and tearing each other on the
+spawning-beds.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_388" id="FNanchor_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388" class="fnanchor">388</a> This disproportion, no doubt, can be accounted
+for in part, but whether wholly is very doubtful, by the males
+ascending the rivers before the females. Mr. F. Buckland remarks
+in regard to trout, that &#8220;it is a curious fact that the males preponderate
+very largely in number over the females. It <i>invariably</i>
+happens that when the first rush of fish is made to the net, there
+will be at least seven or eight males to one female found captive.
+I cannot quite account for this; either the males are more numerous
+than the females, or the latter seek safety by concealment
+rather than flight.&#8221; He then adds, that by carefully searching the
+banks, sufficient females for obtaining ova can be found.<a name="FNanchor_389" id="FNanchor_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389" class="fnanchor">389</a> Mr. H.
+Lee informs me that out of 212 trout, taken for this purpose in Lord
+Portsmouth&#8217;s park, 150 were males and 62 females.</p>
+
+<p>With the Cyprinid&aelig; the males likewise seem to be in excess;
+but several members of this Family, viz., the carp, tench, bream
+and minnow, appear regularly to follow the practice, rare in the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">309</a></span>animal kingdom, of polyandry; for the female whilst spawning is
+always attended by two males, one on each side, and in the case of
+the bream by three or four males. This fact is so well known, that
+it is always recommended to stock a pond with two male tenches
+to one female, or at least with three males to two females. With
+the minnow, an excellent observer states, that on the spawning-beds
+the males are ten times as numerous as the females; when a
+female comes amongst the males, &#8220;she is immediately pressed closely
+by a male on each side; and when they have been in that situation
+for a time, are superseded by other two males.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_390" id="FNanchor_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390" class="fnanchor">390</a></p></div>
+
+<h4>INSECTS.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot2"><p>In this class, the Lepidoptera alone afford the means of judging
+of the proportional numbers of the sexes; for they have been collected
+with special care by many good observers, and have been
+largely bred from the egg or caterpillar state. I had hoped that
+some breeders of silk-moths might have kept an exact record, but
+after writing to France and Italy, and consulting various treatises,
+I cannot find that this has ever been done. The general opinion
+appears to be that the sexes are nearly equal, but in Italy as I hear
+from Professor Canestrini, many breeders are convinced that the
+females are produced in excess. The same naturalist, however,
+informs me, that in the two yearly broods of the Ailanthus silk-moth
+(<i>Bombyx cynthia</i>), the males greatly preponderate in the
+first, whilst in the second the two sexes are nearly equal, or the
+females rather in excess.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to Butterflies in a state of nature, several observers
+have been much struck by the apparently enormous preponderance
+of the males.<a name="FNanchor_391" id="FNanchor_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391" class="fnanchor">391</a> Thus Mr. Bates,<a name="FNanchor_392" id="FNanchor_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392" class="fnanchor">392</a> in speaking of the species, no
+less than about a hundred in number, which inhabit the Upper
+Amazons, says that the males are much more numerous than the
+females, even in the proportion of a hundred to one. In North
+America, Edwards, who had great experience, estimates in the
+genus Papilio the males to the females as four to one; and Mr.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">310</a></span>Walsh, who informed me of this statement, says that with <i>P.
+turnus</i> this is certainly the case. In South Africa, Mr. R. Trimen
+found the males in excess in 19 species;<a name="FNanchor_393" id="FNanchor_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393" class="fnanchor">393</a> and in one of these,
+which swarms in open places, he estimated the number of males as
+fifty to one female. With another species, in which the males are
+numerous in certain localities, he collected during seven years only
+five females. In the island of Bourbon, M. Maillard states that
+the males of one species of Papilio are twenty times as numerous
+as the females.<a name="FNanchor_394" id="FNanchor_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394" class="fnanchor">394</a> Mr. Trimen informs me that as far as he has
+himself seen, or heard from others, it is rare for the females of any
+butterfly to exceed in number the males; but this is perhaps the
+case with three South African species. Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_395" id="FNanchor_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395" class="fnanchor">395</a> states that
+the females of <i>Ornithoptera cr&oelig;sus</i>, in the Malay archipelago, are
+more common and more easily caught than the males; but this is
+a rare butterfly. I may here add, that in Hyperythra, a genus of
+moths, Guen&eacute;e says, that from four to five females are sent in
+collections from India for one male.</p>
+
+<p>When this subject of the proportional numbers of the sexes of
+insects was brought before the Entomological Society,<a name="FNanchor_396" id="FNanchor_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396" class="fnanchor">396</a> it was
+generally admitted that the males of most Lepidoptera, in the
+adult or imago state, are caught in greater numbers than the
+females; but this fact was attributed by various observers to the
+more retiring habits of the females, and to the males emerging
+earlier from the cocoon. This latter circumstance is well known to
+occur with most Lepidoptera, as well as with other insects. So
+that, as M. Personnat remarks, the males of the domesticated
+<i>Bombyx yamamai</i>, are lost at the beginning of the season, and
+the females at the end, from the want of mates.<a name="FNanchor_397" id="FNanchor_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397" class="fnanchor">397</a> I cannot however
+persuade myself that these causes suffice to explain the great
+excess of males in the cases, above given, of butterflies which are
+extremely common in their native countries. Mr. Stainton, who
+has paid such close attention during many years to the smaller
+moths, informs me that when he collected them in the imago state,
+he thought that the males were ten times as numerous as the
+females, but that since he has reared them on a large scale from the
+caterpillar state, he is convinced that the females are the most
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">311</a></span>numerous. Several entomologists concur in this view. Mr. Doubleday,
+however, and some others, take an opposite view, and are convinced
+that they have reared from the egg and caterpillar states a
+larger proportion of males than of females.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the more active habits of the males, their earlier emergence
+from the cocoon, and their frequenting in some cases more
+open stations, other causes may be assigned for an apparent or real
+difference in the proportional numbers of the sexes of Lepidoptera,
+when captured in the imago state, and when reared from the
+egg or caterpillar state. It is believed by many breeders in Italy,
+as I hear from Professor Canestrini, that the female caterpillar of
+the silk-moth suffers more from the recent disease than the male;
+and Dr. Staudinger informs me that in rearing Lepidoptera more
+females die in the cocoon than males. With many species the
+female caterpillar is larger than the male, and a collector would
+naturally choose the finest specimens, and thus unintentionally
+collect a larger number of females. Three collectors have told me
+that this was their practice; but Dr. Wallace is sure that most
+collectors take all the specimens which they can find of the rarer
+kinds, which alone are worth the trouble of rearing. Birds when
+surrounded by caterpillars would probably devour the largest; and
+Professor Canestrini informs me that in Italy some breeders believe,
+though on insufficient evidence, that in the first brood of the
+Ailanthus silk-moth, the wasps destroy a larger number of the
+female than of the male caterpillars. Dr. Wallace further remarks
+that female caterpillars, from being larger than the males, require
+more time for their development and consume more food and moisture;
+and thus they would be exposed during a longer time to
+danger from ichneumons, birds, &amp;c., and in times of scarcity would
+perish in greater numbers. Hence it appears quite possible that,
+in a state of nature, fewer female Lepidoptera may reach maturity
+than males; and for our special object we are concerned with the
+numbers at maturity, when the sexes are ready to propagate their
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>The manner in which the males of certain moths congregate in
+extraordinary numbers round a single female, apparently indicates
+a great excess of males, though this fact may perhaps be accounted
+for by the earlier emergence of the males from their cocoons. Mr.
+Stainton informs me that from twelve to twenty males may often be
+seen congregated round a female <i>Elachista rufocinerea</i>. It is well
+known that if a virgin <i>Lasiocampa quercus</i> or <i>Saturnia carpini</i>
+be exposed in a cage, vast numbers of males collect round her,
+and if confined in a room will even come down the chimney to her.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">312</a></span>Mr. Doubleday believes that he has seen from fifty to a hundred
+males of both these species attracted in the course of a single day
+by a female under confinement. Mr. Trimen exposed in the Isle
+of Wight a box in which a female of the Lasiocampa had been
+confined on the previous day, and five males soon endeavoured
+to gain admittance. M. Verreaux, in Australia, having placed
+the female of a small Bombyx in a box in his pocket, was followed
+by a crowd of males, so that about 200 entered the house
+with him.<a name="FNanchor_398" id="FNanchor_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398" class="fnanchor">398</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. Doubleday has called my attention to Dr. Staudinger&#8217;s<a name="FNanchor_399" id="FNanchor_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399" class="fnanchor">399</a> list
+of Lepidoptera, which gives the prices of the males and females of
+300 species or well-marked varieties of (Rhopalocera) butterflies.
+The prices for both sexes of the very common species are of
+course the same; but with 114 of the rarer species they differ; the
+males being in all cases, excepting one, the cheapest. On an average
+of the prices of the 113 species, the price of the male to that
+of the female is as 100 to 149; and this apparently indicates that
+inversely the males exceed the females in number in the same
+proportion. About 2000 species or varieties of moths (Heterocera)
+are catalogued, those with wingless females being here excluded on
+account of the difference in habits of the two sexes: of these 2000
+species, 141 differ in price according to sex, the males of 130 being
+cheaper, and the males of only 11 being dearer than the females.
+The average price of the males of the 130 species, to that of the
+females, is as 100 to 143. With respect to the butterflies in this
+priced list, Mr. Doubleday thinks (and no man in England has had
+more experience), that there is nothing in the habits of the species
+which can account for the difference in the prices of the two sexes,
+and that it can be accounted for only by an excess in the numbers of
+the males. But I am bound to add that Dr. Staudinger himself, as
+he informs me, is of a different opinion. He thinks that the less
+active habits of the females and the earlier emergence of the males will
+account for his collectors securing a larger number of males than
+of females, and consequently for the lower prices of the former
+With respect to specimens reared from the caterpillar-state, Dr.
+Staudinger believes, as previously stated, that a greater number of
+females than of males die under confinement in the cocoons. He
+adds that with certain species one sex seems to preponderate over
+the other during certain years.</p>
+
+<p>Of direct observations on the sexes of Lepidoptera, reared either
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">313</a></span>from eggs or caterpillars, I have received only the few following
+cases:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="Lepidoptera">
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right10">Males.</td>
+<td class="right10">Females.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">The Rev. J. Hellins<a name="FNanchor_400" id="FNanchor_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400" class="fnanchor">400</a> of Exeter reared, during
+1868, imagos of 73 species, which consisted of</td>
+<td class="right10">153</td>
+<td class="right10">137</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">Mr. Albert Jones of Eltham reared, during 1868,
+imagos of 9 species, which, consisted of</td>
+<td class="right10">159</td>
+<td class="right10">126</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">During 1869 he reared imagos from 4 species,
+consisting of</td>
+<td class="right10">114</td>
+<td class="right10">112</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">Mr. Buckler of Emsworth, Hants, during 1869,
+reared imagos from 74 species, consisting of</td>
+<td class="right10">180</td>
+<td class="right10">169</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">Dr. Wallace of Colchester reared from one brood
+of Bombyx cynthia</td>
+<td class="right10">52</td>
+<td class="right10">48</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">Dr. Wallace raised, from cocoons of Bombyx
+Pernyi sent from China, during 1869</td>
+<td class="right10">224</td>
+<td class="right10">123</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">Dr. Wallace raised, during 1868 and 1869,
+from two lots of cocoons of Bombyx Yamamai</td>
+<td class="right10">52</td>
+<td class="right10">46</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="right10">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+<td class="right10">&mdash;&mdash;</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="left80">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Total</td>
+<td class="right10">934</td>
+<td class="right10">761</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>So that in these eight lots of cocoons and eggs, males were produced
+in excess. Taken together the proportion of males is as
+122.7 to 100 females. But the numbers are hardly large enough
+to be trustworthy.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, from the above various sources of evidence, all
+pointing to the same direction, I infer that with most species of
+Lepidoptera, the males in the imago state generally exceed the
+females in number, whatever the proportions may be at their first
+emergence from the egg.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to the other Orders of insects, I have been able
+to collect very little reliable information. With the stag-beetle
+(<i>Lucanus cervus</i>) &#8220;the males appear to be much more numerous
+than the females;&#8221; but when, as Cornelius remarked during 1867,
+an unusual number of these beetles appeared in one part of Germany,
+the females appeared to exceed the males as six so one.
+With one of the Elaterid&aelig;, the males are said to be much more
+numerous than the females, and &#8220;two or three are often found
+united with one female;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_401" id="FNanchor_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401" class="fnanchor">401</a> so that here polyandry seems to prevail.
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">314</a></span>
+
+With Siagonium (Staphylinid&aelig;), in which the males are furnished
+with horns, &#8220;the females are far more numerous than the opposite
+sex.&#8221; Mr. Janson stated at the Entomological Society that the
+females of the bark-feeding <i>Tomicus villosus</i> are so common as to
+be a plague, whilst the males are so rare as to be hardly known.
+In other Orders, from unknown causes, but apparently in some instances
+owing to parthenogenesis, the males of certain species have
+never been discovered or are excessively rare, as with several of the
+Cynipid&aelig;.<a name="FNanchor_402" id="FNanchor_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402" class="fnanchor">402</a> In all the gall-making Cynipid&aelig; known to Mr. Walsh,
+the females are four or five times as numerous as the males; and so
+it is, as he informs me, with the gall-making Cecidomyii&aelig; (Diptera).
+With some common species of Saw-flies (Tenthredin&aelig;) Mr. F.
+Smith has reared hundreds of specimens from larv&aelig; of all sizes,
+but has never reared a single male: on the other hand Curtis says,<a name="FNanchor_403" id="FNanchor_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403" class="fnanchor">403</a>
+that with certain species (Athalia), bred by him, the males to the
+females were as six to one; whilst exactly the reverse occurred with
+the mature insects of the same species caught in the fields. With
+the Neuroptera, Mr. Walsh states that in many, but by no means
+in all, the species of the Odonatous groups (Ephemerina), there is a
+great overplus of males: in the genus Het&aelig;rina, also, the males are
+generally at least four times as numerous as the females. In certain
+species in the genus Gomphus the males are equally numerous,
+whilst in two other species, the females are twice or thrice as
+numerous as the males. In some European species of Psocus thousands
+of females may be collected without a single male, whilst
+with other species of the same genus both sexes are common.<a name="FNanchor_404" id="FNanchor_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404" class="fnanchor">404</a> In
+England, Mr. MacLachlan has captured hundreds of the female
+<i>Apatania muliebris</i>, but has never seen the male; and of <i>Boreus
+hyemalis</i> only four or five males have been here seen.<a name="FNanchor_405" id="FNanchor_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405" class="fnanchor">405</a> With most
+of these species (excepting, as I have heard, with the Tenthredin&aelig;)
+there is no reason to suppose that the females are subject to parthenogenesis;
+and thus we see how ignorant we are on the causes of the
+apparent discrepancy in the proportional numbers of the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>In the other Classes of the Articulata I have been able to collect
+still less information. With Spiders, Mr. Blackwall, who has carefully
+attended to this class during many years, writes to me that
+the males from their more erratic habits are more commonly seen,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">315</a></span>and therefore appear to be the more numerous. This is actually the
+case with a few species; but he mentions several species in six
+genera, in which the females appear to be much more numerous
+than the males.<a name="FNanchor_406" id="FNanchor_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406" class="fnanchor">406</a> The small size of the males in comparison with
+the females, which is sometimes carried to an extreme degree, and
+their widely different appearance, may account in some instances
+for their rarity in collections.<a name="FNanchor_407" id="FNanchor_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407" class="fnanchor">407</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Some of the lower Crustaceans are able to propagate their kind
+asexually, and this will account for the extreme rarity of the males.
+With some other forms (as with Tanais and Cypris) there is reason
+to believe, as Fritz M&uuml;ller informs me, that the male is much shorter-lived
+than the female, which, supposing the two sexes to be at first
+equal in number, would explain the scarcity of the males. On the
+other hand this same naturalist has invariably taken, on the shores
+of Brazil, far more males than females of the Diastylid&aelig; and of
+Cypridina; thus with a species in the latter genus, 63 specimens
+caught the same day, included 57 males; but he suggests that this
+preponderance may be due to some unknown difference in the habits
+of the two sexes. With one of the higher Brazilian crabs, namely
+a Gelasimus, Fritz M&uuml;ller found the males to be more numerous
+than the females. The reverse seems to be the case, according to
+the large experience of Mr. C. Spence Bate, with six common British
+crabs, the names of which he has given me.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>On the Power of Natural Selection to regulate the proportional
+Numbers of the Sexes, and General Fertility.</i>&mdash;In
+some peculiar cases, an excess in the number of one
+sex over the other might be a great advantage to a
+species, as with the sterile females of social insects, or
+with those animals in which more than one male is
+requisite to fertilise the female, as with certain cirripedes
+and perhaps certain fishes. An inequality between
+the sexes in these cases might have been acquired
+through natural selection, but from their rarity they
+need not here be further considered. In all ordinary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">316</a></span>cases an inequality would be no advantage or disadvantage
+to certain individuals more than to others; and
+therefore it could hardly have resulted from natural
+selection. We must attribute the inequality to the
+direct action of those unknown conditions, which with
+mankind lead to the males being born in a somewhat
+larger excess in certain countries than in others, or
+which cause the proportion between the sexes to differ
+slightly in legitimate and illegitimate births.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now take the case of a species producing from
+the unknown causes just alluded to, an excess of one
+sex&mdash;we will say of males&mdash;these being superfluous and
+useless, or nearly useless. Could the sexes be equalised
+through natural selection? We may feel sure, from all
+characters being variable, that certain pairs would produce
+a somewhat less excess of males over females than
+other pairs. The former, supposing the actual number
+of the offspring to remain constant, would necessarily
+produce more females, and would therefore be more productive.
+On the doctrine of chances a greater number
+of the offspring of the more productive pairs would survive;
+and these would inherit a tendency to procreate
+fewer males and more females. Thus a tendency towards
+the equalisation of the sexes would be brought
+about. But our supposed species would by this process
+be rendered, as just remarked, more productive; and
+this would in many cases be far from an advantage;
+for whenever the limit to the numbers which exist, depends,
+not on destruction by enemies, but on the amount
+of food, increased fertility will lead to severer competition
+and to most of the survivors being badly fed. In
+this case, if the sexes were equalised by an increase in
+the number of the females, a simultaneous decrease in
+the total number of the offspring would be beneficial,
+or even necessary, for the existence of the species; and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">317</a></span>
+this, I believe, could be effected through natural selection
+in the manner hereafter to be described. The
+same train of reasoning is applicable in the above,
+as well as in the following case, if we assume that
+females instead of males are produced in excess, for
+such females from not uniting with males would be
+superfluous and useless. So it would be with polygamous
+species, if we assume the excess of females
+to be inordinately great.</p>
+
+<p>An excess of either sex, we will again say of the
+males, could, however, apparently be eliminated through
+natural selection in another and indirect manner, namely
+by an actual diminution of the males, without any increase
+of the females, and consequently without any
+increase in the productiveness of the species. From
+the variability of all characters, we may feel assured
+that some pairs, inhabiting any locality, would produce
+a rather smaller excess of superfluous males, but an
+equal number of productive females. When the offspring
+from the more and the less male-productive
+parents were all mingled together, none would have any
+direct advantage over the others; but those that produced
+few superfluous males would have one great
+indirect advantage, namely that their ova or embryos
+would probably be larger and finer, or their young
+better nurtured in the womb and afterwards. We see
+this principle illustrated with plants; as those which
+bear a vast number of seed produce small ones; whilst
+those which bear comparatively few seeds, often produce
+large ones well-stocked with nutriment for the use of the
+seedlings.<a name="FNanchor_408" id="FNanchor_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408" class="fnanchor">408</a> Hence the offspring of the parents which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">318</a></span>had wasted least force in producing superfluous males
+would be the most likely to survive, and would inherit
+the same tendency not to produce superfluous males,
+whilst retaining their full fertility in the production of
+females. So it would be with the converse case of the
+female sex. Any slight excess, however, of either sex
+could hardly be checked in so indirect a manner. Nor
+indeed has a considerable inequality between the sexes
+been always prevented, as we have seen in some of the
+cases given in the previous discussion. In these cases
+the unknown causes which determine the sex of the
+embryo, and which under certain conditions lead to
+the production of one sex in excess over the other, have
+not been mastered by the survival of those varieties
+which were subjected to the least waste of organised
+matter and force by the production of superfluous individuals
+of either sex. Nevertheless we may conclude
+that natural selection will always tend, though sometimes
+inefficiently, to equalise the relative numbers of
+the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>Having said this much on the equalisation of the
+sexes, it may be well to add a few remarks on the regulation
+through natural selection of the ordinary fertility
+of species. Mr. Herbert Spencer has shewn in an able
+discussion<a name="FNanchor_409" id="FNanchor_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409" class="fnanchor">409</a> that with all organisms a ratio exists between
+what he calls individuation and genesis; whence
+it follows that beings which consume much matter or
+force in their growth, complicated structure or activity,
+or which produce ova and embryos of large size, or
+which expend much energy in nurturing their young,
+cannot be so productive as beings of an opposite nature.
+Mr. Spencer further shews that minor differences in fertility
+will be regulated through natural selection. Thus
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">319</a></span>the fertility of each species will tend to increase, from
+the more fertile pairs producing a larger number of offspring,
+and these from their mere number will have the
+best chance of surviving, and will transmit their tendency
+to greater fertility. The only check to a continued
+augmentation of fertility in each organism seems
+to be either the expenditure of more power and the
+greater risks run by the parents that produce a more
+numerous progeny, or the contingency of very numerous
+eggs and young being produced of smaller size, or less
+vigorous, or subsequently not so well nurtured. To
+strike a balance in any case between the disadvantages
+which follow from the production of a numerous progeny,
+and the advantages (such as the escape of at least
+some individuals from various dangers) is quite beyond
+our power of judgment.</p>
+
+<p>When an organism has once been rendered extremely
+fertile, how its fertility can be reduced through natural
+selection is not so clear as how this capacity was first
+acquired. Yet it is obvious that if individuals of a
+species, from a decrease of their natural enemies, were
+habitually reared in larger numbers than could be supported,
+all the members would suffer. Nevertheless the
+offspring from the less fertile parents would have no
+direct advantage over the offspring from the more fertile
+parents, when all were mingled together in the
+same district. All the individuals would mutually tend
+to starve each other. The offspring indeed of the less
+fertile parents would lie under one great disadvantage,
+for from the simple fact of being produced in smaller
+numbers, they would be the most liable to extermination.
+Indirectly, however, they would partake of one
+great advantage; for under the supposed condition of
+severe competition, when all were pressed for food, it is
+extremely probable that those individuals which from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">320</a></span>
+some variation in their constitution produced fewer eggs
+or young, would produce them of greater size or vigour;
+and the adults reared from such eggs or young would
+manifestly have the best chance of surviving, and
+would inherit a tendency towards lessened fertility.
+The parents, moreover, which had to nourish or provide
+for fewer offspring would themselves be exposed to a
+less severe strain in the struggle for existence, and
+would have a better chance of surviving. By these
+steps, and by no others as far as I can see, natural
+selection under the above conditions of severe competition
+for food, would lead to the formation of a new
+race less fertile, but better adapted for survival, than
+the parent-race.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">321</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER IX.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters in the Lower Classes of
+the Animal Kingdom.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>These characters absent in the lowest classes&mdash;Brilliant colours&mdash;Mollusca&mdash;Annelids&mdash;Crustacea,
+secondary sexual characters
+strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters not acquired
+before maturity&mdash;Spiders, sexual colours of; stridulation by the
+males&mdash;Myriapoda.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the lowest classes the two sexes are not rarely united
+in the same individual, and therefore secondary sexual
+characters cannot be developed. In many cases in which
+the two sexes are separate, both are permanently attached
+to some support, and the one cannot search or
+struggle for the other. Moreover it is almost certain
+that these animals have too imperfect senses and
+much too low mental powers to feel mutual rivalry,
+or to appreciate each other&#8217;s beauty or other attractions.</p>
+
+<p>Hence in these classes, such as the Protozoa, C&oelig;lenterata,
+Echinodermata, Scolecida, true secondary sexual
+characters do not occur; and this fact agrees with the
+belief that such characters in the higher classes have
+been acquired through sexual selection, which depends
+on the will, desires, and choice of either sex. Nevertheless
+some few apparent exceptions occur; thus, as I
+hear from Dr. Baird, the males of certain Entozoa, or
+internal parasitic worms, differ slightly in colour from
+the females; but we have no reason to suppose that
+such differences have been augmented through sexual
+selection.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">322</a></span>Many of the lower animals, whether hermaphrodites
+or with the sexes separate, are ornamented with the
+most brilliant tints, or are shaded and striped in an
+elegant manner. This is the case with many corals
+and sea-anemonies (Actine&aelig;), with some jelly-fish (Medus&aelig;,
+Porpita, &amp;c.), with some Planari&aelig;, Ascidians,
+numerous Star-fishes, Echini, &amp;c.; but we may conclude
+from the reasons already indicated, namely the union
+of the two sexes in some of these animals, the permanently
+affixed condition of others, and the low
+mental powers of all, that such colours do not serve
+as a sexual attraction, and have not been acquired
+through sexual selection. With the higher animals
+the case is very different; for with them when one sex
+is much more brilliantly or conspicuously coloured
+than the other, and there is no difference in the
+habits of the two sexes which will account for this
+difference, we have reason to believe in the influence
+of sexual selection; and this belief is strongly confirmed
+when the more ornamented individuals, which
+are almost always the males, display their attractions
+before the other sex. We may also extend this conclusion
+to both sexes, when coloured alike, if their
+colours are plainly analogous to those of one sex alone
+in certain other species of the same group.</p>
+
+<p>How, then, are we to account for the beautiful or
+even gorgeous colours of many animals in the lowest
+classes? It appears very doubtful whether such colours
+usually serve as a protection; but we are extremely
+liable to err in regard to characters of all kinds in
+relation to protection, as will be admitted by every one
+who has read Mr. Wallace&#8217;s excellent essay on this
+subject. It would not, for instance, at first occur to
+any one that the perfect transparency of the Medus&aelig;,
+or jelly-fishes, was of the highest service to them as a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">323</a></span>
+protection; but when we are reminded by H&auml;ckel that
+not only the medus&aelig; but many floating mollusca, crustaceans,
+and even small oceanic fishes partake of this
+same glass-like structure, we can hardly doubt that
+they thus escape the notice of pelagic birds and other
+enemies.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding our ignorance how far colour in
+many cases serves as a protection, the most probable
+view in regard to the splendid tints of many of the
+lowest animals seems to be that their colours are the
+direct result either of the chemical nature or the minute
+structure of their tissues, independently of any benefit
+thus derived. Hardly any colour is finer than that of
+arterial blood; but there is no reason to suppose that
+the colour of the blood is in itself any advantage; and
+though it adds to the beauty of the maiden&#8217;s cheek, no
+one will pretend that it has been acquired for this purpose.
+So again with many animals, especially the lower
+ones, the bile is richly coloured; thus the extreme
+beauty of the Eolid&aelig; (naked sea-slugs) is chiefly due, as
+I am informed by Mr. Hancock, to the biliary glands
+seen through the translucent integuments; this beauty
+being probably of no service to these animals. The
+tints of the decaying leaves in an American forest are
+described by every one as gorgeous; yet no one supposes
+that these tints are of the least advantage to
+the trees. Bearing in mind how many substances
+closely analogous to natural organic compounds have
+been recently formed by chemists, and which exhibit
+the most splendid colours, it would have been a strange
+fact if substances similarly coloured had not often
+originated, independently of any useful end being
+thus gained, in the complex laboratory of living
+organisms.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">324</a></span><i>The sub-kingdom of the Mollusca.</i>&mdash;Throughout this
+great division (taken in its largest acceptation) of the
+animal kingdom, secondary sexual characters, such as
+we are here considering, never, as far as I can discover,
+occur. Nor could they be expected in the three lowest
+classes, namely in the Ascidians, Polyzoa, and Brachiopods
+(constituting the Molluscoida of Huxley), for most
+of these animals are permanently affixed to a support
+or have their sexes united in the same individual. In
+the Lamellibranchiata, or bivalve shells, hermaphroditism
+is not rare. In the next higher class of the
+Gasteropoda, or marine univalve shells, the sexes are
+either united or separate. But in this latter case the
+males never possess special organs for finding, securing,
+or charming the females, or for fighting with other
+males. The sole external difference between the sexes
+consists, as I am informed by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, in
+the shell sometimes differing a little in form; for
+instance, the shell of the male periwinkle (<i>Littorina
+littorea</i>) is narrower and has a more elongated spire than
+that of the female. But differences of this nature, it
+may be presumed, are directly connected with the act
+of reproduction or with the development of the ova.</p>
+
+<p>The Gasteropoda, though capable of locomotion and
+furnished with imperfect eyes, do not appear to be endowed
+with sufficient mental powers for the members
+of the same sex to struggle together in rivalry, and
+thus to acquire secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless
+with the pulmoniferous gasteropods, or land-shells,
+the pairing is preceded by courtship; for these
+animals, though hermaphrodites, are compelled by their
+structure to pair together. Agassiz remarks,<a name="FNanchor_410" id="FNanchor_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410" class="fnanchor">410</a> &#8220;Quiconque
+a eu l&#8217;occasion d&#8217;observer les amours des lima<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">325</a></span>&ccedil;ons,
+ne saurait mettre en doute la s&eacute;duction d&eacute;ploy&eacute;e
+dans les mouvements et les allures qui pr&eacute;parent et
+accomplissent le double embrassement de ces hermaphrodites.&#8221;
+These animals appear also susceptible
+of some degree of permanent attachment: an accurate
+observer, Mr. Lonsdale, informs me that he placed a
+pair of land-shells (<i>Helix pomatia</i>), one of which was
+weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden. After a
+short time the strong and healthy individual disappeared,
+and was traced by its track of slime over a wall into an
+adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale concluded
+that it had deserted its sickly mate; but after an
+absence of twenty-four hours it returned, and apparently
+communicated the result of its successful exploration,
+for both then started along the same track and disappeared
+over the wall.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the highest class of the Mollusca, namely the
+Cephalopoda or cuttle-fishes, in which the sexes are
+separate, secondary sexual characters of the kind which
+we are here considering, do not, as far as I can discover,
+occur. This is a surprising circumstance, as these
+animals possess highly-developed sense-organs and have
+considerable mental powers, as will be admitted by
+every one who has watched their artful endeavours to
+escape from an enemy.<a name="FNanchor_411" id="FNanchor_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411" class="fnanchor">411</a> Certain Cephalopoda, however,
+are characterised by one extraordinary sexual character,
+namely, that the male element collects within one of
+the arms or tentacles, which is then cast off, and,
+clinging by its sucking-discs to the female, lives for
+a time an independent life. So completely does the
+cast-off arm resemble a separate animal, that it was
+described by Cuvier as a parasitic worm under the name
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">326</a></span>of Hectocotyle. But this marvellous structure may be
+classed as a primary rather than as a secondary sexual
+character.</p>
+
+<p>Although with the Mollusca sexual selection does not
+seem to have come into play; yet many univalve and
+bivalve shells, such as volutes, cones, scallops, &amp;c., are
+beautifully coloured and shaped. The colours do not
+appear in most cases to be of any use as a protection;
+they are probably the direct result, as in the lowest
+classes, of the nature of the tissues; the patterns and
+the sculpture of the shell depending on its manner of
+growth. The amount of light seems to a certain extent
+to be influential; for although, as repeatedly stated by
+Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, the shells of some species living at a
+profound depth are brightly coloured, yet we generally
+see the lower surfaces and the parts covered by the
+mantle less highly coloured than the upper and exposed
+surfaces.<a name="FNanchor_412" id="FNanchor_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412" class="fnanchor">412</a> In some cases, as with shells living amongst
+corals or brightly-tinted sea-weeds, the bright colours
+may serve as a protection. But many of the nudibranch
+mollusca, or sea-slugs, are as beautifully coloured as
+any shells, as may be seen in Messrs. Alder and Hancock&#8217;s
+magnificent work; and from information kindly
+given me by Mr. Hancock, it is extremely doubtful
+whether these colours usually serve as a protection.
+With some species this may be the case, as with one
+which lives on the green leaves of alg&aelig;, and is itself
+bright-green. But many brightly-coloured, white or
+otherwise conspicuous species, do not seek concealment;
+whilst again some equally conspicuous species, as well
+as other dull-coloured kinds, live under stones and in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">327</a></span>dark recesses. So that with these nudibranch molluscs,
+colour apparently does not stand in any close relation
+to the nature of the places which they inhabit.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">These naked sea-slugs are hermaphrodites, yet they
+pair together, as do land-snails, many of which have
+extremely pretty shells. It is conceivable that two
+hermaphrodites, attracted by each others&#8217; greater beauty,
+might unite and leave offspring which would inherit
+their parents&#8217; greater beauty. But with such lowly-organised
+creatures this is extremely improbable. Nor
+is it at all obvious how the offspring from the more
+beautiful pairs of hermaphrodites would have any advantage,
+so as to increase in numbers, over the offspring
+of the less beautiful, unless indeed vigour and beauty
+generally coincided. We have not here a number of
+males becoming mature before the females, and the
+more beautiful ones selected by the more vigorous
+females. If, indeed, brilliant colours were beneficial
+to an hermaphrodite animal in relation to its general
+habits of life, the more brightly-tinted individuals would
+succeed best and would increase in number; but this
+would be a case of natural and not of sexual selection.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sub-kingdom of the Vermes or Annulosa</i>: Class,
+<i>Annelida (or Sea-worms)</i>.&mdash;In this class, although
+the sexes (when separate) sometimes differ from each
+other in characters of such importance that they have
+been placed under distinct genera or even families,
+yet the differences do not seem of the kind which can
+be safely attributed to sexual selection. These animals,
+like those in the preceding classes, apparently stand too
+low in the scale, for the individuals of either sex to
+exert any choice in selecting a partner, or for the individuals
+of the same sex to struggle together in rivalry.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">328</a></span><i>Sub-kingdom of the Arthropoda</i>: Class, <i>Crustacea</i>.&mdash;In
+this great class we first meet with undoubted secondary
+sexual characters, often developed in a remarkable
+manner. Unfortunately the habits of crustaceans
+are very imperfectly known, and we cannot explain the
+uses of many structures peculiar to one sex. With
+the lower parasitic species the males are of small size,
+and they alone are furnished with perfect swimming-legs,
+antenn&aelig; and sense-organs; the females being
+destitute of these organs, with their bodies often consisting
+of a mere distorted mass. But these extraordinary
+
+<span class="figright" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f3" id="f3"></a><img src="images/fig3.png" width="200" height="408"
+alt="Fig. 3. Labidocera Darwinii." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;3. Labidocera Darwinii,<br /> (from Lubbock).<br /></span>
+
+<span class="indent2"><i>a.</i>&nbsp;Part of right-hand anterior antenna
+of male, forming a prehensile organ.<br /></span>
+
+<span class="indent2"><i>b.</i>&nbsp;Posterior pair of thoracic legs of male.<br /></span>
+<span class="indent2"><i>c.</i>&nbsp;Ditto of female.</span></span>
+
+differences between the two sexes are no doubt related
+to their widely different habits of life, and consequently
+do not concern us. In various crustaceans, belonging
+to distinct families, the anterior antenn&aelig; are furnished
+with peculiar thread-like bodies, which are believed to
+act as smelling-organs, and these are much more numerous
+in the males than in the females. As the males,
+without any unusual development of their olfactory
+organs, would almost certainly be able sooner or later
+to find the females, the increased number of the smelling-threads
+has probably been acquired through sexual
+selection, by the better provided males having been the
+most successful in finding partners and in leaving offspring.
+Fritz M&uuml;ller has described a remarkable dimorphic
+species of Tanais, in which the male is represented
+by two distinct forms, never graduating into each other.
+In the one form the male is furnished with more
+numerous smelling-threads, and in the other form with
+more powerful and more elongated chel&aelig; or pincers
+which serve to hold the female. Fritz M&uuml;ller suggests
+that these differences between the two male forms of the
+same species must have originated in certain individuals
+having varied in the number of the smelling-threads,
+whilst other individuals varied in the shape and size of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">329</a></span>
+their chel&aelig;; so that of the former, those which were best
+able to find the female, and of the latter, those which were
+best able to hold her when found,
+have left the greater number of
+progeny to inherit their respective
+advantages.<a name="FNanchor_413" id="FNanchor_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413" class="fnanchor">413</a></p>
+
+<p>In some of the lower crustaceans,
+the right-hand anterior
+antenna of the male differs
+greatly in structure from the
+left-hand one, the latter resembling
+in its simple tapering
+joints the antenn&aelig; of the female.
+In the male the modified
+antenna is either swollen
+in the middle or angularly bent,
+or converted (fig. 3) into an
+elegant, and sometimes wonderfully
+complex, prehensile organ.<a name="FNanchor_414" id="FNanchor_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414" class="fnanchor">414</a>
+It serves, as I hear from Sir J.
+Lubbock, to hold the female,
+and for this same purpose one
+of the two posterior legs (<i>b</i>) on
+the same side of the body is
+converted into a forceps. In
+another family the inferior or
+posterior antenn&aelig; are &#8220;curiously zigzagged&#8221; in the
+males alone.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">330</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f4" id="f4"></a><img src="images/fig4.png" width="550" height="332"
+alt="Fig. 4. Anterior part of body of Callianassa." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;4. Anterior part of body of Callianassa (from Milne-Edwards), showing the unequal
+and differently-constructed right and left-hand chel&aelig; of the male.</p>
+
+<p class="small">N.B.&mdash;The artist by mistake has reversed the drawing, and made the left-hand chela
+the largest.</p></div>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="fig 5 and 6" border="0">
+<tr>
+<td class="center50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f5" id="f5"></a><img src="images/fig5.png" width="250" height="279"
+alt="Fig. 5. Second leg of male Orchestia Tucuratinga." title="" /></div></td>
+<td class="center50"><div class="figcenter" style="width: 211px;"><a name="f6" id="f6"></a><img src="images/fig6.png" width="211" height="279"
+alt="Fig. 6. Ditto of female." title="" /></div></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="center50">Fig.&nbsp;5.</td>
+<td class="center50">Fig.&nbsp;6.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="small">Fig.&nbsp;5. Second leg of male Orchestia Tucuratinga (from Fritz M&uuml;ller).</p>
+<p class="small">Fig.&nbsp;6. Ditto of female.</p>
+
+<p>In the higher crustaceans the anterior legs form a
+pair of chel&aelig; or pincers, and these are generally
+larger in the male than in the female. In many species
+the chel&aelig; on the opposite sides of the body are of
+unequal size, the right-hand one being, as I am informed
+by Mr. C. Spence Bate, generally, though not
+invariably, the largest. This inequality is often much
+greater in the male than in the female. The two chel&aelig;
+also often differ in structure (figs. 4 and 5), the smaller
+one resembling those of the female. What advantage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">331</a></span>
+is gained by their inequality in size on the opposite
+sides of the body, and by the inequality being much
+greater in the male than in the female; and why, when
+they are of equal size, both are often much larger in
+the male than in the female, is not known. The chel&aelig;
+are sometimes of such length and size that they cannot
+possibly be used, as I hear from Mr. Spence Bate, for
+carrying food to the mouth. In the males of certain freshwater
+prawns (Pal&aelig;mon) the right leg is actually longer
+than the whole body.<a name="FNanchor_415" id="FNanchor_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415" class="fnanchor">415</a> It is probable that the great size
+of one leg with its chel&aelig; may aid the male in fighting
+with his rivals; but this use will not account for their
+inequality in the female on the opposite sides of the body.
+In Gelasimus, according to a statement quoted by Milne-Edwards,<a name="FNanchor_416" id="FNanchor_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416" class="fnanchor">416</a>
+the male and female live in the same burrow,
+which is worth notice, as shewing that they pair, and
+the male closes the mouth of the burrow with one of its
+chel&aelig;, which is enormously developed; so that here it
+indirectly serves as a means of defence. Their main
+use, however, probably is to seize and to secure the
+female, and this in some instances, as with Gammarus,
+is known to be the case. The sexes, however, of the
+common shore-crab (<i>Carcinus m&aelig;nas</i>), as Mr. Spence
+Bate informs me, unite directly after the female has
+moulted her hard shell, and when she is so soft that she
+would be injured if seized by the strong pincers of the
+male; but as she is caught and carried about by the
+male previously to the act of moulting, she could then
+be seized with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>Fritz M&uuml;ller states that certain species of Melita are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">332</a></span>distinguished from all other amphipods by the females
+having &#8220;the coxal lamell&aelig; of the penultimate pair of
+feet produced into hook-like processes, of which the
+males lay hold with the hands of the first pair.&#8221; The
+development of these hook-like processes probably
+resulted from those females which were the most
+securely held during the act of reproduction, having
+left the largest number of offspring. Another Brazilian
+amphipod (<i>Orchestia Darwinii</i>, fig. 7) is described
+by Fritz M&uuml;ller, as presenting a case of dimorphism,
+like that of Tanais; for there are two male
+forms, which differ in the structure of their chel&aelig;.<a name="FNanchor_417" id="FNanchor_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417" class="fnanchor">417</a> As
+chel&aelig; of either shape would certainly have sufficed to
+hold the female, for both are now used for this purpose,
+the two male forms probably originated, by some having
+varied in one manner and some in another; both forms
+having derived certain special, but nearly equal advantages,
+from their differently shaped organs.</p>
+
+<p>It is not known that male crustaceans fight together
+for the possession of the females, but this is probable;
+for with most animals when the male is larger than the
+female, he seems to have acquired his greater size by
+having conquered during many generations other males.
+Now Mr. Spence Bate informs me that in most of the
+crustacean orders, especially in the highest or the
+Brachyura, the male is larger than the female; the
+parasitic genera, however, in which the sexes follow
+different habits of life, and most of the Entomostraca
+must be excepted. The chel&aelig; of many crustaceans are
+weapons well adapted for fighting. Thus a Devil-crab
+(<i>Portunus puber</i>) was seen by a son of Mr. Bate fighting
+with a <i>Carcinus m&aelig;nas</i>, and the latter was soon thrown
+on its back, and had every limb torn from its body.
+
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">333</a></span>
+
+
+When several males of a Brazilian Gelasimus, a species
+furnished with immense pincers, were placed together
+by Fritz M&uuml;ller in a glass vessel, they mutilated and
+killed each other. Mr. Bate put a large male <i>Carcinus
+m&aelig;nas</i> into a pan of water, inhabited by a female paired
+with a smaller male; the latter was soon dispossessed,
+but, as Mr. Bate adds, &#8220;if they fought, the victory<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">334</a></span>
+was a bloodless one, for I saw no wounds.&#8221; This
+same naturalist separated a male sand-skipper (so common
+on our sea-shores), <i>Gammarus marinus</i>, from its
+female, both of which were imprisoned in the same
+vessel with many individuals of the same species. The
+female being thus divorced joined her comrades. After
+an interval the male was again put into the same
+vessel and he then, after swimming about for a time,
+dashed into the crowd, and without any fighting at once
+took away his wife. This fact shews that in the Amphipoda,
+an order low in the scale, the males and females
+recognise each other, and are mutually attached.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f7" id="f7"></a><img src="images/fig7.png" width="550" height="689"
+alt="Fig. 7. Orchestia Darwinii." title="" />
+
+<span class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;7. Orchestia Darwinii (from Fritz M&uuml;ller), showing the differently-constructed
+chel&aelig; of the two male forms.</span></div>
+
+<p>The mental powers of the Crustacea are probably
+higher than might have been expected. Any one who
+has tried to catch one of the shore-crabs, so numerous
+on many tropical coasts, will have perceived how wary
+and alert they are. There is a large crab (<i>Birgos
+latro</i>), found on coral islands, which makes at the
+bottom of a deep burrow a thick bed of the picked
+fibres of the cocoa-nut. It feeds on the fallen fruit of
+this tree by tearing off the husk, fibre by fibre; and
+it always begins at that end where the three eye-like
+depressions are situated. It then breaks through
+one of these eyes by hammering with its heavy front
+pincers, and turning round, extracts the albuminous
+core with its narrow posterior pincers. But these actions
+are probably instinctive, so that they would be performed
+as well by a young as by an old animal.
+The following case, however, can hardly be so considered:
+a trustworthy naturalist, Mr. Gardner,<a name="FNanchor_418" id="FNanchor_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418" class="fnanchor">418</a> whilst
+watching a shore-crab (Gelasimus) making its burrow,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">335</a></span>threw some shells towards the hole. One rolled in,
+and three other shells remained within a few inches of
+the mouth. In about five minutes the crab brought
+out the shell which had fallen in, and carried it away
+to the distance of a foot; it then saw the three other
+shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they
+might likewise roll in, carried them to the spot where
+it had laid the first. It would, I think, be difficult to
+distinguish this act from one performed by man by the
+aid of reason.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to colour which so often differs in the
+two sexes of animals belonging to the higher classes,
+Mr. Spence Bate does not know of any well-marked
+instances with our British crustaceans. In some cases,
+however, the male and female differ slightly in tint,
+but Mr. Bate thinks not more than may be accounted
+for by their different habits of life, such as by the
+male wandering more about and being thus more exposed
+to the light. In a curious Bornean crab, which
+inhabits sponges, Mr. Bate could always distinguish the
+sexes by the male not having the epidermis so much
+rubbed off. Dr. Power tried to distinguish by colour
+the sexes of the species which inhabit the Mauritius, but
+always failed, except with one species of Squilla, probably
+the <i>S. stylifera</i>, the male of which is described as
+being &#8220;of a beautiful blueish-green,&#8221; with some of the
+appendages cherry-red, whilst the female is clouded
+with brown and grey, &#8220;with the red about her much
+less vivid than in the male.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_419" id="FNanchor_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419" class="fnanchor">419</a> In this case, we may
+suspect the agency of sexual selection. With Saphirina
+(an oceanic genus of Entomostraca, and therefore
+low in the scale) the males are furnished with
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">336</a></span>minute shields or cell-like bodies, which exhibit beautiful
+changing colours; these being absent in the
+females, and in the case of one species in both sexes.<a name="FNanchor_420" id="FNanchor_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420" class="fnanchor">420</a>
+It would, however, be extremely rash to conclude that
+these curious organs serve merely to attract the females.
+In the female of a Brazilian species of Gelasimus, the
+whole body, as I am informed by Fritz M&uuml;ller, is of a
+nearly uniform greyish-brown. In the male the posterior
+part of the cephalo-thorax is pure white, with the
+anterior part of a rich green, shading into dark brown;
+and it is remarkable that these colours are liable to
+change in the course of a few minutes&mdash;the white
+becoming dirty grey or even black, the green &#8220;losing
+much of its brilliancy.&#8221; The males apparently are
+much more numerous than the females. It deserves
+especial notice that they do not acquire their bright
+colours until they become mature. They differ also
+from the females in the larger size of their chel&aelig;.
+In some species of the genus, probably in all, the
+sexes pair and inhabit the same burrow. They are
+also, as we have seen, highly intelligent animals.
+From these various considerations it seems highly
+probable that the male in this species has become
+gaily ornamented in order to attract or excite the
+female.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It has just been stated that the male Gelasimus does
+not acquire his conspicuous colours until mature and
+nearly ready to breed. This seems the general rule in
+the whole class with the many remarkable differences
+in structure between the two sexes. We shall hereafter
+find the same law prevailing throughout the great
+sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and in all cases it is
+eminently distinctive of characters which have been
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">337</a></span>acquired through sexual selection. Fritz M&uuml;ller<a name="FNanchor_421" id="FNanchor_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421" class="fnanchor">421</a> gives
+some striking instances of this law; thus the male
+sand-hopper (Orchestia) does not acquire his large
+claspers, which are very differently constructed from
+those of the female, until nearly full-grown; whilst
+young his claspers resemble those of the female. Thus,
+again, the male Brachyscelus possesses, like all other
+amphipods, a pair of posterior antenn&aelig;; the female,
+and this is a most extraordinary circumstance, is destitute
+of them, and so is the male as long as he remains
+immature.</p>
+
+<p>Class, <i>Arachnida</i> (Spiders).&mdash;The males are often
+darker, but sometimes lighter than the females, as may
+be seen in Mr. Blackwall&#8217;s magnificent work.<a name="FNanchor_422" id="FNanchor_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422" class="fnanchor">422</a> In
+some species the sexes differ conspicuously from each
+other in colour; thus the female of <i>Sparassus smaragdulus</i>
+is dullish-green; whilst the adult male has
+the abdomen of a fine yellow, with three longitudinal
+stripes of rich red. In some species of Thomisus the
+two sexes closely resemble each other; in others they
+differ much; thus in <i>T. citreus</i> the legs and body of
+the female are pale-yellow or green, whilst the front
+legs of the male are reddish-brown: in <i>T. floricolens</i>,
+the legs of the female are pale-green, those of the
+male being ringed in a conspicuous manner with various
+tints. Numerous analogous cases could be given in the
+genera Epeira, Nephila, Philodromus, Theridion, Linyphia,
+&amp;c. It is often difficult to say which of the two
+sexes departs most from the ordinary coloration of the
+genus to which the species belong; but Mr. Blackwall
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">338</a></span>thinks that, as a general rule, it is the male. Both
+sexes whilst young, as I am informed by the same
+author, usually resemble each other; and both often
+undergo great changes in colour during their successive
+moults before arriving at maturity. In other cases
+the male alone appears to change colour. Thus the
+male of the above-mentioned brightly-coloured Sparassus
+at first resembles the female and acquires his
+peculiar tints only when nearly adult. Spiders are
+possessed of acute senses, and exhibit much intelligence.
+The females often shew, as is well known, the
+strongest affection for their eggs, which they carry
+about enveloped in a silken web. On the whole it
+appears probable that well-marked differences in colour
+between the sexes have generally resulted from sexual
+selection, either on the male or female side. But doubts
+may be entertained on this head from the extreme
+variability in colour of some species, for instance of
+<i>Theridion lineatum</i>, the sexes of which differ when
+adult; this great variability indicates that their colours
+have not been subjected to any form of selection.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Blackwall does not remember to have seen the
+males of any species fighting together for the possession
+of the female. Nor, judging from analogy, is this
+probable; for the males are generally much smaller
+than the females, sometimes to an extraordinary degree.<a name="FNanchor_423" id="FNanchor_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423" class="fnanchor">423</a>
+Had the males been in the habit of fighting
+together, they would, it is probable, have gradually
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">339</a></span>acquired greater size and strength. Mr. Blackwall has
+sometimes seen two or more males on the same web
+with a single female; but their courtship is too tedious
+and prolonged an affair to be easily observed. The male
+is extremely cautious in making his advances, as the
+female carries her coyness to a dangerous pitch. De
+Geer saw a male that &#8220;in the midst of his preparatory
+caresses was seized by the object of his attractions,
+enveloped by her in a web and then devoured, a
+sight which, as he adds, filled him with horror and
+indignation.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_424" id="FNanchor_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424" class="fnanchor">424</a></p>
+
+<p class="tb">Westring has made the interesting discovery that
+the males of several species of Theridion<a name="FNanchor_425" id="FNanchor_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425" class="fnanchor">425</a> have the
+power of making a stridulating sound (like that made
+by many beetles and other insects, but feebler), whilst
+the females are quite mute. The apparatus consists of
+a serrated ridge at the base of the abdomen, against
+which the hard hinder part of the thorax is rubbed;
+and of this structure not a trace could be detected in
+the females. From the analogy of the Orthoptera and
+Homoptera, to be described in the next chapter, we
+may feel almost sure that the stridulation serves, as
+Westring remarks, either to call or to excite the
+female; and this is the first case in the ascending scale
+of the animal kingdom, known to me, of sounds emitted
+for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Class, <i>Myriapoda</i>.&mdash;In neither of the two orders in
+this class, including the millipedes and centipedes,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">340</a></span>can I find any well-marked instances of sexual differences
+such as more particularly concern us. In
+<i>Glomeris limbata</i>, however, and perhaps in some few
+other species, the males differ slightly in colour from
+the females; but this Glomeris is a highly variable
+species. In the males of the Diplopoda, the legs belonging
+to one of the anterior segments of the body, or
+to the posterior segment, are modified into prehensile
+hooks which serve to secure the female. In some
+species of Iulus the tarsi of the male are furnished
+with membranous suckers for the same purpose. It is
+a much more unusual circumstance, as we shall see
+when we treat of Insects, that it is the female in
+Lithobius which is furnished with prehensile appendages
+at the extremity of the body for holding the
+male.<a name="FNanchor_426" id="FNanchor_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426" class="fnanchor">426</a></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">341</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER X.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Secondary Sexual Characters of Insects</span>.</h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the females&mdash;Differences
+between the sexes, of which the meaning is not
+understood&mdash;Difference in size between the sexes&mdash;Thysanura&mdash;Diptera&mdash;Hemiptera&mdash;Homoptera,
+musical powers possessed
+by the males alone&mdash;Orthoptera, musical instruments of the
+males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity; colours&mdash;Neuroptera,
+sexual differences in colour&mdash;Hymenoptera, pugnacity
+and colours&mdash;Coleoptera, colours; furnished with great horns,
+apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating organs generally
+common to both sexes.</p></div>
+
+<p>In the immense class of insects the sexes sometimes
+differ in their organs for locomotion, and often in
+their sense-organs, as in the pectinated and beautifully
+plumose antenn&aelig; of the males of many species.
+In one of the Ephemer&aelig;, namely Chlo&euml;on, the male
+has great pillared eyes, of which the female is entirely
+destitute.<a name="FNanchor_427" id="FNanchor_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427" class="fnanchor">427</a> The ocelli are absent in the females of
+certain other insects, as in the Mutillid&aelig;, which are
+likewise destitute of wings. But we are chiefly concerned
+with structures by which one male is enabled to
+conquer another, either in battle or courtship, through
+his strength, pugnacity, ornaments, or music. The
+innumerable contrivances, therefore, by which the male
+is able to seize the female, may be briefly passed over.
+Besides the complex structures at the apex of the abdomen,
+which ought perhaps to be ranked as primary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">342</a></span>organs,<a name="FNanchor_428" id="FNanchor_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428" class="fnanchor">428</a> &#8220;it is astonishing,&#8221; as Mr. B. D. Walsh<a name="FNanchor_429" id="FNanchor_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429" class="fnanchor">429</a> has
+remarked, &#8220;how many different organs are worked in
+by nature, for the seemingly insignificant object of
+enabling the male to grasp the female firmly.&#8221; The
+mandibles or jaws are sometimes used for this purpose;
+thus the male <i>Corydalis cornutus</i> (a neuropterous insect
+in some degree allied to the Dragon-flies, &amp;c.) has immense
+curved jaws, many times longer than those of the
+female; and they are smooth instead of being toothed,
+by which means he is enabled to seize her without
+injury.<a name="FNanchor_430" id="FNanchor_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430" class="fnanchor">430</a> One of the stag-beetles of North America
+(<i>Lucanus elaphus</i>) uses his jaws, which are much larger
+than those of the female, for the same purpose, but
+probably likewise for fighting. In one of the sand-wasps
+(<i>Ammophila</i>) the jaws in the two sexes are closely
+alike, but are used for widely different purposes; the
+males, as Professor Westwood observes, &#8220;are exceedingly
+ardent, seizing their partners round the neck
+with their sickle-shaped jaws;&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_431" id="FNanchor_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431" class="fnanchor">431</a> whilst the females use
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">343</a></span>these organs for burrowing in sand-banks and making
+their nests.</p>
+
+<p>The tarsi of the front-legs are dilated in many male
+beetles, or are furnished with broad cushions of hairs;
+and in many genera of water-beetles they are armed
+with a round flat sucker, so that the male may adhere
+to the slippery body of the female. It is a much more
+unusual circumstance that the females of some water-beetles
+
+<span class="figright2" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f8" id="f8"></a><img src="images/fig8.png" width="300" height="496"
+alt="Fig. 8. Crabro cribrarius. Upper figure,
+male: lower figure, female." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;8. Crabro cribrarius. Upper figure,
+male: lower figure, female.</span></span>
+
+(Dytiscus) have their
+elytra deeply grooved, and
+in <i>Acilius sulcatus</i> thickly set
+with hairs, as an aid to the
+male. The females of some
+other water-beetles (Hydroporus)
+have their elytra
+punctured for the same object.<a name="FNanchor_432" id="FNanchor_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432" class="fnanchor">432</a>
+In the male of <i>Crabro
+cribrarius</i> (fig. 8.), it is the
+tibia which is dilated into a
+broad horny plate, with minute
+membraneous dots, giving
+to it a singular appearance
+like that of a riddle.<a name="FNanchor_433" id="FNanchor_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433" class="fnanchor">433</a>
+In the male of Penthe (a
+genus of beetles) a few of
+the middle joints of the antenn&aelig;
+are dilated and furnished on the inferior surface
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">344</a></span>with cushions of hair, exactly like those on the tarsi of
+the Carabid&aelig;, &#8220;and obviously for the same end.&#8221; In
+male dragon-flys, &#8220;the appendages at the tip of the tail
+are modified in an almost infinite variety of curious
+patterns to enable them to embrace
+the neck of the female.&#8221; Lastly in
+the males of many insects, the legs
+are furnished with peculiar spines,
+knobs or spurs; or the whole leg is
+bowed or thickened, but this is by
+no means invariably a sexual character;
+
+<span class="figleft2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f9" id="f9"></a><img src="images/fig9.png" width="200" height="798"
+alt="Fig. 9. Taphroderes distortus
+(much enlarged). Upper
+figure, male; lower figure,
+female." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;9. Taphroderes distortus
+(much enlarged). Upper
+figure, male; lower figure,
+female.</span></span>
+
+or one pair, or all three
+pairs are elongated, sometimes to
+an extravagant length.<a name="FNanchor_434" id="FNanchor_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434" class="fnanchor">434</a></p>
+
+<p>In all the orders, the sexes of
+many species present differences, of
+which the meaning is not understood.
+One curious case is that of
+a beetle (fig. 9), the male of which
+has the left mandible much enlarged;
+so that the mouth is greatly
+distorted. In another Carabidous
+beetle, the Eurygnathus,<a name="FNanchor_435" id="FNanchor_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435" class="fnanchor">435</a> we have
+the unique case, as far as known to
+Mr. Wollaston, of the head of the
+female being much broader and
+larger, though in a variable degree,
+than that of the male. Any number
+of such cases could be given. They
+abound in the Lepidoptera: one
+of the most extraordinary is that
+certain male butterflies have their fore-legs more or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">345</a></span>less atrophied, with the tibi&aelig; and tarsi reduced to mere
+rudimentary knobs. The wings, also, in the two sexes
+often differ in neuration,<a name="FNanchor_436" id="FNanchor_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436" class="fnanchor">436</a> and sometimes considerably
+in outline, as in the <i>Aricoris epitus</i>, which was shown
+to me in the British Museum by Mr. A. Butler. The
+males of certain South American butterflies have tufts
+of hair on the margins of the wings, and horny excrescences
+on the discs of the posterior pair.<a name="FNanchor_437" id="FNanchor_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437" class="fnanchor">437</a> In several
+British butterflies, the males alone, as shewn by Mr.
+Wonfor, are in parts clothed with peculiar scales.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The purpose of the luminosity in the female glow-worm
+is likewise not understood; for it is very doubtful
+whether the primary use of the light is to guide the
+male to the female. It is no serious objection to this
+latter belief that the males emit a feeble light; for
+secondary sexual characters proper to one sex are often
+developed in a slight degree in the other sex. It is a
+more valid objection that the larv&aelig; shine, and in some
+species brilliantly: Fritz M&uuml;ller informs me that the
+most luminous insect which he ever beheld in Brazil,
+was the larva of some beetle. Both sexes of certain
+luminous species of Elater emit light. Kirby and
+Spence suspect that the phosphorescence serves to
+frighten and drive away enemies.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Difference in Size between the Sexes.</i>&mdash;With insects
+of all kinds the males are commonly smaller than the
+females;<a name="FNanchor_438" id="FNanchor_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438" class="fnanchor">438</a> and this difference can often be detected
+even in the larval state. So considerable is the difference
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">346</a></span>between the male and female cocoons of the silk-moth
+(<i>Bombyx mori</i>), that in France they are separated by
+a particular mode of weighing.<a name="FNanchor_439" id="FNanchor_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439" class="fnanchor">439</a> In the lower classes
+of the animal kingdom, the greater size of the females
+seems generally to depend on their developing an enormous
+number of ova; and this may to a certain extent
+hold good with insects. But Dr. Wallace has suggested
+a much more probable explanation. He finds, after
+carefully attending to the development of the caterpillars
+of <i>Bombyx cynthia</i> and <i>Yamamai</i>, and especially
+of some dwarfed caterpillars reared from a second brood
+on unnatural food, &#8220;that in proportion as the individual
+moth is finer, so is the time required for its
+metamorphosis longer; and for this reason the female,
+which is the larger and heavier insect, from having to
+carry her numerous eggs, will be preceded by the
+male, which is smaller and has less to mature.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_440" id="FNanchor_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440" class="fnanchor">440</a> Now
+as most insects are short-lived, and as they are exposed
+to many dangers, it would manifestly be advantageous
+to the female to be impregnated as soon as possible.
+This end would be gained by the males being first
+matured in large numbers ready for the advent of the
+females; and this again would naturally follow, as
+Mr. A. E. Wallace has remarked,<a name="FNanchor_441" id="FNanchor_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441" class="fnanchor">441</a> through natural
+selection; for the smaller males would be first matured,
+and thus would procreate a large number of offspring
+which would inherit the reduced size of their male
+parents, whilst the larger males from being matured
+later would leave fewer offspring.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, exceptions to the rule of male
+insects being smaller than the females; and some of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">347</a></span>these exceptions are intelligible. Size and strength
+would be an advantage to the males, which fight for the
+possession of the female; and in these cases the males,
+as with the stag-beetle (Lucanus), are larger than the
+females. There are, however, other beetles which are
+not known to fight together, of which the males exceed
+the females in size; and the meaning of this fact is not
+known; but in some of these cases, as with the huge
+Dynastes and Megasoma, we can at least see that there
+would be no necessity for the males to be smaller than
+the females, in order to be matured before them, for
+these beetles are not short-lived, and there would be
+ample time for the pairing of the sexes. So, again,
+male dragon-flies (Libellulid&aelig;) are sometimes sensibly
+larger, and never smaller, than the females;<a name="FNanchor_442" id="FNanchor_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442" class="fnanchor">442</a> and
+they do not, as Mr. MacLachlan believes, generally
+pair with the females, until a week or fortnight has
+elapsed, and until they have assumed their proper
+masculine colours. But the most curious case, shewing
+on what complex and easily-overlooked relations, so
+trifling a character as a difference in size between the
+sexes may depend, is that of the aculeate Hymenoptera;
+for Mr. F. Smith informs me that throughout nearly
+the whole of this large group the males, in accordance
+with the general rule, are smaller than the
+females and emerge about a week before them; but
+amongst the Bees, the males of <i>Apis mellifica</i>, <i>Anthidium
+manicatum</i> and <i>Anthophora acervorum</i>, and amongst the
+Fossores, the males of the <i>Methoca ichneumonides</i>, are
+larger than the females. The explanation of this anomaly
+is that a marriage-flight is absolutely necessary
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">348</a></span>with these species, and the males require great strength
+and size in order to carry the females through the air.
+Increased size has here been acquired in opposition to
+the usual relation between size and the period of development,
+for the males, though larger, emerge before
+the smaller females.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">We will now review the several Orders, selecting such
+facts as more particularly concern us. The Lepidoptera
+(Butterflies and Moths) will be retained for a separate
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Order, <i>Thysanura</i>.&mdash;The members of this Order are
+lowly organised for their class. They are wingless,
+dull-coloured, minute insects, with ugly, almost misshapen
+heads and bodies. The sexes do not differ; but
+they offer one interesting fact, by showing that the males
+pay sedulous court to their females even low down in the
+animal scale. Sir J. Lubbock<a name="FNanchor_443" id="FNanchor_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443" class="fnanchor">443</a> in describing the <i>Smynthurus
+luteus</i>, says: &#8220;it is very amusing to see these
+little creatures coquetting together. The male, which
+is much smaller than the female, runs round her, and
+they butt one another, standing face to face, and
+moving backward and forward like two playful lambs.
+Then the female pretends to run away and the male
+runs after her with a queer appearance of anger, gets
+in front and stands facing her again; then she turns
+coyly round, but he, quicker and more active, scuttles
+round too, and seems to whip her with his antenn&aelig;;
+then for a bit they stand face to face, play with their
+antenn&aelig;, and seem to be all in all to one another.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Order, <i>Diptera</i> (Flies).&mdash;The sexes differ little in
+colour. The greatest difference, known to Mr. F. Walker,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">349</a></span>is in the genus Bibio, in which the males are blackish
+or quite black, and the females obscure brownish-orange.
+The genus Elaphomyia, discovered by Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_444" id="FNanchor_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444" class="fnanchor">444</a> in
+New Guinea, is highly remarkable, as the males are
+furnished with horns, of which the females are quite
+destitute. The horns spring from beneath the eyes, and
+curiously resemble those of stags, being either branched
+or palmated. They equal in length the whole of the
+body in one of the species. They might be thought
+to serve for fighting, but as in one species they are
+of a beautiful pink colour, edged with black, with a
+pale central stripe, and as these insects have altogether
+a very elegant appearance, it is perhaps more probable
+that the horns serve as ornaments. That the
+males of some Diptera fight together is certain; for
+Prof. Westwood<a name="FNanchor_445" id="FNanchor_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445" class="fnanchor">445</a> has several times seen this with some
+species of Tipula or Harry-long-legs. Many observers
+believe that when gnats (Culicid&aelig;) dance in the air in
+a body, alternately rising and falling, the males are
+courting the females. The mental faculties of the
+Diptera are probably fairly well developed, for their
+nervous system is more highly developed than in most
+other Orders of insects.<a name="FNanchor_446" id="FNanchor_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446" class="fnanchor">446</a></p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Hemiptera</i> (Field-Bugs).&mdash;Mr. J. W. Douglas,
+who has particularly attended to the British species, has
+kindly given me an account of their sexual differences.
+The males of some species are furnished with wings,
+whilst the females are wingless; the sexes differ in the
+form of the body and elytra; in the second joints of
+their antenn&aelig; and in their tarsi; but as the signification
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">350</a></span>of these differences is quite unknown, they may be here
+passed over. The females are generally larger and more
+robust than the males. With British, and, as far as
+Mr. Douglas knows, with exotic species, the sexes do
+not commonly differ much in colour; but in about six
+British species the male is considerably darker than the
+female, and in about four other species the female is
+darker than the male. Both sexes of some species are
+beautifully marked with vermilion and black. It is
+doubtful whether these colours serve as a protection.
+If in any species the males had differed from the females
+in an analogous manner, we might have been justified
+in attributing such conspicuous colours to sexual selection
+with transference to both sexes.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Some species of Reduvid&aelig; make a stridulating noise;
+and, in the case of <i>Pirates stridulus</i>, this is said<a name="FNanchor_447" id="FNanchor_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447" class="fnanchor">447</a> to
+be effected by the movement of the neck within the
+pro-thoracic cavity. According to Westring, <i>Reduvius
+personatus</i> also stridulates. But I have not been able
+to learn any particulars about these insects; nor have I
+any reason to suppose that they differ sexually in this
+respect.</p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Homoptera.</i>&mdash;Every one who has wandered in
+a tropical forest must have been astonished at the din
+made by the male Cicad&aelig;. The females are mute;
+as the Grecian poet Xenarchus says, &#8220;Happy the
+Cicadas live, since they all have voiceless wives.&#8221;
+The noise thus made could be plainly heard on board
+the &#8220;Beagle,&#8221; when anchored at a quarter of a mile
+from the shore of Brazil; and Captain Hancock says
+it can be heard at the distance of a mile. The Greeks
+formerly kept, and the Chinese now keep, these insects
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">351</a></span>in cages for the sake of their song, so that it must be
+pleasing to the ears of some men.<a name="FNanchor_448" id="FNanchor_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448" class="fnanchor">448</a> The Cicadid&aelig;
+usually sing during the day; whilst the Fulgorid&aelig;
+appear to be night-songsters. The sound, according
+to Landois,<a name="FNanchor_449" id="FNanchor_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449" class="fnanchor">449</a> who has recently studied the subject, is
+produced by the vibration of the lips of the spiracles,
+which are set into motion by a current of air emitted
+from the trache&aelig;. It is increased by a wonderfully
+complex resounding apparatus, consisting of two cavities
+covered by scales. Hence the sound may truly
+be called a voice. In the female the musical apparatus
+is present, but very much less developed than in the
+male, and is never used for producing sound.</p>
+
+<p>With respect to the object of the music, Dr. Hartman
+in speaking of the <i>Cicada septemdecim</i> of the United
+States, says,<a name="FNanchor_450" id="FNanchor_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450" class="fnanchor">450</a> &#8220;the drums are now (June 6th and 7th,
+1851) heard in all directions. This I believe to be the
+marital summons from the males. Standing in thick
+chestnut sprouts about as high as my head, where
+hundreds were around me, I observed the females
+coming around the drumming males.&#8221; He adds, &#8220;this
+season (Aug. 1868) a dwarf pear-tree in my garden
+produced about fifty larv&aelig; of <i>Cic. pruinosa</i>; and I
+several times noticed the females to alight near a
+male while he was uttering his clanging notes.&#8221; Fritz
+M&uuml;ller writes to me from S. Brazil that he has often
+listened to a musical contest between two or three
+males of a Cicada, having a particularly loud voice, and
+seated at a considerable distance from each other. As
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">352</a></span>soon as the first had finished his song, a second immediately
+began; and after he had concluded, another
+began, and so on. As there is so much rivalry between
+the males, it is probable that the females not only discover
+them by the sounds emitted, but that, like female
+birds, they are excited or allured by the male with the
+most attractive voice.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">I have not found any well-marked cases of ornamental
+differences between the sexes of the Homoptera.
+Mr. Douglas informs me that there are three British
+species, in which the male is black or marked with black
+bands, whilst the females are pale-coloured or obscure.</p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Orthoptera</i>.&mdash;The males in the three saltatorial
+families belonging to this Order are remarkable
+for their musical powers, namely the Achetid&aelig; or
+crickets, the Locustid&aelig; for which there is no exact
+equivalent name in English, and the Acridiid&aelig; or grasshoppers.
+The stridulation produced by some of the
+Locustid&aelig; is so loud that it can be heard during the
+night at the distance of a mile;<a name="FNanchor_451" id="FNanchor_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451" class="fnanchor">451</a> and that made by
+certain species is not unmusical even to the human
+ear, so that the Indians on the Amazons keep them
+in wicker cages. All observers agree that the sounds
+serve either to call or excite the mute females. But it
+has been noticed<a name="FNanchor_452" id="FNanchor_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452" class="fnanchor">452</a> that the male migratory locust of
+Russia (one of the Acridiid&aelig;) whilst coupled with the
+female, stridulates from anger or jealousy when approached
+by another male. The house-cricket when
+surprised at night uses its voice to warn its fellows.<a name="FNanchor_453" id="FNanchor_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453" class="fnanchor">453</a> In
+North America the Katy-did (<i>Platyphyllum concavum</i>,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">353</a></span>one of the Locustid&aelig;) is described<a name="FNanchor_454" id="FNanchor_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454" class="fnanchor">454</a> as mounting on the
+upper branches of a tree, and in the evening beginning
+&#8220;his noisy babble, while rival notes issue from the neighbouring
+trees, and the groves resound with the call of
+<i>Katy-did-she-did</i>, the live-long night.&#8221; Mr. Bates, in
+speaking of the European field-cricket (one of the Achetid&aelig;),
+says, &#8220;the male has been observed to place itself
+in the evening at the entrance of its burrow, and
+stridulate until a female approaches, when the louder
+notes are succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst
+the successful musician caresses with his antenn&aelig;
+
+<span class="figright2" style="width: 250px;"><a name="f10" id="f10"></a><img src="images/fig10.png" width="250" height="250"
+alt="Fig. 10. Gryllus campestris (from Landois)." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;10. Gryllus campestris (from Landois).<br /><br /></span>
+
+<span class="indent2">Right-hand figure, under side of part of the
+wing-nervure, much magnified, showing
+the teeth, <i>st</i>.<br /></span>
+
+<span class="indent2">Left-hand figure, upper surface of wing-cover,
+with the projecting, smooth nervure, <i>r.</i>,
+across which the teeth (<i>st</i>) are scraped.</span></span>
+
+the mate he has won.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_455" id="FNanchor_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455" class="fnanchor">455</a>
+Dr. Scudder was able to
+excite one of these insects
+to answer him, by rubbing
+on a file with a quill.<a name="FNanchor_456" id="FNanchor_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456" class="fnanchor">456</a>
+In both sexes a remarkable
+auditory apparatus
+has been discovered by
+Von Siebold, situated in
+the front legs.<a name="FNanchor_457" id="FNanchor_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457" class="fnanchor">457</a></p>
+
+<p>In the three Families
+the sounds are differently
+produced. In the males Of
+the Achetid&aelig; both wing-covers
+have the same
+structure; and this in the
+field-cricket (<i>Gryllus campestris</i>, fig. 10) consists, as de<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">354</a></span>scribed
+by Landois,<a name="FNanchor_458" id="FNanchor_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458" class="fnanchor">458</a> of from 131 to 138 sharp, transverse
+ridges or teeth (<i>st</i>) on the under side of one of the
+nervures of the wing-cover. This toothed nervure is
+rapidly scraped across a projecting, smooth, hard nervure
+(<i>r</i>) on the upper surface of the opposite wing. First
+
+<span class="figleft2" style="width: 150px;"><a name="f11" id="f11"></a><img src="images/fig11.png" width="150" height="269"
+alt="Fig. 11. Teeth of Nervure
+of Gryllus domesticus
+(from Landois)." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;11. Teeth of Nervure
+of Gryllus domesticus
+(from Landois).</span></span>
+
+one wing is rubbed over the other,
+and then the movement is reversed.
+Both wings are raised a little at the
+same time, so as to increase the resonance.
+In some species the wing-covers
+of the males are furnished at
+the base with a talc-like plate.<a name="FNanchor_459" id="FNanchor_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459" class="fnanchor">459</a> I
+have here given a drawing (fig. 11)
+of the teeth on the under side of the
+nervure of another species of Gryllus,
+viz. <i>G. domesticus</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the Locustid&aelig; the opposite wing-covers differ in
+structure (fig. 12), and cannot, as in the last family,
+be indifferently used in a reversed manner. The left
+wing, which acts as the bow of the fiddle, lies over the
+right wing which serves as the fiddle itself. One of
+the nervures (<i>a</i>) on the under surface of the former is
+finely serrated, and is scraped across the prominent
+nervures on the upper surface of the opposite or right
+wing. In our British <i>Phasgonura viridissima</i> it appeared
+to me that the serrated nervure is rubbed
+against the rounded hind corner of the opposite wing,
+the edge of which is thickened, coloured brown, and
+very sharp. In the right wing, but not in the left,
+there is a little plate, as transparent as talc, surrounded
+by nervures, and called the speculum. In <i>Ephippiger
+vitium</i>, a member of this same family, we have a curious
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">355</a></span>subordinate modification; for the wing-covers are greatly
+reduced in size, but &#8220;the posterior part of the pro-thorax
+is elevated into a kind of dome over the wing-covers,
+and which has probably the effect of increasing the
+sound.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_460" id="FNanchor_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460" class="fnanchor">460</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 550px;"><a name="f12" id="f12"></a><img src="images/fig12.png" width="550" height="454"
+alt="Fig. 12. Chloroc&oelig;lus Tanana (from Bates)." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;12. Chloroc&oelig;lus Tanana (from Bates), <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>. Lobes of opposite wing-covers.</p></div>
+
+<p>We thus see that the musical apparatus is more
+differentiated or specialised in the Locustid&aelig;, which
+includes I believe the most powerful performers in
+the Order, than in the Achetid&aelig;, in which both wing-covers
+have the same structure and the same function.<a name="FNanchor_461" id="FNanchor_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461" class="fnanchor">461</a>
+Landois, however, detected in one of the Locustid&aelig;,
+namely in Decticus, a short and narrow row of small
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">356</a></span>teeth, mere rudiments, on the inferior surface of the
+right wing-cover, which underlies the other and is
+never used as the bow. I observed the same rudimentary
+structure on the under side of the right wing-cover
+in <i>Phasgonura viridissima</i>. Hence we may with
+confidence infer that the Locustid&aelig; are descended from
+a form, in which, as in the existing Achetid&aelig;, both
+wing-covers had serrated nervures on the under surface,
+and could be indifferently used as the bow; but that
+in the Locustid&aelig; the two wing-covers gradually became
+differentiated and perfected, on the principle of the division
+of labour, the one to act exclusively as the bow and
+the other as the fiddle. By what steps the more simple
+apparatus in the Achetid&aelig; originated, we do not know,
+but it is probable that the basal portions of the wing-covers
+overlapped each other formerly as at present, and
+that the friction of the nervures produced a grating
+sound, as I find is now the case with the wing-covers
+of the females.<a name="FNanchor_462" id="FNanchor_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462" class="fnanchor">462</a> A grating sound thus occasionally
+and accidentally made by the males, if it served them
+ever so little as a love-call to the females, might readily
+have been intensified through sexual selection by fitting
+variations in the roughness of the nervures having been
+continually preserved.</p>
+
+<p>In the last and third Family, namely the Acridiid&aelig;
+or grasshoppers, the stridulation is produced in a very
+different manner, and is not so shrill, according to Dr.
+Scudder, as in the preceding Families. The inner surface
+of the femur (fig. 13, <i>r</i>) is furnished with a longitudinal
+row of minute, elegant, lancet-shaped, elastic
+teeth, from 85 to 93 in number;<a name="FNanchor_463" id="FNanchor_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463" class="fnanchor">463</a> and these are scraped
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">357</a></span>across the sharp, projecting nervures on the wing-covers,
+which, are thus made to vibrate and resound. Harris<a name="FNanchor_464" id="FNanchor_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464" class="fnanchor">464</a>
+
+<span class="figright" style="width: 300px;"><a name="f13" id="f13"></a><img src="images/fig13.png" width="300" height="289"
+alt="Fig. 13, Hind-leg of Stenobothrus pratorum." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;13, Hind-leg of Stenobothrus pratorum:
+<i>r</i>, the stridulating ridge; lower figure, the
+teeth, forming the ridge, much magnified
+(from Landois).</span></span>
+
+says that when one of
+the males begins to play,
+he first &#8220;bends the shank
+of the hind-leg beneath,
+the thigh, where it is
+lodged in a furrow designed
+to receive it,
+and then draws the leg
+briskly up and down.
+He does not play both
+fiddles together, but alternately
+first upon one
+and then on the other.&#8221;
+In many species, the base
+of the abdomen is hollowed out into a great cavity
+which is believed to act as a resounding board. In
+Pneumora (fig. 14), a S. African genus belonging to
+this same family, we meet with a new and remarkable
+modification: in the males a small notched ridge projects
+obliquely from each side of the abdomen, against
+which the hind femora are rubbed.<a name="FNanchor_465" id="FNanchor_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465" class="fnanchor">465</a> As the male is
+furnished with wings, the female being wingless, it is
+remarkable that the thighs are not rubbed in the usual
+manner against the wing-covers; but this may perhaps
+be accounted for by the unusually small size of the hind-legs.
+I have not been able to examine the inner
+surface of the thighs, which, judging from analogy,
+would be finely serrated. The species of Pneumora
+have been more profoundly modified for the sake of
+stridulation than any other orthopterous insect; for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">358</a></span>in the male the whole body has been converted into a
+musical instrument, being distended with air, like a
+great pellucid bladder, so as to increase the resonance.
+Mr. Trimen informs me that at the Cape of Good Hope
+these insects make a wonderful noise during the night
+There is one exception to the rule that the females
+in these three Families are destitute of an efficient
+musical apparatus; for both sexes of Ephippiger (Locustid&aelig;)
+are said<a name="FNanchor_466" id="FNanchor_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466" class="fnanchor">466</a> to be thus provided. This case may
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">359</a></span>be compared with that of the reindeer, in which species
+alone both sexes possess horns. Although the female
+orthoptera are thus almost invariably mute, yet Landois<a name="FNanchor_467" id="FNanchor_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467" class="fnanchor">467</a>
+found rudiments of the stridulating organs on the femora
+of the female Acridiid&aelig;, and similar rudiments on the
+under surface of the wing-covers of the female Achetid&aelig;;
+but he failed to find any rudiments in the females
+of Decticus, one of the Locustid&aelig;. In the Homoptera
+the mute females of Cicada, have the proper musical
+apparatus in an undeveloped state; and we shall hereafter
+meet in other divisions of the animal kingdom with
+innumerable instances of structures proper to the male
+being present in a rudimentary condition in the female.
+Such cases appear at first sight to indicate that both
+sexes were primordially constructed in the same manner,
+but that certain organs were subsequently lost by the
+females. It is, however, a more probable view, as previously
+explained, that the organs in question were
+acquired by the males and partially transferred to the
+females.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f14" id="f14"></a><img src="images/fig14.png" width="450" height="492"
+alt="Fig. 14. Pneumora (from specimens in the British Museum)." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;14. Pneumora (from specimens in the British Museum). Upper figure, male;
+lower figure, female.</p></div>
+
+<p>Landois has observed another interesting fact, namely
+that in the females of the Acridiid&aelig;, the stridulating
+teeth on the femora remain throughout life in the same
+condition in which they first appear in both sexes
+during the larval state. In the males, on the other
+hand, they become fully developed and acquire their
+perfect structure at the last moult, when the insect is
+mature and ready to breed.</p>
+
+<p>From the facts now given, we see that the means
+by which the males produce their sounds are extremely
+diversified in the Orthoptera, and are altogether different
+from those employed by the Homoptera. But
+throughout the animal kingdom we incessantly find the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">360</a></span>same object gained by the most diversified means; this
+being due to the whole organisation undergoing in
+the course of ages multifarious changes; and as part
+after part varies, different variations are taken advantage
+of for the same general purpose. The diversification of
+the means for producing sound in the three families
+of the Orthoptera and in the Homoptera, impresses the
+mind with the high importance of these structures to
+the males, for the sake of calling or alluring the females.
+We need feel no surprise at the amount of modification
+which the Orthoptera have undergone in this respect, as
+we now know, from Dr. Scudder&#8217;s remarkable discovery,<a name="FNanchor_468" id="FNanchor_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468" class="fnanchor">468</a>
+that there has been more than ample time. This
+naturalist has lately found a fossil insect in the Devonian
+formation of New Brunswick, which is furnished with
+&#8220;the well-known tympanum or stridulating apparatus
+of the male Locustid&aelig;.&#8221; This insect, though in most
+respects related to the Neuroptera, appears to connect,
+as is so often the case with very ancient forms, the
+two Orders of the Neuroptera and Orthoptera which are
+now generally ranked as quite distinct.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">I have but little more to say on the Orthoptera.
+Some of the species are very pugnacious: when two
+male field-crickets (<i>Gryllus campestris</i>) are confined
+together, they fight till one kills the other; and the
+species of Mantis are described as man&oelig;uvring with
+their sword-like front-limbs, like hussars with their
+sabres. The Chinese keep these insects in little bamboo
+cages and match them like game-cocks.<a name="FNanchor_469" id="FNanchor_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469" class="fnanchor">469</a> With respect
+to colour, some exotic locusts are beautifully ornamented;
+the posterior wings being marked with red,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">361</a></span>blue, and black; but as throughout the Order the
+two sexes rarely differ much in colour, it is doubtful
+whether they owe these bright tints to sexual selection.
+Conspicuous colours may be of use to these insects
+as a protection, on the principle to be explained in the
+next chapter, by giving notice to their enemies that
+they are unpalatable. Thus it has been observed<a name="FNanchor_470" id="FNanchor_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470" class="fnanchor">470</a>
+that an Indian brightly-coloured locust was invariably
+rejected when offered to birds and lizards. Some cases,
+however, of sexual differences in colour in this Order
+are known. The male of an American cricket<a name="FNanchor_471" id="FNanchor_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471" class="fnanchor">471</a> is described
+as being as white as ivory, whilst the female
+varies from almost white to greenish-yellow or dusky.
+Mr. Walsh informs me that the adult male of <i>Spectrum
+femoratum</i> (one of the Phasmid&aelig;) &#8220;is of a shining
+brownish-yellow colour; the adult female being of
+a dull, opaque, cinereous-brown; the young of both
+sexes being green.&#8221; Lastly, I may mention that the
+male of one curious kind of cricket<a name="FNanchor_472" id="FNanchor_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472" class="fnanchor">472</a> is furnished with
+&#8220;a long membranous appendage, which falls over the
+face like a veil;&#8221; but whether this serves as an ornament
+is not known.</p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Neuroptera</i>.&mdash;Little need here be said, except
+in regard to colour. In the Ephemerid&aelig; the sexes
+often differ slightly in their obscure tints;<a name="FNanchor_473" id="FNanchor_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473" class="fnanchor">473</a> but it is
+not probable that the males are thus rendered attractive
+to the females. The Libellulid&aelig; or dragon-flies
+are ornamented with splendid green, blue, yellow, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">362</a></span>vermilion metallic tints; and the sexes often differ.
+Thus, the males of some of the Agrionid&aelig;, as Prof.
+Westwood remarks<a name="FNanchor_474" id="FNanchor_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474" class="fnanchor">474</a> &#8220;are of a rich blue with black
+wings, whilst the females are fine green with colourless
+wings.&#8221; But in <i>Agrion Ramburii</i> these colours are
+exactly reversed in the two sexes.<a name="FNanchor_475" id="FNanchor_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475" class="fnanchor">475</a> In the extensive
+N. American genus of Het&aelig;rina, the males alone have
+a beautiful carmine spot at the base of each wing. In
+<i>Anax junius</i> the basal part of the abdomen in the male
+is a vivid ultra-marine blue, and in the female grass-green.
+In the allied genus Gomphus, on the other
+hand, and in some other genera, the sexes differ but
+little in colour. Throughout the animal kingdom,
+similar cases of the sexes of closely-allied forms either
+differing greatly, or very little, or not at all, are of
+frequent occurrence. Although with many Libellulid&aelig;
+there is so wide a difference in colour between the sexes,
+it is often difficult to say which is the most brilliant;
+and the ordinary coloration of the two sexes is exactly
+reversed, as we have just seen, in one species of Agrion.
+It is not probable that their colours in any case have
+been gained as a protection. As Mr. MacLachlan, who
+has closely attended to this family, writes to me, dragon-flies&mdash;the
+tyrants of the insect-world&mdash;are the least
+liable of any insect to be attacked by birds or other
+enemies. He believes that their bright colours serve
+as a sexual attraction. It deserves notice, as bearing
+on this subject, that certain dragon-flies appear to be
+attracted by particular colours: Mr. Patterson observed<a name="FNanchor_476" id="FNanchor_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476" class="fnanchor">476</a>
+that the species of Agrionid&aelig;, of which the males are
+blue, settled in numbers on the blue float of a fishing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">363</a></span>line; whilst two other species were attracted by shining
+white colours.</p>
+
+<p>It is an interesting fact, first observed by Schelver,
+that the males, in several genera belonging to two sub-families,
+when they first emerge from the pupal state
+are coloured exactly like the females; but that their
+bodies in a short time assume a conspicuous milky-blue
+tint, owing to the exudation of a kind of oil, soluble in
+ether and alcohol. Mr. MacLachlan believes that in the
+male of <i>Libellula depressa</i> this change of colour does not
+occur until nearly a fortnight after the metamorphosis,
+when the sexes are ready to pair.</p>
+
+<p>Certain species of Neurothemis present, according
+to Brauer<a name="FNanchor_477" id="FNanchor_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477" class="fnanchor">477</a> a curious case of dimorphism, some of the
+females having their wings netted in the usual manner;
+whilst other females have them &#8220;very richly netted as in
+the males of the same species.&#8221; Brauer &#8220;explains
+the phenomenon on Darwinian principles by the
+supposition that the close netting of the veins is a
+secondary sexual character in the males.&#8221; This
+latter character is generally developed in the males alone,
+but being, like every other masculine character,
+latent in the female, is occasionally developed in them.
+We have here an illustration of the manner in which
+the two sexes of many animals have probably come to
+resemble each other, namely by variations first appearing
+in the males, being preserved in them, and then
+transmitted to and developed in the females; but in
+this particular genus a complete transference is occasionally
+and abruptly effected. Mr. MacLachlan informs
+me of another case of dimorphism occurring in
+several species of Agrion in which a certain number of
+individuals are found of an orange colour, and these are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">364</a></span>invariably females. This is probably a case of reversion,
+for in the true Libellul&aelig;, when the sexes differ in
+colour, the females are always orange or yellow, so
+that supposing Agrion to be descended from some primordial
+form having the characteristic sexual colours
+of the typical Libellul&aelig;, it would not be surprising that
+a tendency to vary in this manner should occur in the
+females alone.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Although many dragon-flies are such large, powerful,
+and fierce insects, the males have not been observed
+by Mr. MacLachlan to fight together, except, as he
+believes, in the case of some of the smaller species of
+Agrion. In another very distinct group in this Order,
+namely in the Termites or white ants, both sexes at
+the time of swarming may be seen running about, &#8220;the
+male after the female, sometimes two chasing one
+female, and contending with great eagerness who shall
+win the prize.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_478" id="FNanchor_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478" class="fnanchor">478</a></p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Hymenoptera</i>.&mdash;That inimitable observer, M.
+Fabre,<a name="FNanchor_479" id="FNanchor_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479" class="fnanchor">479</a> in describing the habits of Cerceris, a wasp-like
+insect, remarks that &#8220;fights frequently ensue
+between the males for the possession of some particular
+female, who sits an apparently unconcerned
+beholder of the struggle for supremacy, and when the
+victory is decided, quietly flies away in company
+with the conqueror.&#8221; Westwood<a name="FNanchor_480" id="FNanchor_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480" class="fnanchor">480</a> says that the
+males of one of the saw-flies (Tenthredin&aelig;) &#8220;have been
+found fighting together, with their mandibles locked.&#8221;
+As M. Fabre speaks of the males of Cerceris striving
+to obtain a particular female, it may be well to bear in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">365</a></span>mind that insects belonging to this Order have the
+power of recognising each other after long intervals of
+time, and are deeply attached. For instance, Pierre
+Huber, whose accuracy no one doubts, separated some
+ants, and when after an interval of four months they
+met others which had formerly belonged to the same
+community, they mutually recognised and caressed each
+other with their antenn&aelig;. Had they been strangers
+they would have fought together. Again, when two
+communities engage in a battle, the ants on the same
+side in the general confusion sometimes attack each
+other, but they soon perceive their mistake, and the
+one ant soothes the other.<a name="FNanchor_481" id="FNanchor_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481" class="fnanchor">481</a></p>
+
+<p>In this Order slight differences in colour, according
+to sex, are common, but conspicuous differences are
+rare except in the family of Bees; yet both sexes of
+certain groups are so brilliantly coloured&mdash;for instance
+in Chrysis, in which vermilion and metallic greens
+prevail&mdash;that we are tempted to attribute the result
+to sexual selection. In the Ichneumonid&aelig;, according to
+Mr. Walsh,<a name="FNanchor_482" id="FNanchor_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482" class="fnanchor">482</a> the males are almost universally lighter
+coloured than the females. On the other hand, in the
+Tenthredinid&aelig; the males are generally darker than the
+females. In the Siricid&aelig; the sexes frequently differ;
+thus the male of <i>Sirex juvencus</i> is banded with orange,
+whilst the female is dark purple; but it is difficult to
+say which sex is the most ornamented. In <i>Tremex
+columb&aelig;</i> the female is much brighter coloured than the
+male. With ants, as I am informed by Mr. F. Smith,
+the males of several species are black, the females
+being testaceous. In the family of Bees, especially in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">366</a></span>the solitary species, as I hear from the same distinguished
+entomologist, the sexes often differ in colour.
+The males are generally the brightest, and in Bombus
+as well as in Apathus, much more variable in colour
+than the females. In <i>Anthophora retusa</i> the male is
+of a rich fulvous-brown, whilst the female is quite
+black: so are the females of several species of Xylocopa,
+the males being bright yellow. In an Australian bee
+(<i>Lestis bombylans</i>), the female is of an extremely brilliant
+steel-blue, sometimes tinted with vivid green; the male
+being of a bright brassy colour clothed with rich fulvous
+pubescence. As in this group the females are provided
+with excellent defensive weapons in their stings, it is
+not probable that they have come to differ in colour
+from the males for the sake of protection.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Mutilla Europ&aelig;a</i> emits a stridulating noise; and according
+to Goureau<a name="FNanchor_483" id="FNanchor_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483" class="fnanchor">483</a> both sexes have this power. He
+attributes the sound to the friction of the third and
+preceding abdominal segments; and I find that these
+surfaces are marked with very fine concentric ridges,
+but so is the projecting thoracic collar, on which the
+head articulates; and this collar, when scratched with
+the point of a needle, emits the proper sound. It is
+rather surprising that both sexes should have the
+power of stridulating, as the male is winged and the
+female wingless. It is notorious that Bees express
+certain emotions, as of anger, by the tone of their
+humming, as do some dipterous insects; but I have
+not referred to these sounds, as they are not known to
+be in any way connected with the act of courtship.</p>
+
+<p>Order, <i>Coleoptera</i> (Beetles).&mdash;Many beetles are
+coloured so as to resemble the surfaces which they
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">367</a></span>habitually frequent. Other species are ornamented
+with gorgeous metallic tints,&mdash;for instance, many Carabid&aelig;,
+which live on the ground and have the power
+of defending themselves by an intensely acrid secretion,&mdash;the
+splendid diamond-beetles which are protected by
+an extremely hard covering,&mdash;many species of Chrysomela,
+such as <i>C. cerealis</i>, a large species beautifully
+striped with various colours, and in Britain confined
+to the bare summit of Snowdon,&mdash;and a host of other
+species. These splendid colours, which are often
+arranged in stripes, spots, crosses and other elegant
+patterns, can hardly be beneficial, as a protection, except
+in the case of some flower-feeding species; and we
+cannot believe that they are purposeless. Hence the
+suspicion arises, that they serve as a sexual attraction;
+but we have no evidence on this head, for the sexes
+rarely differ in colour. Blind beetles, which cannot of
+course behold each other&#8217;s beauty, never exhibit, as I
+hear from Mr. Waterhouse, jun., bright colours, though
+they often have polished coats: but the explanation of
+their obscurity may be that blind insects inhabit caves
+and other obscure stations.</p>
+
+<p>Some Longicorns, however, especially certain Prionid&aelig;,
+offer an exception to the common rule that the
+sexes of beetles do not differ in colour. Most of these
+insects are large and splendidly coloured. The males in
+the genus Pyrodes,<a name="FNanchor_484" id="FNanchor_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484" class="fnanchor">484</a> as I saw in Mr. Bates&#8217; collection, are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">368</a></span>generally redder but rather duller than the females, the
+latter being coloured of a more or less splendid golden
+green. On the other hand, in one species the male is
+golden-green, the female being richly tinted with red
+and purple. In the genus Esmeralda the sexes differ so
+greatly in colour that they have been ranked as distinct
+species: in one species both are of a beautiful shining
+green, but the male has a red thorax. On the whole,
+as far as I could judge, the females of those Prionid&aelig;,
+in which the sexes differ, are coloured more richly
+than the males; and this does not accord with the
+common rule in regard to colour when acquired through
+sexual selection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f15" id="f15"></a><img src="images/fig15.png" width="450" height="363"
+alt="Fig. 15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced); lower figure, female
+(nat. size)." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced); lower figure, female
+(nat. size).</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">369</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f16" id="f16"></a><img src="images/fig16.png" width="500" height="186"
+alt="Fig. 16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)" title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f17" id="f17"></a><img src="images/fig17.png" width="500" height="175"
+alt="Fig. 17. Phan&aelig;us faunus." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;17. Phan&aelig;us faunus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f18" id="f18"></a><img src="images/fig18.png" width="500" height="168"
+alt="Fig. 18. Dipelicus cantori." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;18. Dipelicus cantori.</p></div>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f19" id="f19"></a><img src="images/fig19.png" width="500" height="162"
+alt="Fig. 19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged." title="" />
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">370</a></span></p>
+
+<p>A most remarkable distinction between the sexes of
+many beetles is presented by the great horns which
+rise from the head, thorax, or clypeus of the males;
+and in some few cases from the under surface of the
+body. These horns, in the great family of the Lamellicorns,
+resemble those of various quadrupeds, such as
+stags, rhinoceroses, &amp;c., and are wonderful both from
+their size and diversified shapes. Instead of describing
+them, I have given figures of the males and females of
+some of the more remarkable forms. (Figs. 15 to 19.)
+The females generally exhibit rudiments of the horns
+in the form of small knobs or ridges; but some are
+destitute of even a rudiment. On the other hand, the
+horns are nearly as well developed in the female as in
+the male of <i>Phan&aelig;us lancifer</i>; and only a little less
+well developed in the females of some other species of
+the same genus and of Copris. In the several subdivisions
+of the family, the differences in structure of
+the horns do not run parallel, as I am informed by
+Mr. Bates, with their more important and characteristic
+differences; thus within the same natural section of the
+genus Onthophagus, there are species which have either
+a single cephalic horn, or two distinct horns.</p>
+
+<p>In almost all cases, the horns are remarkable from
+their excessive variability; so that a graduated series
+can be formed, from the most highly developed males
+to others so degenerate that they can barely be distinguished
+from the females. Mr. Walsh<a name="FNanchor_485" id="FNanchor_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485" class="fnanchor">485</a> found that in
+<i>Phan&aelig;us carnifex</i> the horns were thrice as long in some
+males as in others. Mr. Bates, after examining above
+a hundred males of <i>Onthophagus rangifer</i> (fig. 19),
+thought that he had at last discovered a species in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">371</a></span>which the horns did not vary; but further research
+proved the contrary.</p>
+
+<p>The extraordinary size of the horns, and their widely
+different structure in closely-allied forms, indicate that
+they have been formed for some important purpose;
+but their excessive variability in the males of the same
+species leads to the inference that this purpose cannot
+be of a definite nature. The horns do not show marks
+of friction, as if used for any ordinary work. Some
+authors suppose<a name="FNanchor_486" id="FNanchor_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486" class="fnanchor">486</a> that as the males wander much more
+than the females, they require horns as a defence
+against their enemies; but in many cases the horns
+do not seem well adapted for defence, as they are not
+sharp. The most obvious conjecture is that they are
+used by the males for fighting together; but they
+have never been observed to fight; nor could Mr. Bates,
+after a careful examination of numerous species, find
+any sufficient evidence in their mutilated or broken
+condition of their having been thus used. If the males
+had been habitual fighters, their size would probably
+have been increased through sexual selection, so as to
+have exceeded that of the female; but Mr. Bates, after
+comparing the two sexes in above a hundred species of
+the Coprid&aelig;, does not find in well-developed individuals
+any marked difference in this respect. There is, moreover,
+one beetle, belonging to the same great division
+of the Lamellicorns, namely Lethrus, the males of which
+are known to fight, but they are not provided with
+horns, though their mandibles are much larger than
+those of the female.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion, which best agrees with the fact of
+the horns having been so immensely yet not fixedly
+developed,&mdash;as shewn by their extreme variability in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">372</a></span>the same species and by their extreme diversity in
+closely-allied species&mdash;is that they have been acquired
+as ornaments. This view will at first appear extremely
+improbable; but we shall hereafter find with many
+animals, standing much higher in the scale, namely
+fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, that various
+kinds of crests, knobs, horns and combs have been
+developed apparently for this sole purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The males of <i>Onitis furcifer</i> (fig. 20) are furnished
+with singular projections on their anterior femora, and
+
+<span class="figleft2" style="width: 150px;"><a name="f20" id="f20"></a><img src="images/fig20.png" width="150" height="156"
+alt="Fig. 20. Onitis furcifer, male,
+viewed from beneath." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;20. Onitis furcifer, male,
+viewed from beneath.</span></span>
+
+with a great fork or pair of horns on
+the lower surface of the thorax. This
+situation seems extremely ill adapted
+for the display of these projections,
+and they may be of some real service;
+but no use can at present be
+assigned to them. It is a highly
+remarkable fact, that although the
+males do not exhibit even a trace of
+horns on the upper surface of the
+body, yet in the females a rudiment of a single horn on
+the head (fig. 21, <i>a</i>), and of a crest (<i>b</i>) on the thorax,
+are plainly visible. That the slight thoracic crest in the
+female is a rudiment of a projection proper to the male,
+though entirely absent in the male of this particular
+species, is clear: for the female of <i>Bubas bison</i> (a form<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">373</a></span>
+which comes next to <i>Onitis</i>) has a similar slight crest
+on the thorax, and the male has in the same situation a
+great projection. So again there can be no doubt that
+the little point (<i>a</i>) on the head of the female <i>Onitis
+furcifer</i>, as well of the females of two or three allied
+species, is a rudimentary representative of the cephalic
+horn, which is common to the males of so many lamellicorn
+beetles, as in Phan&aelig;us, fig. 17. The males indeed
+of some unnamed beetles in the British Museum, which
+are believed actually to belong to the genus Onitis, are
+furnished with a similar horn. The remarkable nature
+of this case will be best perceived by an illustration:
+the Ruminant quadrupeds run parallel with the lamellicorn
+beetles, in some females possessing horns as large
+as those of the male, in others having them much
+smaller, or existing as mere rudiments (though this is
+as rare with ruminants as it is common with Lamellicorns),
+or in having none at all. Now if a new species
+of deer or sheep were discovered with the female
+bearing distinct rudiments of horns, whilst the head
+of the male was absolutely smooth, we should have a
+case like that of <i>Onitis furcifer</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f21" id="f21"></a><img src="images/fig21.png" width="450" height="146"
+alt="Fig. 21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer." title="" /></div>
+
+<p class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer, viewed laterally. Right-hand figure,
+female.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>a.</i>&nbsp;Rudiment of cephalic horn.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>b.</i> Trace of thoracic horn or crest.</p>
+
+<p>In this case the old belief of rudiments having been
+created to complete the scheme of nature is so far from
+holding good, that all ordinary rules are completely
+broken through. The view which seems the most probable
+is that some early progenitor of Onitis acquired,
+like other Lamellicorns, horns on the head and thorax,
+and then transferred them, in a rudimentary condition,
+as with so many existing species, to the female, by whom
+they have ever since been retained. The subsequent
+loss of the horns by the male may have resulted through
+the principle of compensation from the development of
+the projections on the lower surface, whilst the female
+has not been thus affected, as she is not furnished with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">374</a></span>
+these projections, and consequently has retained the
+rudiments of the horns on the upper surface. Although
+this view is supported by the case of Bledius immediately
+to be given, yet the projections on the lower
+surface differ greatly in structure and development in
+the males of the several species of Onitis, and are even
+rudimentary in some; nevertheless the upper surface
+in all these species is quite destitute of horns. As
+secondary sexual characters are so eminently variable, it
+is possible that the projections on the lower surface may
+have been first acquired by some progenitor of Onitis and
+produced their effect through compensation, and then
+have been in certain cases almost completely lost.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 500px;"><a name="f22" id="f22"></a><img src="images/fig22.png" width="500" height="98"
+alt="Fig. 22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure, male; right-hand figure, female." title="" /></div>
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure, male; right-hand figure, female.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">All the cases hitherto given refer to the Lamellicorns,
+but the males of some few other beetles, belonging
+to two widely distinct groups, namely, the
+Curculionid&aelig; and Staphylinid&aelig;, are furnished with
+horns,&mdash;in the former on the lower surface of the body,<a name="FNanchor_487" id="FNanchor_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487" class="fnanchor">487</a>
+in the latter on the upper surface of the head and
+thorax. In the Staphylinid&aelig; the horns of the males
+in the same species are extraordinarily variable, just
+as we have seen with the Lamellicorns. In Siagonium
+we have a case of dimorphism, for the males can be
+divided into two sets, differing greatly in the size of
+their bodies, and in the development of their horns,
+without any intermediate gradations. In a species of
+Bledius (fig. 22), also belonging to the Staphylinid&aelig;,
+male specimens can be found in the same locality, as
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">375</a></span>
+Professor Westwood states, &#8220;in which the central horn
+of the thorax is very large, but the horns of the head
+quite rudimental; and others, in which the thoracic
+horn is much shorter, whilst the protuberances on
+the head are long.&#8221;<a name="FNanchor_488" id="FNanchor_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488" class="fnanchor">488</a> Here, then, we apparently
+have an instance of compensation of growth, which
+throws light on the curious case just given of the loss of
+the upper horns by the males of <i>Onitis furcifer.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Law of Battle.</i>&mdash;Some male beetles, which seem ill
+fitted for fighting, nevertheless engage in conflicts for
+the possession of the females. Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_489" id="FNanchor_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489" class="fnanchor">489</a> saw two
+males of <i>Leptorhynchus angustatus</i>, a linear beetle with
+a much elongated rostrum, &#8220;fighting for a female, who
+stood close by busy at her boring. They pushed at
+each other with their rostra, and clawed and thumped,
+apparently in the greatest rage.&#8221; The smaller male,
+however, &#8220;soon ran away, acknowledging himself vanquished.&#8221;
+In some few cases the males are well
+adapted for fighting, by possessing great toothed mandibles,
+much larger than those of the females. This
+is the case with the common stag-beetle (<i>Lucanus
+cervus</i>), the males of which emerge from the pupal state
+about a week before the other sex, so that several may
+often be seen pursuing the same female. At this period
+they engage in fierce conflicts. When Mr. A. H.
+Davis<a name="FNanchor_490" id="FNanchor_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490" class="fnanchor">490</a> enclosed two males with one female in a box,
+the larger male severely pinched the smaller one, until
+he resigned his pretensions. A friend informs me
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">376</a></span>that when a boy he often put the males together to see
+them fight, and he noticed that they were much bolder
+and fiercer than the females, as is well known to be the
+case with the higher animals. The males would seize
+hold of his finger, if held in front, but not so the females.
+With many of the Lucanid&aelig;, as well as with the above-mentioned
+Leptorhynchus, the males are larger and
+more powerful insects than the females. The two sexes
+of <i>Lethrus cephalotes</i> (one of the Lamellicorns) inhabit the
+same burrow; and the male has larger mandibles than
+the female. If, during the breeding-season, a strange
+male attempts to enter the burrow, he is attacked; the
+female does not remain passive, but closes the mouth of
+the burrow, and encourages her mate by continually
+pushing him on from behind. The action does not
+cease until the aggressor is killed or runs away.<a name="FNanchor_491" id="FNanchor_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491" class="fnanchor">491</a> The
+two sexes of another lamellicorn beetle, the <i>Ateuchus
+cicatricosus</i> live in pairs, and seem much attached to
+each other; the male excites the female to roll the
+balls of dung in which the ova are deposited; and if
+she is removed, he becomes much agitated. If the
+male is removed, the female ceases all work, and as
+M. Brulerie<a name="FNanchor_492" id="FNanchor_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492" class="fnanchor">492</a> believes, would remain on the spot until
+she died.</p>
+
+<p>The great mandibles of the male Lucanid&aelig; are extremely
+variable both in size and structure, and in this
+respect resemble the horns on the head and thorax
+of many male Lamellicorns and Staphylinid&aelig;. A perfect
+series can be formed from the best-provided to the
+worst-provided or degenerate males. Although the
+mandibles of the common stag-beetle, and probably of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">377</a></span>many other species, are used as efficient weapons for
+fighting, it is doubtful whether their great size can
+
+<span class="figright2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f23" id="f23"></a><img src="images/fig23.png" width="200" height="682"
+alt="Fig. 23. Chiasognathus grantii,
+reduced. Upper figure, male;
+lower figure, female." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;23. Chiasognathus grantii,
+reduced. Upper figure, male;
+lower figure, female.</span></span>
+
+thus be accounted for. We have
+seen that with the <i>Lucanus elaphus</i>
+of N. America they are used
+for seizing the female. As they
+are so conspicuous and so elegantly
+branched, the suspicion
+has sometimes crossed my mind
+that they may be serviceable to
+the males as an ornament, in the
+same manner as the horns on the
+head and thorax of the various
+above described species. The
+male <i>Chiasognathus grantii</i> of S.
+Chile&mdash;a splendid beetle belonging
+to the same family&mdash;has enormously-developed
+mandibles (fig.
+23); he is bold and pugnacious;
+when threatened on any side he
+faces round, opening his great
+jaws, and at the same time stridulating
+loudly; but the mandibles
+were not strong enough to pinch
+my finger so as to cause actual
+pain.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Sexual selection, which implies
+the possession of considerable perceptive
+powers and of strong passions,
+seems to have been more
+effective with the Lamellicorns
+than with any other family of the
+Coleoptera or beetles. With some
+species the males are provided with weapons for fighting;
+some live in pairs and show mutual affection;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">378</a></span>
+many have the power of stridulating when excited; many
+are furnished with the most extraordinary horns, apparently
+for the sake of ornament; some which are diurnal
+in their habits are gorgeously coloured; and, lastly,
+several of the largest beetles in the world belong to this
+family, which was placed by Linn&aelig;us and Fabricius at
+the head of the Order of the Coleoptera.<a name="FNanchor_493" id="FNanchor_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493" class="fnanchor">493</a></p>
+
+<p><i>Stridulating organs.</i>&mdash;Beetles belonging to many
+and widely distinct families possess these organs. The
+sound can sometimes be heard at the distance of several
+feet or even yards,<a name="FNanchor_494" id="FNanchor_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494" class="fnanchor">494</a> but is not comparable with that
+produced by the Orthoptera. The part which may be
+called the rasp generally consists of a narrow slightly-raised
+surface, crossed by very fine, parallel ribs, sometimes
+so fine as to cause iridescent colours, and having
+a very elegant appearance under the microscope. In
+some cases, for instance, with Typh&aelig;us, it could be
+plainly seen that extremely minute, bristly, scale-like
+prominences, which cover the whole surrounding surface
+in approximately parallel lines, give rise to the
+ribs of the rasp by becoming confluent and straight, and
+at the same time more prominent and smooth. A hard
+ridge on any adjoining part of the body, which in some
+cases is specially modified for the purpose, serves as the
+scraper for the rasp. The scraper is rapidly moved across
+the rasp, or conversely the rasp across the scraper.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 450px;"><a name="f24" id="f24"></a><img src="images/fig24.png" width="450" height="166"
+alt="Fig. 24. Necrophorus (from Landois). r. The two rasps. Left-hand figure, part of
+the rasp highly magnified." title="" /></div>
+
+<p class="center2">Fig.&nbsp;24. Necrophorus (from Landois). <i>r.</i>&nbsp;The two rasps. Left-hand figure, part of
+the rasp highly magnified.</p>
+
+<p>These organs are situated in widely different positions.
+In the carrion-beetles (Necrophorus) two parallel
+rasps (<i>r</i>, fig. 24) stand on the dorsal surface of the fifth
+abdominal segment, each rasp being crossed, as described
+by Landois,<a name="FNanchor_495" id="FNanchor_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495" class="fnanchor">495</a> by from 126 to 140 fine ribs. These
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">379</a></span>ribs are scraped by the posterior margins of the elytra, a
+small portion of which projects beyond the general outline.
+In many Criocerid&aelig;, and in <i>Clythra 4-punctata</i>
+(one of the Chrysomelid&aelig;), and in some Tenebrionid&aelig;,
+&amp;c.,<a name="FNanchor_496" id="FNanchor_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496" class="fnanchor">496</a> the rasp is seated on the dorsal apex of the abdomen,
+on the pygidium or pro-pygidium, and is scraped
+as above by the elytra. In Heterocerus, which belongs
+to another family, the rasps are placed on the sides of
+the first abdominal segment, and are scraped by ridges
+on the femora.<a name="FNanchor_497" id="FNanchor_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497" class="fnanchor">497</a> In certain Curculionid&aelig; and Carabid&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_498" id="FNanchor_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498" class="fnanchor">498</a>
+the parts are completely reversed in position,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">380</a></span>for the rasps are seated on the inferior surface of the
+elytra, near their apices, or along their outer margins,
+and the edges of the abdominal segments serve as the
+scrapers. In <i>Pelobius hermanni</i> (one of Dytiscid&aelig; or
+water-beetles) a strong ridge runs parallel and near to
+the sutural margin of the elytra, and is crossed by ribs,
+coarse in the middle part, but becoming gradually finer
+at both ends, especially at the upper end; when this
+insect is held under water or in the air, a stridulating
+noise is produced by scraping the extreme horny margin
+of the abdomen against the rasp. In a great number
+of long-horned beetles (Longicornia) the organs are altogether
+differently situated, the rasp being on the meso-thorax,
+which is rubbed against the pro-thorax; Landois
+counted 238 very fine ribs on the rasp of <i>Cerambyx
+heros</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many Lamellicorns have the power of stridulating,
+and the organs differ greatly in position. Some species
+
+<span class="figleft2" style="width: 200px;"><a name="f25" id="f25"></a><img src="images/fig25.png" width="200" height="289"
+alt="Fig. 25. Hind-leg of Geotrupes
+stercorarius (from Landois)." title="" />
+
+<span class="indent2">Fig.&nbsp;25. Hind-leg of Geotrupes
+stercorarius (from Landois).<br /><br /></span>
+<span class="indent2"><i>r.</i>&nbsp;Rasp. <i>c.</i>&nbsp;Coxa. <i>f.</i>&nbsp;Femur.
+<i>t.</i>&nbsp;Tibia. <i>tr.</i>&nbsp;Tarsi.</span></span>
+
+stridulate very loudly, so that when
+Mr. F. Smith caught a <i>Trox sabulosus</i>,
+a gamekeeper who stood by
+thought that he had caught a
+mouse; but I failed to discover the
+proper organs in this beetle. In
+Geotrupes and Typh&aelig;us a narrow
+ridge runs obliquely across (<i>r</i>, fig.
+25) the coxa of each hind-leg,
+having in <i>G. stercorarius</i> 84 ribs,
+which are scraped by a specially-projecting
+part of one of the abdominal
+segments. In the nearly
+allied <i>Copris lunaris</i>, an excessively
+narrow fine rasp runs along the
+sutural margin of the elytra, with another short rasp
+near the basal outer margin; but in some other Coprini<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">381</a></span>
+the rasp is seated, according to Leconte,<a name="FNanchor_499" id="FNanchor_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499" class="fnanchor">499</a> on the dorsal
+surface of the abdomen. In Oryctes it is seated on the
+pro-pygidium, and in some other Dynastini, according to
+the same entomologist, on the under surface of the
+elytra. Lastly, Westring states that in <i>Omaloplia brunnea</i>
+the rasp is placed on the pro-sternum, and the scraper
+on the meta-sternum, the parts thus occupying the under
+surface of the body, instead of the upper surface as in
+the Longicorns.</p>
+
+<p>We thus see that the stridulating organs in the different
+coleopterous families are wonderfully diversified
+in position, but not much in structure. Within the
+same family some species are provided with these
+organs, and some are quite destitute of them. This
+diversity is intelligible, if we suppose that originally
+various species made a shuffling or hissing noise by the
+rubbing together of the hard and rough parts of their
+bodies which were in contact; and that from the noise
+thus produced being in some way useful, the rough
+surfaces were gradually developed into regular stridulating
+organs. Some beetles as they move, now
+produce, either intentionally or unintentionally, a shuffling
+noise, without possessing any proper organs for the
+purpose. Mr. Wallace informs me that the <i>Euchirus
+longimanus</i> (a Lamellicorn, with the anterior legs wonderfully
+elongated in the male) &#8220;makes, whilst moving,
+a low hissing sound by the protrusion and contraction
+of the abdomen; and when seized it produces a
+grating sound by rubbing its hind-legs against the
+edges of the elytra.&#8221; The hissing sound is clearly
+due to a narrow rasp running along the sutural margin
+of each elytron; and I could likewise make the grating
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">382</a></span>sound by rubbing the shagreened surface of the femur
+against the granulated margin of the corresponding
+elytron; but I could not here detect any proper rasp;
+nor is it likely that I could have overlooked it in so
+large an insect. After examining Cychrus and reading
+what Westring has written in his two papers about this
+beetle, it seems very doubtful whether it possesses any
+true rasp, though it has the power of emitting a sound.</p>
+
+<p>From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera,
+I expected to find that the stridulating organs in the
+Coleoptera differed according to sex; but Landois, who
+has carefully examined several species, observed no
+such difference; nor did Westring; nor did Mr. G. R.
+Crotch in preparing the numerous specimens which
+he had the kindness to send me for examination. Any
+slight sexual difference, however, would be difficult to
+detect, on account of the great variability of these organs.
+Thus in the first pair of the <i>Necrophorus humator</i> and of
+the <i>Pelobius</i> which I examined, the rasp was considerably
+larger in the male than in the female; but not so
+with succeeding specimens. In <i>Geotrupes stercorarius</i>
+the rasp appeared to me thicker, opaquer, and more
+prominent in three males than in the same number of
+females; consequently my son, Mr. F. Darwin, in order
+to discover whether the sexes differed in their power of
+stridulating, collected 57 living specimens, which he
+separated into two lots, according as they made, when
+held in the same manner, a greater or lesser noise. He
+then examined their sexes, but found that the males
+were very nearly in the same proportion to the females
+in both lots. Mr. F. Smith has kept alive numerous
+specimens of <i>Mononychus pseudacori</i> (Curculionid&aelig;), and
+is satisfied that both sexes stridulate, and apparently in
+an equal degree.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless the power of stridulating is certainly a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">383</a></span>
+sexual character in some few Coleoptera. Mr. Crotch
+has discovered that the males alone of two species of
+Heliopathes (Tenebrionid&aelig;) possess stridulating organs.
+I examined five males of <i>H. gibbus</i>, and in all these
+there was a well-developed rasp, partially divided into
+two, on the dorsal surface of the terminal abdominal
+segment; whilst in the same number of females there
+was not even a rudiment of the rasp, the membrane of
+this segment being transparent and much thinner than
+in the male. In <i>H. cribratostriatus</i> the male has a
+similar rasp, excepting that it is not partially divided
+into two portions, and the female is completely destitute
+of this organ; but in addition the male has on
+the apical margins of the elytra, on each side of the
+suture, three or four short longitudinal ridges, which
+are crossed by extremely fine ribs, parallel to and resembling
+those on the abdominal rasp; whether these
+ridges serve as an independent rasp, or as a scraper
+for the abdominal rasp, I could not decide: the female
+exhibits no trace of this latter structure.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in three species of the Lamellicorn genus
+Oryctes, we have a nearly parallel case. In the females
+of <i>O. gryphus</i> and <i>nasicornis</i> the ribs on the rasp of the
+pro-pygidium are less continuous and less distinct than
+in the males; but the chief difference is that the whole
+upper surface of this segment, when held in the proper
+light, is seen to be clothed with hairs, which are absent
+or are represented by excessively fine down in the males.
+It should be noticed that in all Coleoptera the effective
+part of the rasp is destitute of hairs. In <i>O. senegalensis</i>
+the difference between the sexes is more strongly
+marked, and this is best seen when the proper segment
+is cleaned and viewed as a transparent object. In the
+female the whole surface is covered with little separate
+crests, bearing spines; whilst in the male these crests<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">384</a></span>
+become, in proceeding towards the apex, more and more
+confluent, regular, and naked; so that three-fourths of
+the segment is covered with extremely fine parallel
+ribs, which are quite absent in the female. In the
+females, however, of all three species of Oryctes, when
+the abdomen of a softened specimen is pushed backwards
+and forwards, a slight grating or stridulating
+sound can be produced.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of the Heliopathes and Oryctes there can
+hardly be a doubt that the males stridulate in order to
+call or to excite the females; but with most beetles the
+stridulation apparently serves both sexes as a mutual
+call. This view is not rendered improbable from beetles
+stridulating under various emotions; we know that birds
+use their voices for many purposes besides singing to
+their mates. The great Chiasognathus stridulates in
+anger or defiance; many species do the same from distress
+or fear, when held so that they cannot escape;
+Messrs. Wollaston and Crotch were able, by striking
+the hollow stems of trees in the Canary Islands, to discover
+the presence of beetles belonging to the genus
+Acalles by their stridulation. Lastly the male Ateuchus
+stridulates to encourage the female in her work,
+and from distress when she is removed.<a name="FNanchor_500" id="FNanchor_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500" class="fnanchor">500</a> Some naturalists
+believe that beetles make this noise to frighten
+away their enemies; but I cannot think that the quadrupeds
+and birds which are able to devour the larger
+beetles with their extremely hard coats, would be frightened
+by so slight a grating sound. The belief that
+the stridulation serves as a sexual call is supported
+by the fact that death-ticks (<i>Anobium tesselatum</i>) are
+well known to answer each other&#8217;s ticking, or, as I have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">385</a></span>myself observed, a tapping noise artificially made; and
+Mr. Doubleday informs me that he has twice or thrice
+observed a female ticking,<a name="FNanchor_501" id="FNanchor_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501" class="fnanchor">501</a> and in the course of an hour
+or two has found her united with a male, and on one
+occasion surrounded by several males. Finally, it seems
+probable that the two sexes of many kinds of beetles
+were at first enabled to find each other by the slight
+shuffling noise produced by the rubbing together of the
+adjoining parts of their hard bodies; and that as the
+males or females which made the greatest noise succeeded
+best in finding partners, the rugosities on various
+parts of their bodies were gradually developed by means
+of sexual selection into true stridulating organs.</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">386</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>CHAPTER XI.</h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Insects</span>, <i>continued</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Order Lepidoptera.</span></h4>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Courtship of butterflies&mdash;Battles&mdash;Ticking noise&mdash;Colours common
+to both sexes, or more brilliant in the males&mdash;Examples&mdash;Not
+due to the direct action of the conditions of life&mdash;Colours
+adapted for protection&mdash;Colours of moths&mdash;Display&mdash;Perceptive
+powers of the Lepidoptera&mdash;Variability&mdash;Causes of the
+difference in colour between the males and females&mdash;Mimickry,
+female butterflies more brilliantly coloured than the males&mdash;Bright
+colours of caterpillars&mdash;Summary and concluding remarks
+on the secondary sexual characters of insects&mdash;Birds and
+insects compared.</p></div>
+
+<p>In this great Order the most interesting point for us is
+the difference in colour between the sexes of the same
+species, and between the distinct species of the same
+genus. Nearly the whole of the following chapter will
+be devoted to this subject; but I will first make a few
+remarks on one or two other points. Several males may
+often be seen pursuing and crowding round the same
+female. Their courtship appears to be a prolonged affair,
+for I have frequently watched one or more males pirouetting
+round a female until I became tired, without seeing
+the end of the courtship. Although butterflies are such
+weak and fragile creatures, they are pugnacious, and an
+Emperor butterfly<a name="FNanchor_502" id="FNanchor_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502" class="fnanchor">502</a> has been captured with the tips of
+its wings broken from a conflict with another male.
+Mr. Collingwood in speaking of the frequent battles
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">387</a></span>between the butterflies of Borneo says, &#8220;They whirl
+round each other with the greatest rapidity, and appear
+to be incited by the greatest ferocity.&#8221; One case is
+known of a butterfly, namely the <i>Ageronia feronia</i>,
+which makes a noise like that produced by a toothed
+wheel passing under a spring catch, and which could be
+heard at the distance of several yards. At Rio de Janeiro
+this sound was noticed by me, only when two were
+chasing each other in an irregular course, so that it is
+probably made during the courtship of the sexes; but I
+neglected to attend to this point.<a name="FNanchor_503" id="FNanchor_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503" class="fnanchor">503</a></p>
+
+<p>Every one has admired the extreme beauty of many
+butterflies and of some moths; and we are led to ask,
+how has this beauty been acquired? Have their colours
+and diversified patterns simply resulted from the direct
+action of the physical conditions to which these insects
+have been exposed, without any benefit being thus derived?
+Or have successive variations been accumulated
+and determined either as a protection or for some unknown
+purpose, or that one sex might be rendered
+attractive to the other? And, again, what is the meaning
+of the colours being widely different in the males
+and females of certain species, and alike in the two
+sexes of other species? Before attempting to answer
+these questions a body of facts must be given.</p>
+
+<p>With most of our English butterflies, both those which
+are beautiful, such as the admiral, peacock, and painted
+lady (Vaness&aelig;), and those which are plain-coloured,
+such as the meadow-browns (Hipparchi&aelig;), the sexes
+are alike. This is also the case with the magnificent
+Heliconid&aelig; and Danaid&aelig; of the tropics. But in certain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">388</a></span>other tropical groups, and with some of our English
+butterflies, as the purple emperor, orange-tip, &amp;c. (<i>Apatura
+Iris</i> and <i>Anthocharis cardamines</i>), the sexes differ
+either greatly or slightly in colour. No language suffices
+to describe the splendour of the males of some tropical
+species. Even within the same genus we often find species
+presenting an extraordinary difference between the
+sexes, whilst others have their sexes closely alike. Thus
+in the South American genus Epicalia, Mr. Bates, to
+whom I am much indebted for most of the following
+facts and for looking over this whole discussion, informs
+me that he knows twelve species, the two sexes of which
+haunt the same stations (and this is not always the case
+with butterflies), and therefore cannot have been differently
+affected by external conditions<a name="FNanchor_504" id="FNanchor_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504" class="fnanchor">504</a>. In nine of
+these species the males rank amongst the most brilliant
+of all butterflies, and differ so greatly from the comparatively
+plain females that they were formerly placed
+in distinct genera. The females of these nine species
+resemble each other in their general type of coloration,
+and likewise resemble both sexes in several allied genera,
+found in various parts of the world. Hence in accordance
+with the descent-theory we may infer that these
+nine species, and probably all the others of the genus,
+are descended from an ancestral form which was coloured
+in nearly the same manner. In the tenth species the
+female still retains the same general colouring, but the
+male resembles her, so that he is coloured in a much
+less gaudy and contrasted manner than the males of the
+previous species. In the eleventh and twelfth species,
+the females depart from the type of colouring which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">389</a></span>is usual with their sex in this genus, for they are gaily
+decorated in nearly the same manner as the males, but
+in a somewhat less degree. Hence in these two species
+the bright colours of the males seem to have been transferred
+to the females; whilst the male of the tenth
+species has either retained or recovered the plain
+colours of the female as well as of the parent-form of
+the genus; the two sexes being thus rendered in both
+cases, though in an opposite manner, nearly alike. In
+the allied genus Eubagis, both sexes of some of the
+species are plain-coloured and nearly alike; whilst
+with the greater number the males are decorated with
+beautiful metallic tints, in a diversified manner, and
+differ much from their females. The females throughout
+the genus retain the same general style of colouring,
+so that they commonly resemble each other much more
+closely than they resemble their own proper males.</p>
+
+<p>In the genus Papilio, all the species of the &AElig;neas
+group are remarkable for their conspicuous and strongly
+contrasted colours, and they illustrate the frequent tendency
+to gradation in the amount of difference between
+the sexes. In a few species, for instance in <i>P. ascanius</i>,
+the males and females are alike; in others the males
+are a little or very much more superbly coloured than
+the females. The genus Junonia allied to our Vaness&aelig;
+offers a nearly parallel case, for although the sexes of
+most of the species resemble each other and are destitute
+of rich colours, yet in certain species, as in <i>J. &oelig;none</i>,
+the male is rather more brightly coloured than the
+female, and in a few (for instance <i>J. andremiaja</i>) the
+male is so different from the female that he might be
+mistaken for an entirely distinct species.</p>
+
+<p>Another striking case was pointed out to me in the
+British museum by Mr. A. Butler, namely one of
+the Tropical American Thecl&aelig;, in which both sexes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">390</a></span>
+are nearly alike and wonderfully splendid; in another,
+the male is coloured in a similarly gorgeous manner,
+whilst the whole upper surface of the female is of a dull
+uniform brown. Our common little English blue butterflies
+of the genus Lyc&aelig;na, illustrate the various differences
+in colour between the sexes, almost as well,
+though not in so striking a manner, as the above exotic
+genera. In <i>Lyc&aelig;na agestis</i> both sexes have wings of a
+brown colour, bordered with small ocellated orange
+spots, and are consequently alike. In <i>L. &oelig;gon</i> the
+wings of the male are of a fine blue, bordered with
+black; whilst the wings of the female are brown, with
+a similar border, and closely resemble those of <i>L. agestis</i>.
+Lastly, in <i>L. arion</i> both sexes are of a blue colour and
+nearly alike, though in the female the edges of the
+wings are rather duskier, with the black spots plainer;
+and in a bright blue Indian species both sexes are still
+more closely alike.</p>
+
+<p>I have given the foregoing cases in some detail in
+order to shew, in the first place, that when the sexes of
+butterflies differ, the male as a general rule is the most
+beautiful, and departs most from the usual type of colouring
+of the group to which the species belongs. Hence in
+most groups the females of the several species resemble
+each other much more closely than do the males. In
+some exceptional cases, however, to which I shall hereafter
+allude, the females are coloured more splendidly
+than the males. In the second place these cases have
+been given to bring clearly before the mind that within
+the same genus, the two sexes frequently present every
+gradation from no difference in colour to so great a difference
+that it was long before the two were placed by
+entomologists in the same genus. In the third place,
+we have seen that when the sexes nearly resemble
+each other, this apparently may be due either to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">391</a></span>
+male having transferred his colours to the female,
+or to the male having retained, or perhaps recovered,
+the primordial colours of the genus to which the
+species belongs. It also deserves notice that in those
+groups in which the sexes present any difference of
+colour, the females usually resemble the males to a certain
+extent, so that when the males are beautiful to an
+extraordinary degree, the females almost invariably exhibit
+some degree of beauty. From the numerous cases
+of gradation in the amount of difference between the
+sexes, and from the prevalence of the same general type
+of coloration throughout the whole of the same group,
+we may conclude that the causes, whatever they may
+be, which have determined the brilliant colouring of the
+males alone of some species, and of both sexes in a more
+or less equal degree of other species, have generally
+been the same.</p>
+
+<p>As so many gorgeous butterflies inhabit the tropics, it
+has often been supposed that they owe their colours to
+the great heat and moisture of these zones; but Mr.
+Bates<a name="FNanchor_505" id="FNanchor_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505" class="fnanchor">505</a> has shewn by the comparison of various closely-allied
+groups of insects from the temperate and tropical
+regions, that this view cannot be maintained; and the
+evidence becomes conclusive when brilliantly-coloured
+males and plain-coloured females of the same species
+inhabit the same district, feed on the same food, and
+follow exactly the same habits of life. Even when
+the sexes resemble each other, we can hardly believe
+that their brilliant and beautifully-arranged colours are
+the purposeless result of the nature of the tissues, and
+the action of the surrounding conditions.</p>
+
+<p>With animals of all kinds, whenever colour has been
+modified for some special purpose, this has been, as far
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">392</a></span>as we can judge, either for protection or as an attraction
+between the sexes. With many species of butterflies
+the upper surfaces of the wings are obscurely coloured,
+and this in all probability leads to their escaping observation
+and danger. But butterflies when at rest
+would be particularly liable to be attacked by their
+enemies; and almost all the kinds when resting raise
+their wings vertically over their backs, so that the lower
+sides alone are exposed to view. Hence it is this side
+which in many cases is obviously coloured so as to
+imitate the surfaces on which these insects commonly
+rest. Dr. R&ouml;ssler, I believe, first noticed the similarity
+of the closed wings of certain Vaness&aelig; and other butterflies
+to the bark of trees. Many analogous and striking
+facts could be given. The most interesting one is that
+recorded by Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_506" id="FNanchor_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506" class="fnanchor">506</a> of a common Indian and
+Sumatran butterfly (Kallima), which disappears like
+magic when it settles in a bush; for it hides its head
+and antenn&aelig; between its closed wings, and these in
+form, colour, and veining cannot be distinguished from
+a withered leaf together with the footstalk. In some
+other cases the lower surfaces of the wings are brilliantly
+coloured, and yet are protective; thus in <i>Thecla rubi</i>
+the wings when closed are of an emerald green and resemble
+the young leaves of the bramble, on which this
+butterfly in the spring may often be seen seated.</p>
+
+<p>Although the obscure tints of the upper or under
+surface of many butterflies no doubt serve to conceal
+them, yet we cannot possibly extend this view to
+the brilliant and conspicuous colours of many kinds,
+such as our admiral and peacock Vaness&aelig;, our white
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">393</a></span>cabbage-butterflies (Pieris), or the great swallow-tail
+Papilio which haunts the open fens&mdash;for these butterflies
+are thus rendered visible to every living creature.
+With these species both sexes are alike; but in the
+common brimstone butterfly (<i>Gonepteryx rhamni</i>), the
+male is of an intense yellow, whilst the female is much
+paler; and in the orange-tip (<i>Anthocharis cardamines</i>)
+the males alone have the bright orange tips to their
+wings. In these cases the males and females are
+equally conspicuous, and it is not credible that their
+difference in colour stands in any relation to ordinary
+protection. Nevertheless it is possible that the conspicuous
+colours of many species may be in an indirect
+manner beneficial, as will hereafter be explained, by
+leading their enemies at once to recognise them as
+unpalatable. Even in this case it does not certainly
+follow that their bright colours and beautiful patterns
+were acquired for this special purpose. In some other
+remarkable cases, beauty has been gained for the sake
+of protection, through the imitation of other beautiful
+species, which inhabit the same district and enjoy an
+immunity from attack by being in some way offensive
+to their enemies.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">The female of our orange-tip butterfly, above referred
+to, and of an American species (<i>Anth. genutia</i>)
+probably shew us, as Mr. Walsh has remarked to me,
+the primordial colours of the parent-species of the
+genus; for both sexes of four or five widely-distributed
+species are coloured in nearly the same manner. We
+may infer here, as in several previous cases, that it is
+the males of <i>Anth. cardamines</i> and <i>genutia</i> which have
+departed from the usual type of colouring of their genus.
+In the <i>Anth. sara</i> from California, the orange-tips have
+become partially developed in the female; for her wings
+are tipped with reddish-orange, but paler than in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">394</a></span>
+male, and slightly different in some other respects. In
+an allied Indian form, the <i>Iphias glaucippe</i>, the orange-tips
+are fully developed in both sexes. In this Iphias
+the under surface of the wings marvellously resembles,
+as pointed out to me by Mr. A. Butler, a pale-coloured
+leaf; and in our English orange-tip, the under surface
+resembles the flower-head of the wild parsley, on which
+it may be seen going to rest at night.<a name="FNanchor_507" id="FNanchor_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507" class="fnanchor">507</a> The same
+reasoning power which compels us to believe that the
+lower surfaces have here been coloured for the sake of
+protection, leads us to deny that the wings have been
+tipped, especially when this character is confined to the
+males, with bright orange for the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Turning now to Moths: most of these rest motionless
+with their wings depressed during the whole or
+greater part of the day; and the upper surfaces of their
+wings are often shaded and coloured in an admirable
+manner, as Mr. Wallace has remarked, for escaping
+detection. With most of the Bombycid&aelig; and Noctuid&aelig;,<a name="FNanchor_508" id="FNanchor_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508" class="fnanchor">508</a>
+when at rest, the front-wings overlap and
+conceal the hind-wings; so that the latter might be
+brightly coloured without much risk; and they
+are thus coloured in many species of both families.
+During the act of flight, moths would often be able
+to escape from their enemies; nevertheless, as the
+hind-wings are then fully exposed to view, their bright
+colours must generally have been acquired at the
+cost of some little risk. But the following fact shews
+us how cautious we ought to be in drawing conclusions
+on this head. The common yellow under-wings
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">395</a></span>(Triphaena) often fly about during the day or early
+evening, and are then conspicuous from the colour of
+their hind-wings. It would naturally be thought that
+this would be a source of danger; but Mr. J. Jenner
+Weir believes that it actually serves them as a means
+of escape, for birds strike at these brightly coloured and
+fragile surfaces, instead of at the body. For instance,
+Mr. Weir turned into his aviary a vigorous specimen of
+<i>Triphaena pronuba</i>, which was instantly pursued by
+a robin; but the bird&#8217;s attention being caught by the
+coloured wings, the moth was not captured until after
+about fifty attempts, and small portions of the wings
+were repeatedly broken off. He tried the same experiment,
+in the open air, with a <i>T. fimbria</i> and swallow;
+but the large size of this moth probably interfered
+with its capture.<a name="FNanchor_509" id="FNanchor_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509" class="fnanchor">509</a> We are thus reminded of a statement
+made by Mr. Wallace,<a name="FNanchor_510" id="FNanchor_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510" class="fnanchor">510</a> namely, that in the Brazilian
+forests and Malayan islands, many common and
+highly-decorated butterflies are weak flyers, though furnished
+with a broad expanse of wings; and they &#8220;are
+often captured with pierced and broken wings, as if
+they had been seized by birds, from which they had
+escaped: if the wings had been much smaller in proportion
+to the body, it seems probable that the insect
+would more frequently have been struck or pierced in
+a vital part, and thus the increased expanse of the
+wings may have been indirectly beneficial.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><i>Display.</i>&mdash;The bright colours of butterflies and of
+some moths are specially arranged for display, whether
+or not they serve in addition as a protection. Bright
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">396</a></span>colours would not be visible during the night; and
+there can be no doubt that moths, taken as a body, are
+much less gaily decorated than butterflies, all of which
+are diurnal in their habits. But the moths in certain
+families, such as the Zyg&aelig;nid&aelig;, various Sphingid&aelig;,
+Uraniid&aelig;, some Arctiid&aelig; and Saturniid&aelig;, fly about
+during the day or early evening, and many of these
+are extremely beautiful, being far more brightly
+coloured than the strictly nocturnal kinds. A few
+exceptional cases, however, of brightly-coloured nocturnal
+species have been recorded.<a name="FNanchor_511" id="FNanchor_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511" class="fnanchor">511</a></p>
+
+<p>There is evidence of another kind in regard to display.
+Butterflies, as before remarked, elevate their wings
+when at rest, and whilst basking in the sunshine often
+alternately raise and depress them, thus exposing to full
+view both surfaces; and although the lower surface is
+often coloured in an obscure manner as a protection,
+yet in many species it is as highly coloured as the
+upper surface, and sometimes in a very different manner.
+In some tropical species the lower surface is even
+more brilliantly coloured than the upper.<a name="FNanchor_512" id="FNanchor_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512" class="fnanchor">512</a> In one
+English fritillary, the <i>Argynnis aglaia</i>, the lower surface
+alone is ornamented with shining silver discs.
+Nevertheless, as a general rule, the upper surface,
+which is probably the most fully exposed, is coloured
+more brightly and in a more diversified manner than
+the lower. Hence the lower surface generally affords
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">397</a></span>to entomologists the most useful character for detecting
+the affinities of the various species.</p>
+
+<p>Now if we turn to the enormous group of moths,
+which do not habitually expose to full view the under
+surface of their wings, this side is very rarely, as I hear
+from Mr. Stainton, coloured more brightly than the
+upper side, or even with equal brightness. Some exceptions
+to the rule, either real or apparent, must be
+noticed, as that of Hypopira, specified by Mr. Wormald.<a name="FNanchor_513" id="FNanchor_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513" class="fnanchor">513</a>
+Mr. R. Trimen informs me that in Guen&eacute;e&#8217;s great work,
+three moths are figured, in which the under surface is
+much the most brilliant. For instance, in the Australian
+Gastrophora the upper surface of the fore-wing is pale
+greyish-ochreous, while the lower surface is magnificently
+ornamented by an ocellus of cobalt-blue, placed in the
+midst of a black mark, surrounded by orange-yellow,
+and this by bluish-white. But the habits of these
+three moths are unknown; so that no explanation
+can be given of their unusual style of colouring. Mr.
+Trimen also informs me that the lower surface of the
+wings in certain other Geometr&aelig;<a name="FNanchor_514" id="FNanchor_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514" class="fnanchor">514</a> and quadrifid Noctu&aelig;
+are either more variegated or more brightly-coloured
+than the upper surface; but some of these species have
+the habit of &#8220;holding their wings quite erect over their
+backs, retaining them in this position for a considerable
+time,&#8221; and thus exposing to view the under surface.
+Other species when settled on the ground or herbage
+have the habit of now and then suddenly and slightly
+lifting up their wings. Hence the lower surface of the
+wings being more brightly-coloured than the upper sur<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">398</a></span>face
+in certain moths is not so anomalous a circumstance
+as it at first appears. The Saturniid&aelig; include
+some of the most beautiful of all moths, their wings
+being decorated, as in our British Emperor moth, with
+fine ocelli; and Mr. T. W. Wood<a name="FNanchor_515" id="FNanchor_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515" class="fnanchor">515</a> observes that they
+resemble butterflies in some of their movements; &#8220;for
+instance, in the gentle waving up and down of the
+wings, as if for display, which is more characteristic
+of diurnal than of nocturnal Lepidoptera.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>It is a singular fact that no British moths, nor as
+far as I can discover hardly any foreign species, which
+are brilliantly coloured, differ much in colour according
+to sex; though this is the case with many brilliant butterflies.
+The male, however, of one American moth, the
+<i>Saturnia Io</i>, is described as having its fore-wings deep
+yellow, curiously marked with purplish-red spots; whilst
+the wings of the female are purple-brown, marked with
+grey lines.<a name="FNanchor_516" id="FNanchor_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516" class="fnanchor">516</a> The British moths which differ sexually in
+colour are all brown, or various tints of dull yellow, or
+nearly white. In several species the males are much
+darker than the females,<a name="FNanchor_517" id="FNanchor_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517" class="fnanchor">517</a> and these belong to groups
+which generally fly about during the afternoon. On the
+other hand, in many genera, as Mr. Stainton informs me,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">399</a></span>the males have the hind-wings whiter than those of
+the female&mdash;of which, fact <i>Agrotis exclamationis</i> offers a
+good instance. The males are thus rendered more
+conspicuous than the females, whilst flying about in
+the dusk. In the Ghost Moth (<i>Hepialus humuli</i>) the
+difference is more strongly marked; the males being
+white and the females yellow with darker markings.
+It is difficult to conjecture what the meaning can be
+of these differences between the sexes in the shades of
+darkness or lightness; but we can hardly suppose that
+they are the result of mere variability with sexually-limited
+inheritance, independently of any benefit thus
+derived.</p>
+
+<p>From the foregoing statements it is impossible to
+admit that the brilliant colours of butterflies and of
+some few moths, have commonly been acquired for the
+sake of protection. We have seen that their colours
+and elegant patterns are arranged and exhibited as
+if for display. Hence I am led to suppose that the
+females generally prefer, or are most excited by the
+more brilliant males; for on any other supposition
+the males would be ornamented, as far as we can
+see, for no purpose. We know that ants and certain
+lamellicorn beetles are capable of feeling an attachment
+for each other, and that ants recognise their fellows
+after an interval of several months. Hence there is no
+abstract improbability in the Lepidoptera, which probably
+stand nearly or quite as high in the scale as these
+insects, having sufficient mental capacity to admire
+bright colours. They certainly discover flowers by
+colour, and, as I have elsewhere shewn, the plants
+which are fertilised exclusively by the wind never have
+a conspicuously-coloured corolla. The Humming-bird
+Sphinx may often be seen to swoop down from a distance
+on a bunch of flowers in the midst of green foliage;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">400</a></span>
+and I have been assured by a friend, that these moths
+repeatedly visited flowers painted on the walls of a room
+in the South of France. The common white butterfly,
+as I hear from Mr. Doubleday, often flies down to a bit
+of paper on the ground, no doubt mistaking it for one of
+its own species. Mr. Collingwood<a name="FNanchor_518" id="FNanchor_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518" class="fnanchor">518</a> in speaking of the
+difficulty of collecting certain butterflies in the Malay
+Archipelago, states that &#8220;a dead specimen pinned upon
+a conspicuous twig will often arrest an insect of the
+same species in its headlong flight, and bring it down
+within easy reach of the net, especially if it be of the
+opposite sex.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The courtship of butterflies is a prolonged affair. The
+males sometimes fight together in rivalry; and many
+may be seen pursuing or crowding round the same
+female. If, then, the females do not prefer one male to
+another, the pairing must be left to mere chance, and
+this does not appear to me a probable event. If, on the
+other hand, the females habitually, or even occasionally,
+prefer the more beautiful males, the colours of the latter
+will have been rendered brighter by degrees, and will
+have been transmitted to both sexes or to one sex,
+according to which law of inheritance prevailed. The
+process of sexual selection will have been much facilitated,
+if the conclusions arrived at from various kinds of
+evidence in the supplement to the ninth chapter can be
+trusted; namely that the males of many Lepidoptera,
+at least in the imago state, greatly exceed in number
+the females.</p>
+
+<p>Some facts, however, are opposed to the belief that
+female butterflies prefer the more beautiful males; thus,
+as I have been assured by several observers, fresh females
+may frequently be seen paired with battered, faded or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">401</a></span>dingy males; but this is a circumstance which could
+hardly fail often to follow from the males emerging
+from their cocoons earlier than the females. With moths
+of the family of the Bombycid&aelig;, the sexes pair immediately
+after assuming the imago state; for they cannot
+feed, owing to the rudimentary condition of their mouths.
+The females, as several entomologists have remarked
+to me, lie in an almost torpid state, and appear not to
+evince the least choice in regard to their partners,
+This is the case with the common silk-moth (<i>B. mori</i>),
+as I have been told by some continental and English
+breeders. Dr. Wallace, who has had such immense
+experience in breeding <i>Bombyx cynthia</i>, is convinced
+that the females evince no choice or preference. He
+has kept above 300 of these moths living together, and
+has often found the most vigorous females mated with
+stunted males. The reverse apparently seldom occurs;
+for, as he believes, the more vigorous males pass over the
+weakly females, being attracted by those endowed with
+most vitality. Although we have been indirectly induced
+to believe that the females of many species prefer
+the more beautiful males, I have no reason to suspect,
+either with moths or butterflies, that the males are
+attracted by the beauty of the females. If the more
+beautiful females had been continually preferred, it is
+almost certain, from the colours of butterflies being so
+frequently transmitted to one sex alone, that the females
+would often have been rendered more beautiful than
+their male partners. But this does not occur except in
+a few instances; and these can be explained, as we
+shall presently see, on the principle of mimickry and
+protection.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">As sexual selection primarily depends on variability,
+a few words must be added on this subject. In respect<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">402</a></span>
+to colour there is no difficulty, as any number of highly
+variable Lepidoptera could be named. One good instance
+will suffice. Mr. Bates shewed me a whole series
+of specimens of <i>Papilio sesostris</i> and <i>children&aelig;</i>; in the
+latter the males varied much in the extent of the beautifully
+enamelled green patch on the fore-wings, and
+in the size of the white mark, as well as of the splendid
+crimson stripe on the hind-wings; so that there was
+a great contrast between the most and least gaudy
+males. The male of <i>Papilio sesostris</i>, though a beautiful
+insect, is much less so than <i>P. children&aelig;</i>. It likewise
+varies a little in the size of the green patch on the fore-wings,
+and in the occasional appearance of a small
+crimson stripe on the hind-wings, borrowed, as it would
+seem, from its own female; for the females of this and
+of many other species in the &AElig;neas group possess this
+crimson stripe. Hence between the brightest specimens
+of <i>P. sesostris</i> and the least bright of <i>P. children&aelig;</i>, there
+was but a small interval; and it was evident that as far
+as mere variability is concerned, there would be no
+difficulty in permanently increasing by means of selection
+the beauty of either species. The variability is
+here almost confined to the male sex; but Mr. Wallace
+and Mr. Bates have shewn<a name="FNanchor_519" id="FNanchor_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519" class="fnanchor">519</a> that the females of some
+other species are extremely variable, the males being
+nearly constant. As I have before mentioned the Ghost
+Moth (<i>Hepialus humuli</i>) as one of the best instances in
+Britain of a difference in colour between the sexes of
+moths, it may be worth adding<a name="FNanchor_520" id="FNanchor_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520" class="fnanchor">520</a> that in the Shetland
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">403</a></span>Islands, males are frequently found which closely
+resemble the females. In a future chapter I shall have
+occasion to shew that the beautiful eye-like spots or
+ocelli, so common on the wings of many Lepidoptera,
+are eminently variable.</p>
+
+<p>On the whole, although many serious objections may
+be urged, it seems probable that most of the species of
+Lepidoptera which are brilliantly coloured, owe their
+colours to sexual selection, excepting in certain cases,
+presently to be mentioned, in which conspicuous colours
+are beneficial as a protection. From the ardour of the
+male throughout the animal kingdom, he is generally
+willing to accept any female; and it is the female which
+usually exerts a choice. Hence if sexual selection has
+here acted, the male, when the sexes differ, ought to be
+the most brilliantly coloured; and this undoubtedly is
+the ordinary rule. When the sexes are brilliantly coloured
+and resemble each other, the characters acquired
+by the males appear to have been transmitted to both
+sexes. But will this explanation of the similarity and
+dissimilarity in colour between the sexes suffice?</p>
+
+<p>The males and females of the same species of butterfly
+are known<a name="FNanchor_521" id="FNanchor_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521" class="fnanchor">521</a> in several cases to inhabit different stations,
+the former commonly basking in the sunshine, the latter
+haunting gloomy forests. It is therefore possible that
+different conditions of life may have acted directly on
+the two sexes; but this is not probable,<a name="FNanchor_522" id="FNanchor_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522" class="fnanchor">522</a> as in the adult
+state they are exposed during a very short period to
+different conditions; and the larv&aelig; of both are exposed
+to the same conditions. Mr. Wallace believes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">404</a></span>that the less brilliant colours of the female have been
+specially gained in all or almost all cases for the sake
+of protection. On the contrary it seems to me more
+probable that the males alone, in the large majority of
+cases, have acquired their bright colours through sexual
+selection, the females having been but little modified.
+Consequently the females of distinct but allied species
+ought to resemble each other much more closely than
+do the males of the same species; and this is the general
+rule. The females thus approximately show us the primordial
+colouring of the parent-species of the group to
+which they belong. They have, however, almost always
+been modified to a certain extent by some of the successive
+steps of variation, through the accumulation of
+which the males were rendered beautiful, having been
+transferred to them. The males and females of allied
+though distinct species will also generally have been
+exposed during their prolonged larval state to different
+conditions, and may have been thus indirectly affected;
+though with the males any slight change of colour thus
+caused will often have been completely masked by the
+brilliant tints gained through sexual selection. When
+we treat of Birds, I shall have to discuss the whole
+question whether the differences in colour between the
+males and females have been in part specially gained
+by the latter as a protection; so that I will here only
+give unavoidable details.</p>
+
+<p>In all cases when the more common form of equal
+inheritance by both sexes has prevailed, the selection of
+bright-coloured males would tend to make the females
+bright-coloured; and the selection of dull-coloured females
+would tend to make the males dull. If both processes
+were carried on simultaneously, they would tend
+to neutralise each other. As far as I can see, it would
+be extremely difficult to change through selection the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">405</a></span>
+one form of inheritance into the other. But by the
+selection of successive variations, which were from the
+first sexually limited in their transmission, there would
+not be the slightest difficulty in giving bright colours to
+the males alone, and at the same time or subsequently,
+dull colours to the females alone. In this latter manner
+female butterflies and moths may, as I fully admit, have
+been rendered inconspicuous for the sake of protection,
+and widely different from their males.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_523" id="FNanchor_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523" class="fnanchor">523</a> has argued with much force in favour
+of his view that when the sexes differ, the female has
+been specially modified for the sake of protection; and
+that this has been effected by one form of inheritance,
+namely, the transmission of characters to both sexes,
+having been changed through the agency of natural
+selection into the other form, namely, transmission to
+one sex. I was at first strongly inclined to accept this
+view; but the more I have studied the various classes
+throughout the animal kingdom, the less probable it
+has appeared. Mr. Wallace urges that both sexes of
+the <i>Heliconid&aelig;</i>, <i>Danaid&aelig;</i>, <i>Acroeid&aelig;</i> are equally brilliant
+because both are protected from the attacks of birds
+and other enemies, by their offensive odour; but that
+in other groups, which do not possess this immunity,
+the females have been rendered inconspicuous, from
+having more need of protection than the males. This
+supposed difference in the &#8220;need of protection by the
+two sexes&#8221; is rather deceptive, and requires some
+discussion. It is obvious that brightly-coloured individuals,
+whether males or females, would equally attract,
+and obscurely-coloured individuals equally escape, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">406</a></span>attention of their enemies. But we are concerned
+with the effects of the destruction or preservation of
+certain individuals of either sex, on the character of
+the race. With insects, after the male has fertilised
+the female, and after the latter has laid her eggs,
+the greater or less immunity from danger of either sex
+could not possibly have any effect on the offspring.
+Before the sexes have performed their proper functions,
+if they existed in equal numbers and if they strictly
+paired (all other circumstances being the same), the
+preservation of the males and females would be equally
+important for the existence of the species and for the
+character of the offspring. But with most animals, as
+is known to be the case with the domestic silk-moth,
+the male can fertilise two or three females; so that the
+destruction of the males would not be so injurious to
+the species as that of the females. On the other hand,
+Dr. Wallace believes that with moths the progeny from
+a second or third fertilisation is apt to be weakly, and
+therefore would not have so good chance of surviving.
+When the males exist in much greater numbers than the
+females, no doubt many males might be destroyed with
+impunity to the species; but I cannot see that the
+results of ordinary selection for the sake of protection
+would be influenced by the sexes existing in unequal
+numbers; for the same proportion of the more conspicuous
+individuals, whether males or females, would
+probably be destroyed. If indeed the males presented
+a greater range of variation in colour, the result would
+be different; but we need not here follow out such complex
+details. On the whole I cannot perceive that an
+inequality in the numbers of the two sexes would influence
+in any marked manner the effects of ordinary
+selection on the character of the offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Female Lepidoptera require, as Mr. Wallace insists,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">407</a></span>
+some days to deposit their fertilised ova and to search
+for a proper place; during this period (whilst the life
+of the male was of no importance) the brighter-coloured
+females would be exposed to danger and would be
+liable to be destroyed. The duller-coloured females on
+the other hand would survive, and thus would influence,
+it might be thought, in a marked manner the
+character of the species,&mdash;either of both sexes or of
+one sex, according to which form of inheritance prevailed.
+But it must not be forgotten that the males
+emerge from the cocoon-state some days before the
+females, and during this period, whilst the unborn
+females were safe, the brighter-coloured males would be
+exposed to danger; so that ultimately both sexes would
+probably be exposed during a nearly equal length of
+time to danger, and the elimination of conspicuous
+colours would not be much more effective in the one
+than the other sex.</p>
+
+<p>It is a more important consideration that female
+Lepidoptera, as Mr. Wallace remarks, and as is known
+to every collector, are generally slower flyers than
+the males. Consequently the latter, if exposed to
+greater danger from being conspicuously coloured,
+might be able to escape from their enemies, whilst the
+similarly-coloured females would be destroyed; and thus
+the females would have the most influence in modifying
+the colour of their progeny.</p>
+
+<p>There is one other consideration: bright colours, as
+far as sexual selection is concerned, are commonly of
+no service to the females; so that if the latter varied
+in brightness, and the variations were sexually limited
+in their transmission, it would depend on mere chance
+whether the females had their bright colours increased;
+and this would tend throughout the Order to diminish
+the number of species with brightly-coloured females<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">408</a></span>
+in comparison with the species having brightly-coloured
+males. On the other hand, as bright colours are supposed
+to be highly serviceable to the males in their
+love-struggles, the brighter males (as we shall see
+in the chapter on Birds) although exposed to rather
+greater danger, would on an average procreate a greater
+number of offspring than the duller males. In this
+case, if the variations were limited in their transmission
+to the male sex, the males alone would be rendered
+more brilliantly coloured; but if the variations were
+not thus limited, the preservation and augmentation of
+such variations would depend on whether more evil was
+caused to the species by the females being rendered
+conspicuous, than good to the males by certain individuals
+being successful over their rivals.</p>
+
+<p>As there can hardly be a doubt that both sexes of
+many butterflies and moths have been rendered dull-coloured
+for the sake of protection, so it may have
+been with the females alone of some species in which
+successive variations towards dullness first appeared
+in the female sex and were from the first limited in
+their transmission to the same sex. If not thus limited,
+both sexes would become dull-coloured. We shall
+immediately see, when we treat of mimickry, that
+the females alone of certain butterflies have been rendered
+extremely beautiful for the sake of protection,
+without any of the successive protective variations
+having been transferred to the male, to whom they
+could not possibly have been in the least degree injurious,
+and therefore could not have been eliminated
+through natural selection. Whether in each particular
+species, in which the sexes differ in colour, it is the
+female which has been specially modified for the sake
+of protection; or whether it is the male which has been
+specially modified for the sake of sexual attraction, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">409</a></span>
+female having retained her primordial colouring only
+slightly changed through the agencies before alluded
+to; or whether again both sexes have been modified,
+the female for protection and the male for sexual attraction,
+can only be definitely decided when we know the
+life-history of each species.</p>
+
+<p>Without distinct evidence, I am unwilling to admit
+that a double process of selection has long been going
+on with a multitude of species,&mdash;the males having been
+rendered more brilliant by beating their rivals; and the
+females more dull-coloured by having escaped from their
+enemies. We may take as an instance the common brimstone
+butterfly (Gonepteryx), which appears early in the
+spring before any other kind. The male of this species
+is of a far more intense yellow than the female, though
+she is almost equally conspicuous; and in this case it
+does not seem probable that she specially acquired
+her pale tints as a protection, though it is probable
+that the male acquired his bright colours as a sexual
+attraction. The female of <i>Anthocharis cardamines</i> does
+not possess the beautiful orange tips to her wings with
+which the male is ornamented; consequently she closely
+resembles the white butterflies (Pieris) so common in
+our gardens; but we have no evidence that this resemblance
+is beneficial. On the contrary, as she resembles
+both sexes of several species of the same genus inhabiting
+various quarters of the world, it is more probable
+that she has simply retained to a large extent her
+primordial colours.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">Various facts support the conclusion that with the
+greater number of brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera, it
+is the male which has been modified; the two sexes
+having come to differ from each other, or to resemble
+each other, according to which form of inheritance has
+prevailed. Inheritance is governed by so many un<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">410</a></span>known
+laws or conditions, that they seem to us to be
+most capricious in their action;<a name="FNanchor_524" id="FNanchor_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524" class="fnanchor">524</a> and we can so far
+understand how it is that with closely-allied species the
+sexes of some differ to an astonishing degree, whilst
+the sexes of others are identical in colour. As the
+successive steps in the process of variation are necessarily
+all transmitted through the female, a greater
+or less number of such steps might readily become
+developed in her; and thus we can understand the
+frequent gradations from an extreme difference to no
+difference at all between the sexes of the species within
+the same group. These cases of gradation are much
+too common to favour the supposition that we here see
+females actually undergoing the process of transition
+and losing their brightness for the sake of protection;
+for we have every reason to conclude that at any
+one time the greater number of species are in a fixed
+condition. With respect to the differences between the
+females of the species in the same genus or family, we
+can perceive that they depend, at least in part, on the
+females partaking of the colours of their respective
+males. This is well illustrated in those groups in which
+the males are ornamented to an extraordinary degree;
+for the females in these groups generally partake to a
+certain extent of the splendour of their male partners.
+Lastly, we continually find, as already remarked, that
+the females of almost all the species in the same genus,
+or even family, resemble each other much more closely
+in colour than do the males; and this indicates that
+the males have undergone a greater amount of modification
+than the females.</p>
+
+<p class="tb"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">411</a></span><i>Mimickry.</i>&mdash;This principle was first made clear in an
+admirable paper by Mr. Bates,<a name="FNanchor_525" id="FNanchor_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525" class="fnanchor">525</a> who thus threw a flood
+of light on many obscure problems. It had previously
+been observed that certain butterflies in S. America
+belonging to quite distinct families, resembled the Heliconid&aelig;
+so closely in every stripe and shade of colour
+that they could not be distinguished except by an
+experienced entomologist. As the Heliconid&aelig; are
+coloured in their usual manner, whilst the others depart
+from the usual colouring of the groups to which they
+belong, it is clear that the latter are the imitators, and
+the Heliconid&aelig; the imitated. Mr. Bates further observed
+that the imitating species are comparatively rare, whilst
+the imitated swarm in large numbers; the two sets
+living mingled together. From the fact of the Heliconid&aelig;
+being conspicuous and beautiful insects, yet
+so numerous in individuals and species, he concluded
+that they must be protected from the attacks of birds
+by some secretion or odour; and this hypothesis has
+now been confirmed by a considerable body of curious
+evidence.<a name="FNanchor_526" id="FNanchor_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526" class="fnanchor">526</a> From these considerations Mr. Bates inferred
+that the butterflies which imitate the protected
+species had acquired their present marvellously deceptive
+appearance, through variation and natural selection,
+in order to be mistaken for the protected kinds and
+thus to escape being devoured. No explanation is
+here attempted of the brilliant colours of the imitated,
+but only of the imitating butterflies. We must
+account for the colours of the former in the same
+general manner, as in the cases previously discussed in
+this chapter. Since the publication of Mr. Bates&#8217; paper,
+similar and equally striking facts have been observed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">412</a></span>by Mr. Wallace<a name="FNanchor_527" id="FNanchor_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527" class="fnanchor">527</a> in the Malayan region, and by
+Mr. Trimen in South Africa.</p>
+
+<p>As some writers<a name="FNanchor_528" id="FNanchor_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528" class="fnanchor">528</a> have felt much difficulty in understanding
+how the first steps in the process of mimickry
+could have been effected through natural selection, it
+may be well to remark that the process probably has
+never commenced with forms widely dissimilar in colour.
+But with two species moderately like each other, the
+closest resemblance if beneficial to either form could
+readily be thus gained; and if the imitated form was
+subsequently and gradually modified through sexual
+selection or any other means, the imitating form would
+be led along the same track, and thus be modified to
+almost any extent, so that it might ultimately assume
+an appearance or colouring wholly unlike that of the
+other members of the group to which it belonged. As
+extremely slight variations in colour would not in many
+cases suffice to render a species so like another protected
+species as to lead to its preservation, it should
+be remembered that many species of Lepidoptera are
+liable to considerable and abrupt variations in colour.
+A few instances have been given in this chapter; but
+under this point of view Mr. Bates&#8217; original paper on
+mimickry, as well as Mr. Wallace&#8217;s papers, should be
+consulted.</p>
+
+<p>In the foregoing cases both sexes of the imitating
+species resemble the imitated; but occasionally the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">413</a></span>female alone mocks a brilliantly-coloured and protected
+species inhabiting the same district. Consequently the
+female differs in colour from her own male, and, which
+is a rare and anomalous circumstance, is the more
+brightly-coloured of the two. In all the few species of
+Pierid&aelig;, in which the female is more conspicuously
+coloured than the male, she imitates, as I am informed
+by Mr. Wallace, some protected species inhabiting the
+same region. The female of <i>Diadema anomala</i> is rich
+purple-brown with almost the whole surface glossed with
+satiny blue, and she closely imitates the <i>Eupl&oelig;a midamus</i>,
+&#8220;one of the commonest butterflies of the East;&#8221;
+whilst the male is bronzy or olive-brown, with only a
+slight blue gloss on the outer parts of the wings.<a name="FNanchor_529" id="FNanchor_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529" class="fnanchor">529</a>
+Both sexes of this Diadema and of <i>D. bolina</i> follow
+the same habits of life, so that the differences in colour
+between the sexes cannot be accounted for by exposure
+to different conditions;<a name="FNanchor_530" id="FNanchor_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530" class="fnanchor">530</a> even if this explanation were
+admissible in other instances.<a name="FNanchor_531" id="FNanchor_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531" class="fnanchor">531</a></p>
+
+<p>The above cases of female butterflies which are more
+brightly-coloured than the males, shew us, firstly, that
+variations have arisen in a state of nature in the female
+sex, and have been transmitted exclusively, or almost exclusively,
+to the same sex; and, secondly, that this form
+of inheritance has not been determined through natural
+selection. For if we assume that the females, before
+they became brightly coloured in imitation of some protected
+kind, were exposed during each season for a longer
+period to danger than the males; or if we assume that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">414</a></span>they could not escape so swiftly from their enemies,
+we can understand how they alone might originally
+have acquired through natural selection and sexually-limited
+inheritance their present protective colours.
+But except on the principle of these variations having
+been transmitted exclusively to the female offspring,
+we cannot understand why the males should have remained
+dull-coloured; for it would surely not have
+been in any way injurious to each individual male to
+have partaken by inheritance of the protective colours
+of the female, and thus to have had a better chance
+of escaping destruction. In a group in which brilliant
+colours are so common as with butterflies, it cannot be
+supposed that the males have been kept dull-coloured
+through sexual selection by the females rejecting the
+individuals which were rendered as beautiful as themselves.
+We may, therefore, conclude that in these cases
+inheritance by one sex is not due to the modification
+through natural selection of a tendency to equal inheritance
+by both sexes.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">It may be well here to give an analogous case in
+another Order, of characters acquired only by the female,
+though not in the least injurious, as far as we can judge,
+to the male. Amongst the Phasmid&aelig;, or spectre-insects,
+Mr. Wallace states that &#8220;it is often the females alone
+that so strikingly resemble leaves, while the males show
+only a rude approximation.&#8221; Now, whatever may be
+the habits of these insects, it is highly improbable that
+it could be disadvantageous to the males to escape detection
+by resembling leaves.<a name="FNanchor_532" id="FNanchor_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532" class="fnanchor">532</a> Hence we may conclude
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">415</a></span>that the females alone in this latter as in the previous
+cases originally varied in certain characters; these characters
+having been preserved and augmented through
+ordinary selection for the sake of protection and from
+the first transmitted to the female offspring alone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bright Colours of Caterpillars.</i>&mdash;Whilst reflecting on
+the beauty of many butterflies, it occurred to me that
+some caterpillars were splendidly coloured, and as
+sexual selection could not possibly have here acted,
+it appeared rash to attribute the beauty of the mature
+insect to this agency, unless the bright colours of their
+larv&aelig; could be in some manner explained. In the first
+place it may be observed that the colours of caterpillars
+do not stand in any close correlation with those of the
+mature insect. Secondly, their bright colours do not
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">416</a></span>serve in any ordinary manner as a protection. As an
+instance of this, Mr. Bates informs me that the most
+conspicuous caterpillar which he ever beheld (that of a
+Sphinx) lived on the large green leaves of a tree on the
+open llanos of South America; it was about four inches
+in length, transversely banded with black and yellow,
+and with its head, legs, and tail of a bright red. Hence
+it caught the eye of any man who passed by at the
+distance of many yards, and no doubt of every passing
+bird.</p>
+
+<p>I then applied to Mr. Wallace, who has an innate
+genius for solving difficulties. After some consideration
+he replied: &#8220;Most caterpillars require protection, as
+may be inferred from some kinds being furnished
+with spines or irritating hairs, and from many being
+coloured green like the leaves on which they feed,
+or curiously like the twigs of the trees on which they
+live.&#8221; I may add as another instance of protection,
+that there is a caterpillar of a moth, as I am informed
+by Mr. J. Mansel Weale, which lives on the mimosas in
+South Africa, and fabricates for itself a case, quite undistinguishable
+from the surrounding thorns. From
+such considerations Mr. Wallace thought it probable
+that conspicuously-coloured caterpillars were protected
+by having a nauseous taste; but as their skin is extremely
+tender, and as their intestines readily protrude
+from a wound, a slight peck from the beak of a bird
+would be as fatal to them as if they had been devoured.
+Hence, as Mr. Wallace remarks, &#8220;distastefulness alone
+would be insufficient to protect a caterpillar unless
+some outward sign indicated to its would-be destroyer
+that its prey was a disgusting morsel.&#8221; Under these
+circumstances it would be highly advantageous to a
+caterpillar to be instantaneously and certainly recognised
+as unpalatable by all birds and other animals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">417</a></span>
+Thus the most gaudy colours would be serviceable, and
+might have been gained by variation and the survival
+of the most easily-recognised individuals.</p>
+
+<p class="tb">This hypothesis appears at first sight very bold; but
+when it was brought before the Entomological Society<a name="FNanchor_533" id="FNanchor_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533" class="fnanchor">533</a>
+it was supported by various statements; and Mr. J.
+Jenner Weir, who keeps a large number of birds in an
+aviary, has made, as he informs me, numerous trials,
+and finds no exception to the rule, that all caterpillars
+of nocturnal and retiring habits with smooth skins,
+all of a green colour, and all which imitate twigs, are
+greedily devoured by his birds. The hairy and spinose
+kinds are invariably rejected, as were four conspicuously-coloured
+species. When the birds rejected a caterpillar,
+they plainly shewed, by shaking their heads and cleansing
+their beaks, that they were disgusted by the taste.<a name="FNanchor_534" id="FNanchor_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534" class="fnanchor">534</a>
+Three conspicuous kinds of caterpillars and moths were
+also given by Mr. A. Butler to some lizards and frogs,
+and were rejected; though other kinds were eagerly
+eaten. Thus the probable truth of Mr. Wallace&#8217;s view
+is confirmed, namely, that certain caterpillars have been
+made conspicuous for their own good, so as to be easily
+recognised by their enemies, on nearly the same principle
+that certain poisons are coloured by druggists for
+the good of man. This view will, it is probable, be
+hereafter extended to many animals, which are coloured
+in a conspicuous manner.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summary and Concluding Remarks on Insects.</i>&mdash;Looking
+back to the several Orders, we have seen that
+the sexes often differ in various characters, the meaning
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">418</a></span>of which is not understood. The sexes, also, often differ
+in their organs of sense or locomotion, so that the males
+may quickly discover or reach the females, and still
+oftener in the males possessing diversified contrivances
+for retaining the females when found. But we are not
+here much concerned with sexual differences of these
+kinds.</p>
+
+<p>In almost all the Orders, the males of some species,
+even of weak and delicate kinds, are known to be highly
+pugnacious; and some few are furnished with special
+weapons for fighting with their rivals. But the law of
+battle does not prevail nearly so widely with insects as
+with the higher animals. Hence probably it is that the
+males have not often been rendered larger and stronger
+than the females. On the contrary they are usually
+smaller, in order that they may be developed within a
+shorter time, so as to be ready in large numbers for the
+emergence of the females.</p>
+
+<p>In two families of the Homoptera the males alone
+possess, in an efficient state, organs which may be called
+vocal; and in three families of the Orthoptera the males
+alone possess stridulating organs. In both cases these
+organs are incessantly used during the breeding-season,
+not only for calling the females, but for charming or
+exciting them in rivalry with other males. No one
+who admits the agency of natural selection, will dispute
+that these musical instruments have been acquired
+through sexual selection. In four other Orders the
+members of one sex, or more commonly of both sexes,
+are provided with organs for producing various sounds,
+which apparently serve merely as call-notes. Even
+when both sexes are thus provided, the individuals
+which were able to make the loudest or most continuous
+noise would gain partners before those which were less
+noisy, so that their organs have probably been gained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">419</a></span>
+through sexual selection. It is instructive to reflect
+on the wonderful diversity of the means for producing
+sound, possessed by the males alone or by both sexes
+in no less than six Orders, and which were possessed
+by at least one insect at an extremely remote geological
+epoch. We thus learn how effectual sexual selection
+has been in leading to modifications of structure,
+which sometimes, as with the Homoptera, are of an important
+nature.</p>
+
+<p>From the reasons assigned in the last chapter, it is
+probable that the great horns of the males of many
+lamellicorn, and some other beetles, have been acquired
+as ornaments. So perhaps it may be with certain
+other peculiarities confined to the male sex. From
+the small size of insects, we are apt to undervalue their
+appearance. If we could imagine a male Chalcosoma
+(fig. <a href="#f15">15</a>) with its polished, bronzed coat of mail, and
+vast complex horns, magnified to the size of a horse or
+even of a dog, it would be one of the most imposing
+animals in the world.</p>
+
+<p>The colouring of insects is a complex and obscure
+subject. When the male differs slightly from the female,
+and neither are brilliantly coloured, it is probable that
+the two sexes have varied in a slightly different manner,
+with the variations transmitted to the same sex, without
+any benefit having been thus derived or evil suffered.
+When the male is brilliantly coloured and differs conspicuously
+from the female, as with some dragon-flies
+and many butterflies, it is probable that he alone has
+been modified, and that he owes his colours to sexual
+selection; whilst the female has retained a primordial
+or very ancient type of colouring, slightly modified by
+the agencies before explained, and has therefore not
+been rendered obscure, at least in most cases, for the
+sake of protection. But the female alone has some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">420</a></span>times
+been coloured brilliantly so as to imitate other
+protected species inhabiting the same district. When
+the sexes resemble each other and both are obscurely
+coloured, there is no doubt that they have been in a
+multitude of cases coloured for the sake of protection.
+So it is in some instances when both are brightly
+coloured, causing them to resemble surrounding objects
+such as flowers, or other protected species, or indirectly
+by giving notice to their enemies that they are of an
+unpalatable nature. In many other cases in which the
+sexes resemble each other and are brilliantly coloured,
+especially when the colours are arranged for display, we
+may conclude that they have been gained by the male
+sex as an attraction, and have been transferred to both
+sexes. We are more especially led to this conclusion
+whenever the same type of coloration prevails throughout
+a group, and we find that the males of some species
+differ widely in colour from the females, whilst both
+sexes of other species are quite alike, with intermediate
+gradations connecting these extreme states.</p>
+
+<p>In the same manner as bright colours have often
+been partially transferred from the males to the females,
+so it has been with the extraordinary horns of many
+lamellicorn and some other beetles. So, again, the
+vocal or instrumental organs proper to the males of
+the Homoptera and Orthoptera have generally been
+transferred in a rudimentary, or even in a nearly perfect
+condition to the females; yet not sufficiently perfect to
+be used for producing sound. It is also an interesting
+fact, as bearing on sexual selection, that the stridulating
+organs of certain male Orthoptera are not fully developed
+until the last moult; and that the colours of certain
+male dragon-flies are not fully developed until
+some little time after their emergence from the pupal
+state, and when they are ready to breed.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">421</a></span>Sexual selection implies that the more attractive
+individuals are preferred by the opposite sex; and as
+with insects, when the sexes differ, it is the male which,
+with rare exceptions, is the most ornamented and
+departs most from the type to which the species
+belongs;&mdash;and as it is the male which searches eagerly
+for the female, we must suppose that the females habitually
+or occasionally prefer the more beautiful males,
+and that these have thus acquired their beauty. That
+in most or all the orders the females have the power
+of rejecting any particular male, we may safely infer
+from the many singular contrivances possessed by the
+males, such as great jaws, adhesive cushions, spines,
+elongated legs, &amp;c., for seizing the female; for these
+contrivances shew that there is some difficulty in the
+act. In the case of unions between distinct species,
+of which many instances have been recorded, the
+female must have been a consenting party. Judging
+from what we know of the perceptive powers and
+affections of various insects, there is no antecedent improbability
+in sexual selection having come largely into
+action; but we have as yet no direct evidence on this
+head, and some facts are opposed to the belief. Nevertheless,
+when we see many males pursuing the same
+female, we can hardly believe that the pairing is left to
+blind chance&mdash;that the female exerts no choice, and
+is not influenced by the gorgeous colours or other
+ornaments, with which the male alone is decorated.</p>
+
+<p>If we admit that the females of the Homoptera and
+Orthoptera appreciate the musical tones emitted by their
+male partners, and that the various instruments for this
+purpose have been perfected through sexual selection,
+there is little improbability in the females of other
+insects appreciating beauty in form or colour, and consequently
+in such characters having been thus gained<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">422</a></span>
+by the males. But from the circumstance of colour
+being so variable, and from its having been so often
+modified for the sake of protection, it is extremely
+difficult to decide in how large a proportion of cases
+sexual selection has come into play. This is more
+especially difficult in those Orders, such as the Orthoptera,
+Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera, in which the two
+sexes rarely differ much in colour; for we are thus cut
+off from our best evidence of some relation between the
+reproduction of the species and colour. With the
+Coleoptera, however, as before remarked, it is in the
+great lamellicorn group, placed by some authors at
+the head of the Order, and in which we sometimes
+see a mutual attachment between the sexes, that we
+find the males of some species possessing weapons for
+sexual strife, others furnished with wonderful horns,
+many with stridulating organs, and others ornamented
+with splendid metallic tints. Hence it seems probable
+that all these characters have been gained through
+the same means, namely sexual selection.</p>
+
+<p>When we treat of Birds, we shall see that they present
+in their secondary sexual characters the closest
+analogy with insects. Thus, many male birds are
+highly pugnacious, and some are furnished with special
+weapons for fighting with their rivals. They possess
+organs which are used during the breeding-season for
+producing vocal and instrumental music. They are
+frequently ornamented with combs, horns, wattles and
+plumes of the most diversified kinds, and are decorated
+with beautiful colours, all evidently for the sake of display.
+We shall find that, as with insects, both sexes,
+in certain groups, are equally beautiful, and are equally
+provided with ornaments which are usually confined to
+the male sex. In other groups both sexes are equally
+plain-coloured and unornamented. Lastly, in some few<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_423" id="Page_423">423</a></span>
+anomalous cases, the females are more beautiful than
+the males. We shall often find, in the same group of
+birds, every gradation from no difference between the
+sexes, to an extreme difference. In the latter case we
+shall see that the females, like female insects, often
+possess more or less plain traces of the characters which
+properly belong to the males. The analogy, indeed, in
+all these respects between birds and insects, is curiously
+close. Whatever explanation applies to the one class
+probably applies to the other; and this explanation, as
+we shall hereafter attempt to shew, is almost certainly
+sexual selection.</p>
+
+<h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1"><span class="label">1</span></a> As the works of the first-named authors are so well known, I need
+not give the titles; but as those of the latter are less well known in
+England, I will give them:&mdash;&#8216;Sechs Vorlesungen &uuml;ber die Darwin&#8217;sche
+Theorie:&#8217; zweite Auflage, 1868, von Dr. L. B&uuml;chner; translated
+into French under the title &#8216;Conf&eacute;rences sur la Th&eacute;orie Darwinienne,&#8217;
+1869. &#8216;Der Mensch, im Lichte der Darwin&#8217;sche Lehre,&#8217; 1865, von
+Dr. F. Rolle. I will not attempt to give references to all the authors
+who have taken the same side of the question. Thus G. Canestrini
+has published (&#8216;Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,&#8217; Modena, 1867, p. 81) a
+very curious paper on rudimentary characters, as bearing on the origin
+of man. Another work has (1869) been published by Dr. Barrago
+Francesco, bearing in Italian the title of &#8220;Man, made in the image of
+God, was also made in the image of the ape.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2" id="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2"><span class="label">2</span></a> Prof. H&auml;ckel is the sole author who, since the publication of the
+&#8216;Origin,&#8217; has discussed, in his various works, in a very able manner,
+the subject of sexual selection, and has seen its full importance.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3" id="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3"><span class="label">3</span></a> &#8216;Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,&#8217; 1868, s. 96.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4" id="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4"><span class="label">4</span></a> &#8216;Le&ccedil;. sur la Phys.&#8217; 1866, p. 890, as quoted by M. Dally, &#8216;L&#8217;Ordre
+des Primates et le Transformisme,&#8217; 1868, p. 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5" id="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5"><span class="label">5</span></a> &#8216;Naturgeschichte der S&auml;ugethiere von Paraguay,&#8217; 1830, s. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6" id="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6"><span class="label">6</span></a> Brehm, &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. 1864, s. 75, 86. On the Ateles, s. 105.
+For other analogous statements, see s. 25, 107.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7" id="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7"><span class="label">7</span></a> With respect to insects see Dr. Laycock &#8216;On a General Law of
+Vital Periodicity,&#8217; British Association, 1842. Dr. Macculloch, &#8216;Silliman&#8217;s
+North American Journal of Science,&#8217; vol. xvii. p. 305, has seen
+a dog suffering from tertian ague.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8" id="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8"><span class="label">8</span></a> I have given the evidence on this head in my &#8216;Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 15.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9" id="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9"><span class="label">9</span></a> &#8220;Mares e diversis generibus Quadrumanorum sine dubio dignoscunt
+feminas humanas a maribus. Primum, credo, odoratu, postea aspectu.
+Mr. Youatt, qui diu in Hortis Zoologicis (Bestiariis) medicus animalium
+erat, vir in rebus observandis cautus et sagax, hoc mihi certissime
+probavit, et curatores ejusdem loci et alii e ministris confirmaverunt.
+Sir Andrew Smith et Brehm notabant idem in Cynocephalo. Illustrissimus
+Cuvier etiam narrat multa de hac re qu&acirc; ut opinor nihil
+turpius potest indicari inter omnia hominibus et Quadrumanis communia.
+Narrat enim Cynocephalum quendam in furorem incidere
+aspectu feminarum aliquarum, sed nequaquam accendi tanto furore
+ab omnibus. Semper eligebat juniores, et dignoscebat in turba, et
+advocabat voce gestuque.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10" id="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10"><span class="label">10</span></a> This remark is made with respect to Cynocephalus and the anthropomorphous
+apes by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and F. Cuvier, &#8216;Hist.
+Nat. des Mammif&egrave;res,&#8217; tom. i. 1824.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11" id="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11"><span class="label">11</span></a> Huxley, &#8216;Man&#8217;s Place in Nature,&#8217; 1863, p. 34.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12" id="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12"><span class="label">12</span></a> &#8216;Man&#8217;s Place in Nature,&#8217; 1863, p. 67.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13" id="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13"><span class="label">13</span></a> The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, &#8216;Icones Phys.,&#8217;
+1851-1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines in length, so
+that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of the dog is from
+Bischoff, &#8216;Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hunde-Eies,&#8217; 1845, tab. xi. fig.
+42 <span class="smcap">B</span>. This drawing is five times magnified, the embryo being 25 days
+old. The internal viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages
+in both drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by
+Prof. Huxley, from whose work, &#8216;Man&#8217;s Place in Nature.&#8217; the idea of
+giving them was taken. H&auml;ckel has also given analogous drawings in
+his &#8216;Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14" id="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14"><span class="label">14</span></a> Prof. Wyman in &#8216;Proc. of American Acad. of Sciences,&#8217; vol. iv.
+1860, p. 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15" id="Footnote_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15"><span class="label">15</span></a> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. i. p. 533.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16" id="Footnote_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16"><span class="label">16</span></a> &#8216;Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,&#8217; 1868, s. 95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17" id="Footnote_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17"><span class="label">17</span></a> &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 553.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18" id="Footnote_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18"><span class="label">18</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist.&#8217; Boston, 1863, vol. ix. p. 185.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19" id="Footnote_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19"><span class="label">19</span></a> &#8216;Man&#8217;s Place in Nature,&#8217; p. 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20" id="Footnote_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20"><span class="label">20</span></a> I had written a rough copy of this chapter before reading a valuable
+paper, &#8220;Caratteri rudimentali in ordine all&#8217;origine del uomo&#8221;
+(&#8216;Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,&#8217; Modena, 1867, p. 81), by G. Canestrini,
+to which paper I am considerably indebted. H&auml;ckel has given admirable
+discussions on this whole subject, under the title of Dysteleology,
+in his &#8216;Generelle Morphologie&#8217; and &#8216;Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21" id="Footnote_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21"><span class="label">21</span></a> Some good criticisms on this subject have been given by Messrs.
+Murie and Mivart, in &#8216;Transact. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1869, vol. vii. p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22" id="Footnote_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22"><span class="label">22</span></a> &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii.
+pp. 317 and 397. See also &#8216;Origin of Species,&#8217; 5th edit. p. 535.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23" id="Footnote_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23"><span class="label">23</span></a> For instance M. Richard (&#8216;Annales des Sciences Nat.&#8217; 3rd series,
+Zoolog. 1852, tom. xviii. p. 13) describes and figures rudiments of what
+he calls the &#8220;muscle p&eacute;dieux de la main,&#8221; which he says is sometimes
+&#8220;infiniment petit.&#8221; Another muscle, called &#8220;le tibial post&eacute;rieur,&#8221; is
+generally quite absent in the hand, but appears from time to time in a
+more or less rudimentary condition.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24" id="Footnote_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24"><span class="label">24</span></a> Prof. W. Turner, &#8216;Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,&#8217; 1866-67, p. 65.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25" id="Footnote_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25"><span class="label">25</span></a> Canestrini quotes Hyrt. (&#8216;Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti,&#8217;
+Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26" id="Footnote_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26"><span class="label">26</span></a> &#8216;The Diseases of the Ear,&#8217; by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p. 12.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27" id="Footnote_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27"><span class="label">27</span></a> See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the Lemuroidea,
+in Messrs. Murie and Mivart&#8217;s excellent paper in &#8216;Transact.
+Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28" id="Footnote_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28"><span class="label">28</span></a> M&uuml;ller&#8217;s &#8216;Elements of Physiology,&#8217; Eng. translat., 1842, vol. ii. p.
+1117. Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 260; ibid. on the
+Walrus, &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; November 8th, 1854. See also R. Knox,
+'Great Artists and Anatomists,&#8217; p. 106. This rudiment apparently is
+somewhat larger in Negroes and Australians than in Europeans, see Carl
+Vogt, &#8216;Lectures on Man,&#8217; Eng. translat. p. 129.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29" id="Footnote_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29"><span class="label">29</span></a> &#8216;The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,&#8217; 2nd edit. 1868, p. 134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30" id="Footnote_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30"><span class="label">30</span></a> Eschricht, Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen K&ouml;rper
+'M&uuml;llers Archiv f&uuml;r Anat. und Phys.&#8217; 1837, s. 47. I shall often have
+to refer to this very curious paper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31" id="Footnote_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31"><span class="label">31</span></a> Paget, &#8216;Lectures on Surgical Pathology,&#8217; 1853, vol. i. p. 71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32" id="Footnote_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32"><span class="label">32</span></a> Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33" id="Footnote_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33"><span class="label">33</span></a> Dr. Webb, &#8216;Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,&#8217; as quoted by
+Dr. C. Carter Blake in &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; July, 1867, p. 299.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34" id="Footnote_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34"><span class="label">34</span></a> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. pp. 320, 321, and 325.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35" id="Footnote_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35"><span class="label">35</span></a> &#8216;On the Primitive Form of the Skull,&#8217; Eng. translat. in &#8216;Anthropological
+Review,&#8217; Oct. 1868, p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36" id="Footnote_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36"><span class="label">36</span></a> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. pp. 416, 434, 441.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37" id="Footnote_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37"><span class="label">37</span></a> &#8216;Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.&#8217; Modena, 1867, p. 94.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38" id="Footnote_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38"><span class="label">38</span></a> M. C. Martins (&#8220;De l&#8217;Unit&eacute; Organique,&#8221; in &#8216;Revue des Deux
+Mondes,&#8217; June 15, 1862, p. 16), and H&auml;ckel (&#8216;Generelle Morphologie,&#8217;
+B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the singular fact of this rudiment
+sometimes causing death.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39" id="Footnote_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39"><span class="label">39</span></a> &#8216;The Lancet,&#8217; Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, &#8216;Great Artists and
+Anatomists,&#8217; p. 63. See also an important memoir on this process by
+Dr. Grube, in the &#8216;Bulletin de l&#8217;Acad. Imp. de St. P&eacute;tersbourg,&#8217; tom.
+xii. 1867, p. 448.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40" id="Footnote_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40"><span class="label">40</span></a> &#8220;On the Caves of Gibraltar,&#8221; &#8216;Transact. Internat. Congress of
+Prehist. Arch.&#8217; Third Session, 1869, p. 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41" id="Footnote_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41"><span class="label">41</span></a> Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this subject.
+'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217; 1867-1868, p. 625.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42" id="Footnote_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42"><span class="label">42</span></a> Owen, &#8216;On the Nature of Limbs,&#8217; 1849, p. 114.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43" id="Footnote_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43"><span class="label">43</span></a> Leuckart, in Todd&#8217;s &#8216;Cyclop. of Anat.&#8217; 1849-52, vol. iv. p. 1415.
+In man this organ is only from three to six lines in length, but, like
+so many other rudimentary parts, it is variable in development as well
+as in other characters.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44" id="Footnote_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44"><span class="label">44</span></a> See, on this subject, Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. pp.
+675, 676, 706.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45" id="Footnote_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45"><span class="label">45</span></a> See the evidence on these points, as given by Lubbock, &#8216;Prehistoric
+Times,&#8217; p. 354, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46" id="Footnote_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46"><span class="label">46</span></a> &#8216;L&#8217;Instinct chez les Insectes.&#8217; &#8216;Revue des Deux Mondes,&#8217; Feb.
+1870, p. 690.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47" id="Footnote_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47"><span class="label">47</span></a> &#8216;The American Beaver and his Works,&#8217; 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48" id="Footnote_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48"><span class="label">48</span></a> &#8216;The Principles of Psychology,&#8217; 2nd edit. 1870, pp. 418-443.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49" id="Footnote_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49"><span class="label">49</span></a> &#8216;Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,&#8217; 1870, p. 212</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50" id="Footnote_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50"><span class="label">50</span></a> &#8216;Recherches sur les M&oelig;urs des Fourmis,&#8217; 1810, p. 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51" id="Footnote_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51"><span class="label">51</span></a> All the following statements, given on the authority of these two
+naturalists, are taken from Rengger&#8217;s &#8216;Naturges. der S&auml;ugethiere
+von Paraguay,&#8217; 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm&#8217;s &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i.
+s. 10-87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52" id="Footnote_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52"><span class="label">52</span></a> &#8216;Bridgewater Treatise,&#8217; p. 263.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53" id="Footnote_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53"><span class="label">53</span></a> W. C. L. Martin, &#8216;Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,&#8217; 1841, p. 405.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54" id="Footnote_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54"><span class="label">54</span></a> Quoted by Vogt, &#8216;M&eacute;moire sur les Microc&eacute;phales,&#8217; 1867, p. 168.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55" id="Footnote_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55"><span class="label">55</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+i. p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56" id="Footnote_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56"><span class="label">56</span></a> &#8216;Les M&oelig;urs des Fourmis,&#8217; 1810, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57" id="Footnote_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57"><span class="label">57</span></a> Quoted in Dr. Maudsley&#8217;s &#8216;Physiology and Pathology of Mind,&#8217;
+1868, pp. 19, 220.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58" id="Footnote_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58"><span class="label">58</span></a> Dr. Jerdon, &#8216;Birds of India,&#8217; vol. i. 1862, p. xxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59" id="Footnote_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59"><span class="label">59</span></a> Mr. L. H. Morgan&#8217;s work on &#8216;The American Beaver,&#8217; 1868, offers
+a good illustration of this remark. I cannot, however, avoid thinking
+that he goes too far in underrating the power of Instinct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60" id="Footnote_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60"><span class="label">60</span></a> &#8216;The Moor and the Loch,&#8217; p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on &#8216;Dog
+Breaking,&#8217; 1850, p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61" id="Footnote_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61"><span class="label">61</span></a> &#8216;Personal Narrative,&#8217; Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62" id="Footnote_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62"><span class="label">62</span></a> Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, &#8216;Antiquity of Man,&#8217; p. 497.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63" id="Footnote_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63"><span class="label">63</span></a> &#8216;Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the &#8220;Beagle,&#8221;&#8217; 1845,
+p. 398. &#8216;Origin of Species,&#8217; 5th edit. p. 260.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64" id="Footnote_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64"><span class="label">64</span></a> &#8216;Lettres Phil. sur l&#8217;Intelligence des Animaux,&#8217; nouvelle edit.
+1802, p. 86.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65" id="Footnote_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65"><span class="label">65</span></a> See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i. &#8216;On the Variation
+of Animals and Plants under Domestication.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66" id="Footnote_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66"><span class="label">66</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1864, p. 186.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67" id="Footnote_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67"><span class="label">67</span></a> Savage and Wyman in &#8216;Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. iv.
+1843-44, p. 383.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68" id="Footnote_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68"><span class="label">68</span></a> &#8216;S&auml;ugethiere von Paraguay,&#8217; 1830, s. 51-56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69" id="Footnote_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69"><span class="label">69</span></a> &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. s. 79, 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70" id="Footnote_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70"><span class="label">70</span></a> &#8216;The Malay Archipelago,&#8217; vol. i. 1869, p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71" id="Footnote_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71"><span class="label">71</span></a> &#8216;Primeval Man,&#8217; 1869, pp. 145, 147.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72" id="Footnote_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72"><span class="label">72</span></a> &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 1865, p. 473, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73" id="Footnote_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73"><span class="label">73</span></a> Quoted in &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; 1864, p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74" id="Footnote_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74"><span class="label">74</span></a> Rengger, ibid. s. 45.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75" id="Footnote_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75"><span class="label">75</span></a> See my &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217;
+vol. i. p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76" id="Footnote_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76"><span class="label">76</span></a> See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor&#8217;s very interesting
+work, &#8216;Researches into the Early History of Mankind,&#8217; 1865, chaps.
+ii. to iv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77" id="Footnote_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77"><span class="label">77</span></a> Hon. Daines Barrington in &#8216;Philosoph. Transactions,&#8217; 1773, p.
+262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in &#8216;Ann. des Sc. Nat.&#8217; 3rd series,
+Zoolog. tom. x. p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78" id="Footnote_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78"><span class="label">78</span></a> &#8216;On the Origin of Language,&#8217; by H. Wedgwood, 1866. &#8216;Chapters
+on Language,&#8217; by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, 1865. These works are most
+interesting. See also &#8216;De la Phys. et de Parole,&#8217; par Albert Lemoine,
+1865, p. 190. The work on this subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher,
+has been translated by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title
+of &#8216;Darwinism tested by the Science of Language,&#8217; 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79" id="Footnote_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79"><span class="label">79</span></a> Vogt, &#8216;M&eacute;moire sur les Microc&eacute;phales,&#8217; 1867, p. 169. With
+respect to savages, I have given some facts in my &#8216;Journal of
+Researches,&#8217; &amp;c., 1845, p. 206.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80" id="Footnote_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80"><span class="label">80</span></a> See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often quoted,
+by Brehm and Rengger.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81" id="Footnote_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81"><span class="label">81</span></a> See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, &#8216;The Physiology
+and Pathology of Mind,&#8217; 2nd edit. 1868, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82" id="Footnote_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82"><span class="label">82</span></a> Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance,
+'Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,&#8217; by Dr. Abercrombie,
+1838, p. 150.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83" id="Footnote_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83"><span class="label">83</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+ii. p. 6.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84" id="Footnote_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84"><span class="label">84</span></a> See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, &#8216;The
+Physiology and Pathology of Mind,&#8217; 1808, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85" id="Footnote_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85"><span class="label">85</span></a> Macgillivray, &#8216;Hist. of British Birds,&#8217; vol. ii. 1839, p. 29. An
+excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the magpie learns to
+pronounce single words, and even short sentences, more readily than
+almost any other British bird; yet, as he adds, after long and closely
+investigating its habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature,
+display any unusual capacity for imitation. &#8216;Researches in Zoology,&#8217;
+1834, p. 158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86" id="Footnote_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86"><span class="label">86</span></a> See the very interesting parallelism between the development of
+speech and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in &#8216;The Geolog. Evidences
+of the Antiquity of Man,&#8217; 1863, chap. xxiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87" id="Footnote_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87"><span class="label">87</span></a> See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an interesting
+article, entitled &#8220;Philology and Darwinism&#8221; in &#8216;Nature,&#8217; March
+24th, 1870, p. 528.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88" id="Footnote_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88"><span class="label">88</span></a> &#8216;Nature,&#8217; Jan. 6th, 1870, p. 257.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89" id="Footnote_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89"><span class="label">89</span></a> Quoted by C. S. Wake, &#8216;Chapters on Man,&#8217; 1868, p. 101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90" id="Footnote_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90"><span class="label">90</span></a> Buckland, &#8216;Bridgewater Treatise,&#8217; p. 411.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91" id="Footnote_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91"><span class="label">91</span></a> See some good remarks on the simplification of languages, by Sir
+J. Lubbock, &#8216;Origin of Civilisation,&#8217; 1870, p. 278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92" id="Footnote_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92"><span class="label">92</span></a> &#8216;Conf&eacute;rences sur la Th&eacute;orie Darwinienne,&#8217; French translat., 1869,
+p. 132.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93" id="Footnote_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93"><span class="label">93</span></a> The Rev. Dr. J. M&#8217;Cann, &#8216;Anti-Darwinism,&#8217; 1869, p. 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94" id="Footnote_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94"><span class="label">94</span></a> &#8216;The Spectator,&#8217; Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95" id="Footnote_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95"><span class="label">95</span></a> See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F. W. Farrar,
+in the &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii. For further
+facts see Sir J. Lubbock, &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 2nd edit. 1869. p. 564;
+and especially the chapters on Religion in his &#8216;Origin of Civilisation,&#8217;
+1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96" id="Footnote_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96"><span class="label">96</span></a> The Worship of Animals and Plants, in the &#8216;Fortnightly Review,&#8217;
+Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97" id="Footnote_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97"><span class="label">97</span></a> Tylor, &#8216;Early History of Mankind,&#8217; 1865, p. 6. See also the three
+striking chapters on the Development of Religion, in Lubbock&#8217;s &#8216;Origin
+of Civilisation,&#8217; 1870. In a like manner Mr. Herbert Spencer, in his
+ingenious essay in the &#8216;Fortnightly Review&#8217; (May 1st, 1870, p. 535),
+accounts for the earliest forms of religious belief throughout the world,
+by man being led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look
+at himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the spiritual
+being is supposed to exist after death and to be powerful, it is propitiated
+by various gifts and ceremonies, and its aid invoked. He then
+further shews that names or nicknames given from some animal or
+other object to the early progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed
+after a long interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe;
+and such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist as
+a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god. Nevertheless I cannot
+but suspect that there is a still earlier and ruder stage, when anything
+which manifests power or movement is thought to be endowed with
+some form of life, and with mental faculties analogous to our own.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98" id="Footnote_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98"><span class="label">98</span></a> See an able article on the Psychical Elements of Religion, by
+Mr. L. Owen Pike, in &#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; April, 1870, p. lxiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99" id="Footnote_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99"><span class="label">99</span></a> &#8216;Religion, Moral, &amp;c., der Darwin&#8217;schen Art-Lehre,&#8217; 1869, s. 53.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100" id="Footnote_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100"><span class="label">100</span></a> &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 2nd edit. p. 571. In this work (at p. 553)
+there will be found an excellent account of the many strange and
+capricious customs of savages.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101" id="Footnote_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101"><span class="label">101</span></a> See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, &#8216;Unit&eacute; de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce
+Humaine,&#8217; 1861, p. 21, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102" id="Footnote_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102"><span class="label">102</span></a> &#8216;Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,&#8217; 1837, p. 231, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103" id="Footnote_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103"><span class="label">103</span></a> &#8216;Metaphysics of Ethics,&#8217; translated by J. W. Semple, Edinburgh,
+1836, p. 136.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104" id="Footnote_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104"><span class="label">104</span></a> Mr. Bain gives a list (&#8216;Mental and Moral Science,&#8217; 1868, p. 543-725)
+of twenty-six British authors who have written on this subject,
+and whose names are familiar to every reader; to these, Mr. Bain&#8217;s own
+name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr. Shadworth Hodgson, and Sir J.
+Lubbock, as well as of others, may be added.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105" id="Footnote_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105"><span class="label">105</span></a> Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social animal (&#8216;Psychological
+Enquiries,&#8217; 1854, p. 192), asks the pregnant question,
+&#8220;ought not this to settle the disputed question as to the existence of a
+moral sense?&#8221; Similar ideas have probably occurred to many persons,
+as they did long ago to Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J. S. Mill speaks, in
+his celebrated work, &#8216;Utilitarianism,&#8217; (1864, p. 46), of the social feelings
+as a &#8220;powerful natural sentiment,&#8221; and as &#8220;the natural basis of
+sentiment for utilitarian morality;&#8221; but on the previous page he
+says, &#8220;if, as is my own belief, the moral feelings are not innate, but
+acquired, they are not for that reason less natural.&#8221; It is with hesitation
+that I venture to differ from so profound a thinker, but it can
+hardly be disputed that the social feelings are instinctive or innate
+in the lower animals; and why should they not be so in man?
+Mr. Bain (see, for instance, &#8216;The Emotions and the Will,&#8217; 1865, p. 481)
+and others believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual
+during his lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is at
+least extremely improbable.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106" id="Footnote_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106"><span class="label">106</span></a> &#8216;Die Darwin&#8217;sche Theorie,&#8217; s. 101.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107" id="Footnote_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107"><span class="label">107</span></a> Mr. R. Browne in &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1868, p. 409.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108" id="Footnote_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108"><span class="label">108</span></a> Brehm, &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case of the
+monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54. With respect to
+the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is given (s. 76) on the
+evidence of Alvarez, whose observations Brehm thinks quite trustworthy.
+For the cases of the old male baboons attacking the dogs, see
+s. 79; and with respect to the eagle, s. 56.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109" id="Footnote_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109"><span class="label">109</span></a> &#8216;Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; November, 1868, p. 382.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110" id="Footnote_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110"><span class="label">110</span></a> Sir J. Lubbock, &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 2nd edit. p. 446.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111" id="Footnote_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111"><span class="label">111</span></a> As quoted by Mr. L. H. Morgan, &#8216;The American Beaver,&#8217; 1868,
+p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account of the manner
+in which a very young pelican, carried away by a strong stream,
+was guided and encouraged in its attempts to reach the shore by half a
+dozen old birds.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112" id="Footnote_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112"><span class="label">112</span></a> As Mr. Bain states, &#8220;effective aid to a sufferer springs from sympathy
+proper:&#8221; &#8216;Mental and Moral Science,&#8217; 1868, p. 245.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113" id="Footnote_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113"><span class="label">113</span></a> &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. s. 85.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114" id="Footnote_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114"><span class="label">114</span></a> &#8216;De l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce et de la Class.&#8217; 1869, p. 97.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115" id="Footnote_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115"><span class="label">115</span></a> &#8216;Der Darwin&#8217;schen Art-Lehre,&#8217; 1869, s. 54.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116" id="Footnote_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116"><span class="label">116</span></a> Brehm, &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. s. 76.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117" id="Footnote_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117"><span class="label">117</span></a> See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith&#8217;s &#8216;Theory of
+Moral Sentiments.&#8217; Also Mr. Bain&#8217;s &#8216;Mental and Moral Science,&#8217;
+1868, p. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that &#8220;sympathy is,
+indirectly, a source of pleasure to the sympathiser;&#8221; and he accounts
+for this through reciprocity. He remarks that &#8220;the person benefited,
+or others in his stead, may make up, by sympathy and good offices
+returned, for all the sacrifice.&#8221; But if, as appears to be the case,
+sympathy is strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure,
+in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of almost every
+other instinct.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118" id="Footnote_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118"><span class="label">118</span></a> This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of &#8216;White&#8217;s
+Nat. Hist. of Selborne,&#8217; 1853, p. 204) was first recorded by the illustrious
+Jenner, in &#8216;Phil. Transact.&#8217; 1824, and has since been confirmed
+by several observers, especially by Mr. Blackwall. This latter careful
+observer examined, late in the autumn, during two years, thirty-six
+nests; he found that twelve contained young dead birds, five contained
+eggs on the point of being hatched, and three eggs not nearly hatched.
+Many birds not yet old enough for a prolonged flight are likewise
+deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, &#8216;Researches in Zoology,&#8217;
+1834, pp. 108, 118. For some additional evidence, although this is not
+wanted, see Leroy, &#8216;Lettres Phil.&#8217; 1802, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119" id="Footnote_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119"><span class="label">119</span></a> Hume remarks (&#8216;An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals,&#8217;
+edit. of 1751, p. 132), &#8220;there seems a necessity for confessing that the
+happiness and misery of others are not spectacles altogether indifferent
+to us, but that the view of the former ... communicates a
+secret joy; the appearance of the latter ... throws a melancholy
+damp over the imagination.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120" id="Footnote_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120"><span class="label">120</span></a> &#8216;Mental and Moral Science,&#8217; 1868, p. 254.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121" id="Footnote_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121"><span class="label">121</span></a> I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian Indians
+who preferred being shot, one after the other, to betraying the plans of
+their companions in war (&#8216;Journal of Researches,&#8217; 1845, p. 103).</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122" id="Footnote_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122"><span class="label">122</span></a> Dr. Prosper Despine, in his &#8216;Psychologie Naturelle,&#8217; 1868 (tom.
+i. p. 243; tom ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of the worst criminals,
+who apparently have been entirely destitute of conscience.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123" id="Footnote_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123"><span class="label">123</span></a> See an able article in the &#8216;North British Review,&#8217; 1867, p. 395.
+See also Mr. W. Bagehot&#8217;s articles on the Importance of Obedience
+and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the &#8216;Fortnightly Review,&#8217; 1867,
+p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124" id="Footnote_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124"><span class="label">124</span></a> The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr. Gerland, in
+his &#8216;Ueber das Aussterben der Naturv&ouml;lker,&#8217; 1868; but I shall have to
+recur to the subject of infanticide in a future chapter.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125" id="Footnote_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125"><span class="label">125</span></a> See the very interesting discussion on Suicide in Lecky&#8217;s &#8216;History
+of European Morals,&#8217; vol. i. 1869, p. 223.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126" id="Footnote_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126"><span class="label">126</span></a> See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton&#8217;s account of the Kaffirs, &#8216;Anthropological
+Review,&#8217; 1870, p. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127" id="Footnote_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127"><span class="label">127</span></a> Mr. M&#8217;Lennan has given &#8216;Primitive Marriage,&#8217; 1865, p. 176, a
+good collection of facts on this head.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128" id="Footnote_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128"><span class="label">128</span></a> Lecky, &#8216;History of European Morals,&#8217; vol. i. 1869, p. 109.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129" id="Footnote_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129"><span class="label">129</span></a> &#8216;Embassy to China,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 348.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130" id="Footnote_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130"><span class="label">130</span></a> See on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir J.
+Lubbock, &#8216;Origin of Civilisation,&#8217; 1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131" id="Footnote_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131"><span class="label">131</span></a> For instance Lecky, &#8216;Hist. European Morals,&#8217; vol. i. p. 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132" id="Footnote_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132"><span class="label">132</span></a> This term is used in an able article in the &#8216;Westminster Review,&#8217;
+Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the Greatest Happiness principle, see J. S.
+Mill, &#8216;Utilitarianism,&#8217; p. 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133" id="Footnote_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133"><span class="label">133</span></a> Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in &#8216;Scientific Opinion,&#8217;
+Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his &#8216;Contributions to the Theory of
+Natural Selection,&#8217; 1870, p. 353.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134" id="Footnote_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134"><span class="label">134</span></a> Tennyson, &#8216;Idylls of the King,&#8217; p. 244.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135" id="Footnote_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135"><span class="label">135</span></a> &#8216;The Thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,&#8217; Eng.
+translat., 2nd edit., 1869, p. 112. Marcus Aurelius was born <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 121.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136" id="Footnote_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136"><span class="label">136</span></a> Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain&#8217;s &#8216;Mental and Moral Science,&#8217; 1868,
+p. 722.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137" id="Footnote_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137"><span class="label">137</span></a> A writer in the &#8216;North British Review&#8217; (July, 1869, p. 531), well
+capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses himself strongly to this
+effect. Mr. Lecky (&#8216;Hist. of Morals,&#8217; vol. i. p. 143) seems to a certain
+extent to coincide.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138" id="Footnote_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138"><span class="label">138</span></a> See his remarkable work on &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1869, p. 349.
+The Duke of Argyll (&#8216;Primeval Man,&#8217; 1869, p. 188) has some good
+remarks on the contest in man&#8217;s nature between right and wrong.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139" id="Footnote_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139"><span class="label">139</span></a> &#8216;The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,&#8217; &amp;c., p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140" id="Footnote_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140"><span class="label">140</span></a> &#8216;Investigations in Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American
+Soldiers,&#8217; by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 256.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141" id="Footnote_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141"><span class="label">141</span></a> With respect to the &#8220;Cranial forms of the American aborigines,&#8221;
+see Dr. Aitken Meigs in &#8216;Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.&#8217; Philadelphia, May,
+1866. On the Australians, see Huxley, in Lyell&#8217;s &#8216;Antiquity of Man,&#8217;
+1863, p. 87. On the Sandwich Islanders, Prof. J. Wyman, &#8216;Observations
+on Crania,&#8217; Boston, 1868, p. 18.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142" id="Footnote_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142"><span class="label">142</span></a> &#8216;Anatomy of the Arteries,&#8217; by R. Quain.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143" id="Footnote_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143"><span class="label">143</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Royal Soc.&#8217; Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 175, 189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144" id="Footnote_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144"><span class="label">144</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Royal Soc.&#8217; 1867, p. 544; also 1868, p. 483, 524. There is
+a previous paper, 1866, p. 229.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145" id="Footnote_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145"><span class="label">145</span></a> &#8216;Proc. R. Irish Academy,&#8217; vol. x. 1868, p. 141.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146" id="Footnote_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146"><span class="label">146</span></a> &#8216;Act. Acad.,&#8217; St. Petersburg, 1778, part ii. p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147" id="Footnote_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147"><span class="label">147</span></a> Brehm, &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger, &#8216;S&auml;ugethiere von
+Paraguay,&#8217; s. 57.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148" id="Footnote_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148"><span class="label">148</span></a> &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii.
+chap. xii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149" id="Footnote_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149"><span class="label">149</span></a> &#8216;Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences,&#8217;
+1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150" id="Footnote_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150"><span class="label">150</span></a> Mr. Bates remarks (&#8216;The Naturalist on the Amazons,&#8217; 1863, vol. ii.
+p. 159), with respect to the Indians of the same S. American tribe,
+&#8220;no two of them were at all similar in the shape of the head; one
+man had an oval visage with fine features, and another was quite
+Mongolian in breadth and prominence of cheek, spread of nostrils,
+and obliquity of eyes.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151" id="Footnote_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151"><span class="label">151</span></a> Blumenbach, &#8216;Treatises on Anthropolog.&#8217; Eng. translat., 1865,
+p. 205.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152" id="Footnote_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152"><span class="label">152</span></a> Godron, &#8216;De l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce,&#8217; 1859, tom. ii. livre 3. Quatrefages, &#8216;Unit&eacute;
+de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine,&#8217; 1861. Also Lectures on Anthropology, given
+in the &#8216;Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217; 1866-1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153" id="Footnote_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153"><span class="label">153</span></a> &#8216;Hist. Gen. et Part. des Anomalies de l&#8217;Organisation,&#8217; in three
+volumes, tom. i. 1832.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154" id="Footnote_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154"><span class="label">154</span></a> I have fully discussed these laws in my &#8216;Variation of Animals
+and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. chap. xxii. and xxiii. M. J.
+P. Durand has lately 1868; published a valuable essay &#8216;De l&#8217;Influence
+des Milieux, &amp;c.&#8217; He lays much stress on the nature of the soil.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155" id="Footnote_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155"><span class="label">155</span></a> &#8216;Investigations in Military and Anthrop. Statistics,&#8217; &amp;c. 1869, by
+B. A. Gould, p. 93, 107, 126, 131, 134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156" id="Footnote_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156"><span class="label">156</span></a> For the Polynesians, see Prichard&#8217;s &#8216;Physical Hist. of Mankind,&#8217;
+vol. v. 1847, p. 145, 283. Also Godron, &#8216;De l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce,&#8217; tom. ii. p. 289.
+There is also a remarkable difference in appearance between the closely-allied
+Hindoos inhabiting the Upper Ganges and Bengal; see Elphinstone&#8217;s
+'History of India,&#8217; vol. i. p. 324.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157" id="Footnote_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157"><span class="label">157</span></a> &#8216;Memoirs, Anthropolog. Soc.&#8217; vol. iii. 1867-69, p. 561, 565, 567.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158" id="Footnote_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158"><span class="label">158</span></a> Dr. Brakenridge, &#8216;Theory of Diathesis,&#8217; &#8216;Medical Times,&#8217; June 19
+and July 17, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159" id="Footnote_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159"><span class="label">159</span></a> I have given authorities for these several statements in my &#8216;Variation
+of Animals under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 297-300. Dr. Jaeger,
+&#8220;Ueber das L&auml;ngenwachsthum der Knochen,&#8221; &#8216;Jenaischen Zeitschrift,&#8217;
+B. v. Heft i.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160" id="Footnote_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160"><span class="label">160</span></a> &#8216;Investigations,&#8217; &amp;c. By B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 288.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161" id="Footnote_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161"><span class="label">161</span></a> &#8216;S&auml;ugethiere von Paraguay,&#8217; 1830, s. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162" id="Footnote_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162"><span class="label">162</span></a> &#8216;History of Greenland,&#8217; Eng. translat. 1767, vol. i. p. 230.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163" id="Footnote_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163"><span class="label">163</span></a> &#8216;Intermarriage.&#8217; By Alex. Walker, 1838. p. 377.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164" id="Footnote_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164"><span class="label">164</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217; vol. i. p. 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165" id="Footnote_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165"><span class="label">165</span></a> &#8216;Principles of Biology,&#8217; vol. i. p. 455.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166" id="Footnote_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166"><span class="label">166</span></a> Paget, &#8216;Lectures on Surgical Pathology,&#8217; vol. i. 1853, p. 209.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167" id="Footnote_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167"><span class="label">167</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217; vol. i. p. 8.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168" id="Footnote_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168"><span class="label">168</span></a> &#8216;S&auml;ugethiere von Paraguay,&#8217; s. 8, 10. I have had good opportunities
+for observing the extraordinary power of eyesight in the
+Fuegians.&#8217; See also Lawrence (&#8216;Lectures on Physiology,&#8217; &amp;c., 1822, p.
+404) on this same subject. M. Giraud-Teulon has recently collected
+(&#8216;Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217; 1870, p. 625) a large and valuable
+body of evidence proving that the cause of short-sight, &#8220;<i>C&#8217;est le travail
+assidu, de pr&egrave;s.</i>&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169" id="Footnote_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169"><span class="label">169</span></a> Prichard, &#8216;Phys. Hist. of Mankind,&#8217; on the authority of Blumenbach,
+vol. i. 1851, p. 311; for the statement by Pallas, vol. iv. 1844, p.
+407.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170" id="Footnote_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170"><span class="label">170</span></a> Quoted by Prichard, &#8216;Researches into the Phys. Hist. of Mankind,&#8217;
+vol. v. p. 463.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171" id="Footnote_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171"><span class="label">171</span></a> Mr. Forbes&#8217; valuable paper is now published in the &#8216;Journal of
+the Ethnological Soc. of London,&#8217; new series, vol. ii. 1870, p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172" id="Footnote_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172"><span class="label">172</span></a> Dr. Wilckens (&#8216;Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt,&#8217; No. 10, 1869)
+has lately published an interesting essay shewing how domestic
+animals, which live in mountainous regions, have their frames
+modified.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173" id="Footnote_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173"><span class="label">173</span></a> &#8216;M&eacute;moire sur les Microc&eacute;phales,&#8217; 1867, p. 50, 125, 169, 171, 184-198.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174" id="Footnote_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174"><span class="label">174</span></a> See Dr. A. Farre&#8217;s well-known article in the &#8216;Cyclop. of Anat.
+and Phys.&#8217; vol. v. 1859, p. 642. Owen &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol.
+iii. 1868, p. 687. Prof. Turner in &#8216;Edinburgh Medical Journal,&#8217; Feb.
+1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175" id="Footnote_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175"><span class="label">175</span></a> &#8216;Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti in Modena,&#8217; 1867, p. 83.
+Prof. Canestrini gives extracts on this subject from various authorities.
+Laurillard remarks, that as he has found a complete similarity in the
+form, proportions, and connexion of the two malar bones in several
+human subjects and in certain apes, he cannot consider this disposition
+of the parts as simply accidental.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176" id="Footnote_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176"><span class="label">176</span></a> A whole series of cases is given by Isid. Geoffroy St.-Hilaire,
+'Hist. des Anomalies,&#8217; tom. iii. p. 437.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177" id="Footnote_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177"><span class="label">177</span></a> In my &#8216;Variation of Animals under Domestication&#8217; (vol. ii. p. 57)
+I attributed the not very rare cases of supernumerary mamm&aelig; in
+women to reversion. I was led to this as a <i>probable</i> conclusion, by the
+additional mamm&aelig; being generally placed symmetrically on the breast,
+and more especially from one case, in which a single efficient mamma
+occurred in the inguinal region of a woman, the daughter of another
+woman with supernumerary mamm&aelig;. But Prof. Preyer (&#8216;Der Kampf
+um das Dasein,&#8217; 1869, s. 45) states that <i>mamm&aelig; erratic&aelig;</i> have been
+known to occur in other situations, even on the back; so that the force
+of my argument is greatly weakened or perhaps quite destroyed.
+</p><p>
+With much hesitation I, in the same work (vol. ii. p. 12), attributed
+the frequent cases of polydactylism in men to reversion. I was partly
+led to this through Prof. Owen&#8217;s statement, that some of the Ichthyopterygia
+possess more than five digits, and therefore, as I supposed, had
+retained a primordial condition; but after reading Prof. Gegenbaur&#8217;s
+paper (&#8216;Jenaischen Zeitschrift,&#8217; B. v. Heft 3, s. 341), who is the highest
+authority in Europe on such a point, and who disputes Owen&#8217;s conclusion,
+I see that it is extremely doubtful whether supernumerary
+digits can thus be accounted for. It was the fact that such digits not
+only frequently occur and are strongly inherited, but have the power
+of regrowth after amputation, like the normal digits of the lower vertebrata,
+that chiefly led me to the above conclusion. This extraordinary
+fact of their regrowth remains inexplicable, if the belief in reversion to
+some extremely remote progenitor must be rejected. I cannot, however,
+follow Prof. Gegenbaur in supposing that additional digits could
+not reappear through reversion, without at the same time other parts of
+the skeleton being simultaneously and similarly modified; for single
+characters often reappear through reversion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178" id="Footnote_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178"><span class="label">178</span></a> &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. 1868, p. 323.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179" id="Footnote_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179"><span class="label">179</span></a> &#8216;Generelle Morphologie,&#8217; 1866, B. ii. s. clv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180" id="Footnote_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180"><span class="label">180</span></a> Carl Vogt&#8217;s &#8216;Lectures on Man,&#8217; Eng. translat. 1864, p. 151.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181" id="Footnote_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181"><span class="label">181</span></a> C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, &#8216;Anthropolog.
+Review,&#8217; 1867, p. 295. Schaaffhausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182" id="Footnote_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182"><span class="label">182</span></a> &#8216;The Anatomy of Expression,&#8217; 1844, p. 110, 131.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183" id="Footnote_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183"><span class="label">183</span></a> Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the &#8216;Annuario,&#8217; &amp;c., 1867, p. 90.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184" id="Footnote_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184"><span class="label">184</span></a> These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires to
+learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come to resemble
+those of the Quadrumana. The following references relate to
+the few points touched on in my text: vol. xiv. 1865, p. 379-384; vol.
+xv. 1866, p. 241, 242; vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I
+may here add that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn
+in their Memoir on the Lemuroidea (&#8216;Transact. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; vol. vii.
+1869, p. 96), how extraordinarily variable some of the muscles are in
+these animals, the lowest members of the Primates. Gradations, also,
+in the muscles leading to structures found in animals still lower in
+the scale, are numerous in the Lemuroidea.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185" id="Footnote_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185"><span class="label">185</span></a> Prof. Macalister in &#8216;Proc. R. Irish Academy,&#8217; vol. x. 1868, p. 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186" id="Footnote_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186"><span class="label">186</span></a> Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his observations, and
+finds that muscular abnormalities are most frequent in the fore-arms,
+secondly in the face, thirdly in the foot, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187" id="Footnote_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187"><span class="label">187</span></a> The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving (&#8216;Proc. R. Irish Academy,&#8217;
+June 27, 1864, p. 715) a remarkable case of variation in the human
+<i>flexor pollicis longus</i>, adds, &#8220;This remarkable example shews that man
+may sometimes possess the arrangement of tendons of thumb and
+fingers characteristic of the macaque; but whether such a case should
+be regarded as a macaque passing upwards into a man, or a man
+passing downwards into a macaque, or as a congenital freak of
+nature, I cannot undertake to say.&#8221; It is satisfactory to hear so
+capable an anatomist, and so embittered an opponent of evolutionism,
+admitting even the possibility of either of his first propositions. Prof.
+Macalister has also described (&#8216;Proc. R. Irish Acad.&#8217; vol. x. 1864, p.
+138) variations in the <i>flexor pollicis longus</i>, remarkable from their relations
+to the same muscle in the Quadrumana.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188" id="Footnote_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188"><span class="label">188</span></a> The authorities for these several statements are given in my
+'Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 320-335.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189" id="Footnote_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189"><span class="label">189</span></a> This whole subject has been discussed in chap. xxiii. vol. ii. of
+my &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190" id="Footnote_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190"><span class="label">190</span></a> See the ever memorable &#8216;Essay on the Principle of Population,&#8217;
+by the Rev. T. Malthus, vol. i. 1826, p. 6, 517.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191" id="Footnote_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191"><span class="label">191</span></a> &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii.
+p. 111-113, 163.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192" id="Footnote_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192"><span class="label">192</span></a> Mr. Sedgwick, &#8216;British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,&#8217;
+July, 1863, p. 170.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193" id="Footnote_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193"><span class="label">193</span></a> &#8216;The Annals of Rural Bengal,&#8217; by W. W. Hunter, 1868, p. 259.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194" id="Footnote_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194"><span class="label">194</span></a> &#8216;Primitive Marriage,&#8217; 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195" id="Footnote_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195"><span class="label">195</span></a> See some good remarks to this effect by W. Stanley Jevons, &#8220;A
+Deduction from Darwin&#8217;s Theory,&#8221; &#8216;Nature,&#8217; 1869, p. 231.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196" id="Footnote_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196"><span class="label">196</span></a> Latham, &#8216;Man and his Migrations,&#8217; 1851, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197" id="Footnote_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197"><span class="label">197</span></a> Messrs. Murie and Mivart in their &#8220;Anatomy of the Lemuroidea&#8221;
+(&#8216;Transact. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; vol. vii. 1869, p. 96-98) say, &#8220;some muscles
+are so irregular in their distribution that they cannot be well classed
+in any of the above groups.&#8221; These muscles differ even on the opposite
+sides of the same individual.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198" id="Footnote_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198"><span class="label">198</span></a> &#8216;Quarterly Review,&#8217; April, 1869, p. 392. This subject is more
+fully discussed in Mr. Wallace&#8217;s &#8216;Contributions to the Theory of Natural
+Selection,&#8217; 1870, in which all the essays referred to in this work are
+republished. The &#8216;Essay on Man&#8217; has been ably criticised by Prof.
+Clapar&egrave;de, one of the most distinguished zoologists in Europe, in an
+article published in the &#8216;Biblioth&egrave;que Universelle,&#8217; June, 1870. The
+remark quoted in my text will surprise every one who has read
+Mr. Wallace&#8217;s celebrated paper on &#8216;The Origin of Human Races
+deduced from the Theory of Natural Selection,&#8217; originally published
+in the &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; May, 1864, p. clviii. I cannot here
+resist quoting a most just remark by Sir J. Lubbock (&#8216;Prehistoric
+Times,&#8217; 1865, p. 479) in reference to this paper, namely, that Mr.
+Wallace, &#8220;with characteristic unselfishness, ascribes it (<i>i.e.</i> the idea of
+natural selection) unreservedly to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well
+known, he struck out the idea independently, and published it,
+though not with the same elaboration, at the same time.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199" id="Footnote_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199"><span class="label">199</span></a> Quoted by Mr. Lawson Tait in his &#8220;Law of Natural Selection,&#8221;&mdash;&#8216;Dublin
+Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,&#8217; Feb. 1869. Dr.
+Keller is likewise quoted to the same effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200" id="Footnote_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200"><span class="label">200</span></a> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 71.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201" id="Footnote_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201"><span class="label">201</span></a> &#8216;Quarterly Review,&#8217; April, 1869, p. 392.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202" id="Footnote_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202"><span class="label">202</span></a> In <i>Hylobates syndactylus</i>, as the name expresses, two of the digits
+regularly cohere; and this, as Mr. Blyth informs me, is occasionally
+the case with the digits of <i>H. agilis</i>, <i>lar</i>, and <i>leuciscus</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203" id="Footnote_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203"><span class="label">203</span></a> Brehm, &#8216;Thierleben,&#8217; B. i. s. 80.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204" id="Footnote_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204"><span class="label">204</span></a> &#8220;The Hand, its mechanism,&#8221; &amp;c. &#8216;Bridgewater Treatise,&#8217; 1833,
+p. 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205" id="Footnote_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205"><span class="label">205</span></a> H&auml;ckel has an excellent discussion on the steps by which man
+became a biped: &#8216;Nat&uuml;rliche Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte,&#8217; 1868, s. 507. Dr.
+B&uuml;chner (&#8216;Conf&eacute;rences sur la Th&eacute;orie Darwinienne,&#8217; 1869, p. 135) has
+given good cases of the use of the foot as a prehensile organ by man;
+also on the manner of progression of the higher apes to which I allude
+in the following paragraph: see also Owen (&#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217;
+vol. iii. p. 71) on this latter subject.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206" id="Footnote_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206"><span class="label">206</span></a> &#8220;On the Primitive Form of the Skull,&#8221; translated in &#8216;Anthropological
+Review,&#8217; Oct. 1868, p. 428. Owen (&#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217;
+vol. ii. 1866, p. 551) on the mastoid processes in the higher apes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207" id="Footnote_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207"><span class="label">207</span></a> &#8216;Die Grenzen der Thierwelt, eine Betrachtung zu Darwin&#8217;s
+Lehre,&#8217; 1868, s. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208" id="Footnote_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208"><span class="label">208</span></a> Dujardin, &#8216;Annales des Sc. Nat.&#8217; 3rd series, Zoolog. tom. xiv.
+1850, p. 203. See also Mr. Lowne, &#8216;Anatomy and Phys. of the <i>Musca
+vomitoria</i>,&#8217; 1870, p. 14. My son, Mr. F. Darwin, dissected for me the
+cerebral ganglia of the <i>Formica rufa</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209" id="Footnote_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209"><span class="label">209</span></a> &#8216;Philosophical Transactions,&#8217; 1869, p. 513.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210" id="Footnote_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210"><span class="label">210</span></a> Quoted in C. Vogt&#8217;s &#8216;Lectures on Man,&#8217; Eng. translat. 1864, p.
+88, 90. Prichard, &#8216;Phys. Hist. of Mankind,&#8217; vol. i. 1838, p. 305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211" id="Footnote_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211"><span class="label">211</span></a> &#8216;Comptes Rendus des S&eacute;ances,&#8217; &amp;c. June 1, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212" id="Footnote_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212"><span class="label">212</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+ii. p. 124-129.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213" id="Footnote_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213"><span class="label">213</span></a> Schaaffhausen gives from Blumenbach and Busch, the cases of the
+spasms and cicatrix, in &#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; Oct. 1868, p. 420. Dr.
+Jarrold (&#8216;Anthropologia,&#8217; 1808, p. 115, 116) adduces from Camper and
+from his own observations, cases of the modification of the skull from
+the head being fixed in an unnatural position. He believes that certain
+trades, such as that of a shoemaker, by causing the head to be
+habitually held forward, makes the forehead more rounded and
+prominent.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214" id="Footnote_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214"><span class="label">214</span></a> &#8216;Variation of Animals,&#8217; &amp;c., vol. i. p. 117 on the elongation of the
+skull; p. 119, on the effect of the lopping of one ear.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215" id="Footnote_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215"><span class="label">215</span></a> Quoted by Schaaffhausen, in &#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; Oct. 1868,
+p. 419.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216" id="Footnote_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216"><span class="label">216</span></a> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 619.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217" id="Footnote_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217"><span class="label">217</span></a> Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire remarks (&#8216;Hist. Nat. G&eacute;n&eacute;rale,&#8217; tom.
+ii. 1859, p. 215-217) on the head of man being covered with long hair;
+also on the upper surfaces of monkeys and of other mammals being
+more thickly clothed than the lower surfaces. This has likewise been
+observed by various authors. Prof. P. Gervais (&#8216;Hist. Nat. des Mammif&egrave;res,&#8217;
+tom. i. 1854, p. 28), however, states that in the Gorilla the
+hair is thinner on the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the
+lower surface.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218" id="Footnote_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218"><span class="label">218</span></a> Mr. St. George Mivart, &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1865, p. 562, 583.
+Dr. J. E. Gray, &#8216;Cat. Brit. Mus.: Skeletons.&#8217; Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of
+Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 517. Isidore Geoffroy, &#8216;Hist. Nat. G&eacute;n.&#8217; tom.
+ii. p. 244.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219" id="Footnote_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219"><span class="label">219</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+ii. p. 280, 282.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220" id="Footnote_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220"><span class="label">220</span></a> &#8216;Primeval Man,&#8217; 1869, p. 66.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221" id="Footnote_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221"><span class="label">221</span></a> &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; May, 1864, p. clviii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222" id="Footnote_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222"><span class="label">222</span></a> After a time the members or tribes which are absorbed into another
+tribe assume, as Mr. Maine remarks (&#8216;Ancient Law,&#8217; 1861, p. 131), that
+they are the co-descendants of the same ancestors.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223" id="Footnote_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223"><span class="label">223</span></a> Morlot, &#8216;Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat.&#8217; 1860, p. 294.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224" id="Footnote_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224"><span class="label">224</span></a> I have given instances in my &#8216;Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217;
+vol. ii. p. 196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225" id="Footnote_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225"><span class="label">225</span></a> See a remarkable series of articles on Physics and Politics in the
+'Fortnightly Review,&#8217; Nov. 1867; April 1, 1868; July 1, 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226" id="Footnote_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226"><span class="label">226</span></a> &#8216;Origin of Civilisation,&#8217; 1870, p. 265.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227" id="Footnote_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227"><span class="label">227</span></a> Mr. Wallace gives cases in his &#8216;Contributions to the Theory of
+Natural Selection,&#8217; 1870, p. 354.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228" id="Footnote_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228"><span class="label">228</span></a> &#8216;Ancient Law,&#8217; 1861, p. 22. For Mr. Bagehot&#8217;s remarks, &#8216;Fortnightly
+Review,&#8217; April 1, 1868, p. 452.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229" id="Footnote_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229"><span class="label">229</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. i.
+p. 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230" id="Footnote_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230"><span class="label">230</span></a> &#8216;Fraser&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217; Sept. 1868, p. 353. This article seems to
+have struck many persons, and has given rise to two remarkable essays
+and a rejoinder in the &#8216;Spectator,&#8217; Oct. 3rd and 17th 1868. It has
+also been discussed in the &#8216;Q. Journal of Science,&#8217; 1869, p. 152, and by
+Mr. Lawson Tait in the &#8216;Dublin Q. Journal of Medical Science,&#8217; Feb.
+1869, and by Mr. E. Ray Lankester in his &#8216;Comparative Longevity,&#8217;
+1870, p. 128. Similar views appeared previously in the &#8216;Australasian,&#8217;
+July 13, 1867. I have borrowed ideas from several of these writers.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231" id="Footnote_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231"><span class="label">231</span></a> For Mr. Wallace, see &#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; as before cited.
+Mr. Galton in &#8216;Macmillan&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217; Aug. 1865, p. 318; also his
+great work, &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1870.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232" id="Footnote_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232"><span class="label">232</span></a> &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1870, p. 132-140.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233" id="Footnote_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233"><span class="label">233</span></a> See the fifth and sixth columns, compiled from good authorities,
+in the table given in Mr. E. R. Lankester&#8217;s &#8216;Comparative Longevity,&#8217;
+1870, p. 115.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234" id="Footnote_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234"><span class="label">234</span></a> &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1870, p. 330.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235" id="Footnote_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235"><span class="label">235</span></a> &#8216;Origin of Species&#8217; (fifth edition, 1869), p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236" id="Footnote_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236"><span class="label">236</span></a> &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1870, p. 347.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237" id="Footnote_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237"><span class="label">237</span></a> E. Ray Lankester, &#8216;Comparative Longevity,&#8217; 1870, p. 115. The
+table of the intemperate is from Nelson&#8217;s &#8216;Vital Statistics.&#8217; In regard
+to profligacy, see Dr. Farr, &#8220;Influence of Marriage on Mortality,&#8221; &#8216;Nat.
+Assoc. for the Promotion of Social Science,&#8217; 1858.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238" id="Footnote_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238"><span class="label">238</span></a> &#8216;Fraser&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217; Sept. 1868, p. 353. &#8216;Macmillan&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217;
+Aug. 1865, p. 318. The Rev. F. W. Farrar (&#8216;Fraser&#8217;s Mag.,&#8217; Aug. 1870,
+p. 264) takes a different view.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239" id="Footnote_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239"><span class="label">239</span></a> &#8220;On the Laws of the Fertility of Women,&#8221; in &#8216;Transact. Royal
+Soc.&#8217; Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 287. See, also, Mr. Galton, &#8216;Hereditary
+Genius,&#8217; p. 352-357, for observations to the above effect.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240" id="Footnote_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240"><span class="label">240</span></a> &#8216;Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &amp;c., in Scotland,&#8217; 1867,
+p. xxix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241" id="Footnote_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241"><span class="label">241</span></a> These quotations are taken from our highest authority on such
+questions, namely, Dr. Farr, in his paper &#8220;On the Influence of Marriage
+on the Mortality of the French People,&#8221; read before the Nat. Assoc.
+for the Promotion of Social Science, 1858.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242" id="Footnote_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242"><span class="label">242</span></a> Dr. Farr, ibid. The quotations given below are extracted from
+the same striking paper.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243" id="Footnote_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243"><span class="label">243</span></a> I have taken the mean of the quinquennial means, given in &#8216;The
+Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &amp;c., in Scotland,&#8217; 1867. The
+quotation from Dr. Stark is copied from an article in the &#8216;Daily News,&#8217;
+Oct. 17th, 1868, which Dr. Farr considers very carefully written.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244" id="Footnote_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244"><span class="label">244</span></a> See the ingenious and original argument on this subject by Mr.
+Galton, &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; p. 340-342.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245" id="Footnote_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245"><span class="label">245</span></a> Mr. Greg, &#8216;Fraser&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217; Sept. 1868, p. 357.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246" id="Footnote_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246"><span class="label">246</span></a> &#8216;Hereditary Genius,&#8217; 1870, p. 357-359. The Rev. F. H. Farrar
+(&#8216;Fraser&#8217;s Mag.&#8217;, Aug. 1870, p. 257) advances arguments on the other
+side. Sir C. Lyell had already (&#8216;Principles of Geology,&#8217; vol. ii. 1868,
+p. 489) called attention, in a striking passage, to the evil influence of
+the Holy Inquisition in having lowered, through selection, the general
+standard of intelligence in Europe.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247" id="Footnote_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247"><span class="label">247</span></a> Mr. Galton, &#8216;Macmillan&#8217;s Magazine,&#8217; August, 1865, p. 325. See,
+also, &#8216;Nature,&#8217; &#8220;On Darwinism and National Life,&#8221; Dec. 1869, p. 184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248" id="Footnote_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248"><span class="label">248</span></a> &#8216;Last Winter in the United States,&#8217; 1868, p. 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249" id="Footnote_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249"><span class="label">249</span></a> &#8216;On the Origin of Civilisation,&#8217; &#8216;Proc. Ethnological Soc.&#8217; Nov.
+26, 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250" id="Footnote_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250"><span class="label">250</span></a> &#8216;Primeval Man,&#8217; 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251" id="Footnote_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251"><span class="label">251</span></a> &#8216;Royal Institution of Great Britain,&#8217; March 15, 1867. Also,
+'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,&#8217; 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252" id="Footnote_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252"><span class="label">252</span></a> &#8216;Primitive Marriage,&#8217; 1865. See, likewise, an excellent article,
+evidently by the same author, in the &#8216;North British Review,&#8217; July,
+1869. Also, Mr. L. H. Morgan, &#8220;A Conjectural Solution of the Origin
+of the Class. System of Relationship,&#8221; in &#8216;Proc. American Acad. of
+Sciences,&#8217; vol. vii. Feb. 1868. Prof. Schaaffhausen (&#8216;Anthropolog.
+Review,&#8217; Oct. 1869, p. 373) remarks on &#8220;the vestiges of human sacrifices
+found both in Homer and the Old Testament.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253" id="Footnote_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253"><span class="label">253</span></a> Sir J. Lubbock, &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 2nd edit. 1869, chap. xv. and
+xvi. <i>et passim</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254" id="Footnote_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254"><span class="label">254</span></a> Dr. F. M&uuml;ller has made some good remarks to this effect in the
+'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,&#8217; Abtheil. iii. 1868, s. 127.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255" id="Footnote_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255"><span class="label">255</span></a> Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of the position
+assigned to man by various naturalists in their classifications: &#8216;Hist.
+Nat. G&eacute;n.&#8217; tom. ii. 1859, p. 170-189.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256" id="Footnote_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256"><span class="label">256</span></a> See the very interesting article, &#8220;L&#8217;Instinct chez les Insectes,&#8221; by
+M. George Pouchet, &#8216;Revue des Deux Mondes,&#8217; Feb. 1870, p. 682.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257" id="Footnote_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257"><span class="label">257</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. 1840, p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258" id="Footnote_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258"><span class="label">258</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1869, p. 4.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259" id="Footnote_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259"><span class="label">259</span></a> &#8216;Evidence as to Man&#8217;s Place in Nature,&#8217; 1863, p. 70, <i>et passim</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260" id="Footnote_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260"><span class="label">260</span></a> Isid. Geoffroy, &#8216;Hist. Nat. G&eacute;n.&#8217; tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261" id="Footnote_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261"><span class="label">261</span></a> &#8220;Ueber die Richtung der Haare,&#8221; &amp;c., M&uuml;ller&#8217;s &#8216;Archiv f&uuml;r Anat.
+und Phys.&#8217; 1837, s. 51.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262" id="Footnote_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262"><span class="label">262</span></a> On the hair in Hylobates, see &#8216;Nat. Hist. of Mammals,&#8217; by C. L.
+Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isid. Geoffroy on the American monkeys
+and other kinds, &#8216;Hist. Nat. G&eacute;n.&#8217; vol. ii. 1859, p. 216, 243. Eschricht,
+ibid. s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, &#8216;Anat. of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 619.
+Wallace, &#8216;Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,&#8217; 1870. p.
+344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263" id="Footnote_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263"><span class="label">263</span></a> &#8216;Origin of Species,&#8217; 5th edit. 1869, p. 194. &#8216;The Variation of
+Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. 1868, p. 348.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264" id="Footnote_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264"><span class="label">264</span></a> &#8216;An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,&#8217; 1869, p. 99.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265" id="Footnote_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265"><span class="label">265</span></a> This is nearly the same classification as that provisionally adopted
+by Mr. St. George Mivart (&#8216;Transact. Philosoph. Soc.&#8217; 1867, p. 300),
+who, after separating the Lemurid&aelig;, divides the remainder of the
+Primates into the Hominid&aelig;, the Simiad&aelig; answering to the Catarhines,
+the Cebid&aelig;, and the Hapalid&aelig;,&mdash;these two latter groups answering to
+the Platyrhines.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266" id="Footnote_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266"><span class="label">266</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267" id="Footnote_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267"><span class="label">267</span></a> Mr. St. G. Mivart, &#8216;Transact. Phil. Soc.&#8217; 1867, p. 410.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268" id="Footnote_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268"><span class="label">268</span></a> Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea. &#8216;Transact. Zoolog.
+Soc.&#8217; vol. vii. 1869, p. 5.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269" id="Footnote_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269"><span class="label">269</span></a> H&auml;ckel has come to this same conclusion. See &#8216;Ueber die Entstehung
+des Menschengeschlechts,&#8217; in Virchow&#8217;s &#8216;Sammlung. gemein.
+wissen. Vortr&auml;ge,&#8217; 1868, s. 61. Also his &#8216;Nat&uuml;rliche Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte,&#8217;
+1868, in which he gives in detail his views on the genealogy
+of man.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270" id="Footnote_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270"><span class="label">270</span></a> &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; April, 1867, p. 236.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271" id="Footnote_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271"><span class="label">271</span></a> &#8216;Elements of Geology,&#8217; 1865, p. 583-585. &#8216;Antiquity of Man&#8217;,
+1863; p. 145.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272" id="Footnote_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272"><span class="label">272</span></a> &#8216;Man&#8217;s Place in Nature,&#8217; p. 105.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273" id="Footnote_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273"><span class="label">273</span></a> Elaborate tables are given in his &#8216;Generelle Morphologie&#8217; (B. ii.
+s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference to man in his
+'Nat&uuml;rliche Sch&ouml;pfungsgeschichte,&#8217; 1868. Prof. Huxley, in reviewing
+this latter work (&#8216;The Academy,&#8217; 1869, p. 42) says, that he considers
+the phylum or lines of descent of the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed
+by H&auml;ckel, although he differs on some points. He expresses,
+also, his high estimate of the value of the general tenor and spirit of
+the whole work.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274" id="Footnote_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274"><span class="label">274</span></a> &#8216;Pal&aelig;ontology,&#8217; 1860, p. 199.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275" id="Footnote_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275"><span class="label">275</span></a> I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Falkland Islands, in April,
+1833, and therefore some years before any other naturalist, the locomotive
+larv&aelig; of a compound Ascidian, closely allied to, but apparently
+generically distinct from, Synoicum. The tail was about five times as
+long as the oblong head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It
+was plainly divided, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, by
+transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the great cells
+figured by Kowalevsky. At an early stage of development the tail was
+closely coiled round the head of the larva.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276" id="Footnote_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276"><span class="label">276</span></a> &#8216;M&eacute;moires de l&#8217;Acad. des Sciences de St. P&eacute;tersbourg,&#8217; tom. x.
+No. 15, 1866.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277" id="Footnote_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277"><span class="label">277</span></a> This is the conclusion of one of the highest authorities in comparative
+anatomy, namely, Prof. Gegenbaur: &#8216;Grundz&uuml;ge der vergleich.
+Anat.&#8217; 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at chiefly from the
+study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the researches of Waldeyer
+(as quoted in Humphry&#8217;s &#8216;Journal of Anat. and Phys.&#8217; 1869, p. 161),
+that the sexual organs of even &#8220;the higher vertebrata are, in their early
+condition, hermaphrodite.&#8221; Similar views have long been held by
+some authors, though until recently not well based.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278" id="Footnote_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278"><span class="label">278</span></a> The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen, &#8216;Anatomy
+of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 771.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279" id="Footnote_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279"><span class="label">279</span></a> Serranus is well known often to be in an hermaphrodite condition;
+but Dr. G&uuml;nther informs me that he is convinced that this is not its
+normal state. Descent from an ancient androgynous prototype would,
+however, naturally favour and explain, to a certain extent, the recurrence
+of this condition in these fishes.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280" id="Footnote_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280"><span class="label">280</span></a> Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in &#8216;Quart. Journal of Science,&#8217;
+April, 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of the development of
+Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal pouch of the male
+in some way afford nourishment. On male fishes hatching the ova in
+their mouths, see a very interesting paper by Prof. Wyman, in &#8216;Proc.
+Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in &#8216;Journal
+of Anat. and Phys.&#8217; Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. G&uuml;nther has likewise
+described similar cases.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281" id="Footnote_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281"><span class="label">281</span></a> All vital functions tend to run their course in fixed and recurrent
+periods, and with tidal animals the periods would probably be lunar;
+for such animals must have been left dry or covered deep with water,&mdash;supplied
+with copious food or stinted,&mdash;during endless generations, at
+regular lunar intervals. If then the Vertebrata are descended from an
+animal allied to the existing tidal Ascidians, the mysterious fact, that
+with the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, not to mention other
+classes, many normal and abnormal vital processes run their course
+according to lunar periods, is rendered intelligible. A recurrent period,
+if approximately of the right duration, when once gained, would not, as
+far as we can judge, be liable to be changed; consequently it might
+be thus transmitted during almost any number of generations. This
+conclusion, if it could be proved sound, would be curious; for we should
+then see that the period of gestation in each mammal, and the hatching
+of each bird&#8217;s eggs, and many other vital processes, still betrayed the
+primordial birthplace of these animals.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282" id="Footnote_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282"><span class="label">282</span></a> &#8216;History of India,&#8217; 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa makes exactly
+the same remark with respect to the Chinese.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283" id="Footnote_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283"><span class="label">283</span></a> A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and Indians, are
+given in the &#8216;Investigations in the Military and Anthropolog. Statistics
+of American Soldiers,&#8217; by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 298-358; on the
+capacity of the lungs, p. 471. See also the numerous and valuable
+tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from the observations of Dr. Scherzer and
+Dr. Schwarz, in the &#8216;Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,&#8217; 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284" id="Footnote_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284"><span class="label">284</span></a> See, for instance, Mr. Marshall&#8217;s account of the brain of a Bush-woman,
+in &#8216;Phil. Transact.&#8217; 1864, p. 519.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285" id="Footnote_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285"><span class="label">285</span></a> Wallace, &#8216;The Malay Archipelago,&#8217; vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286" id="Footnote_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286"><span class="label">286</span></a> With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves of Abou-Simbel,
+M. Pouchet says (&#8216;The Plurality of the Human Races,&#8217; Eng.
+translat. 1864, p. 50), that he was far from finding recognisable representations
+of the dozen or more nations which some authors believe
+that they can recognise. Even some of the most strongly-marked
+races cannot be identified with that degree of unanimity which might
+have been expected from what has been written on the subject.
+Thus Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (&#8216;Types of Mankind,&#8217; p. 148) state
+that Rameses II., or the Great, has features superbly European; whereas
+Knox, another firm believer in the specific distinction of the races
+of man (&#8216;Races of Man,&#8217; 1850, p. 201), speaking of young Memnon
+(the same person with Rameses II., as I am informed by Mr. Birch) insists
+in the strongest manner that he is identical in character with the
+Jews of Antwerp. Again, whilst looking in the British Museum with
+two competent judges, officers of the establishment, at the statue of
+Amunoph III., we agreed that he had a strongly negro cast of features;
+but Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (ibid. p. 146, fig. 53) describe him as
+&#8220;a hybrid, but not of negro intermixture.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287" id="Footnote_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287"><span class="label">287</span></a> As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, &#8216;Types of Mankind,&#8217; 1854, p. 439.
+They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt thinks that the
+subject requires further investigation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288" id="Footnote_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288"><span class="label">288</span></a> &#8220;Diversity of Origin of the Human Races,&#8221; in the &#8216;Christian
+Examiner,&#8217; July, 1850.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289" id="Footnote_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289"><span class="label">289</span></a> &#8216;Transact. B. Soc. of Edinburgh,&#8217; vol. xxii. 1861, p. 567.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290" id="Footnote_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290"><span class="label">290</span></a> &#8216;On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,&#8217; Eng.
+translat. 1864.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291" id="Footnote_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291"><span class="label">291</span></a> See the interesting letter by Mr. T. A. Murray, in the &#8216;Anthropolog.
+Review,&#8217; April, 1868, p. liii. In this letter Count Strzelecki&#8217;s
+statement, that Australian women who have borne children to a white
+man are afterwards sterile with their own race, is disproved. M. A. de
+Quatrefages has also collected (&#8216;Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217; March,
+1869, p. 239) much evidence that Australians and Europeans are not
+sterile when crossed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292" id="Footnote_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292"><span class="label">292</span></a> &#8216;An Examination of Prof. Agassiz&#8217;s Sketch of the Nat. Provinces
+of the Animal World,&#8217; Charleston, 1855, p. 44.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293" id="Footnote_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293"><span class="label">293</span></a> &#8216;Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,&#8217; by
+B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294" id="Footnote_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294"><span class="label">294</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii.
+p. 109. I may here remind the reader that the sterility of species
+when crossed is not a specially-acquired quality; but, like the incapacity
+of certain trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other
+acquired differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but
+they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and much less
+to external structure or to ordinary differences in constitution. One
+important element in the sterility of crossed species apparently lies in
+one or both having been long habituated to fixed conditions; for we
+know that changed conditions have a special influence on the reproductive
+system, and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked)
+that the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate
+that sterility which is so general with species in a natural state
+when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid. vol. ii. p. 185,
+and &#8216;Origin of Species,&#8217; 5th edit. p. 317) that the sterility of crossed
+species has not been acquired through natural selection: we can see that
+when two forms have already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely
+possible that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or
+survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for as the sterility
+increases fewer and fewer offspring will be produced from which to
+breed, and at last only single individuals will be produced, at the rarest
+intervals. But there is even a higher grade of sterility than this. Both
+G&auml;rtner and K&ouml;lreuter have proved that in genera of plants including
+numerous species, a series can be formed from species which when
+crossed yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a
+single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other species, for
+the germen swells. It is here manifestly impossible to select the more
+sterile individuals, which have already ceased to yield seeds; so that
+the acme of sterility, when the germen alone is affected, cannot be
+gained through selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades
+of sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown differences
+in the constitution of the reproductive system of the species which are
+crossed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295" id="Footnote_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295"><span class="label">295</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals,&#8217; &amp;c., vol. ii. p. 92.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296" id="Footnote_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296"><span class="label">296</span></a> M. de Quatrefages has given (&#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; Jan. 1869,
+p. 22) an interesting account of the success and energy of the Paulistas
+in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of Portuguese and Indians, with
+a mixture of the blood of other races.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297" id="Footnote_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297"><span class="label">297</span></a> For instance with the aborigines of America and Australia. Prof.
+Huxley says (&#8216;Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehist. Arch.&#8217; 1868. p.
+105) that the skulls of many South Germans and Swiss are &#8220;as short
+and as broad as those of the Tartars,&#8221; &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298" id="Footnote_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298"><span class="label">298</span></a> See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz, &#8216;Introduct. to
+Anthropology,&#8217; Eng. translat. 1863, p. 198-208, 227. I have taken
+some of the above statements from H. Tuttle&#8217;s &#8216;Origin and Antiquity
+of Physical Man,&#8217; Boston, 1866, p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299" id="Footnote_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299"><span class="label">299</span></a> Prof. N&auml;geli has carefully described several striking cases in his
+'Botanische Mittheilungen,&#8217; B. ii. 1866, s. 294-369. Prof. Asa Gray
+has made analogous remarks on some intermediate forms in the Composit&aelig;
+of N. America.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300" id="Footnote_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300"><span class="label">300</span></a> &#8216;Origin of Species,&#8217; 5th edit. p. 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301" id="Footnote_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301"><span class="label">301</span></a> See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the &#8216;Fortnightly Review,&#8217; 1865,
+p. 275.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302" id="Footnote_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302"><span class="label">302</span></a> &#8216;Lectures on Man,&#8217; Eng. translat. 1864, p. 468.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303" id="Footnote_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303"><span class="label">303</span></a> &#8216;Die Racen des Schweines,&#8217; 1860, s. 46. &#8216;Vorstudien f&uuml;r Geschichte,
+&amp;c., Schweinesch&auml;del,&#8217; 1864, s. 104. With respect to cattle,
+see M. de Quatrefages, &#8216;Unit&eacute; de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine,&#8217; 1861, p. 119.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304" id="Footnote_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304"><span class="label">304</span></a> Tylor&#8217;s &#8216;Early History of Mankind,&#8217; 1865; for the evidence with
+respect to gesture-language, see p. 54. Lubbock&#8217;s &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217;
+2nd edit. 1869.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305" id="Footnote_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305"><span class="label">305</span></a> &#8216;The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,&#8217; Eng. translat. edited
+by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306" id="Footnote_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306"><span class="label">306</span></a> Hodder M. Westropp, on Cromlechs, &amp;c., &#8216;Journal of Ethnological
+Soc.&#8217; as given in &#8216;Scientific Opinion,&#8217; June 2nd. 1869, p. 3.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307" id="Footnote_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307"><span class="label">307</span></a> &#8216;Journal of Researches: Voyage of the &#8220;Beagle,&#8221;&#8217; p. 46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308" id="Footnote_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308"><span class="label">308</span></a> &#8216;Prehistoric Times,&#8217; 1869, p. 574.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309" id="Footnote_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309"><span class="label">309</span></a> Translation in &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; Oct. 1868, p. 431.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310" id="Footnote_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310"><span class="label">310</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.&#8217; 1868, p. 172-175.
+See also Broca (translation) in &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; Oct.
+1868, p. 410.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311" id="Footnote_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311"><span class="label">311</span></a> Dr. Gerland, &#8216;Ueber das Aussterben der Naturv&ouml;lker,&#8217; 1868, s. 82.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312" id="Footnote_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312"><span class="label">312</span></a> Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this statement.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313" id="Footnote_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313"><span class="label">313</span></a> See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland&#8217;s &#8216;Medical Notes and
+Reflections,&#8217; 1839, p. 390.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314" id="Footnote_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314"><span class="label">314</span></a> I have collected (&#8216;Journal of Researches, Voyage of the &#8220;Beagle,&#8221;&#8217;
+p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject: see also Gerland,
+ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the &#8220;breath of civilisation as poisonous
+to savages.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315" id="Footnote_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315"><span class="label">315</span></a> Sproat, &#8216;Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,&#8217; 1868, p. 284.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316" id="Footnote_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316"><span class="label">316</span></a> Bagehot, &#8220;Physics and Politics,&#8221; &#8216;Fortnightly Review,&#8217; April 1,
+1868, p. 455.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317" id="Footnote_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317"><span class="label">317</span></a> &#8220;On Anthropology,&#8221; translation, &#8216;Anthropolog. Review,&#8217; Jan.
+1868, p. 38.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318" id="Footnote_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318"><span class="label">318</span></a> &#8216;The Annals of Rural Bengal,&#8217; 1868, p. 134.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319" id="Footnote_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319"><span class="label">319</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+ii. p. 95.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320" id="Footnote_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320"><span class="label">320</span></a> Pallas, &#8216;Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,&#8217; 1780, part ii. p. 69. He
+was followed by Rudolphi, in his &#8216;Beytr&auml;ge zur Anthropologie,&#8217; 1812.
+An excellent summary of the evidence is given by Godron, &#8216;De
+l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce,&#8217; 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &amp;c.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321" id="Footnote_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321"><span class="label">321</span></a> Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, &#8216;Races of Man,&#8217; 1850,
+p. 473.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322" id="Footnote_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322"><span class="label">322</span></a> See De Quatrefages on this head, &#8216;Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217;
+Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323" id="Footnote_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323"><span class="label">323</span></a> Livingstone&#8217;s &#8216;Travels and Researches in S. Africa,&#8217; 1857, p. 338,
+329. D&#8217;Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, &#8216;De l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 266.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324" id="Footnote_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324"><span class="label">324</span></a> See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and published in
+his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr. Wells&#8217; views in the
+Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my &#8216;Origin of Species.&#8217; Various cases of
+colour correlated with constitutional peculiarities are given in my
+'Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 227, 335.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325" id="Footnote_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325"><span class="label">325</span></a> See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, &#8216;Types of Mankind,&#8217; p. 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326" id="Footnote_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326"><span class="label">326</span></a> Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical Society,
+April 20th, 1840, and given in the &#8216;Athen&aelig;um,&#8217; 1840, p. 353.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327" id="Footnote_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327"><span class="label">327</span></a> &#8216;The Plurality of the Human Race&#8217; (translat.), 1864, p. 60.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328" id="Footnote_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328"><span class="label">328</span></a> Quatrefages, &#8216;Unit&eacute; de l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine,&#8217; 1861, p. 205. Waitz,
+'Introduct. to Anthropology,&#8217; translat. vol. i. 1863, p. 124. Livingstone
+gives analogous cases in his &#8216;Travels.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329" id="Footnote_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329"><span class="label">329</span></a> In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the Director-General
+of the Medical department of the Army, to transmit to the
+surgeons of the various regiments on foreign service a blank table,
+with the following appended remarks, but I have received no returns.
+&#8220;As several well-marked cases have been recorded with our domestic
+animals of a relation between the colour of the dermal appendages
+and the constitution; and it being notorious that there is some limited
+degree of relation between the colour of the races of man and the
+climate inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth
+consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in Europeans
+between the colour of their hair, and their liability to the diseases of
+tropical countries. If the surgeons of the several regiments, when
+stationed in unhealthy tropical districts, would be so good as first to
+count, as a standard of comparison, how many men, in the force
+whence the sick are drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and
+hair of intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were
+kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered
+from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would soon
+be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated, whether
+there exists any relation between the colour of the hair and constitutional
+liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps no such relation would
+be discovered, but the investigation is well worth making. In case
+any positive result were obtained, it might be of some practical use
+in selecting men for any particular service. Theoretically the result
+would be of high interest, as indicating one means by which a race
+of men inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate,
+might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of dark-haired
+or dark-complexioned individuals during a long succession of
+generations.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330" id="Footnote_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330"><span class="label">330</span></a> &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217; Jan. 1866, p. xxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331" id="Footnote_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331"><span class="label">331</span></a> See, for instance, Quatrefages (&#8216;Revue des Cours Scientifiques,&#8217;
+Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of residence in Abyssinia and
+Arabia, and other analogous cases. Dr. Rolle (&#8216;Der Mensch, seine
+Abstammung,&#8217; &amp;c., 1865, s. 99) states, on the authority of Khanikof,
+that the greater number of German families settled in Georgia, have
+acquired in the course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D.
+Forbes informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in
+colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332" id="Footnote_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332"><span class="label">332</span></a> Harlan, &#8216;Medical Researches,&#8217; p. 532. Quatrefages (&#8216;Unit&eacute; de
+l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce Humaine,&#8217; 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence on this
+head.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333" id="Footnote_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333"><span class="label">333</span></a> See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in &#8216;Anthropological Review,&#8217;
+Oct. 1868, p. 429.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334" id="Footnote_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334"><span class="label">334</span></a> Mr. Catlin states (&#8216;N. American Indians,&#8217; 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p.
+49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about one in ten or twelve
+of the members of all ages and both sexes have bright silvery grey hair,
+which is hereditary. Now this hair is as coarse and harsh as that of
+a horse&#8217;s mane, whilst the hair of other colours is fine and soft.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335" id="Footnote_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335"><span class="label">335</span></a> On the odour of the skin, Godron, &#8216;Sur l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce,&#8217; tom. ii. p. 217.
+On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, &#8216;Die Aufgaben der landwirth.
+Zootechnik,&#8217; 1869, s. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336" id="Footnote_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336"><span class="label">336</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. 1810, p. 541. In
+regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below, I am indebted
+to Fritz M&uuml;ller.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337" id="Footnote_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337"><span class="label">337</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduction to Entomology,&#8217; vol. iii. 1826,
+p. 309.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338" id="Footnote_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338"><span class="label">338</span></a> Even with those of plants in which the sexes are separate, the male
+flowers are generally mature before the female. Many hermaphrodite
+plants are, as first shewn by C. K. Sprengel, dichogamous; that is,
+their male and female organs are not ready at the same time, so that
+they cannot be self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is
+generally mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there
+are some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature
+before the male.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339" id="Footnote_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339"><span class="label">339</span></a> I have received information, hereafter to be given, to this effect
+with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as pigeons, which
+pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr. Jenner Weir, will desert
+her mate if he is injured or grows weak.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340" id="Footnote_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340"><span class="label">340</span></a> On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, &#8216;Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.&#8217;
+vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm, &#8216;Illust. Thierleben,&#8217;
+B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger, &#8216;Naturgesch.: S&auml;ugethiere
+von Paraguay,&#8217; 1830, s. 14, 20. On Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341" id="Footnote_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341"><span class="label">341</span></a> Pallas, &#8216;Spicilegia Zoolog.&#8217; Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir Andrew
+Smith, &#8216;Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,&#8217; 1849, pl. 29, on the
+Kobus. Owen, in his &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates&#8217; (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633)
+gives a table incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and
+which are gregarious.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342" id="Footnote_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342"><span class="label">342</span></a> Dr. Campbell, in &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1869, p. 138. See also an
+interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in &#8216;Proc. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,&#8217;
+May, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343" id="Footnote_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343"><span class="label">343</span></a> &#8216;The Ibis,&#8217; vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne Widow-bird. See
+also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii. 1860, p. 211. On the polygamy
+of the Capercailzie and Great Bustard, see L. Lloyd, &#8216;Game Birds
+of Sweden,&#8217; 1867, p. 19, and 182. Montagu and Selby speak of the
+Black Grouse as polygamous and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344" id="Footnote_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344"><span class="label">344</span></a> The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively (&#8216;Ornamental
+Poultry,&#8217; 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the guinea-fowl being infertile
+when more than one female is kept with the same male.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345" id="Footnote_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345"><span class="label">345</span></a> Noel Humphreys, &#8216;River Gardens,&#8217; 1857.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346" id="Footnote_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346"><span class="label">346</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduction to Entomology,&#8217; vol. iii. 1826,
+p. 342.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347" id="Footnote_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347"><span class="label">347</span></a> One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class.
+of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the rule, as the male
+has rudimentary wings, and never quits the cell in which it is born,
+whilst the female has well-developed wings. Audouin believes that
+the females are impregnated by the males which are born in the same
+cells with them; but it is much more probable that the females visit
+other cells, and thus avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter
+meet with a few exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the
+female, instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348" id="Footnote_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348"><span class="label">348</span></a> &#8216;Essays and Observations,&#8217; edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861, p. 194.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349" id="Footnote_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349"><span class="label">349</span></a> Prof. Sachs (&#8216;Lehrbuch der Botanik,&#8217; 1870, s. 633) in speaking of
+the male and female reproductive cells, remarks, &#8220;verh&auml;lt sich die eine
+bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung
+passiv.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350" id="Footnote_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350"><span class="label">350</span></a> &#8216;Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,&#8217; 1867, s. 216-269. The
+results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements made by
+Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater variability of the males
+of domesticated animals, see my &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants
+under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. 1868, p. 75.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351" id="Footnote_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351"><span class="label">351</span></a> &#8216;Proceedings Royal Soc.&#8217; vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and 524.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352" id="Footnote_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352"><span class="label">352</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Royal Irish Academy,&#8217; vol. x. 1868, p. 123.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353" id="Footnote_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353"><span class="label">353</span></a> &#8216;Massachusetts Medical Soc.&#8217; vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354" id="Footnote_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354"><span class="label">354</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217; vol.
+ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but one, the provisional hypothesis
+of pangenesis, above alluded to, is fully explained.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355" id="Footnote_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355"><span class="label">355</span></a> These facts are given on the high authority of a great breeder,
+Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier&#8217;s &#8216;Poultry Book,&#8217; 1868, p. 158. On the
+characters of chickens of different breeds, and on the breeds of the
+pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph, see &#8216;Variation of Animals,&#8217;
+&amp;c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii. p. 77.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356" id="Footnote_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356"><span class="label">356</span></a> &#8216;Nov&aelig; species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,&#8217; 1778, p. 7. On
+the transmission of colour by the horse, see &#8216;Variation of Animals, &amp;c.
+under Domestication,&#8217; vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii. p. 71, for a general
+discussion on Inheritance as limited by Sex.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357" id="Footnote_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357"><span class="label">357</span></a> Dr. Chapuis, &#8216;Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,&#8217; 1865, p. 87. Boitard
+et Corbi&eacute;, &#8216;Les Pigeons de Voli&egrave;re,&#8217; &amp;c., 1824, p. 173.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358" id="Footnote_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358"><span class="label">358</span></a> References are given in my &#8216;Variation of Animals under Domestication,&#8217;
+vol. ii. p. 72.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359" id="Footnote_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359"><span class="label">359</span></a> I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made enquiries for
+me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of Scotland from Mr.
+Robertson, the experienced head-forester to the Marquis of Breadalbane.
+In regard to Fallow-deer, I am obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for
+information. For the <i>Cervus alces</i> of N. America, see &#8216;Land and Water,&#8217;
+1868, p. 221 and 254; and for the <i>C. Virginianus</i> and <i>strongyloceros</i> of
+the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in &#8216;Ottawa Acad. of Nat. Sc.&#8217;
+1868, p. 13. For <i>Cervus Eldi</i> of Pegu, see Lieut. Beavan, &#8216;Proc.
+Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1867, p. 762.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360" id="Footnote_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360"><span class="label">360</span></a> <i>Antilocapra Americana.</i> Owen, &#8216;Anatomy of Vertebrates,&#8217; vol.
+iii. p. 627.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361" id="Footnote_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361"><span class="label">361</span></a> I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North Wales
+can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in length, at birth.
+With cattle Youatt says (&#8216;Cattle,&#8217; 1834, p. 277) that the prominence of
+the frontal bone penetrates the cutis at birth, and that the horny
+matter is soon formed over it.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362" id="Footnote_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362"><span class="label">362</span></a> I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having made
+inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with respect to the
+merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of Africa there is a
+breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the rams alone bear horns;
+and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in the one case observed, a
+young ram born on Feb. 10th first showed horns on March 6th, so
+that in this instance the development of the horns occurred at a later
+period of life, conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in
+which both sexes are horned.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363" id="Footnote_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363"><span class="label">363</span></a> In the common peacock (<i>Pavo cristatus</i>) the male alone possesses
+spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (<i>P. muticus</i>) offer the
+unusual case of being furnished with spurs. Hence I fully expected
+that in the latter species they would have been developed earlier in life
+than in the common peacock; but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me,
+that with young birds of the previous year, belonging to both species,
+compared on April 23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development
+of the spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely
+by slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been informed
+if any difference in the rate of development had subsequently
+been observed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364" id="Footnote_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364"><span class="label">364</span></a> In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in the
+two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been able to discover
+whether its full development occurs later in life in the males of
+such species, than in the male of the common duck, as ought to be the
+case according to our rule. With the allied <i>Mergus cucullatus</i> we have,
+however, a case of this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in
+general plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which
+is pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the
+young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and have a
+greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at an earlier age
+than that at which the adult male acquires his other more strongly-marked
+sexual differences in plumage: see Audubon, &#8216;Ornithological
+Biography,&#8217; vol. iii. 1835, p. 249-250.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365" id="Footnote_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365"><span class="label">365</span></a> &#8216;Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,&#8217; 1837, s. 21, 24. For the case of
+the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, &#8216;Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge.&#8217;
+1865, p. 87.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366" id="Footnote_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366"><span class="label">366</span></a> For full particulars and references on all these points respecting
+the several breeds of the Fowl, see &#8216;Variation of Animals and Plants
+under Domestication,&#8217; vol. i. p. 250, 256. In regard to the higher
+animals, the sexual differences which have arisen under domestication
+are described in the same work under the head of each species.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367" id="Footnote_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367"><span class="label">367</span></a> &#8216;Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for 1866.&#8217;
+In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is given.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368" id="Footnote_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368"><span class="label">368</span></a> For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye&#8217;s researches,
+in &#8216;British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,&#8217; April, 1867, p. 343,
+345. For France, the &#8216;Annuaire pour l&#8217;An 1867.&#8217; p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369" id="Footnote_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369"><span class="label">369</span></a> In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, &#8216;La Loi de Production des
+Sexes,&#8217; 1863, p. 25.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370" id="Footnote_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370"><span class="label">370</span></a> Babbage, &#8216;Edinburgh Journal of Science,&#8217; 1829, vol. i. p. 88; also
+p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate children in England,
+see &#8216;Report of Registrar-General for 1866,&#8217; p. xv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371" id="Footnote_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371"><span class="label">371</span></a> &#8216;British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,&#8217; April, 1867, p.
+343. Dr. Stark also remarks (&#8216;Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths,
+&amp;c., in Scotland,&#8217; 1867, p. xxviii) that &#8220;These examples may suffice
+to shew that, at almost every stage of life, the males in Scotland
+have a greater liability to death and a higher death-rate than the
+females. The fact, however, of this peculiarity being most strongly
+developed at that infantile period of life when the dress, food, and
+general treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the
+higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and constitutional
+peculiarity due to sex alone.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372" id="Footnote_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372"><span class="label">372</span></a> With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the accurate
+Azara (&#8216;Voyages dans l&#8217;Am&eacute;rique m&eacute;rid.&#8217; tom. ii. 1809, p. 60, 179),
+the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to 13.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373" id="Footnote_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373"><span class="label">373</span></a> Leuckart in Wagner, &#8216;Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Phys.&#8217; B. iv. 1853,
+s. 774.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374" id="Footnote_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374"><span class="label">374</span></a> Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375" id="Footnote_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375"><span class="label">375</span></a> During the last eleven years a record has been kept of the number of
+mares which have proved barren or prematurely slipped their foals; and it
+deserves notice, as shewing how infertile these highly-nurtured and rather
+closely-interbred animals have become, that not far from one-third of the
+mares failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male colts
+and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to produce offspring.
+During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were born, and 794 mares failed.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376" id="Footnote_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376"><span class="label">376</span></a> I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for me the
+above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the following returns on
+cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first called my attention to the premature
+deaths of the males,&mdash;a statement subsequently confirmed by Mr.
+Aitchison and others. To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe
+my thanks for the larger returns on sheep.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377" id="Footnote_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377"><span class="label">377</span></a> Bell, &#8216;History of British Quadrupeds,&#8217; p. 100.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378" id="Footnote_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378"><span class="label">378</span></a> &#8216;Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,&#8217; 1849, pl. 29.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379" id="Footnote_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379"><span class="label">379</span></a> Brehm (&#8216;Illust. Thierleben,&#8217; B. iv. s. 990) comes to the same conclusion.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380" id="Footnote_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380"><span class="label">380</span></a> On the authority of L. Lloyd, &#8216;Game Birds of Sweden,&#8217; 1867, p. 12,
+132.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381" id="Footnote_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381"><span class="label">381</span></a> &#8216;Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,&#8217; letter xxix. edit. of 1825, vol. i. p. 139.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382" id="Footnote_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382"><span class="label">382</span></a> Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making enquiries during
+the following year. To shew the number of chaffinches caught, I
+may mention that in 1869 there was a match between two experts; and
+one man caught in a day 62, and another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest
+number ever caught by one man in a single day was 70.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383" id="Footnote_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383"><span class="label">383</span></a> &#8216;Ibis,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould&#8217;s &#8216;Trochilid&aelig;,&#8217; 1861, p. 52.
+For the foregoing proportions, I am indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of
+his results.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384" id="Footnote_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384"><span class="label">384</span></a> &#8216;Ibis,&#8217; 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385" id="Footnote_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385"><span class="label">385</span></a> &#8216;Ibis,&#8217; 1862, p. 137.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386" id="Footnote_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386"><span class="label">386</span></a> Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, &#8216;Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Phys.&#8217; B. iv.
+1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many males as females.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387" id="Footnote_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387"><span class="label">387</span></a> Quoted in the &#8216;Farmer,&#8217; March 18, 1869, p. 369.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388" id="Footnote_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388"><span class="label">388</span></a> &#8216;The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,&#8217; 1866, p. 23. The
+'Field&#8217; newspaper, June 29th, 1867.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389" id="Footnote_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389"><span class="label">389</span></a> &#8216;Land and Water,&#8217; 1868, p. 41.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390" id="Footnote_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390"><span class="label">390</span></a> Yarrell, &#8216;Hist. British Fishes,&#8217; vol. i. 1836, p. 307; on the <i>Cyprinus
+carpio</i>, p. 331; on the <i>Tinca vulgaris</i>, p. 331; on the <i>Abramis brama</i>, p.
+336. See, for the minnow (<i>Leuciscus phoxinus</i>), &#8216;Loudon&#8217;s Mag. of Nat.
+Hist.&#8217; vol. v. 1832, p. 682.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391" id="Footnote_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391"><span class="label">391</span></a> Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, &#8216;Handw&ouml;rterbuch der Phys.&#8217;
+B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that with Butterflies the males are three or four times
+as numerous as the females.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392" id="Footnote_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392"><span class="label">392</span></a> &#8216;The Naturalist on the Amazons,&#8217; vol. ii. 1863, p. 228, 347.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393" id="Footnote_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393"><span class="label">393</span></a> Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his &#8216;Rhopalocera
+Afric&aelig; Australis.&#8217;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394" id="Footnote_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394"><span class="label">394</span></a> Quoted by Trimen, &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; vol. v. part iv. 1866, p. 330.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395" id="Footnote_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395"><span class="label">395</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xxv. p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396" id="Footnote_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396"><span class="label">396</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Entomolog. Soc.&#8217; Feb. 17th, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397" id="Footnote_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397"><span class="label">397</span></a> Quoted by Dr. Wallace in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; 3rd series, vol. v. 1867,
+p. 487.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398" id="Footnote_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398"><span class="label">398</span></a> Blanchard, &#8216;Metamorphoses, M&oelig;urs des Insectes,&#8217; 1868, p. 225-226.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399" id="Footnote_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399"><span class="label">399</span></a> &#8216;Lepidopteren-Doubblettren Liste,&#8217; Berlin, No. x. 1866.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400" id="Footnote_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400"><span class="label">400</span></a> This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some results from
+former years, in which the females seemed to preponderate; but so many
+of the figures were estimates, that I found it impossible to tabulate them.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401" id="Footnote_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401"><span class="label">401</span></a> G&uuml;nther&#8217;s &#8216;Record of Zoological Literature,&#8217; 1867, p. 260. On the
+excess of female Lucanus, ibid. p. 250. On the males of Lucanus in England,
+Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium,
+ibid. p. 172.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402" id="Footnote_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402"><span class="label">402</span></a> Walsh, in &#8216;The American Entomologist,&#8217; vol. i. 1869, p. 103. F. Smith,
+'Record of Zoological Literature,&#8217; 1867, p. 328.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403" id="Footnote_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403"><span class="label">403</span></a> &#8216;Farm Insects,&#8217; p. 45-46.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404" id="Footnote_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404"><span class="label">404</span></a> &#8216;Observations on N. American Neuroptera,&#8217; by H. Hagen and B. D.
+Walsh, &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,&#8217; Oct. 1863, p. 168, 223, 239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405" id="Footnote_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405"><span class="label">405</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc. London,&#8217; Feb. 17, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406" id="Footnote_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406"><span class="label">406</span></a> Another great authority in this class, Prof. Thorell of Upsala (&#8216;On
+European Spiders,&#8217; 1869-70, part i. p. 205) speaks as if female spiders were
+generally commoner than the males.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407" id="Footnote_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407"><span class="label">407</span></a> See, on this subject, Mr. Pickard-Cambridge, as quoted in &#8216;Quarterly
+Journal of Science,&#8217; 1868, p. 429.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408" id="Footnote_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408"><span class="label">408</span></a> I have often been struck with the fact, that in several species of
+Primula the seeds in the capsules which contained only a few were
+very much larger than the numerous seeds in the more productive
+capsules.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409" id="Footnote_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409"><span class="label">409</span></a> &#8216;Principles of Biology,&#8217; vol. ii. 1867, chaps. ii.-xi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410" id="Footnote_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410"><span class="label">410</span></a> De l&#8217;Esp&egrave;ce et de la Class.&#8217; &amp;c., 1869, p. 106.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411" id="Footnote_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411"><span class="label">411</span></a> See, for instance, the account which I have given in my &#8216;Journal
+of Researches,&#8217; 1845, p. 7.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412" id="Footnote_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412"><span class="label">412</span></a> I have given (&#8216;Geolog. Observations on Volcanic Islands,&#8217; 1844,
+p. 53) a curious instance of the influence of light on the colours of
+a frondescent incrustation, deposited by the surf on the coast-rocks of
+Ascension, and formed by the solution of triturated sea-shells.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413" id="Footnote_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413"><span class="label">413</span></a> &#8216;Facts and Arguments for Darwin,&#8217; English translat. 1869, p. 20.
+See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads. Sars has described
+a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in &#8216;Nature,&#8217; 1870,
+p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the <i>Pontoporeia affinis</i>.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414" id="Footnote_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414"><span class="label">414</span></a> See Sir J. Lubbock in &#8216;Annals. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. xi.
+1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853) pl. vii. See also Lubbock in
+'Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; vol. iv. new series, 1856-1858, p. 8. With respect
+to the zigzagged antenn&aelig; mentioned below, see Fritz M&uuml;ller, &#8216;Facts
+and Arguments for Darwin&#8217; 1869, p. 40, foot-note.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415" id="Footnote_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415"><span class="label">415</span></a> See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in &#8216;Proc. Zoolog.
+Soc.&#8217; 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of the genus, ibid. p. 585.
+I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence Bate for nearly all the above
+statements with respect to the chel&aelig; of the higher crustaceans.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416" id="Footnote_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416"><span class="label">416</span></a> &#8216;Hist. Nat. des Crust.&#8217; tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417" id="Footnote_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417"><span class="label">417</span></a> Fritz M&uuml;ller, &#8216;Facts and Arguments for Darwin,&#8217; 1869, p. 25-28.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418" id="Footnote_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418"><span class="label">418</span></a> &#8216;Travels in the Interior of Brazil,&#8217; 1846, p. 111. I have given, in
+my &#8216;Journal of Researches,&#8217; p. 463, an account of the habits of the
+Birgos.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419" id="Footnote_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419"><span class="label">419</span></a> Mr. Ch. Fraser, in &#8216;Proc. Zoolog. Soc.&#8217; 1869, p. 3. I am indebted
+to Mr. Bate for the statement from Dr. Power.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420" id="Footnote_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420"><span class="label">420</span></a> Claus, &#8216;Die freilebenden Copepoden,&#8217; 1863, s. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421" id="Footnote_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421"><span class="label">421</span></a> &#8216;Facts and Arguments,&#8217; &amp;c., p. 79.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422" id="Footnote_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422"><span class="label">422</span></a> &#8216;A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,&#8217; 1861-64. For the
+following facts, see p. 102, 77, 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423" id="Footnote_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423"><span class="label">423</span></a> Aug. Vinson (&#8216;Aran&eacute;ides des Iles de la R&eacute;union,&#8217; pl. vi. figs. 1
+and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the male in <i>Epeira
+nigra</i>. In this species, as I may add, the male is testaceous and the
+female black with legs banded with red. Other even more striking
+cases of inequality in size between the sexes have been recorded
+(&#8216;Quarterly Journal of Science,&#8217; 1868, July, p. 429); but I have not seen
+the original accounts.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424" id="Footnote_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424"><span class="label">424</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduction to Entomology,&#8217; vol. i. 1818,
+p. 280.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425" id="Footnote_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425"><span class="label">425</span></a> Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4-punctatum et guttatum;
+see Westring, in Kroyer, &#8216;Naturhist. Tidskrift,&#8217; vol. iv. 1842-1843,
+p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See, also, for other species,
+'Arane&aelig; Svecic&aelig;,&#8217; p. 184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426" id="Footnote_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426"><span class="label">426</span></a> Walckenaer et P. Gervais, &#8216;Hist. Nat. des Insectes: Apt&egrave;res,&#8217;
+tom. iv. 1847, p. 17, 19, 68.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427" id="Footnote_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427"><span class="label">427</span></a> Sir J. Lubbock, &#8216;Transact. Linnean Soc.&#8217; vol. xxv. 1866, p. 484.
+With respect to the Mutillid&aelig; see Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217;
+vol. ii. p. 213.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428" id="Footnote_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428"><span class="label">428</span></a> These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied species, and
+afford excellent specific characters. But their importance, under a
+functional point of view, as Mr. E. MacLachlan has remarked to me,
+has probably been overrated. It has been suggested, that slight differences
+in these organs would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of
+well-marked varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their
+development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer from the
+many recorded cases (see for instance, Bronn, &#8216;Geschichte der Natur,&#8217;
+B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood, &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; vol. iii. 1842,
+p. 195) of distinct species having been observed in union. Mr.
+MacLachlan informs me (vide &#8216;Stett. Ent. Zeitung,&#8217; 1867, s. 155) that
+when several species of Phryganid&aelig;, which present strongly-pronounced
+differences of this kind, were confined together by Dr. Aug. Meyer,
+<i>they coupled</i>, and one pair produced fertile ova.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429" id="Footnote_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429"><span class="label">429</span></a> &#8216;The Practical Entomologist,&#8217; Philadelphia, vol. ii. May, 1867, p.
+88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430" id="Footnote_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430"><span class="label">430</span></a> Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431" id="Footnote_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431"><span class="label">431</span></a> &#8216;Modern Classification of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. 1840, p. 206, 205. Mr.
+Walsh, who called my attention to this double use of the jaws, says
+that he has repeatedly observed this fact.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432" id="Footnote_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432"><span class="label">432</span></a> We have here a curious and inexplicable case of dimorphism, for
+some of the females of four European species of Dytiscus, and of certain
+species of Hydroporus, have their elytra smooth; and no intermediate
+gradations between sulcated or punctured and quite smooth elytra
+have been observed. See Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the &#8216;Zoologist,&#8217;
+vol. v.-vi. 1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduction to
+Entomology,&#8217; vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433" id="Footnote_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433"><span class="label">433</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class.&#8217; vol. ii. p. 193. The following statement
+about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are taken from
+Mr. Walsh, &#8216;Practical Entomologist,&#8217; Philadelphia, vol. ii. p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434" id="Footnote_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434"><span class="label">434</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduct.&#8217; &amp;c., vol. iii. p. 332-336.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435" id="Footnote_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435"><span class="label">435</span></a> &#8216;Insecta Maderensia,&#8217; 1854, p. 20.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436" id="Footnote_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436"><span class="label">436</span></a> E. Doubleday, &#8216;Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. i. 1848, p. 379.
+I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera (see Shuckard,
+'Fossorial Hymenop.&#8217; 1837, p. 39-43) differ in neuration according to
+sex.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437" id="Footnote_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437"><span class="label">437</span></a> H. W. Bates, in &#8216;Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. vi. 1862, p. 74.
+Mr. Wonfor&#8217;s observations are quoted in &#8216;Popular Science Review,&#8217;
+1868, p. 343.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438" id="Footnote_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438"><span class="label">438</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduction to Entomology,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 299.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439" id="Footnote_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439"><span class="label">439</span></a> Robinet, &#8216;Vers &agrave; Soie,&#8217; 1848, p. 207.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440" id="Footnote_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440"><span class="label">440</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441" id="Footnote_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441"><span class="label">441</span></a> &#8216;Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; Feb. 4th, 1867, p. lxxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442" id="Footnote_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442"><span class="label">442</span></a> For this and other statements on the size of the sexes, see Kirby
+and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration of life in insects,
+see p. 344.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443" id="Footnote_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443"><span class="label">443</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Linnean Soc.&#8217; vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444" id="Footnote_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444"><span class="label">444</span></a> &#8216;The Malay Archipelago,&#8217; vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445" id="Footnote_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445"><span class="label">445</span></a> &#8216;Modern Classification of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. 1840, p. 526.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446" id="Footnote_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446"><span class="label">446</span></a> See Mr. B. T. Lowne&#8217;s very interesting work, &#8216;On the Anatomy of
+the Blow-Fly, Musca vomitoria,&#8217; 1870, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447" id="Footnote_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447"><span class="label">447</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 473.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448" id="Footnote_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448"><span class="label">448</span></a> These particulars are taken from Westwood&#8217;s &#8216;Modern Class. of
+Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the Fulgorid&aelig;, Kirby and
+Spence, &#8216;Introduct.&#8217; vol. ii. p. 401.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449" id="Footnote_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449"><span class="label">449</span></a> &#8216;Zeitschrift f&uuml;r wissenschaft. Zoolog.&#8217; B. xvii. 1867, s. 152-158.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450" id="Footnote_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450"><span class="label">450</span></a> I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this extract from
+a &#8216;Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,&#8217; by Dr. Hartman.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451" id="Footnote_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451"><span class="label">451</span></a> L. Guilding, &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xv. p. 154.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452" id="Footnote_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452"><span class="label">452</span></a> K&ouml;ppen, as quoted in the &#8216;Zoological Record,&#8217; for 1867, p. 460.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453" id="Footnote_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453"><span class="label">453</span></a> Gilbert White, &#8216;Nat. Hist. of Selborne,&#8217; vol. ii. 1825, p. 262.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454" id="Footnote_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454"><span class="label">454</span></a> Harris, &#8216;Insects of New England,&#8217; 1842, p. 128.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455" id="Footnote_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455"><span class="label">455</span></a> &#8216;The Naturalist on the Amazons,&#8217; vol. i. 1863, p. 252. Mr. Bates
+gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations in the musical
+apparatus of the three families. See also Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class.&#8217;
+vol. ii. p. 445 and 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456" id="Footnote_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456"><span class="label">456</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. xi. April, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457" id="Footnote_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457"><span class="label">457</span></a> &#8216;Nouveau Manuel d&#8217;Anat. Comp.&#8217; (French translat.), tom. i. 1850
+p. 567.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458" id="Footnote_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458"><span class="label">458</span></a> &#8216;Zeitschrift f&uuml;r wissenschaft. Zoolog.&#8217; B. xvii. 1867, s. 117.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459" id="Footnote_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459"><span class="label">459</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. i. p. 440.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460" id="Footnote_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460"><span class="label">460</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. i. p. 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461" id="Footnote_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461"><span class="label">461</span></a> Landois, ibid. s. 121, 122.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_462" id="Footnote_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462"><span class="label">462</span></a> Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the female of
+the <i>Platyphyllum concavum</i>, &#8220;when captured makes a feeble grating
+noise by shuffling her wing-covers together.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463" id="Footnote_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463"><span class="label">463</span></a> Landois, ibid. s. 113.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_464" id="Footnote_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464"><span class="label">464</span></a> &#8216;Insects of New England,&#8217; 1842, p. 133.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_465" id="Footnote_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465"><span class="label">465</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Classification,&#8217; vol. i. p. 462.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_466" id="Footnote_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466"><span class="label">466</span></a> Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 453.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467" id="Footnote_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467"><span class="label">467</span></a> Landois, ibid. s. 115, 116, 120, 122.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468" id="Footnote_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468"><span class="label">468</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; 3rd series, vol. ii. (&#8216;Journal of Proceedings,
+p. 117.)</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469" id="Footnote_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469"><span class="label">469</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. i. p. 427; for crickets,
+p. 445.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470" id="Footnote_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470"><span class="label">470</span></a> Mr. Ch. Horne, in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; May 3, 1869, p. xii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_471" id="Footnote_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471"><span class="label">471</span></a> The <i>Oecanthus nivalis</i>, Harris, &#8216;Insects of New England,&#8217; 1842,
+p. 124.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472" id="Footnote_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472"><span class="label">472</span></a> Platyblemnus: Westwood, &#8216;Modern. Class.&#8217; vol. i. p. 447.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473" id="Footnote_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473"><span class="label">473</span></a> B. D. Walsh, the Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois,
+in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.
+of Philadelphia,&#8217; 1862, p. 361.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_474" id="Footnote_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474"><span class="label">474</span></a> &#8216;Modern Class.&#8217; vol. ii. p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_475" id="Footnote_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475"><span class="label">475</span></a> Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for the
+following facts on Het&aelig;rina, Anax, and Gomphus.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_476" id="Footnote_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476"><span class="label">476</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc&#8217; vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_477" id="Footnote_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477"><span class="label">477</span></a> See abstract in the &#8216;Zoological Record&#8217; for 1867, p. 450.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_478" id="Footnote_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478"><span class="label">478</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduct. to Entomology,&#8217; vol. ii. 1818, p. 35.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_479" id="Footnote_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479"><span class="label">479</span></a> See an interesting article, &#8220;The Writings of Fabre,&#8221; in &#8216;Nat. Hist.
+Review,&#8217; April, 1862, p. 122.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_480" id="Footnote_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480"><span class="label">480</span></a> &#8216;Journal of Proc. of Entomolog. Soc.&#8217; Sept. 7th, 1863, p. 169.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_481" id="Footnote_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481"><span class="label">481</span></a> P. Huber, &#8216;Recherches sur les M&oelig;urs des Fourmis,&#8217; 1810, p. 150,
+165.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_482" id="Footnote_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482"><span class="label">482</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,&#8217; 1866, p. 238-239.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_483" id="Footnote_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483"><span class="label">483</span></a> Quoted by Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class. of Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 214.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484" id="Footnote_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484"><span class="label">484</span></a> Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ conspicuously, has
+been described by Mr. Bates in &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; 1869, p. 50. I
+will specify the few other cases in which I have heard of a difference
+in colour between the sexes of beetles. Kirby and Spence (&#8216;Introduct.
+to Entomology,&#8217; vol. iii. p. 301) mention a Cantharis, Meloe, Rhagium,
+and the <i>Leptura testacea</i>; the male of the latter being testaceous, with
+a black thorax, and the female of a dull red all over. These two
+latter beetles belong to the Order of Longicorns. Messrs. R. Trimen
+and Waterhouse, junr., inform me of two Lamellicorns, viz., a Peritrichia
+and Trichius, the male of the latter being more obscurely
+coloured than the female. In <i>Tillus elongatus</i> the male is black, and
+the female always, as it is believed, of a dark blue colour with a red
+thorax. The male, also, of <i>Orsodacna atra</i>, as I hear from Mr. Walsh,
+is black, the female (the so-called <i>O. ruficollis</i>) having a rufous thorax.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_485" id="Footnote_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485"><span class="label">485</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,&#8217; 1864, p. 228.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486" id="Footnote_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486"><span class="label">486</span></a> Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduct. Entomolog.&#8217; vol. iii. p. 300.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_487" id="Footnote_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487"><span class="label">487</span></a> Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 329.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_488" id="Footnote_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488"><span class="label">488</span></a> &#8216;Modern Classification of Insects,&#8217; vol. i. p. 172. On the same
+page there is an account of Siagonium. In the British Museum I
+noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an intermediate condition,
+so that the dimorphism is not strict.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_489" id="Footnote_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489"><span class="label">489</span></a> &#8216;The Malay Archipelago,&#8217; vol. ii. 1869, p. 276.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_490" id="Footnote_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490"><span class="label">490</span></a> &#8216;Entomological Magazine,&#8217; vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also on the
+conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 314; and
+Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_491" id="Footnote_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491"><span class="label">491</span></a> Quoted from Fischer, in &#8216;Dict. Class. d&#8217;Hist. Nat.&#8217; tom. x. p. 324.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_492" id="Footnote_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492"><span class="label">492</span></a> &#8216;Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,&#8217; 1866, as quoted in &#8216;Journal of
+Travel,&#8217; by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_493" id="Footnote_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493"><span class="label">493</span></a> Westwood, &#8216;Modern Class.&#8217; vol. i. p. 184.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_494" id="Footnote_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494"><span class="label">494</span></a> Wollaston, On certain musical Curculionid&aelig;, &#8216;Annals and Mag. of
+Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_495" id="Footnote_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495"><span class="label">495</span></a> &#8216;Zeitschrift f&uuml;r wiss. Zoolog.&#8217; B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496" id="Footnote_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496"><span class="label">496</span></a> I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. R. Crotch for having sent me
+numerous prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to these three
+families and others, as well as for valuable information of all kinds. He
+believes that the power of stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously
+observed. I am also much indebted to Mr. E. W. Janson, for
+information and specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin,
+finds that <i>Dermestes murinus</i> stridulates, but he searched in vain for the
+apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Mr. Algen as a stridulator,
+in the &#8216;Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,&#8217; 1869, Nov., p. 130.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_497" id="Footnote_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497"><span class="label">497</span></a> Schi&ouml;dte, translated in &#8216;Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. xx.
+1867, p. 37.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_498" id="Footnote_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498"><span class="label">498</span></a> Westring has described (Kroyer, &#8216;Naturhist. Tidskrift,&#8217; B. ii. 1848-49,
+p. 334) the stridulating organs in these two, as well as in other
+families. In the Carabid&aelig; I have examined <i>Elaphrus uliginosus</i> and
+<i>Blethisa multipunctata</i>, sent to me by Mr. Crotch. In Blethisa the
+transverse ridges on the furrowed border of the abdominal segment do
+not come into play, as far as I could judge, in scraping the rasps on the
+elytra.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499" id="Footnote_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499"><span class="label">499</span></a> I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent me
+extracts from Leconte&#8217;s &#8216;Introduction to Entomology,&#8217; p. 101, 143.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500" id="Footnote_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500"><span class="label">500</span></a> M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in &#8216;Journal of Travel,&#8217; A. Murray,
+vol. i. 1868, p. 135.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501" id="Footnote_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501"><span class="label">501</span></a> Mr. Doubleday informs me that &#8220;the noise is produced by the
+insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and then sinking its
+thorax five or six times, in rapid succession, against the substance
+upon which it is sitting.&#8221; For references on this subject see Landois,
+'Zeitschrift f&uuml;r wissen. Zoolog.&#8217; B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted
+by Kirby and Spence, &#8216;Introduct.&#8217; vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of
+<i>Pimelia striata</i> produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen
+against any hard substance, &#8220;and that the male, obedient to this call,
+soon attends her and they pair.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_502" id="Footnote_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502"><span class="label">502</span></a> Apatura Iris: &#8216;The Entomologist&#8217;s Weekly Intelligencer,&#8217; 1859,
+p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies see C. Collingwood, &#8216;Rambles of
+a Naturalist,&#8217; 1868, p. 183.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_503" id="Footnote_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503"><span class="label">503</span></a> See my &#8216;Journal of Researches,&#8217; 1845, p. 33. Mr. Doubleday has
+detected (&#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; March 3rd, 1845, p. 123) a peculiar membranous
+sac at the base of the front wings, which is probably connected
+with the production of the sound.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_504" id="Footnote_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504"><span class="label">504</span></a> See also Mr. Bates&#8217; paper in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,&#8217;
+1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same subject, in regard to
+Diadema, in &#8216;Transact. Entomolog. Soc. of London,&#8217; 1869, p. 278.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_505" id="Footnote_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505"><span class="label">505</span></a> &#8216;The Naturalist on the Amazons,&#8217; vol. i. 1863, p. 19.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506" id="Footnote_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506"><span class="label">506</span></a> See the interesting article in the &#8216;Westminster Review,&#8217; July, 1867,
+p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr. Wallace in Hardwicke&#8217;s
+'Science Gossip,&#8217; Sept. 1867, p. 196.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507" id="Footnote_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507"><span class="label">507</span></a> See the interesting observations by Mr. T. W. Wood, &#8216;The Student,&#8217;
+Sept. 1868, p. 81.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_508" id="Footnote_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508"><span class="label">508</span></a> Mr. Wallace in &#8216;Hardwicke&#8217;s Science Gossip,&#8217; Sept. 1867, p. 193.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_509" id="Footnote_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509"><span class="label">509</span></a> See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir&#8217;s paper in &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217;
+1869, p. 23.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510" id="Footnote_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510"><span class="label">510</span></a> &#8216;Westminster Review,&#8217; July, 1867, p. 16.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_511" id="Footnote_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511"><span class="label">511</span></a> For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood (&#8216;Modern Class. of
+Insects,&#8217; vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this case. On the relative
+colours of diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera, see ibid. p. 333 and 392;
+also Harris, &#8216;Treatise on the Insects of New England,&#8217; 1842, p. 315.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_512" id="Footnote_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512"><span class="label">512</span></a> Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of the
+wings of several species of Papilio, may be seen in the beautiful plates
+to Mr. Wallace&#8217;s Memoir on the Papilionid&aelig; of the Malayan Region,
+in &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xxv. part i. 1865.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_513" id="Footnote_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513"><span class="label">513</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; March 2nd, 1868.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_514" id="Footnote_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514"><span class="label">514</span></a> See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina (one of
+the Geometr&aelig;) in &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; new series, vol. v. pl. xv. and
+xvi.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_515" id="Footnote_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515"><span class="label">515</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc. of London,&#8217; July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_516" id="Footnote_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516"><span class="label">516</span></a> Harris, &#8216;Treatise,&#8217; &amp;c., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_517" id="Footnote_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517"><span class="label">517</span></a> For instance, I observe in my son&#8217;s cabinet that the males are
+darker than the females in the <i>Lasiocampa quercus</i>, <i>Odonestis potatoria</i>,
+<i>Hypogymna dispar</i>, <i>Dasychira pudibunda</i>, and <i>Cycnia mendica</i>. In this
+latter species the difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly
+marked; and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes,
+an instance of protective mimickry confined to one sex, as will hereafter
+be more fully explained. The white female of the Cycnia resembles
+the very common <i>Spilosoma menthrasti</i>, both sexes of which are white;
+and Mr. Stainton observed that this latter moth was rejected with utter
+disgust by a whole brood of young turkeys, which were fond of eating
+other moths; so that if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British
+birds for the Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white
+deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_518" id="Footnote_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518"><span class="label">518</span></a> &#8216;Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,&#8217; 1868, p. 182.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_519" id="Footnote_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519"><span class="label">519</span></a> Wallace on the Papilionid&aelig; of the Malayan Region, in &#8216;Transact.
+Linn. Soc. vol. xxv. 1865, p. 8, 36. A striking case of a rare variety,
+strictly intermediate between two other well-marked female varieties,
+is given by Mr. Wallace. See also Mr. Bates, in &#8216;Proc. Entomolog.
+Soc.&#8217; Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xl.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520" id="Footnote_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520"><span class="label">520</span></a> Mr. R. MacLachlan, &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; vol. ii. part 6th, 3rd
+series, 1866, p. 459.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_521" id="Footnote_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521"><span class="label">521</span></a> H. W. Bates, &#8216;The Naturalist on the Amazons,&#8217; vol. ii. 1863,
+p. 228. A. R. Wallace, in &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xxv. 1865, p. 10.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_522" id="Footnote_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522"><span class="label">522</span></a> On this whole subject see &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants
+under Domestication,&#8217; vol. ii. 1868, chap. xxiii.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_523" id="Footnote_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523"><span class="label">523</span></a> A. R. Wallace, in &#8216;The Journal of Travel,&#8217; vol. i. 1868, p. 88.
+'Westminster Review,&#8217; July, 1857, p. 37. See also Messrs. Wallace
+and Bates in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xxxix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_524" id="Footnote_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524"><span class="label">524</span></a> &#8216;The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,&#8217;
+vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_525" id="Footnote_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525"><span class="label">525</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_526" id="Footnote_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526"><span class="label">526</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217; Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527" id="Footnote_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527"><span class="label">527</span></a> &#8216;Transact. Linn. Soc.&#8217; vol. xxv. 1865, p. 1; also &#8216;Transact. Ent.
+Soc.&#8217; vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_528" id="Footnote_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528"><span class="label">528</span></a> See an ingenious article entitled, &#8220;Difficulties of the Theory of
+Natural Selection,&#8221; in the &#8216;Month,&#8217; 1869. The writer strangely supposes
+that I attribute the variations in colour of the Lepidoptera, by
+which certain species belonging to distinct families have come to
+resemble others, to reversion to a common progenitor; but there is no
+more reason to attribute these variations to reversion than in the case
+of any ordinary variation.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_529" id="Footnote_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529"><span class="label">529</span></a> Wallace, &#8220;Notes on Eastern Butterflies,&#8221; &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217;
+1869, p. 287.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_530" id="Footnote_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530"><span class="label">530</span></a> Wallace, in &#8216;Westminster Review,&#8217; July, 1867, p. 37; and in
+'Journal of Travel and Nat. Hist.&#8217; vol. i. 1868, p. 88.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_531" id="Footnote_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531"><span class="label">531</span></a> See remarks by Messrs. Bates and Wallace, in &#8216;Proc. Ent. Soc.&#8217;
+Nov. 19, 1866, p. xxxix.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_532" id="Footnote_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532"><span class="label">532</span></a> See Mr. Wallace in &#8216;Westminster Review,&#8217; July, 1867, p. 11 and
+37. The male of no butterfly, as Mr. Wallace informs me, is known to
+differ in colour, as a protection, from the female; and he asks me how
+I can explain this fact on the principle that one sex alone has varied
+and has transmitted its variations exclusively to the same sex, without
+the aid of selection to check the variations being inherited by the
+other sex. No doubt if it could be shewn that the females of very
+many species had been rendered beautiful through protective mimickry,
+but that this has never occurred with the males, it would be a serious
+difficulty. But the number of cases as yet known hardly suffices for a
+fair judgment. We can see that the males, from having the power of
+flying more swiftly, and thus escaping danger, would not be so likely
+as the females to have had their colours modified for the sake of protection;
+but this would not in the least have interfered with their receiving
+protective colours through inheritance from the females. In the second
+place, it is probable that sexual selection would actually tend to prevent
+a beautiful male from becoming obscure, for the less brilliant individuals
+would be less attractive to the females. Supposing that the beauty of
+the male of any species had been mainly acquired through sexual
+selection, yet if this beauty likewise served as a protection, the acquisition
+would have been aided by natural selection. But it would be
+quite beyond our power to distinguish between the two processes of
+sexual and ordinary selection. Hence it is not likely that we should
+be able to adduce cases of the males having been rendered brilliant
+exclusively through protective mimickry, though this is comparatively
+easy with the females, which have rarely or never been rendered beautiful,
+as far as we can judge, for the sake of sexual attraction, although
+they have often received beauty through inheritance from their male
+parents.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_533" id="Footnote_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533"><span class="label">533</span></a> &#8216;Proc. Entomolog. Soc.&#8217; Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv., and March 4th,
+1867, p. lxxx.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534" id="Footnote_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534"><span class="label">534</span></a> See Mr. J. Jenner Weir&#8217;s paper on insects and insectivorous birds,
+in &#8216;Transact. Ent. Soc.&#8217; 1869, p. 21; also Mr. Butler&#8217;s paper, ibid. p. 27.</p></div>
+
+<h4>END OF VOL. I.</h4>
+
+<h5>LONDON:</h5>
+
+<h6>PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET,
+AND CHARING CROSS.</h6>
+
+
+<p class="quotsig">
+<span class="smcap">50a, Albemarle Street, London</span><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>January, 1871.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1a" id="Page_1a">1</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>MR. MURRAY&#8217;S</h3>
+
+<h2>LIST OF POPULAR WORKS.</h2>
+
+<h4><i>One Shilling.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE PRINCIPAL SPEECHES AND ADDRESSES OF
+H.R.H. THE PRINCE CONSORT, with an Introduction giving some Outlines
+of his Character. With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MUSIC AND THE ART OF DRESS. Two Essays. By A
+LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE FALL OF JERUSALEM. A Dramatic Poem. By DEAN
+MILMAN.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THEODORE HOOK. A Sketch. By J. G. LOCKHART.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY OF THE GUILLOTINE. By <span class="smcap">Rt. Hon.</span> J. W.
+CROKER. Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CHACE. A Descriptive Essay. By C. J. APPERLEY
+(<span class="smcap">Nimrod</span>). With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">REJECTED ADDRESSES; or, The New Theatrum Poetarum.
+By HORACE and JAMES SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE ROAD. A Descriptive Essay. By C. J. APPERLEY
+(<span class="smcap">Nimrod</span>). With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MAXIMS AND HINTS ON ANGLING, CHESS, SHOOTING,
+AND OTHER MATTERS; also, the Miseries of Fishing. By RICHARD
+PENN. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STORY OF JOAN OF ARC. By LORD MAHON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE PROGRESS OF LITERATURE AND SCIENCE&mdash;THE
+STUDY OF HISTORY&mdash;AND ANTIQUITIES AND ART IN
+ROME. By EARL STANHOPE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">CHILDE HAROLD&#8217;S PILGRIMAGE. A Romaunt. By LORD
+BYRON. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF NORTHAMPTONSHIRE.
+By REV. THOMAS JAMES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE HONEY BEE. By REV. THOMAS JAMES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE FLOWER GARDEN, with an Essay on the Poetry of
+Gardening. By REV. THOMAS JAMES.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2a" id="Page_2a">2</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>One Shilling and Sixpence.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE ART OF DINING; or, <span class="smcap">Gastronomy and Gastronomers</span>.
+By A. HAYWARD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">WELLINGTON;&mdash;<span class="smcap">His Character</span>,&mdash;<span class="smcap">Actions</span>,&mdash;<span class="smcap">and Writings</span>.
+By JULES MAUREL. With Preface by <span class="smcap">Lord Ellesmere</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">WORKMEN&#8217;S EARNINGS&mdash;STRIKES&mdash;AND SAVINGS. By
+SAMUEL SMILES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE TURF. A Descriptive Essay. By C. J. APPERLEY
+(<span class="smcap">Nimrod</span>). With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STORY OF PUSS IN BOOTS. With 12 Illustrations.
+By OTTO SPECKTER.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY FOR CHILDREN. By <span class="smcap">Rt.
+Hon.</span> J. W. CROKER.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HYMNS, written and adapted to the Weekly Church Service of the
+Year. By BISHOP HEBER.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Two Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE AMBER WITCH: the most interesting Trial for Witchcraft.
+From the German. By LADY DUFF GORDON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">OLIVER CROMWELL AND JOHN BUNYAN: Biographies.
+By ROBERT SOUTHEY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. With his Voyages and Exploits
+by Sea and Land. By JOHN BARROW.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">CAMPAIGNS OF THE BRITISH ARMY AT WASHINGTON
+AND NEW ORLEANS. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE FRENCH IN ALGIERS; the Soldier of the Foreign Legion
+and Prisoners of Abd-el-Kadir. Translated by LADY DUFF GORDON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY OF THE FALL OF THE JESUITS IN THE <span class="smcap">18th</span>
+CENTURY. By COUNT ALEXIS DE ST. PRIEST.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIVONIAN TALES; the Disponent&mdash;the Wolves&mdash;the Jewess.
+By A LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">NOTES FROM LIFE. <span class="smcap">Money</span>&mdash;Humility&mdash;Independence&mdash;<span class="smcap">Wisdom</span>&mdash;Choice
+in Marriage&mdash;<span class="smcap">Children</span>&mdash;Life Poetic. By HENRY
+TAYLOR.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE SIEGE OF GIBRALTAR, 1779-83. With a Description
+and Account of that Garrison from, the Earliest Periods. By JOHN
+DRINKWATER.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SIR ROBERT SALE&#8217;S BRIGADE IN AFFGHANISTAN AND
+THE DEFENCE OF JELLALABAD. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3a" id="Page_3a">3</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE TWO SIEGES OF VIENNA BY THE TURKS. Translated
+from the German. By LORD ELLESMERE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE WAYSIDE CROSS; or, The Raid of Gomez: a Tale of the
+Carlist War. By CAPT. MILMAN.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ADVENTURES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS DURING THE
+CAMPAIGNS OF 1813-14. From the Autobiography of HENRY
+STEFFENS.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">STOKERS AND POKERS; or, The North-Western Railway.&mdash;The
+Electric Telegraph&mdash;and Railway Clearing House. By SIR FRANCIS
+HEAD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">TRAVELS IN EGYPT, NUBIA, SYRIA, AND THE HOLY
+LAND, with a Journey round the Dead Sea, and through the Country East of
+the Jordan. By IRBY and MANGLES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">WESTERN BARBARY; An Account of the Wild Tribes and
+Savage Animals. By JOHN H. DRUMMOND HAY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LETTERS FROM THE SHORES OF THE BALTIC. By A
+LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">NOTES AND SKETCHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES
+DURING A RESIDENCE OF MANY YEARS IN THAT COLONY.
+By MRS. CHARLES MEREDITH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">RECOLLECTIONS OF BUSH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA, during
+a Residence of Eight Years in the Interior. By REV. H. W. HAYGARTH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">JOURNAL OF A RESIDENCE AMONG THE NEGROES
+IN THE WEST INDIES. By M. G. LEWIS.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MEMOIRS OF FATHER RIPA DURING THIRTEEN YEARS&#8217;
+RESIDENCE AT THE COURT OF PEKIN, in the Service of the Emperor
+of China, with an Account of the Foundation of the College for the Education
+of Young Chinese in Naples. From the Italian. By FORTUNATO PRANDI.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PHILIP MUSGRAVE; or, Memoirs of a Church of England
+Missionary in the North American Colonies. By REV. J. ABBOTT.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A MONTH IN NORWAY. By JOHN G. HOLLWAY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LETTERS FROM MADRAS; or, First Impressions of Life and
+Manners in India. By A LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ROUGH NOTES TAKEN DURING SOME RAPID RIDES
+ACROSS THE PAMPAS AND AMONG THE ANDES. By SIR FRANCIS
+HEAD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A VOYAGE UP THE RIVER AMAZON, including a Visit to
+PARA. By WILLIAM H. EDWARDS.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4a" id="Page_4a">4</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A POPULAR ACCOUNT <span class="smcap">of the MANNERS and CUSTOMS
+OF INDIA</span>. By REV. CHARLES ACLAND.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ADVENTURES IN THE LIBYAN DESERT AND THE
+OASIS OF JUPITER AMMON. By BAYLE ST. JOHN.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF SIR FOWELL BUXTON. By his Son, CHARLES
+BUXTON. With an Inquiry into the Results of Emancipation.</p>
+
+<h4>
+<i>Two Shillings and Sixpence.</i>
+</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CONTINUITY OF SCRIPTURE, as declared by the
+Testimony of our Lord and of the Evangelists and Apostles. By LORD
+HATHERLEY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF LORD BACON. By LORD CAMPBELL.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">CHILDE HAROLD&#8217;S PILGRIMAGE. A Romaunt. By LORD
+BYRON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">TALES AND POEMS. By LORD BYRON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LITTLE ARTHUR&#8217;S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By LADY
+CALLCOTT. With 28 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE EMIGRANT. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE FABLES OF &AElig;SOP; <span class="smcap">A New Version</span>, chiefly from
+<span class="smcap">Original Sources</span>. By REV. THOMAS JAMES. With 100 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">STORIES FOR CHILDREN SELECTED FROM THE HISTORY
+OF ENGLAND. By <span class="smcap">Rt. Hon.</span> J. W. CROKER. With 24 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MORAL FEELINGS. By
+JOHN ABERCROMBIE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">POEMS AND SONGS. By ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. With
+Biographical Notice.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE FRANCHISE; a Privilege and not a Right. Proved by the
+Political Experience of the Ancients. By H. S. TREMENHEERE.</p>
+
+<h4>
+<i>Three Shillings.</i>
+</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">&#8220;THE FORTY-FIVE;&#8221; <span class="smcap">A Narrative of the Insurrection of
+1745 in Scotland</span>. To which are added Letters of <span class="smcap">Prince Charles Stuart</span>.
+By LORD MAHON.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5a" id="Page_5a">5</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Three Shillings and Sixpence.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE BIBLE IN SPAIN; or, The Adventures and Imprisonment
+of an Englishman in attempting to Circulate the Scriptures in the Peninsula.
+By GEORGE BORROW.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE GYPSIES OF SPAIN; their Manners, Customs, Religion,
+and Language. By GEORGE BORROW.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE BEAUTIES OF LORD BYRON&#8217;S WRITINGS; <span class="smcap">Poetry
+And Prose.</span> With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF LOUIS PRINCE OF COND&Eacute;, SURNAMED THE
+GREAT. By LORD MAHON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SKETCHES OF GERMAN LIFE AND SCENES FROM THE
+WAR OF LIBERATION IN GERMANY. By VARNHAGEN VON
+ERESE. Translated by SIR ALEXANDER DUFF GORDON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE TRUE STORY OF THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. By
+REV. G. R. GLEIG.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">DEEDS OF NAVAL DARING; or, <span class="smcap">Anecdotes of The
+British Navy.</span> By EDWARD GIFFARD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">TYPEE; or, The Marquesas Islanders. By HERMAN MELVILLE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">OMOO: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas; a Sequel
+to &#8216;Typee.&#8217; By HERMAN MELVILLE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE BIBLE IN THE HOLY LAND; being Extracts from
+Dean Stanley&#8217;s &#8216;Sinai and Palestine.&#8217; With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">AN ESSAY ON ENGLISH POETRY. With Short Notices of the
+British Poets. By THOMAS CAMPBELL.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL ESSAYS. By LORD MAHON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF LORD CLIVE. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO. With Selections from his
+Correspondence. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE RISE OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE: being a History of
+British India from its Origin till the Peace of 1783. By LORD MAHON.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6a" id="Page_6a">6</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A NARRATIVE OF THE SIEGE OF KARS, and of the Six
+Months&#8217; Resistance by the Turkish Garrison under General Williams. With
+Travels and Adventures in Armenia, &amp;c. By HUMPHREY SANDWITH,
+M.D.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SKETCHES OF PERSIA. By SIR JOHN MALCOLM.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE WILD SPORTS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE
+HIGHLANDS. By CHARLES ST. JOHN.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. By RICHARD FORD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">TRAVELS IN MEXICO AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS.
+By G. F. RUXTON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PORTUGAL AND GALLICIA; <span class="smcap">With an Account of the
+Social and Political State of the Basque Provinces.</span> By LORD
+CARNARVON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A RESIDENCE AT SIERRA LEONE. Described from a
+Journal kept on the Spot, and Letters written to Friends at Home. By
+A LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE REMAINS IN VERSE AND PROSE OF ARTHUR
+HENRY HALLAM. With Preface, Memoir, and Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE POETICAL WORKS OF BISHOP HEBER; containing
+Palestine, Europe, the Red Sea, Hymns, &amp;c. With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">GLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. By EDWARD
+JESSE. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE REJECTED ADDRESSES: or, The New Theatrum
+Poetarum. By HORACE and JAMES SMITH. With Portrait and
+Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL; or, The Last Days of a Philosopher.
+By SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SALMONIA; or, Days of Fly-fishing. By SIR HUMPHRY
+DAVY. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS AND THE INVESTIGATION
+OF TRUTH. By JOHN ABERCROMBIE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SPECIMENS OF THE TABLE-TALK OF THE LATE
+SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING, for every
+Month in the Year. By MRS. LOUDON. With Woodcuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7a" id="Page_7a">7</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Edited by DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE. Edited by DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME. Edited by DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With Translations
+from the Ancient Poets. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY, from the Earliest Times
+to the Conquest of Alexander the Great. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, from
+the earliest period to the Georgian Era. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SPECIMENS OF THE CHIEF WRITERS IN ENGLISH
+LITERATURE. Chronologically arranged. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.&mdash;I. Old Testament History;
+II. Connection of Old and New Testaments; III. New Testament
+History to <span class="smcap">A.D.</span> 70. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Four Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the <span class="smcap">First Invasion</span> by the
+<span class="smcap">Romans</span>, continued down to 1865. With <span class="smcap">Conversations</span> at the end of each
+<span class="smcap">Chapter</span>. By MRS. MARKHAM. With 100 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the <span class="smcap">Conquest</span> by the <span class="smcap">Gauls</span>, continued
+down to 1867. With <span class="smcap">Conversations</span> at the end of each <span class="smcap">Chapter</span>.
+By MRS. MARKHAM. With 70 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HISTORY OF GERMANY, from the <span class="smcap">Invasion</span> of the <span class="smcap">Kingdom</span> by
+the <span class="smcap">Romans</span> under <span class="smcap">Marius</span>, continued down to 1867. On the Plan of MRS.
+MARKHAM. With 50 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SHALL AND WILL; or, the Future Auxiliary Verb. By SIR
+EDMUND HEAD.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Four Shillings and Sixpence.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">CHILDREN OF THE LAKE. A Poem. By EDWARD
+SALLESBURY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A LADY&#8217;S DIARY OF THE SIEGE OF LUCKNOW.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; or, Hints on Emergencies. By JOHN
+F. SOUTH. With Woodcuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8a" id="Page_8a">8</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Five Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS; <span class="smcap">Historical and Romantic.</span>
+Translated with Notes by J. G. LOCKHART. With Portrait and Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MISCELLANIES. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">INTRODUCTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE GREEK
+CLASSIC POETS. By HENRY NELSON COLERIDGE.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HYMNS IN PROSE FOR CHILDREN. By MRS. BARBAULD.
+With 112 Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">RECOLLECTIONS OF THE DRUSES, <span class="smcap">and some Notes on
+their Religion</span>. By LORD CARNARVON.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. BASED ON MODERN RESEARCHES.
+By REV. F. W. FARRAR.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY. Founded on Principles of
+Economy and Practical Knowledge, and adapted for Private Families.
+With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">DRAMAS AND PLAYS. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE HORSE AND HIS RIDER. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD.
+With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK OF FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS, chiefly from
+English Authors.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CHACE&mdash;THE TURF&mdash;AND THE ROAD. A Series of
+Popular Essays. By C. J. APPERLEY (<span class="smcap">Nimrod</span>). With Portrait and
+Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">AUNT IDA&#8217;S WALKS AND TALKS. A Story Book for
+Children. By A LADY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">STORIES FOR DARLINGS. A Book for Boys and Girls. With
+Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CHARMED ROE. A Story Book for Young People. Illustrated
+by OTTO SPECKTER.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">DON JUAN AND BEPPO. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD&#8217;S WORD. By ARCHBISHOP
+THOMSON, D.D.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ATHENS AND ATTICA; Notes of a Tour. By BISHOP
+WORDSWORTH, D.D. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ANNALS OF THE WARS&mdash;XVIIITH CENTURY, 1700-1799.
+Compiled from the most Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST, D.C.L.
+With Maps. 5 vols. Post 8vo. 5s. each.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ANNALS OF THE WARS&mdash;<span class="smcap">XIXth</span> CENTURY, 1800-15.
+Compiled from the most Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST.
+4 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. each.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9a" id="Page_9a">9</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Six Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">BENEDICITE; or, <span class="smcap">THE SONG of the THREE CHILDREN</span>.
+Being <span class="smcap">Illustrations</span> of the <span class="smcap">Power</span>, <span class="smcap">Beneficence</span>, and <span class="smcap">Design</span> manifested by
+the <span class="smcap">Creator</span> in <span class="smcap">His Works</span>. By DR. CHAPLIN CHILD.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">OLD DECCAN DAYS; or, HINDOO FAIRY LEGENDS
+current in Southern India. By M. FRERE. With Introduction by <span class="smcap">Sir
+Bartle Frere</span>. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE WILD GARDEN; or, <span class="smcap">Our Groves and Shrubberies
+made beautiful by the Naturalization of Hardy Exotic Plants</span>.
+By WILLIAM ROBINSON. With Frontispiece.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">MISSIONARY TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH
+AFRICA. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE, M.D. With Map and Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">FIVE YEARS OF A HUNTER&#8217;S LIFE IN SOUTH AFRICA;
+By GORDON CUMMING. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES; or, The Invisible World, as
+revealed by the Microscope. By GIDEON A. MANTELL. With Plates.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIVES OF BRINDLEY AND THE EARLY ENGINEERS.
+By SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF TELFORD. With a History of Roads and Travelling
+in England. By SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIVES OF GEORGE AND ROBERT STEPHENSON. By
+SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">SELF-HELP. With Illustrations of Character and Conduct. By
+SAMUEL SMILES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">INDUSTRIAL BIOGRAPHY: Iron-workers and Toolmakers. A
+Sequel to &#8216;Self-help.&#8217; By SAMUEL SMILES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE HUGUENOTS IN ENGLAND AND IRELAND: their
+Settlements, Churches, and Industries. By SAMUEL SMILES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">WILD WALES; its People, Language, and Scenery. With Introductory
+Remarks. By GEORGE BORROW.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A MANUAL OF ETHNOLOGY; or, <span class="smcap">A Popular History</span> of the
+<span class="smcap">Races</span> of the <span class="smcap">Old World</span>. By CHARLES L. BRACE.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Seven Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">JOURNALS OF A TOUR IN INDIA. By BISHOP HEBER.
+2 vols.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ADVENTURES AMONG THE MARQUESAS AND SOUTH
+SEA ISLANDERS. By HERMAN MELVILLE. 2 vols.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">CONSTITUTIONAL PROGRESS. By MONTAGU BURROWS,
+M.A.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE AND POETICAL WORKS OF REV. GEORGE
+CRABBE. Edited by HIS SON. With Notes, Portrait, and Illustrations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10a" id="Page_10a">10</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><i>Seven Shillings and Sixpence.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE ART OF TRAVEL; or, Hints on the Shifts and Contrivances
+available in Wild Countries. By FRANCIS GALTON. With
+Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">VISITS TO THE MONASTERIES OF THE LEVANT. By
+HON. R. CURZON. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES; an Account of a Yacht
+Voyage to Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen, &amp;c. By LORD DUFFERIN.
+With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">BUBBLES FROM THE BRUNNEN OF NASSAU. By an
+Old Man (SIR FRANCIS HEAD). With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS; a Narrative of an Expedition
+to Assyria in 1845-47. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">NINEVEH AND BABYLON; a Narrative of a Second Expedition
+to Assyria in 1849-51. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THREE YEARS&#8217; RESIDENCE IN ABYSSINIA, with Travels
+in that Country. By MANSFIELD PARKYNS. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">FIVE YEARS IN DAMASCUS, with <span class="smcap">Travels</span> in <span class="smcap">Palmyra</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Lebanon</span>, and among the <span class="smcap">Giant Cities of Bashan</span> and <span class="smcap">The Hauran</span>. By
+REV. J. L. PORTER. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE VOYAGE OF THE &#8216;FOX&#8217; IN THE ARCTIC SEAS,
+and the Discovery of the Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions.
+By SIR LEOPOLD McCLINTOCK. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">REMINISCENCES OF ATHENS AND THE MOREA, during
+Travels in Greece. By LORD CARNARVON. With Map.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN INDIA. By GENERAL
+MUNDY. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT, MADE SCIENCE IN EARNEST:
+or, The First Principles of Natural Philosophy explained by the Toys and
+Sports of Youth. By DR. PARIS. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">BLIND PEOPLE; their Works and Ways. With Lives of some
+famous Blind Men. By REV. B. G. JOHNS. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HORACE: A New Edition of the Text. Edited by DEAN
+MILMAN. With 100 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE BOOK OF THE CHURCH. By ROBERT SOUTHEY.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG PAINTERS. By C. R.
+LESLIE, R.A. With 24 Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF FERNS, with Tables
+to show their Distribution. By K. M. LYELL. With a Frontispiece.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STORY OF THE LIFE OF LORD BACON. By W.
+HEPWORTH DIXON.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11a" id="Page_11a">11</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; Its Antiquities,
+Geography, Biography, and Natural History. By DR. WM. SMITH. With
+Maps and Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY,
+BIOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY. By DR. WM. SMITH. With
+200 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN
+ANTIQUITIES. By DR. WM. SMITH. With 200 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. With a
+Dictionary of Proper Names, and Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures,
+Weights, and Moneys. By DR. WM. SMITH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY, By DR. WM.
+SMITH.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S HUME; <span class="smcap">An Epitome</span> of the <span class="smcap">History Of
+England</span>. By DAVID HUME. Corrected and continued to 1868. With
+Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
+By HENRY HALLAM. With the Author&#8217;s latest Additions.
+Edited by <span class="smcap">Dr. Wm. Smith</span>. [<i>In the Press.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES OF
+EUROPE. By HENRY HALLAM. With the Author&#8217;s Supplemental
+Notes. Edited by <span class="smcap">Dr. Wm. Smith</span>. [<i>In the Press.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S HISTORY OF FRANCE. <span class="smcap">From the
+Earliest Times to the Establishment of the Second Empire</span>, 1852.
+With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S HISTORY OF ROME. <span class="smcap">From the Earliest
+Times to the Establishment of the Empire.</span> With Chapters on the
+History of Literature and Art. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S GIBBON; <span class="smcap">An Epitome of the History of
+the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</span>. By EDWARD GIBBON.
+With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S HISTORY OF GREECE. <span class="smcap">From the
+Earliest Times to the Roman Conquest.</span> With Chapters on the
+History of Literature and Art. By DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST.
+From the Earliest Times to the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including
+Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Ph&oelig;nicia. By
+PHILIP SMITH, B.A. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. <span class="smcap">From the
+Creation to the Return of the Jews from Captivity.</span> With Maps and
+Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an
+Introduction, containing the connection of the Old and New Testaments.
+With Maps and Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
+By GEORGE P. MARSH. Edited, with additional Chapters and
+Notes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12a" id="Page_12a">12</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+By T. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited, with Notes and Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE.
+Selected from the <span class="smcap">Best Writers</span>. By THOS. B. SHAW, M.A.
+Edited, with Additions.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
+By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
+Mathematical, Physical, and Descriptive. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With
+Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY.
+With Quotations and References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S BLACKSTONE. <span class="smcap">A Systematic Abridgment
+of the entire Commentaries.</span> By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A PRACTICAL HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew
+text of Genesis i.-vi. and Psalms i.-vi., Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary.
+By REV. STANLEY LEATHES.</p>
+
+<h4><i>Nine Shillings.</i></h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By
+MARY SOMERVILLE. With Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE.
+Revised by H. W. BATES. With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR
+CHARLES LYELL. With 600 Woodcuts.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. By <span class="smcap">Various Writers</span>.
+Edited by SIR J. F. HERSCHEL and REV. ROBERT MAIN.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON. With Notes, Illustrations,
+and Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">LIFE OF LORD BYRON; with his Letters and Journals. By
+THOMAS MOORE. With Portraits.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">ARCHBISHOP BECKET; A BIOGRAPHY. By CANON
+ROBERTSON, M.A. With Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PICTURES OF THE CHINESE, DRAWN BY THEMSELVES.
+Described by REV. R. H. COBBOLD. With 34 Illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE ENGLISH BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE PENINSULAR
+WAR. By SIR WILLIAM NAPIER. With Portrait.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE YOUNG OFFICER&#8217;S COMPANION; or, <span class="smcap">Essays</span> on
+<span class="smcap">Military Duties</span> and <span class="smcap">Qualities</span>: with <span class="smcap">Illustrations</span> from <span class="smcap">History</span>. By
+LORD DE ROS.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">DOG-BREAKING; the most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy
+Method, whether great Excellence or only Mediocrity be required. With
+a Few Hints for those who Love the Dog and the Gun. By GENERAL
+HUTCHINSON. With Woodcuts.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13a" id="Page_13a">13</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LIST OF SCHOOL CLASSICS.</h4>
+
+<h4>By DR. WILLIAM SMITH.</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA LATINA, <span class="smcap">Part I. A First Latin Course</span>. A
+Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise Book with Vocabularies. <i>13th Edition.</i>
+<i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> This Edition contains the Accidence arranged for the &#8216;Public School Latin
+Primer.&#8217;</p>
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA LATINA, <span class="smcap">Part II. Latin Reading Book</span>. An
+Introduction to Ancient Mythology, Geography, Roman Antiquities, and
+History. With Notes and a Dictionary. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA LATINA, <span class="smcap">Part III. Latin Poetry</span>. 1. Easy
+Hexameters and Pentameters. 2. Eclog&aelig; Ovidian&aelig;. 3. Prosody and Metre.
+4. First Latin Verse Book. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA LATINA, <span class="smcap">Part IV. Latin Prose Composition</span>.
+Rules of Syntax, with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises
+on the Syntax. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA LATINA, <span class="smcap">Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes
+from Ancient History, for Translation into Latin Prose</span>. <i>3s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, with a Latin-English
+Dictionary to Ph&aelig;drus, Cornelius Nepos, and C&aelig;sar&#8217;s &#8216;Gallic War.&#8217; <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S LATIN GRAMMAR. By WM. SMITH,
+D.C.L., and THEOPHILUS D. HALL. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above
+Work. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">INITIA GR&AElig;CA, <span class="smcap">Part I. A First Greek Course</span>, containing
+Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. By DR. WM. SMITH.
+<i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">INITIA GR&AElig;CA, <span class="smcap">Part II. A Reading Book</span>; containing short
+Tales, Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. With a Lexicon.
+<i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">INITIA GR&AElig;CA, <span class="smcap">Part III. Greek Prose Composition</span>; containing
+the Rules of Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">THE STUDENT&#8217;S GREEK GRAMMAR. By PROFESSOR
+CURTIUS, and WM. SMITH, D.C.L. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">A SMALLER GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above
+Work. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<hr />
+
+<p class="indent">PRINCIPIA GR&AElig;CA. <span class="smcap">A First Greek Course.</span> A Grammar,
+Delectus, and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. By H. E. BUTTON, M.A.
+<i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">MATTHI&AElig;&#8217;S GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged by BLOMFIELD.
+Revised and enlarged, by <span class="smcap">E. S. Crooke</span>, B.A. <i>4s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">KING EDWARD VI.&#8217;S FIRST LATIN BOOK; including
+a Short Syntax and Prosody with an English Translation. <i>2s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">KING EDWARD VI.&#8217;S LATIN GRAMMAR. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS; designed for
+Early Proficients in the Art of Latin Versification. By REV. W. OXENHAM.
+<i>3s. 6d.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14a" id="Page_14a">14</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>LIST OF HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">THE CONTINENT, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;TRAVEL TALK,&mdash;<span class="smcap">English, French, German,
+and Italian</span>. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;NORTH GERMANY, <span class="smcap">Holland, Belgium,
+Prussia, and the Rhine to Switzerland</span>. With Map and Plans.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SOUTH GERMANY, <span class="smcap">The Tyrol, Bavaria,
+Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Hungary, and The Danube, from Ulm to the
+Black Sea</span>. With Map and Plans. <i>10s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SWITZERLAND, <span class="smcap">The Alps of Savoy and
+Piedmont</span>. With Maps and Plans. <i>10s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;FRANCE, <span class="smcap">Normandy, Brittany, The French
+Alps, Dauphine, Provence, and the Pyrenees</span>. With Maps. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;PARIS AND ITS ENVIRONS. With Map and
+Plans. <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> <span class="smcap">Murray&#8217;s Plan of Paris.</span> <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;CORSICA AND SARDINIA. With Map. <i>4s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SPAIN, <span class="smcap">Madrid, The Castiles, The Basque
+Provinces, Leon, The Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia,
+Ronda, Granada, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre,
+The Balearic Islands</span>, &amp;c., &amp;c. With Maps. 2 vols. <i>24s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;PORTUGAL, <span class="smcap">Lisbon, Porto, Cintra, Mafra</span>,
+&amp;c. With Map. <i>9s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;NORTH ITALY, <span class="smcap">Piedmont, Nice, Lombardy,
+Venice, Parma, Modena, and Romagna</span>. With Map and Plans. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;CENTRAL ITALY, <span class="smcap">Tuscany, Florence, Lucca,
+Umbria, The Marches, and the Patrimony of St. Peter</span>. With Map.
+<i>10s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;ROME AND ITS ENVIRONS. With Map and
+Plans. <i>9s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SOUTH ITALY, <span class="smcap">Two Sicilies, Naples, Pompeii,
+Herculaneum, Vesuvius, Abruzzi</span>, &amp;c. With Map. <i>10s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SICILY, <span class="smcap">Palermo, Messina, Catania, Syracuse,
+Etna, and the Ruins of the Greek Temples</span>. With Map. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;EGYPT, <span class="smcap">The Nile, Alexandria, Cairo,
+Thebes, and the Overland Route to India</span>. With Map. <i>15s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;GREECE, <span class="smcap">The Ionian Islands, Athens,
+Albania, Thessaly, and Macedonia</span>. With Map.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;<span class="smcap">Constantinople</span>, <span class="smcap">The Bosphorus</span>, <span class="smcap">Dardanelles</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Brousa, and Plain of Troy</span>, with General Hints for Travellers in Turkey,
+&amp;c. With Map.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15a" id="Page_15a">15</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;DENMARK, <span class="smcap">Norway, Sweden, and Iceland</span>.
+With Map and Plans.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;RUSSIA, <span class="smcap">St. Petersburg, Moscow, Finland</span>, &amp;c.
+With Map. <i>15s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;INDIA, <span class="smcap">Bombay and Madras</span>. With Map. 2 vols.
+<i>12s.</i> each.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;HOLY LAND, <span class="smcap">Syria, Palestine, Sinai, Edom,
+and the Syrian Deserts</span>. With Map. 2 vols. <i>24s.</i></p>
+
+<h4>KNAPSACK GUIDES FOR TRAVELLERS.</h4>
+
+<p class="indent">KNAPSACK GUIDE TO SWITZERLAND. With Plans. <i>5s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">KNAPSACK GUIDE TO NORWAY. With Map. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">KNAPSACK GUIDE TO ITALY. With Plans. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">KNAPSACK GUIDE TO THE TYROL. With Plans. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">ENGLAND AND WALES.</p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;LONDON AS IT IS. With Map and Plans.
+<i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;ESSEX, CAMBRIDGE, SUFFOLK, AND
+NORFOLK&mdash;<span class="smcap">Chelmsford, Colchester, Maldon, Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket,
+Bury, Ipswich, Woodbridge, Felixstowe, Lowestoft, Norwich,
+Yarmouth, Cromer</span>, &amp;c. With Maps and Plans. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
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+Ramsgate, Rochester, Chatham, Brighton, Chichester, Worthing, Hastings,
+Lewes, Arundel</span>. With Map. <i>10s.</i></p>
+
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+Reigate, Guildford, Dorking, Boxhill, Winchester, Southampton, Portsmouth,
+and The Isle of Wight</span>. With Map. <i>10s.</i></p>
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+Chippenham, Weymouth, Sherborne, Wells, Bath, Bristol,
+Taunton</span>, &amp;c. With Map. <i>10s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;DEVON AND CORNWALL&mdash;<span class="smcap">Exeter,
+Ilfracombe, Linton, Sidmouth, Dawlish, Teignmouth, Plymouth, Devonport,
+Torquay, Launceston, Penzance, Falmouth, The Lizard, Land&#8216;s
+End</span>, &amp;c. With Map. <i>10s.</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16a" id="Page_16a">16</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;GLOUCESTER, HEREFORD, AND
+WORCESTER&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cirencester, Cheltenham, Stroud, Tewkesbury, Leominster,
+Ross, Malvern, Kidderminster, Dudley, Bromsgrove, Evesham</span>.
+With Map. <i>6s. 6d.</i></p>
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+
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+STAFFORD&mdash;<span class="smcap">Matlock, Bakewell, Chatsworth, The Peak, Buxton,
+Hardwick, Dove Dale, Ashborne, Southwell, Mansfield, Retford,
+Burton, Belvoir, Melton Mowbray, Wolverhampton, Litchfield,
+Walsall, Tamworth</span>. With Map. <i>7s. 6d.</i></p>
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+Rochdale, Lancaster, Southport, Blackpool</span>, &amp;c. With Map. <i>10s.</i></p>
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+Bradford, Halifax, Huddersfield, Sheffield</span>. With Map. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
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+Darlington, Bishop Auckland, Stockton, Hartlepool, Sunderland,
+Shields, Berwick, Tynemouth, Alnwick</span>. With Map. <i>9s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;WESTMORLAND AND CUMBERLAND&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lancaster,
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+Map. <i>6s.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent"><sup>*</sup><sub>*</sub><sup>*</sup> <span class="smcap">Murray&#8216;s Map of the Lake District</span>, <i>3s. 6d.</i></p>
+
+<p class="indent">HANDBOOK&mdash;SCOTLAND&mdash;<span class="smcap">Edinburgh, Melrose, Kelso,
+Glasgow, Dumfries, Ayr, Stirling, Arran, The Clyde, Oban, Inverary,
+Loch Lomond, Loch Katrine and Trosachs, Caledonian Canal, Inverness,
+Perth, Dundee, Aberdeen, Braemar, Skye, Caithness, Ross, and
+Sutherland</span>. With Maps and Plans. <i>9s.</i></p>
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+Wexford, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Killarney, Munster</span>.
+With Map. <i>12s.</i></p>
+
+<h4>
+<span class="smcap">JOHN MURRAY, 50a, ALBEMARLE STREET.</span></h4>
+<hr />
+<h6>LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET,
+AND CHARING CROSS.</h6>
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<h3>TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES</h3>
+
+<p>Footnote 292 spells the city Charleston but the text has it as
+Charlestown. This is as in the original book.</p>
+
+<p>Inconsistent spelling of St. Petersburg/Petersburgh as in the original
+text.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
+Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st editio, by Charles Darwin
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
+Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st editio, by Charles Darwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, Vol. I (1st edition)
+
+Author: Charles Darwin
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34967]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DESCENT OF MAN AND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by StevenGibbs, Turgut Dincer and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN,
+
+AND
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+
+
+BY CHARLES DARWIN, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
+
+IN TWO VOLUMES.--VOL. I.
+
+WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+LONDON:
+
+JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
+
+1871.
+
+[_The right of Translation is reserved._]
+
+BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
+
+
+  ON THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURAL SELECTION; or, THE
+    PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES IN THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE; Fifth
+    Edition (_Tenth Thousand_), with Additions and Corrections.
+    1869. MURRAY.
+
+  THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. In two vols.
+    With Illustrations. 1868. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES BY WHICH BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE
+    FERTILISED BY INSECTS; and on the GOOD EFFECTS OF CROSSING. With
+    numerous Woodcuts. MURRAY.
+
+  A NATURALIST'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD; or, A JOURNAL OF RESEARCHES INTO
+    THE NATURAL HISTORY AND GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTRIES visited during the
+    voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle,' under the command of Captain FITZROY, R.N.
+    _Eleventh Thousand_. MURRAY.
+
+  ON THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. SMITH, ELDER, & CO.
+
+  GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. SMITH, ELDER & CO.
+
+  A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illustrations. 2 vols.
+    8vo. HARDWICKE.
+
+  ON THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF CLIMBING PLANTS. With Woodcuts. WILLIAMS
+    & NORGATE.
+
+
+LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING
+CROSS.
+
+
+
+
+  CONTENTS.
+
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                  Page 1-5
+
+
+  PART I.
+
+  ON THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man--Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals--Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence--Development--Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.--The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man                                                     9-33
+
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense--Certain instincts in common--The
+  emotions--Curiosity--Imitation--Attention--Memory--Imagination--
+  Reason--Progressive improvement--Tools and weapons used by
+  animals--Language--Self-consciousness--Sense of beauty--Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions                        34-69
+
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+    ANIMALS--_continued_.
+
+  The moral sense--Fundamental proposition--The qualities of
+  social animals--Origin of sociability--Struggle between opposed
+  instincts--Man and social animal--The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts--The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages--The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development--The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct--Transmission of moral tendencies--Summary                70-106
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man--Inheritance--Causes of
+  variability--Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals--Direct action of the conditions of life--Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts--Arrested
+  development--Reversion--Correlated variation--Rate of
+  increase--Checks to increase--Natural selection--Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world--Importance of his corporeal
+  structure--The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect--Consequent changes of structure--Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth--Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull--Nakedness--Absence of a tail--Defenceless condition of
+  man                                                            107-157
+
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES
+    DURING PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection--Importance of imitation--Social and moral
+  faculties--Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe--Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations--Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous    158-184
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+  Position of man in the animal series--The natural system
+  genealogical--Adaptive characters of slight value--Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana--Rank of man in the natural system--Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man--Absence of fossil connecting-links--Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure--Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata--Conclusion                         185-213
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters--Application to the
+  races of man--Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct species--Sub-species--
+  Monogenists and polygenists--Convergence of character--Numerous
+  points of resemblance in body and mind   between the most
+  distinct races of man--The state of man when he first spread
+  over the earth--Each race not descended from a single
+  pair--The extinction of races--The formation of races--
+  The effects of crossing--Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life--Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection--Sexual selection.                            214-250
+
+
+  PART II. SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.
+
+  PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+  Secondary sexual characters--Sexual selection--Manner of
+  action--Excess of males--Polygamy--The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection--Eagerness of the
+  male--Variability of the male--Choice exerted by the
+  female--Sexual compared with natural selection--Inheritance at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex--Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance--Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection--Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom--On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection                                      253-320
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL
+    KINGDOM.
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes--Brilliant
+  colours--Mollusca--Annelids--Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity--Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males--Myriapoda                            321-340
+
+
+  CHAPTER X.
+
+  SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females--Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood--Difference in size between the
+  sexes--Thysanura--Diptera--Hemiptera--Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone--Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours--Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour--Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours--Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes                          341-385
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI.
+
+  INSECTS, _continued_.--ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+  Courtship of butterflies--Battles--Ticking noise--Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males--Examples--Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life--Colours adapted for protection--Colours of
+  moths--Display--Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera--Variability--Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females--Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males--Bright colours of
+  caterpillars--Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects--Birds and insects compared        386-423
+
+
+
+
+THE DESCENT OF MAN;
+
+AND ON
+
+SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The nature of the following work will be best understood by a brief
+account of how it came to be written. During many years I collected
+notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of
+publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to
+publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices
+against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first
+edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work "light would be
+thrown on the origin of man and his history;" and this implies that man
+must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion
+respecting his manner of appearance on this earth. Now the case wears a
+wholly different aspect. When a naturalist like Carl Vogt ventures to
+say in his address as President of the National Institution of Geneva
+(1869), "personne, en Europe au moins, n'ose plus soutenir la creation
+independante et de toutes pieces, des especes," it is manifest that at
+least a large number of naturalists must admit that species are the
+modified descendants of other species; and this especially holds good
+with the younger and rising naturalists. The greater number accept the
+agency of natural selection; though some urge, whether with justice the
+future must decide, that I have greatly overrated its importance. Of the
+older and honoured chiefs in natural science, many unfortunately are
+still opposed to evolution in every form.
+
+In consequence of the views now adopted by most naturalists, and which
+will ultimately, as in every other case, be followed by other men, I
+have been led to put together my notes, so as to see how far the general
+conclusions arrived at in my former works were applicable to man. This
+seemed all the more desirable as I had never deliberately applied these
+views to a species taken singly. When we confine our attention to any
+one form, we are deprived of the weighty arguments derived from the
+nature of the affinities which connect together whole groups of
+organisms--their geographical distribution in past and present times,
+and their geological succession. The homological structure,
+embryological development, and rudimentary organs of a species, whether
+it be man or any other animal, to which our attention may be directed,
+remain to be considered; but these great classes of facts afford, as it
+appears to me, ample and conclusive evidence in favour of the principle
+of gradual evolution. The strong support derived from the other
+arguments should, however, always be kept before the mind.
+
+The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like
+every other species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly,
+the manner of his development; and thirdly, the value of the
+differences between the so-called races of man. As I shall confine
+myself to these points, it will not be necessary to describe in detail
+the differences between the several races--an enormous subject which has
+been fully discussed in many valuable works. The high antiquity of man
+has recently been demonstrated by the labours of a host of eminent men,
+beginning with M. Boucher de Perthes; and this is the indispensable
+basis for understanding his origin. I shall, therefore, take this
+conclusion for granted, and may refer my readers to the admirable
+treatises of Sir Charles Lyell, Sir John Lubbock, and others. Nor shall
+I have occasion to do more than to allude to the amount of difference
+between man and the anthropomorphous apes; for Prof. Huxley, in the
+opinion of most competent judges, has conclusively shewn that in every
+single visible character man differs less from the higher apes than
+these do from the lower members of the same order of Primates.
+
+This work contains hardly any original facts in regard to man; but as
+the conclusions at which I arrived, after drawing up a rough draft,
+appeared to me interesting, I thought that they might interest others.
+It has often and confidently been asserted, that man's origin can never
+be known: but ignorance more frequently begets confidence than does
+knowledge: it is those who know little, and not those who know much, who
+so positively assert that this or that problem will never be solved by
+science. The conclusion that man is the co-descendant with other species
+of some ancient, lower, and extinct form, is not in any degree new.
+Lamarck long ago came to this conclusion, which has lately been
+maintained by several eminent naturalists and philosophers; for instance
+by Wallace, Huxley, Lyell, Vogt, Lubbock, Buechner, Rolle, &c.,[1] and
+especially by Haeckel. This last naturalist, besides his great work,
+'Generelle Morphologie' (1866), has recently (1868, with a second edit.
+in 1870), published his 'Natuerliche Schoepfungsgeschichte,' in which he
+fully discusses the genealogy of man. If this work had appeared before
+my essay had been written, I should probably never have completed it.
+Almost all the conclusions at which I have arrived I find confirmed by
+this naturalist, whose knowledge on many points is much fuller than
+mine. Wherever I have added any fact or view from Prof. Haeckel's
+writings, I give his authority in the text, other statements I leave as
+they originally stood in my manuscript, occasionally giving in the
+foot-notes references to his works, as a confirmation of the more
+doubtful or interesting points.
+
+During many years it has seemed to me highly probable that sexual
+selection has played an important part in differentiating the races of
+man; but in my 'Origin of Species' (first edition, p. 199) I contented
+myself by merely alluding to this belief. When I came to apply this view
+to man, I found it indispensable to treat the whole subject in full
+detail.[2] Consequently the second part of the present work, treating of
+sexual selection, has extended to an inordinate length, compared with
+the first part; but this could not be avoided.
+
+I had intended adding to the present volumes an essay on the expression
+of the various emotions by man and the lower animals. My attention was
+called to this subject many years ago by Sir Charles Bell's admirable
+work. This illustrious anatomist maintains that man is endowed with
+certain muscles solely for the sake of expressing his emotions. As this
+view is obviously opposed to the belief that man is descended from some
+other and lower form, it was necessary for me to consider it. I likewise
+wished to ascertain how far the emotions are expressed in the same
+manner by the different races of man. But owing to the length of the
+present work, I have thought it better to reserve my essay, which is
+partially completed, for separate publication.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.
+
+THE DESCENT OR ORIGIN OF MAN.
+
+PART I.--THE DESCENT OF MAN.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE EVIDENCE OF THE DESCENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Nature of the evidence bearing on the origin of man--Homologous
+  structures in man and the lower animals--Miscellaneous points
+  of correspondence--Development--Rudimentary structures,
+  muscles, sense-organs, hair, bones, reproductive organs,
+  &c.--The bearing of these three great classes of facts on the
+  origin of man.
+
+
+He who wishes to decide whether man is the modified descendant of some
+pre-existing form, would probably first enquire whether man varies,
+however slightly, in bodily structure and in mental faculties; and if
+so, whether the variations are transmitted to his offspring in
+accordance with the laws which prevail with the lower animals; such as
+that of the transmission of characters to the same age or sex. Again,
+are the variations the result, as far as our ignorance permits us to
+judge, of the same general causes, and are they governed by the same
+general laws, as in the case of other organisms; for instance by
+correlation, the inherited effects of use and disuse, &c.? Is man
+subject to similar malconformations, the result of arrested development,
+of reduplication of parts, &c., and does he display in any of his
+anomalies reversion to some former and ancient type of structure? It
+might also naturally be enquired whether man, like so many other
+animals, has given rise to varieties and sub-races, differing but
+slightly from each other, or to races differing so much that they must
+be classed as doubtful species? How are such races distributed over the
+world; and how, when crossed, do they react on each other, both in the
+first and succeeding generations? And so with many other points.
+
+The enquirer would next come to the important point, whether man tends
+to increase at so rapid a rate, as to lead to occasional severe
+struggles for existence, and consequently to beneficial variations,
+whether in body or mind, being preserved, and injurious ones eliminated.
+Do the races or species of men, whichever term may be applied, encroach
+on and replace each other, so that some finally become extinct? We shall
+see that all these questions, as indeed is obvious in respect to most of
+them, must be answered in the affirmative, in the same manner as with
+the lower animals. But the several considerations just referred to may
+be conveniently deferred for a time; and we will first see how far the
+bodily structure of man shows traces, more or less plain, of his descent
+from some lower form. In the two succeeding chapters the mental powers
+of man, in comparison with those of the lower animals, will be
+considered.
+
+
+_The Bodily Structure of Man._--It is notorious that man is constructed
+on the same general type or model with other mammals. All the bones in
+his skeleton can be compared with corresponding bones in a monkey, bat,
+or seal. So it is with his muscles, nerves, blood-vessels and internal
+viscera. The brain, the most important of all the organs, follows the
+same law, as shewn by Huxley and other anatomists. Bischoff,[3] who is a
+hostile witness, admits that every chief fissure and fold in the brain
+of man has its analogy in that of the orang; but he adds that at no
+period of development do their brains perfectly agree; nor could this be
+expected, for otherwise their mental powers would have been the same.
+Vulpian[4] remarks: "Les differences reelles qui existent entre
+l'encephale de l'homme et celui des singes superieurs, sont bien
+minimes. Il ne faut pas se faire d'illusions a cet egard. L'homme est
+bien plus pres des singes anthropomorphes par les caracteres anatomiques
+de son cerveau que ceux-ci ne le sont non-seulement des autres
+mammiferes, mais memes de certains quadrumanes, des guenons et des
+macaques." But it would be superfluous here to give further details on
+the correspondence between man and the higher mammals in the structure
+of the brain and all other parts of the body.
+
+It may, however, be worth while to specify a few points, not directly or
+obviously connected with structure, by which this correspondence or
+relationship is well shewn.
+
+Man is liable to receive from the lower animals, and to communicate to
+them, certain diseases as hydrophobia, variola, the glanders, &c.; and
+this fact proves the close similarity of their tissues and blood, both
+in minute structure and composition, far more plainly than does their
+comparison under the best microscope, or by the aid of the best chemical
+analysis. Monkeys are liable to many of the same non-contagious diseases
+as we are; thus Rengger,[5] who carefully observed for a long time the
+_Cebus Azarae_ in its native land, found it liable to catarrh, with the
+usual symptoms, and which when often recurrent led to consumption.
+These monkeys suffered also from apoplexy, inflammation of the bowels,
+and cataract in the eye. The younger ones when shedding their milk-teeth
+often died from fever. Medicines produced the same effect on them as on
+us. Many kinds of monkeys have a strong taste for tea, coffee, and
+spirituous liquors: they will also, as I have myself seen, smoke tobacco
+with pleasure. Brehm asserts that the natives of north-eastern Africa
+catch the wild baboons by exposing vessels with strong beer, by which
+they are made drunk. He has seen some of these animals, which he kept in
+confinement, in this state; and he gives a laughable account of their
+behaviour and strange grimaces. On the following morning they were very
+cross and dismal; they held their aching heads with both hands and wore
+a most pitiable expression: when beer or wine was offered them, they
+turned away with disgust, but relished the juice of lemons.[6] An
+American monkey, an Ateles, after getting drunk on brandy, would never
+touch it again, and thus was wiser than many men. These trifling facts
+prove how similar the nerves of taste must be in monkeys and man, and
+how similarly their whole nervous system is affected.
+
+Man is infested with internal parasites, sometimes causing fatal
+effects, and is plagued by external parasites, all of which belong to
+the same genera or families with those infesting other mammals. Man is
+subject like other mammals, birds, and even insects, to that mysterious
+law, which causes certain normal processes, such as gestation, as well
+as the maturation and duration of various diseases, to follow lunar
+periods.[7] His wounds are repaired by the same process of healing; and
+the stumps left after the amputation of his limbs occasionally possess,
+especially during an early embryonic period, some power of regeneration,
+as in the lowest animals.[8]
+
+The whole process of that most important function, the reproduction of
+the species, is strikingly the same in all mammals, from the first act
+of courtship by the male[9] to the birth and nurturing of the young.
+Monkeys are born in almost as helpless a condition as our own infants;
+and in certain genera the young differ fully as much in appearance from
+the adults, as do our children from their full-grown parents.[10] It has
+been urged by some writers as an important distinction, that with man
+the young arrive at maturity at a much later age than with any other
+animal; but if we look to the races of mankind which inhabit tropical
+countries the difference is not great, for the orang is believed not to
+be adult till the age of from ten to fifteen years.[11] Man differs
+from woman in size, bodily strength, hairyness, &c., as well as in mind,
+in the same manner as do the two sexes of many mammals. It is, in short,
+scarcely possible to exaggerate the close correspondence in general
+structure, in the minute structure of the tissues, in chemical
+composition and in constitution, between man and the higher animals,
+especially the anthropomorphous apes.
+
+
+_Embryonic Development._--Man is developed from an ovule, about the
+125th of an inch in diameter, which differs in no respect from the
+ovules of other animals. The embryo itself at a very early period can
+hardly be distinguished from that of other members of the vertebrate
+kingdom. At this period the arteries run in arch-like branches, as if to
+carry the blood to branchiae which are not present in the higher
+vertebrata, though the slits on the sides of the neck still remain (_f_,
+_g_, fig. 1), marking their former position. At a somewhat later period,
+when the extremities are developed, "the feet of lizards and mammals,"
+as the illustrious Von Baer remarks, "the wings and feet of birds, no
+less than the hands and feet of man, all arise from the same fundamental
+form." It is, says Prof. Huxley,[12] "quite in the later stages of
+development that the young human being presents marked differences from
+the young ape, while the latter departs as much from the dog in its
+developments, as the man does. Startling as this last assertion may
+appear to be, it is demonstrably true."
+
+As some of my readers may never have seen a drawing of an embryo, I have
+given one of man and another of a dog, at about the same early stage of
+development, carefully copied from two works of undoubted accuracy.[13]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Upper figure human embryo, from Ecker. Lower
+figure that of a dog, from Bischoff.
+
+  _a._ Fore-brain, cerebral hemispheres, &c.
+  _b._ Mid-brain, corpora quadrigemina.
+  _c._ Hind-brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata.
+  _d._ Eye.
+  _e._ Ear.
+  _f._ First visceral arch.
+  _g._ Second visceral arch.
+   H. Vertebral columns and muscles in process of development.
+  _i._ Anterior {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT DOWN AND LEFT~}
+                {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT VERTICAL~} extremities.
+   K. Posterior {~BOX DRAWINGS LIGHT UP AND LEFT~}
+   L. Tail or os coccyx.]
+
+After the foregoing statements made by such high authorities, it would
+be superfluous on my part to give a number of borrowed details, shewing
+that the embryo of man closely resembles that of other mammals. It may,
+however, be added that the human embryo likewise resembles in various
+points of structure certain low forms when adult. For instance, the
+heart at first exists as a simple pulsating vessel; the excreta are
+voided through a cloacal passage; and the os coccyx projects like a true
+tail, "extending considerably beyond the rudimentary legs."[14] In the
+embryos of all air-breathing vertebrates, certain glands called the
+corpora Wolffiana, correspond with and act like the kidneys of mature
+fishes.[15] Even at a later embryonic period, some striking resemblances
+between man and the lower animals may be observed. Bischoff says that
+the convolutions of the brain in a human foetus at the end of the
+seventh month reach about the same stage of development as in a baboon
+when adult.[16] The great toe, as Prof. Owen remarks,[17] "which forms
+the fulcrum when standing or walking, is perhaps the most
+characteristic peculiarity in the human structure;" but in an embryo,
+about an inch in length, Prof. Wyman[18] found "that the great toe was
+shorter than the others, and, instead of being parallel to them,
+projected at an angle from the side of the foot, thus corresponding with
+the permanent condition of this part in the quadrumana." I will conclude
+with a quotation from Huxley,[19] who after asking, does man originate
+in a different way from a dog, bird, frog or fish? says, "the reply is
+not doubtful for a moment; without question, the mode of origin and the
+early stages of the development of man are identical with those of the
+animals immediately below him in the scale: without a doubt in these
+respects, he is far nearer to apes, than the apes are to the dog."
+
+
+_Rudiments._--This subject, though not intrinsically more important than
+the two last, will for several reasons be here treated with more
+fullness.[20] Not one of the higher animals can be named which does not
+bear some part in a rudimentary condition; and man forms no exception to
+the rule. Rudimentary organs must be distinguished from those that are
+nascent; though in some cases the distinction is not easy. The former
+are either absolutely useless, such as the mammae of male quadrupeds, or
+the incisor teeth of ruminants which never cut through the gums; or they
+are of such slight service to their present possessors, that we cannot
+suppose that they were developed under the conditions which now exist.
+Organs in this latter state are not strictly rudimentary, but they are
+tending in this direction. Nascent organs, on the other hand, though not
+fully developed, are of high service to their possessors, and are
+capable of further development. Rudimentary organs are eminently
+variable; and this is partly intelligible, as they are useless or nearly
+useless, and consequently are no longer subjected to natural selection.
+They often become wholly suppressed. When this occurs, they are
+nevertheless liable to occasional reappearance through reversion; and
+this is a circumstance well worthy of attention.
+
+Disuse at that period of life, when an organ is chiefly used, and this
+is generally during maturity, together with inheritance at a
+corresponding period of life, seem to have been the chief agents in
+causing organs to become rudimentary. The term "disuse" does not relate
+merely to the lessened action of muscles, but includes a diminished flow
+of blood to a part or organ, from being subjected to fewer alternations
+of pressure, or from becoming in any way less habitually active.
+Rudiments, however, may occur in one sex of parts normally present in
+the other sex; and such rudiments, as we shall hereafter see, have often
+originated in a distinct manner. In some cases organs have been reduced
+by means of natural selection, from having become injurious to the
+species under changed habits of life. The process of reduction is
+probably often aided through the two principles of compensation and
+economy of growth; but the later stages of reduction, after disuse has
+done all that can fairly be attributed to it, and when the saving to be
+effected by the economy of growth would be very small,[21] are difficult
+to understand. The final and complete suppression of a part, already
+useless and much reduced in size, in which case neither compensation nor
+economy can come into play, is perhaps intelligible by the aid of the
+hypothesis of pangenesis, and apparently in no other way. But as the
+whole subject of rudimentary organs has been fully discussed and
+illustrated in my former works,[22] I need here say no more on this
+head.
+
+Rudiments of various muscles have been observed in many parts of the
+human body;[23] and not a few muscles, which are regularly present in
+some of the lower animals can occasionally be detected in man in a
+greatly reduced condition. Every one must have noticed the power which
+many animals, especially horses, possess of moving or twitching their
+skin; and this is effected by the panniculus carnosus. Remnants of this
+muscle in an efficient state are found in various parts of our bodies;
+for instance, on the forehead, by which the eyebrows are raised. The
+_platysma myoides_, which is well developed on the neck, belongs to this
+system, but cannot be voluntarily brought into action. Prof. Turner, of
+Edinburgh, has occasionally detected, as he informs me, muscular
+fasciculi in five different situations, namely in the axillae, near the
+scapulae, &c., all of which must be referred to the system of the
+panniculus. He has also shewn[24] that the _musculus sternalis_ or
+_sternalis brutorum_, which is not an extension of the _rectus
+abdominalis_, but is closely allied to the panniculus, occurred in the
+proportion of about 3 per cent. in upwards of 600 bodies: he adds, that
+this muscle affords "an excellent illustration of the statement that
+occasional and rudimentary structures are especially liable to variation
+in arrangement."
+
+Some few persons have the power of contracting the superficial muscles
+on their scalps; and these muscles are in a variable and partially
+rudimentary condition. M. A. de Candolle has communicated to me a
+curious instance of the long-continued persistence or inheritance of
+this power, as well as of its unusual development. He knows a family, in
+which one member, the present head of a family, could, when a youth,
+pitch several heavy books from his head by the movement of the scalp
+alone; and he won wagers by performing this feat. His father, uncle,
+grandfather, and all his three children possess the same power to the
+same unusual degree. This family became divided eight generations ago
+into two branches; so that the head of the above-mentioned branch is
+cousin in the seventh degree to the head of the other branch. This
+distant cousin resides in another part of France, and on being asked
+whether he possessed the same faculty, immediately exhibited his power.
+This case offers a good illustration how persistently an absolutely
+useless faculty may be transmitted.
+
+The extrinsic muscles which serve to move the whole external ear, and
+the intrinsic muscles which move the different parts, all of which
+belong to the system of the panniculus, are in a rudimentary condition
+in man; they are also variable in development, or at least in function.
+I have seen one man who could draw his ears forwards, and another who
+could draw them backwards;[25] and from what one of these persons told
+me, it is probable that most of us by often touching our ears and thus
+directing our attention towards them, could by repeated trials recover
+some power of movement. The faculty of erecting the ears and of
+directing them to different points of the compass, is no doubt of the
+highest service to many animals, as they thus perceive the point of
+danger; but I have never heard of a man who possessed the least power of
+erecting his ears,--the one movement which might be of use to him. The
+whole external shell of the ear may be considered a rudiment, together
+with the various folds and prominences (helix and anti-helix, tragus and
+anti-tragus, &c.) which in the lower animals strengthen and support the
+ear when erect, without adding much to its weight. Some authors,
+however, suppose that the cartilage of the shell serves to transmit
+vibrations to the acoustic nerve; but Mr. Toynbee,[26] after collecting
+all the known evidence on this head, concludes that the external shell
+is of no distinct use. The ears of the chimpanzee and orang are
+curiously like those of man, and I am assured by the keepers in the
+Zoological Gardens that these animals never move or erect them; so that
+they are in an equally rudimentary condition, as far as function is
+concerned, as in man. Why these animals, as well as the progenitors of
+man, should have lost the power of erecting their ears we cannot say. It
+may be, though I am not quite satisfied with this view, that owing to
+their arboreal habits and great strength they were but little exposed to
+danger, and so during a lengthened period moved their ears but little,
+and thus gradually lost the power of moving them. This would be a
+parallel case with that of those large and heavy birds, which from
+inhabiting oceanic islands have not been exposed to the attacks of
+beasts of prey, and have consequently lost the power of using their
+wings for flight.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2. Human Ear, modelled and drawn by Mr. Woolner.
+
+_a._ The projecting point.]
+
+The celebrated sculptor, Mr. Woolner, informs me of one little
+peculiarity in the external ear, which he has often observed both in men
+and women, and of which he perceived the full signification. His
+attention was first called to the subject whilst at work on his figure
+of Puck, to which he had given pointed ears. He was thus led to examine
+the ears of various monkeys, and subsequently more carefully those of
+man. The peculiarity consists in a little blunt point, projecting from
+the inwardly folded margin, or helix. Mr. Woolner made an exact model of
+one such case, and has sent me the accompanying drawing. (Fig. 2.) These
+points not only project inwards, but often a little outwards, so that
+they are visible when the head is viewed from directly in front or
+behind. They are variable in size and somewhat in position, standing
+either a little higher or lower; and they sometimes occur on one ear and
+not on the other. Now the meaning of these projections is not, I think,
+doubtful; but it may be thought that they offer too trifling a character
+to be worth notice. This thought, however, is as false as it is natural.
+Every character, however slight, must be the result of some definite
+cause; and if it occurs in many individuals deserves consideration. The
+helix obviously consists of the extreme margin of the ear folded
+inwards; and this folding appears to be in some manner connected with
+the whole external ear being permanently pressed backwards. In many
+monkeys, which do not stand high in the order, as baboons and some
+species of macacus,[27] the upper portion of the ear is slightly
+pointed, and the margin is not at all folded inwards; but if the margin
+were to be thus folded, a slight point would necessarily project inwards
+and probably a little outwards. This could actually be observed in a
+specimen of the _Ateles beelzebuth_ in the Zoological Gardens; and we
+may safely conclude that it is a similar structure--a vestige of
+formerly pointed ears--which occasionally reappears in man.
+
+The nictitating membrane, or third eyelid, with its accessory muscles
+and other structures, is especially well developed in birds, and is of
+much functional importance to them, as it can be rapidly drawn across
+the whole eye-ball. It is found in some reptiles and amphibians, and in
+certain fishes, as in sharks. It is fairly well developed in the two
+lower divisions of the mammalian series, namely, in the monotremata and
+marsupials, and in some few of the higher mammals, as in the walrus. But
+in man, the quadrumana, and most other mammals, it exists, as is
+admitted by all anatomists, as a mere rudiment, called the semilunar
+fold.[28]
+
+The sense of smell is of the highest importance to the greater number of
+mammals--to some, as the ruminants, in warning them of danger; to
+others, as the carnivora, in finding their prey; to others, as the wild
+boar, for both purposes combined. But the sense of smell is of extremely
+slight service, if any, even to savages, in whom it is generally more
+highly developed than in the civilised races. It does not warn them of
+danger, nor guide them to their food; nor does it prevent the Esquimaux
+from sleeping in the most fetid atmosphere, nor many savages from eating
+half-putrid meat. Those who believe in the principle of gradual
+evolution, will not readily admit that this sense in its present state
+was originally acquired by man, as he now exists. No doubt he inherits
+the power in _an_ enfeebled and so far rudimentary condition, from some
+early progenitor, to whom it was highly serviceable and by whom it was
+continually used. We can thus perhaps understand how it is, as Dr.
+Maudsley has truly remarked,[29] that the sense of smell in man "is
+singularly effective in recalling vividly the ideas and images of
+forgotten scenes and places;" for we see in those animals, which have
+this sense highly developed, such as dogs and horses, that old
+recollections of persons and places are strongly associated with their
+odour.
+
+Man differs conspicuously from all the other Primates in being almost
+naked. But a few short straggling hairs are found over the greater part
+of the body in the male sex, and fine down on that of the female sex, In
+individuals belonging to the same race these hairs are highly variable,
+not only in abundance, but likewise in position: thus the shoulders in
+some Europeans are quite naked, whilst in others they bear thick tufts
+of hair.[30] There can be little doubt that the hairs thus scattered
+over the body are the rudiments of the uniform hairy coat of the lower
+animals. This view is rendered all the more probable, as it is known
+that fine, short, and pale-coloured hairs on the limbs and other parts
+of the body occasionally become developed into "thickset, long, and
+rather coarse dark hairs," when abnormally nourished near old-standing
+inflamed surfaces.[31]
+
+I am informed by Mr. Paget that persons belonging to the same family
+often have a few hairs in their eyebrows much longer than the others; so
+that this slight peculiarity seems to be inherited. These hairs
+apparently represent the vibrissae, which are used as organs of touch by
+many of the lower animals. In a young chimpanzee I observed that a few
+upright, rather long, hairs, projected above the eyes, where the true
+eyebrows, if present, would have stood.
+
+The fine wool-like hair, or so-called lanugo, with which the human
+foetus during the sixth month is thickly covered, offers a more
+curious case. It is first developed, during the fifth month, on the
+eyebrows and face, and especially round the mouth, where it is much
+longer than that on the head. A moustache of this kind was observed by
+Eschricht[32] on a female foetus; but this is not so surprising a
+circumstance as it may at first appear, for the two sexes generally
+resemble each other in all external characters during an early period of
+growth. The direction and arrangement of the hairs on all parts of the
+foetal body are the same as in the adult, but are subject to much
+variability. The whole surface, including even the forehead and ears, is
+thus thickly clothed; but it is a significant fact that the palms of the
+hands and the soles of the feet are quite naked, like the inferior
+surfaces of all four extremities in most of the lower animals. As this
+can hardly be an accidental coincidence, we must consider the woolly
+covering of the foetus to be the rudimental representative of the
+first permanent coat of hair in those mammals which are born hairy. This
+representation is much more complete, in accordance with the usual law
+of embryological development, than that afforded by the straggling hairs
+on the body of the adult.
+
+It appears as if the posterior molar or wisdom-teeth were tending to
+become rudimentary in the more civilised races of man. These teeth are
+rather smaller than the other molars, as is likewise the case with the
+corresponding teeth in the chimpanzee and orang; and they have only two
+separate fangs. They do not cut through the gums till about the
+seventeenth year, and I am assured by dentists that they are much more
+liable to decay, and are earlier lost, than the other teeth. It is also
+remarkable that they are much more liable to vary both in structure and
+in the period of their development than the other teeth.[33] In the
+Melanian races, on the other hand, the wisdom-teeth are usually
+furnished with three separate fangs, and are generally sound: they also
+differ from the other molars in size less than in the Caucasian
+races.[34] Prof. Schaaffhausen accounts for this difference between the
+races by "the posterior dental portion of the jaw being always
+shortened" in those that are civilised,[35] and this shortening may, I
+presume, be safely attributed to civilised men habitually feeding on
+soft, cooked food, and thus using their jaws less. I am informed by Mr.
+Brace that it is becoming quite a common practice in the United States
+to remove some of the molar teeth of children, as the jaw does not grow
+large enough for the perfect development of the normal number.
+
+With respect to the alimentary canal I have met with an account of only
+a single rudiment, namely the vermiform appendage of the caecum. The
+caecum is a branch or diverticulum of the intestine, ending in a
+cul-de-sac, and it is extremely long in many of the lower
+vegetable-feeding mammals. In the marsupial koala it is actually more
+than thrice as long as the whole body.[36] It is sometimes produced into
+a long gradually-tapering point, and is sometimes constricted in parts.
+It appears as if, in consequence of changed diet or habits, the caecum
+had become much shortened in various animals, the vermiform appendage
+being left as a rudiment of the shortened part. That this appendage is a
+rudiment, we may infer from its small size, and from the evidence which
+Prof. Canestrini[37] has collected of its variability in man. It is
+occasionally quite absent, or again is largely developed. The passage is
+sometimes completely closed for half or two-thirds of its length, with
+the terminal part consisting of a flattened solid expansion. In the
+orang this appendage is long and convoluted: in man it arises from the
+end of the short caecum, and is commonly from four to five inches in
+length, being only about the third of an inch in diameter. Not only is
+it useless, but it is sometimes the cause of death, of which fact I have
+lately heard two instances: this is due to small hard bodies, such as
+seeds, entering the passage and causing inflammation.[38]
+
+In the Quadrumana and some other orders of mammals, especially in the
+Carnivora, there is a passage near the lower end of the humerus, called
+the supra-condyloid foramen, through which the great nerve of the fore
+limb passes, and often the great artery. Now in the humerus of man, as
+Dr. Struthers[39] and others have shewn, there is generally a trace of
+this passage, and it is sometimes fairly well developed, being formed by
+a depending hook-like process of bone, completed by a band of ligament.
+When present the great nerve invariably passes through it, and this
+clearly indicates that it is the homologue and rudiment of the
+supra-condyloid foramen of the lower animals. Prof. Turner estimates, as
+he informs me, that it occurs in about one per cent. of recent
+skeletons; but during ancient times it appears to have been much more
+common. Mr. Busk[40] has collected the following evidence on this head:
+Prof. Broca "noticed the perforation in four and a half per cent. of the
+arm-bones collected in the 'Cimetiere du Sud' at Paris; and in the
+Grotto of Orrony, the contents of which are referred to the Bronze
+period, as many as eight humeri out of thirty-two were perforated; but
+this extraordinary proportion, he thinks, might be due to the cavern
+having been a sort of 'family vault.' Again, M. Dupont found 30 per
+cent. of perforated bones in the caves of the Valley of the Lesse,
+belonging to the Reindeer period; whilst M. Leguay, in a sort of
+_dolmen_ at Argenteuil, observed twenty-five per cent. to be perforated;
+and M. Pruner-Bey found twenty-six per cent. in the same condition in
+bones from Vaureal. Nor should it be left unnoticed that M. Pruner-Bey
+states that this condition is common in Guanche skeletons." The fact
+that ancient races, in this and several other cases, more frequently
+present structures which resemble those of the lower animals than do the
+modern races, is interesting. One chief cause seems to be that ancient
+races stand somewhat nearer than modern races in the long line of
+descent to their remote animal-like progenitors.
+
+The os coccyx in man, though functionless as a tail, plainly represents
+this part in other vertebrate animals. At an early embryonic period it
+is free, and, as we have seen, projects beyond the lower extremities. In
+certain rare and anomalous cases it has been known, according to Isidore
+Geoffroy St.-Hilaire and others,[41] to form a small external rudiment
+of a tail. The os coccyx is short, usually including only four vertebrae:
+and these are in a rudimental condition, for they consist, with the
+exception of the basal one, of the centrum alone.[42] They are furnished
+with some small muscles; one of which, as I am informed by Prof. Turner,
+has been expressly described by Theile as a rudimentary repetition of
+the extensor of the tail, which is so largely developed in many mammals.
+
+The spinal cord in man extends only as far downwards as the last dorsal
+or first lumbar vertebra; but a thread-like structure (the _filum
+terminale_) runs down the axis of the sacral part of the spinal canal,
+and even along the back of the coccygeal bones. The upper part of this
+filament, as Prof. Turner informs me, is undoubtedly homologous with the
+spinal cord; but the lower part apparently consists merely of the _pia
+mater_, or vascular investing membrane. Even in this case the os coccyx
+may be said to possess a vestige of so important a structure as the
+spinal cord, though no longer enclosed within a bony canal. The
+following fact, for which I am also indebted to Prof. Turner, shews how
+closely the os coccyx corresponds with the true tail in the lower
+animals: Luschka has recently discovered at the extremity of the
+coccygeal bones a very peculiar convoluted body, which is continuous
+with the middle sacral artery; and this discovery led Krause and Meyer
+to examine the tail of a monkey (Macacus) and of a cat, in both of which
+they found, though not at the extremity, a similarly convoluted body.
+
+The reproductive system offers various rudimentary structures; but these
+differ in one important respect from the foregoing cases. We are not
+here concerned with a vestige of a part which does not belong to the
+species in an efficient state; but with a part which is always present
+and efficient in the one sex, being represented in the other by a mere
+rudiment. Nevertheless, the occurrence of such rudiments is as difficult
+to explain on the belief of the separate creation of each species, as in
+the foregoing cases. Hereafter I shall have to recur to these rudiments,
+and shall shew that their presence generally depends merely on
+inheritance; namely, on parts acquired by one sex having been partially
+transmitted to the other. Here I will only give some instances of such
+rudiments. It is well known that in the males of all mammals, including
+man, rudimentary mammae exist. These in several instances have become
+well developed, and have yielded a copious supply of milk. Their
+essential identity in the two sexes is likewise shewn by their
+occasional sympathetic enlargement in both during an attack of the
+measles. The _vesicula prostatica_, which has been observed in many
+male mammals, is now universally acknowledged to be the homologue of the
+female uterus, together with the connected passage. It is impossible to
+read Leuckart's able description of this organ, and his reasoning,
+without admitting the justness of his conclusion. This is especially
+clear in the case of those mammals in which the true female uterus
+bifurcates, for in the males of these the vesicula likewise
+bifurcates.[43] Some additional rudimentary structures belonging to the
+reproductive system might here have been adduced.[44]
+
+
+The bearing of the three great classes of facts now given is
+unmistakeable. But it would be superfluous here fully to recapitulate
+the line of argument given in detail in my 'Origin of Species.' The
+homological construction of the whole frame in the members of the same
+class is intelligible, if we admit their descent from a common
+progenitor, together with their subsequent adaptation to diversified
+conditions. On any other view the similarity of pattern between the hand
+of a man or monkey, the foot of a horse, the flipper of a seal, the wing
+of a bat, &c., is utterly inexplicable. It is no scientific explanation
+to assert that they have all been formed on the same ideal plan. With
+respect to development, we can clearly understand, on the principle of
+variations supervening at a rather late embryonic period, and being
+inherited at a corresponding period, how it is that the embryos of
+wonderfully different forms should still retain, more or less perfectly,
+the structure of their common progenitor. No other explanation has ever
+been given of the marvellous fact that the embryo of a man, dog, seal,
+bat, reptile, &c., can at first hardly be distinguished from each other.
+In order to understand the existence of rudimentary organs, we have only
+to suppose that a former progenitor possessed the parts in question in a
+perfect state, and that under changed habits of life they became greatly
+reduced, either from simple disuse, or through the natural selection of
+those individuals which were least encumbered with a superfluous part,
+aided by the other means previously indicated.
+
+Thus we can understand how it has come to pass that man and all other
+vertebrate animals have been constructed on the same general model, why
+they pass through the same early stages of development, and why they
+retain certain rudiments in common. Consequently we ought frankly to
+admit their community of descent: to take any other view, is to admit
+that our own structure and that of all the animals around us, is a mere
+snare laid to entrap our judgment. This conclusion is greatly
+strengthened, if we look to the members of the whole animal series, and
+consider the evidence derived from their affinities or classification,
+their geographical distribution and geological succession. It is only
+our natural prejudice, and that arrogance which made our forefathers
+declare that they were descended from demi-gods, which leads us to demur
+to this conclusion. But the time will before long come when it will be
+thought wonderful, that naturalists, who were well acquainted with the
+comparative structure and development of man and other mammals, should
+have believed that each was the work of a separate act of creation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER ANIMALS.
+
+
+  The difference in mental power between the highest ape and the
+  lowest savage, immense--Certain instincts in common--The
+  emotions--Curiosity--Imitation--Attention--Memory--Imagination
+  --Reason--Progressive improvement--Tools and weapons used by
+  animals--Language--Self-consciousness--Sense of beauty--Belief
+  in God, spiritual agencies, superstitions.
+
+
+We have seen in the last chapter that man bears in his bodily structure
+clear traces of his descent from some lower form; but it may be urged
+that, as man differs so greatly in his mental power from all other
+animals, there must be some error in this conclusion. No doubt the
+difference in this respect is enormous, even if we compare the mind of
+one of the lowest savages, who has no words to express any number higher
+than four, and who uses no abstract terms for the commonest objects or
+affections,[45] with that of the most highly organised ape. The
+difference would, no doubt, still remain immense, even if one of the
+higher apes had been improved or civilised as much as a dog has been in
+comparison with its parent-form, the wolf or jackal. The Fuegians rank
+amongst the lowest barbarians; but I was continually struck with
+surprise how closely the three natives on board H.M.S. "Beagle," who had
+lived some years in England and could talk a little English, resembled
+us in disposition and in most of our mental faculties. If no organic
+being excepting man had possessed any mental power, or if his powers had
+been of a wholly different nature from those of the lower animals, then
+we should never have been able to convince ourselves that our high
+faculties had been gradually developed. But it can be clearly shewn that
+there is no fundamental difference of this kind. We must also admit that
+there is a much wider interval in mental power between one of the lowest
+fishes, as a lamprey or lancelet, and one of the higher apes, than
+between an ape and man; yet this immense interval is filled up by
+numberless gradations.
+
+Nor is the difference slight in moral disposition between a barbarian,
+such as the man described by the old navigator Byron, who dashed his
+child on the rocks for dropping a basket of sea-urchins, and a Howard or
+Clarkson; and in intellect, between a savage who does not use any
+abstract terms, and a Newton or Shakspeare. Differences of this kind
+between the highest men of the highest races and the lowest savages, are
+connected by the finest gradations. Therefore it is possible that they
+might pass and be developed into each other.
+
+My object in this chapter is solely to shew that there is no fundamental
+difference between man and the higher mammals in their mental faculties.
+Each division of the subject might have been extended into a separate
+essay, but must here be treated briefly. As no classification of the
+mental powers has been universally accepted, I shall arrange my remarks
+in the order most convenient for my purpose; and will select those facts
+which have most struck me, with the hope that they may produce some
+effect on the reader.
+
+With respect to animals very low in the scale, I shall have to give some
+additional facts under Sexual Selection, shewing that their mental
+powers are higher than might have been expected. The variability of the
+faculties in the individuals of the same species is an important point
+for us, and some few illustrations will here be given. But it would be
+superfluous to enter into many details on this head, for I have found on
+frequent enquiry, that it is the unanimous opinion of all those who have
+long attended to animals of many kinds, including birds, that the
+individuals differ greatly in every mental characteristic. In what
+manner the mental powers were first developed in the lowest organisms,
+is as hopeless an enquiry as how life first originated. These are
+problems for the distant future, if they are ever to be solved by man.
+
+As man possesses the same senses with the lower animals, his fundamental
+intuitions must be the same. Man has also some few instincts in common,
+as that of self-preservation, sexual love, the love of the mother for
+her new-born offspring, the power possessed by the latter of sucking,
+and so forth. But man, perhaps, has somewhat fewer instincts than those
+possessed by the animals which come next to him in the series. The orang
+in the Eastern islands, and the chimpanzee in Africa, build platforms on
+which they sleep; and, as both species follow the same habit, it might
+be argued that this was due to instinct, but we cannot feel sure that it
+is not the result of both animals having similar wants and possessing
+similar powers of reasoning. These apes, as we may assume, avoid the
+many poisonous fruits of the tropics, and man has no such knowledge; but
+as our domestic animals, when taken to foreign lands and when first
+turned out in the spring, often eat poisonous herbs, which they
+afterwards avoid, we cannot feel sure that the apes do not learn from
+their own experience or from that of their parents what fruits to
+select. It is however certain, as we shall presently see, that apes
+have an instinctive dread of serpents, and probably of other dangerous
+animals.
+
+The fewness and the comparative simplicity of the instincts in the
+higher animals are remarkable in contrast with those of the lower
+animals. Cuvier maintained that instinct and intelligence stand in an
+inverse ratio to each other; and some have thought that the intellectual
+faculties of the higher animals have been gradually developed from their
+instincts. But Pouchet, in an interesting essay,[46] has shewn that no
+such inverse ratio really exists. Those insects which possess the most
+wonderful instincts are certainly the most intelligent. In the
+vertebrate series, the least intelligent members, namely fishes and
+amphibians, do not possess complex instincts; and amongst mammals the
+animal most remarkable for its instincts, namely the beaver, is highly
+intelligent, as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Morgan's
+excellent account of this animal.[47]
+
+Although the first dawnings of intelligence, according to Mr. Herbert
+Spencer,[48] have been developed through the multiplication and
+co-ordination of reflex actions, and although many of the simpler
+instincts graduate into actions of this kind and can hardly be
+distinguished from them, as in the case of young animals sucking, yet
+the more complex instincts seem to have originated independently of
+intelligence. I am, however, far from wishing to deny that instinctive
+actions may lose their fixed and untaught character, and be replaced by
+others performed by the aid of the free will. On the other hand, some
+intelligent actions--as when, birds on oceanic islands first learn to
+avoid man--after being performed during many generations, become
+converted into instincts and are inherited. They may then be said to be
+degraded in character, for they are no longer performed through reason
+or from experience. But the greater number of the more complex instincts
+appear to have been gained in a wholly different manner, through the
+natural selection of variations of simpler instinctive actions. Such
+variations appear to arise from the same unknown causes acting on the
+cerebral organisation, which induce slight variations or individual
+differences in other parts of the body; and these variations, owing to
+our ignorance, are often said to arise spontaneously. We can, I think,
+come to no other conclusion with respect to the origin of the more
+complex instincts, when we reflect on the marvellous instincts of
+sterile worker-ants and bees, which leave no offspring to inherit the
+effects of experience and of modified habits.
+
+Although a high degree of intelligence is certainly compatible with the
+existence of complex instincts, as we see in the insects just named and
+in the beaver, it is not improbable that they may to a certain extent
+interfere with each other's development. Little is known about the
+functions of the brain, but we can perceive that as the intellectual
+powers become highly developed, the various parts of the brain must be
+connected by the most intricate channels of intercommunication; and as a
+consequence each separate part would perhaps tend to become less well
+fitted to answer in a definite and uniform, that is instinctive, manner
+to particular sensations or associations.
+
+I have thought this digression worth giving, because we may easily
+underrate the mental powers of the higher animals, and especially of
+man, when we compare their actions founded on the memory of past events,
+on foresight, reason, and imagination, with exactly similar actions
+instinctively performed by the lower animals; in this latter case the
+capacity of performing such actions having been gained, step by step,
+through the variability of the mental organs and natural selection,
+without any conscious intelligence on the part of the animal during each
+successive generation. No doubt, as Mr. Wallace has argued,[49] much of
+the intelligent work done by man is due to imitation and not to reason;
+but there is this great difference between his actions and many of those
+performed by the lower animals, namely, that man cannot, on his first
+trial, make, for instance, a stone hatchet or a canoe, through his power
+of imitation. He has to learn his work by practice; a beaver, on the
+other hand, can make its dam or canal, and a bird its nest, as well, or
+nearly as well, the first time it tries, as when old and experienced.
+
+To return to our immediate subject: the lower animals, like man,
+manifestly feel pleasure and pain, happiness and misery. Happiness is
+never better exhibited than by young animals, such as puppies, kittens,
+lambs, &c., when playing together, like our own children. Even insects
+play together, as has been described by that excellent observer, P.
+Huber,[50] who saw ants chasing and pretending to bite each other, like
+so many puppies.
+
+The fact that the lower animals are excited by the same emotions as
+ourselves is so well established, that it will not be necessary to weary
+the reader by many details. Terror acts in the same manner on them as on
+us, causing the muscles to tremble, the heart to palpitate, the
+sphincters to be relaxed, and the hair to stand on end. Suspicion, the
+offspring of fear, is eminently characteristic of most wild animals.
+Courage and timidity are extremely variable qualities in the
+individuals of the same species, as is plainly seen in our dogs. Some
+dogs and horses are ill-tempered and easily turn sulky; others are
+good-tempered; and these qualities are certainly inherited. Every one
+knows how liable animals are to furious rage, and how plainly they show
+it. Many anecdotes, probably true, have been published on the
+long-delayed and artful revenge of various animals. The accurate Rengger
+and Brehm[51] state that the American and African monkeys which they
+kept tame, certainly revenged themselves. The love of a dog for his
+master is notorious; in the agony of death he has been known to caress
+his master, and every one has heard of the dog suffering under
+vivisection, who licked the hand of the operator; this man, unless he
+had a heart of stone, must have felt remorse to the last hour of his
+life. As Whewell[52] has remarked, "who that reads the touching
+instances of maternal affection, related so often of the women of all
+nations, and of the females of all animals, can doubt that the principle
+of action is the same in the two cases?"
+
+We see maternal affection exhibited in the most trifling details; thus
+Rengger observed an American monkey (a Cebus) carefully driving away the
+flies which plagued her infant; and Duvaucel saw a Hylobates washing the
+faces of her young ones in a stream. So intense is the grief of female
+monkeys for the loss of their young, that it invariably caused the death
+of certain kinds kept under confinement by Brehm in N. Africa.
+Orphan-monkeys were always adopted and carefully guarded by the other
+monkeys, both males and females. One female baboon had so capacious a
+heart that she not only adopted young monkeys of other species, but
+stole young dogs and cats, which she continually carried about. Her
+kindness, however, did not go so far as to share her food with her
+adopted offspring, at which Brehm was surprised, as his monkeys always
+divided everything quite fairly with their own young ones. An adopted
+kitten scratched the above-mentioned affectionate baboon, who certainly
+had a fine intellect, for she was much astonished at being scratched,
+and immediately examined the kitten's feet, and without more ado bit off
+the claws. In the Zoological Gardens, I heard from the keeper that an
+old baboon (_C. chacma_) had adopted a Rhesus monkey; but when a young
+drill and mandrill were placed in the cage, she seemed to perceive that
+these monkeys, though distinct species, were her nearer relatives, for
+she at once rejected the Rhesus and adopted both of them. The young
+Rhesus, as I saw, was greatly discontented at being thus rejected, and
+it would, like a naughty child, annoy and attack the young drill and
+mandrill whenever it could do so with safety; this conduct exciting
+great indignation in the old baboon. Monkeys will also, according to
+Brehm, defend their master when attacked by any one, as well as dogs to
+whom they are attached, from the attacks of other dogs. But we here
+trench on the subject of sympathy, to which I shall recur. Some of
+Brehm's monkeys took much delight in teasing, in various ingenious ways,
+a certain old dog whom they disliked, as well as other animals.
+
+Most of the more complex emotions are common to the higher animals and
+ourselves. Every one has seen how jealous a dog is of his master's
+affection, if lavished on any other creature; and I have observed the
+same fact with monkeys. This shews that animals not only love, but have
+the desire to be loved. Animals manifestly feel emulation. They love
+approbation or praise; and a dog carrying a basket for his master
+exhibits in a high degree self-complacency or pride. There can, I think,
+be no doubt that a dog feels shame, as distinct from fear, and something
+very like modesty when begging too often for food. A great dog scorns
+the snarling of a little dog, and this may be called magnanimity.
+Several observers have stated that monkeys certainly dislike being
+laughed at; and they sometimes invent imaginary offences. In the
+Zoological Gardens I saw a baboon who always got into a furious rage
+when his keeper took out a letter or book and read it aloud to him; and
+his rage was so violent that, as I witnessed on one occasion, he bit his
+own leg till the blood flowed.
+
+We will now turn to the more intellectual emotions and faculties, which
+are very important, as forming the basis for the development of the
+higher mental powers. Animals manifestly enjoy excitement and suffer
+from ennui, as may be seen with dogs, and, according to Rengger, with
+monkeys. All animals feel Wonder, and many exhibit Curiosity. They
+sometimes suffer from this latter quality, as when the hunter plays
+antics and thus attracts them; I have witnessed this with deer, and so
+it is with the wary chamois, and with some kinds of wild-ducks. Brehm
+gives a curious account of the instinctive dread which his monkeys
+exhibited towards snakes; but their curiosity was so great that they
+could not desist from occasionally satiating their horror in a most
+human fashion, by lifting up the lid of the box in which the snakes were
+kept. I was so much surprised at his account, that I took a stuffed and
+coiled-up snake into the monkey-house at the Zoological Gardens, and the
+excitement thus caused was one of the most curious spectacles which I
+ever beheld. Three species of Cercopithecus were the most alarmed; they
+dashed about their cages and uttered sharp signal-cries of danger, which
+were understood by the other monkeys. A few young monkeys and one old
+Anubis baboon alone took no notice of the snake. I then placed the
+stuffed specimen on the ground in one of the larger compartments. After
+a time all the monkeys collected round it in a large circle, and staring
+intently, presented a most ludicrous appearance. They became extremely
+nervous; so that when a wooden ball, with which they were familiar as a
+plaything, was accidently moved in the straw, under which it was partly
+hidden, they all instantly started away. These monkeys behaved very
+differently when a dead fish, a mouse, and some other new objects were
+placed in their cages; for though at first frightened, they soon
+approached, handled and examined them. I then placed a live snake in a
+paper bag, with the mouth loosely closed, in one of the larger
+compartments. One of the monkeys immediately approached, cautiously
+opened the bag a little, peeped in, and instantly dashed away. Then I
+witnessed what Brehm has described, for monkey after monkey, with head
+raised high and turned on one side, could not resist taking momentary
+peeps into the upright bag, at the dreadful object lying quiet at the
+bottom. It would almost appear as if monkeys had some notion of
+zoological affinities, for those kept by Brehm exhibited a strange,
+though mistaken, instinctive dread of innocent lizards and frogs. An
+orang, also, has been known to be much alarmed at the first sight of a
+turtle.[53]
+
+The principle of _Imitation_ is strong in man, and especially in man in
+a barbarous state. Desor[54] has remarked that no animal voluntarily
+imitates an action performed by man, until in the ascending scale we
+come to monkeys, which are well-known to be ridiculous mockers. Animals,
+however, sometimes imitate each others' actions: thus two species of
+wolves, which had been reared by dogs, learned to bark, as does
+sometimes the jackal,[55] but whether this can be called voluntary
+imitation is another question. From one account which I have read, there
+is reason to believe that puppies nursed by cats sometimes learn to lick
+their feet and thus to clean their faces: it is at least certain, as I
+hear from a perfectly trustworthy friend, that some dogs behave in this
+manner. Birds imitate the songs of their parents, and sometimes those of
+other birds; and parrots are notorious imitators of any sound which they
+often hear.
+
+Hardly any faculty is more important for the intellectual progress of
+man than the power of _Attention_. Animals clearly manifest this power,
+as when a cat watches by a hole and prepares to spring on its prey. Wild
+animals sometimes become so absorbed when thus engaged, that they may be
+easily approached. Mr. Bartlett has given me a curious proof how
+variable this faculty is in monkeys. A man who trains monkeys to act
+used to purchase common kinds from the Zoological Society at the price
+of five pounds for each; but he offered to give double the price, if he
+might keep three or four of them for a few days, in order to select one.
+When asked how he could possibly so soon learn whether a particular
+monkey would turn out a good actor, he answered that it all depended on
+their power of attention. If when he was talking and explaining anything
+to a monkey, its attention was easily distracted, as by a fly on the
+wall or other trifling object, the case was hopeless. If he tried by
+punishment to make an inattentive monkey act, it turned sulky. On the
+other hand, a monkey which carefully attended to him could always be
+trained.
+
+It is almost superfluous to state that animals have excellent _Memories_
+for persons and places. A baboon at the Cape of Good Hope, as I have
+been informed by Sir Andrew Smith, recognised him with joy after an
+absence of nine months. I had a dog who was savage and averse to all
+strangers, and I purposely tried his memory after an absence of five
+years and two days. I went near the stable where he lived, and shouted
+to him in my old manner; he showed no joy, but instantly followed me out
+walking and obeyed me, exactly as if I had parted with him only
+half-an-hour before. A train of old associations, dormant during five
+years, had thus been instantaneously awakened in his mind. Even ants, as
+P. Huber[56] has clearly shewn, recognised their fellow-ants belonging
+to the same community after a separation of four months. Animals can
+certainly by some means judge of the intervals of time between recurrent
+events.
+
+The _Imagination_ is one of the highest prerogatives of man. By this
+faculty he unites, independently of the will, former images and ideas,
+and thus creates brilliant and novel results. A poet, as Jean Paul
+Richter remarks,[57] "who must reflect whether he shall make a
+character say yes or no--to the devil with him; he is only a stupid
+corpse." Dreaming gives us the best notion of this power; as Jean Paul
+again says, "The dream is an involuntary art of poetry." The value of
+the products of our imagination depends of course on the number,
+accuracy, and clearness of our impressions; on our judgment and taste in
+selecting or rejecting the involuntary combinations, and to a certain
+extent on our power of voluntarily combining them. As dogs, cats,
+horses, and probably all the higher animals, even birds, as is stated on
+good authority,[58] have vivid dreams, and this is shewn by their
+movements and voice, we must admit that they possess some power of
+imagination.
+
+Of all the faculties of the human mind, it will, I presume, be admitted
+that _Reason_ stands at the summit. Few persons any longer dispute that
+animals possess some power of reasoning. Animals may constantly be seen
+to pause, deliberate, and resolve. It is a significant fact, that the
+more the habits of any particular animal are studied by a naturalist,
+the more he attributes to reason and the less to unlearnt instincts.[59]
+In future chapters we shall see that some animals extremely low in the
+scale apparently display a certain amount of reason. No doubt it is
+often difficult to distinguish between the power of reason and that of
+instinct. Thus Dr. Hayes, in his work on 'The Open Polar Sea,'
+repeatedly remarks that his dogs, instead of continuing to draw the
+sledges in a compact body, diverged and separated when they came to thin
+ice, so that their weight might be more evenly distributed. This was
+often the first warning and notice which the travellers received that
+the ice was becoming thin and dangerous. Now, did the dogs act thus from
+the experience of each individual, or from the example of the older and
+wiser dogs, or from an inherited habit, that is from an instinct? This
+instinct might possibly have arisen since the time, long ago, when dogs
+were first employed by the natives in drawing their sledges; or the
+Arctic wolves, the parent-stock of the Esquimaux dog, may have acquired
+this instinct, impelling them not to attack their prey in a close pack
+when on thin ice. Questions of this kind are most difficult to answer.
+
+So many facts have been recorded in various works shewing that animals
+possess some degree of reason, that I will here give only two or three
+instances, authenticated by Rengger, and relating to American monkeys,
+which stand low in their order. He states that when he first gave eggs
+to his monkeys, they smashed them and thus lost much of their contents;
+afterwards they gently hit one end against some hard body, and picked
+off the bits of shell with their fingers. After cutting themselves only
+once with any sharp tool, they would not touch it again, or would handle
+it with the greatest care. Lumps of sugar were often given them wrapped
+up in paper; and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp in the paper, so that
+in hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had once happened,
+they always first held the packet to their ears to detect any movement
+within. Any one who is not convinced by such facts as these, and by what
+he may observe with his own dogs, that animals can reason, would not be
+convinced by anything that I could add. Nevertheless I will give one
+case with respect to dogs, as it rests on two distinct observers, and
+can hardly depend on the modification of any instinct.
+
+Mr. Colquhoun[60] winged two wild-ducks, which fell on the opposite side
+of a stream; his retriever tried to bring over both at once, but could
+not succeed; she then, though never before known to ruffle a feather,
+deliberately killed one, brought over the other, and returned for the
+dead bird. Col. Hutchinson relates that two partridges were shot at
+once, one being killed, the other wounded; the latter ran away, and was
+caught by the retriever, who on her return came across the dead bird;
+"she stopped, evidently greatly puzzled, and after one or two trials,
+finding she could not take it up without permitting the escape of the
+winged bird, she considered a moment, then deliberately murdered it by
+giving it a severe crunch, and afterwards brought away both together.
+This was the only known instance of her ever having wilfully injured any
+game." Here we have reason, though not quite perfect, for the retriever
+might have brought the wounded bird first and then returned for the dead
+one, as in the case of the two wild-ducks.
+
+The muleteers in S. America say, "I will not give you the mule whose
+step is easiest, but _la mas rational_,--the one that reasons best;" and
+Humboldt[61] adds, "this popular expression, dictated by long
+experience, combats the system of animated machines, better perhaps than
+all the arguments of speculative philosophy."
+
+
+It has, I think, now been shewn that man and the higher animals,
+especially the Primates, have some few instincts in common. All have the
+same senses, intuitions and sensations--similar passions, affections,
+and emotions, even the more complex ones; they feel wonder and
+curiosity; they possess the same faculties of imitation, attention,
+memory, imagination, and reason, though in very different degrees.
+Nevertheless many authors have insisted that man is separated through
+his mental faculties by an impassable barrier from all the lower
+animals. I formerly made a collection of above a score of such
+aphorisms, but they are not worth giving, as their wide difference and
+number prove the difficulty, if not the impossibility, of the attempt.
+It has been asserted that man alone is capable of progressive
+improvement; that he alone makes use of tools or fire, domesticates
+other animals, possesses property, or employs language; that no other
+animal is self-conscious, comprehends itself, has the power of
+abstraction, or possesses general ideas; that man alone has a sense of
+beauty, is liable to caprice, has the feeling of gratitude, mystery,
+&c.; believes in God, or is endowed with a conscience. I will hazard a
+few remarks on the more important and interesting of these points.
+
+Archbishop Sumner formerly maintained[62] that man alone is capable of
+progressive improvement. With animals, looking first to the individual,
+every one who has had any experience in setting traps knows that young
+animals can be caught much more easily than old ones; and they can be
+much more easily approached by an enemy. Even with respect to old
+animals, it is impossible to catch many in the same place and in the
+same kind of trap, or to destroy them by the same kind of poison; yet it
+is improbable that all should have partaken of the poison, and
+impossible that all should have been caught in the trap. They must learn
+caution by seeing their brethren caught or poisoned. In North America,
+where the fur-bearing animals have long been pursued, they exhibit,
+according to the unanimous testimony of all observers, an almost
+incredible amount of sagacity, caution, and cunning; but trapping has
+been there so long carried on that inheritance may have come into play.
+
+If we look to successive generations, or to the race, there is no doubt
+that birds and other animals gradually both acquire and lose caution in
+relation to man or other enemies;[63] and this caution is certainly in
+chief part an inherited habit or instinct, but in part the result of
+individual experience. A good observer, Leroy,[64] states that in
+districts where foxes are much hunted, the young when they first leave
+their burrows are incontestably much more wary than the old ones in
+districts where they are not much disturbed.
+
+Our domestic dogs are descended from wolves and jackals,[65] and though
+they may not have gained in cunning, and may have lost in waryness and
+suspicion, yet they have progressed in certain moral qualities, such as
+in affection, trust-worthiness, temper, and probably in general
+intelligence. The common rat has conquered and beaten several other
+species throughout Europe, in parts of North America, New Zealand, and
+recently in Formosa, as well as on the mainland of China. Mr.
+Swinhoe,[66] who describes these latter cases, attributes the victory of
+the common rat over the large _Mus coninga_ to its superior cunning; and
+this latter quality may be attributed to the habitual exercise of all
+its faculties in avoiding extirpation by man, as well as to nearly all
+the less cunning or weak-minded rats having been successively destroyed
+by him. To maintain, independently of any direct evidence, that no
+animal during the course of ages has progressed in intellect or other
+mental faculties, is to beg the question of the evolution of species.
+Hereafter we shall see that, according to Lartet, existing mammals
+belonging to several orders have larger brains than their ancient
+tertiary prototypes.
+
+It has often been said that no animal uses any tool; but the chimpanzee
+in a state of nature cracks a native fruit, somewhat like a walnut, with
+a stone.[67] Rengger[68] easily taught an American monkey thus to break
+open hard palm-nuts, and afterwards of its own accord it used stones to
+open other kinds of nuts, as well as boxes. It thus also removed the
+soft rind of fruit that had a disagreeable flavour. Another monkey was
+taught to open the lid of a large box with a stick, and afterwards it
+used the stick as a lever to move heavy bodies; and I have myself seen a
+young orang put a stick into a crevice, slip his hand to the other end,
+and use it in the proper manner as a lever. In the cases just mentioned
+stones and sticks were employed as implements; but they are likewise
+used as weapons. Brehm[69] states, on the authority of the well-known
+traveller Schimper, that in Abyssinia when the baboons belonging to one
+species (_C. gelada_) descend in troops from the mountains to plunder
+the fields, they sometimes encounter troops of another species (_C.
+hamadryas_), and then a fight ensues. The Geladas roll down great
+stones, which the Hamadryas try to avoid, and then, both species,
+making a great uproar, rush furiously against each other. Brehm, when
+accompanying the Duke of Coburg-Gotha, aided in an attack with fire-arms
+on a troop of baboons in the pass of Mensa in Abyssinia. The baboons in
+return rolled so many stones down the mountain, some as large as a man's
+head, that the attackers had to beat a hasty retreat; and the pass was
+actually for a time closed against the caravan. It deserves notice that
+these baboons thus acted in concert. Mr. Wallace[70] on three occasions
+saw female orangs, accompanied by their young, "breaking off branches
+and the great spiny fruit of the Durian tree, with every appearance of
+rage; causing such a shower of missiles as effectually kept us from
+approaching too near the tree."
+
+In the Zoological Gardens a monkey which had weak teeth used to break
+open nuts with a stone; and I was assured by the keepers that this
+animal, after using the stone, hid it in the straw, and would not let
+any other monkey touch it. Here, then, we have the idea of property; but
+this idea is common to every dog with a bone, and to most or all birds
+with their nests.
+
+The Duke of Argyll[71] remarks, that the fashioning of an implement for
+a special purpose is absolutely peculiar to man; and he considers that
+this forms an immeasurable gulf between him and the brutes. It is no
+doubt a very important distinction, but there appears to me much truth
+in Sir J. Lubbock's suggestion,[72] that when primeval man first used
+flint-stones for any purpose, he would have accidentally splintered
+them, and would then have used the sharp fragments. From this step it
+would be a small one to intentionally break the flints, and not a very
+wide step to rudely fashion them. This latter advance, however, may have
+taken long ages, if we may judge by the immense interval of time which
+elapsed before the men of the neolithic period took to grinding and
+polishing their stone tools. In breaking the flints, as Sir J. Lubbock
+likewise remarks, sparks would have been emitted, and in grinding them
+heat would have been evolved: "thus the two usual methods of obtaining
+fire may have originated." The nature of fire would have been known in
+the many volcanic regions where lava occasionally flows through forests.
+The anthropomorphous apes, guided probably by instinct, build for
+themselves temporary platforms; but as many instincts are largely
+controlled by reason, the simpler ones, such as this of building a
+platform, might readily pass into a voluntary and conscious act. The
+orang is known to cover itself at night with the leaves of the Pandanus;
+and Brehm states that one of his baboons used to protect itself from the
+heat of the sun by throwing a straw-mat over its head. In these latter
+habits, we probably see the first steps towards some of the simpler
+arts; namely rude architecture and dress, as they arose amongst the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Language._--This faculty has justly been considered as one of the chief
+distinctions between man and the lower animals. But man, as a highly
+competent judge, Archbishop Whately remarks, "is not the only animal
+that can make use of language to express what is passing in his mind,
+and can understand, more or less, what is so expressed by another."[73]
+In Paraguay the _Cebus Azarae_ when excited utters at least six distinct
+sounds, which excite in other monkeys similar emotions.[74] The
+movements of the features and gestures of monkeys are understood by us,
+and they partly understand ours, as Rengger and others declare. It is a
+more remarkable fact that the dog, since being domesticated, has learnt
+to bark[75] in at least four or five distinct tones. Although barking is
+a new art, no doubt the wild species, the parents of the dog, expressed
+their feelings by cries of various kinds. With the domesticated dog we
+have the bark of eagerness, as in the chase; that of anger; the yelping
+or howling bark of despair, as when shut up; that of joy, as when
+starting on a walk with his master; and the very distinct one of demand
+or supplication, as when wishing for a door or window to be opened.
+
+Articulate language is, however, peculiar to man; but he uses in common
+with the lower animals inarticulate cries to express his meaning, aided
+by gestures and the movements of the muscles of the face.[76] This
+especially holds good with the more simple and vivid feelings, which are
+but little connected with our higher intelligence. Our cries of pain,
+fear, surprise, anger, together with their appropriate actions, and the
+murmur of a mother to her beloved child, are more expressive than any
+words. It is not the mere power of articulation that distinguishes man
+from other animals, for as every one knows, parrots can talk; but it is
+his large power of connecting definite sounds with definite ideas; and
+this obviously depends on the development of the mental faculties.
+
+As Horne Tooke, one of the founders of the noble science of philology,
+observes, language is an art, like brewing or baking; but writing would
+have been a much more appropriate simile. It certainly is not a true
+instinct, as every language has to be learnt. It differs, however,
+widely from all ordinary arts, for man has an instinctive tendency to
+speak, as we see in the babble of our young children; whilst no child
+has an instinctive tendency to brew, bake, or write. Moreover, no
+philologist now supposes that any language has been deliberately
+invented; each has been slowly and unconsciously developed by many
+steps. The sounds uttered by birds offer in several respects the nearest
+analogy to language, for all the members of the same species utter the
+same instinctive cries expressive of their emotions; and all the kinds
+that have the power of singing exert this power instinctively; but the
+actual song, and even the call-notes, are learnt from their parents or
+foster-parents. These sounds, as Daines Barrington[77] has proved, "are
+no more innate than language is in man." The first attempts to sing "may
+be compared to the imperfect endeavour in a child to babble." The young
+males continue practising, or, as the bird-catchers say, recording, for
+ten or eleven months. Their first essays show hardly a rudiment of the
+future song; but as they grow older we can perceive what they are aiming
+at; and at last they are said "to sing their song round." Nestlings
+which have learnt the song of a distinct species, as with the
+canary-birds educated in the Tyrol, teach and transmit their new song to
+their offspring. The slight natural differences of song in the same
+species inhabiting different districts may be appositely compared, as
+Barrington remarks, "to provincial dialects;" and the songs of allied,
+though distinct species may be compared with the languages of distinct
+races of man. I have given the foregoing details to shew that an
+instinctive tendency to acquire an art is not a peculiarity confined to
+man.
+
+With respect to the origin of articulate language, after having read on
+the one side the highly interesting works of Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, the
+Rev. F. Farrar, and Prof. Schleicher,[78] and the celebrated lectures of
+Prof. Max Mueller on the other side, I cannot doubt that language owes
+its origin to the imitation and modification, aided by signs and
+gestures, of various natural sounds, the voices of other animals, and
+man's own instinctive cries. When we treat of sexual selection we shall
+see that primeval man, or rather some early progenitor of man, probably
+used his voice largely, as does one of the gibbon-apes at the present
+day, in producing true musical cadences, that is in singing; we may
+conclude from a widely-spread analogy that this power would have been
+especially exerted during the courtship of the sexes, serving to express
+various emotions, as love, jealousy, triumph, and serving as a challenge
+to their rivals. The imitation by articulate sounds of musical cries
+might have given rise to words expressive of various complex emotions.
+As bearing on the subject of imitation, the strong tendency in our
+nearest allies, the monkeys, in microcephalous idiots,[79] and in the
+barbarous races of mankind, to imitate whatever they hear deserves
+notice. As monkeys certainly understand much that is said to them by
+man, and as in a state of nature they utter signal-cries of danger to
+their fellows,[80] it does not appear altogether incredible, that some
+unusually wise ape-like animal should have thought of imitating the
+growl of a beast of prey, so as to indicate to his fellow monkeys the
+nature of the expected danger. And this would have been a first step in
+the formation of a language.
+
+As the voice was used more and more, the vocal organs would have been
+strengthened and perfected through the principle of the inherited
+effects of use; and this would have reacted on the power of speech. But
+the relation between the continued use of language and the development
+of the brain has no doubt been far more important. The mental powers in
+some early progenitor of man must have been more highly developed than
+in any existing ape, before even the most imperfect form of speech could
+have come into use; but we may confidently believe that the continued
+use and advancement of this power would have reacted on the mind by
+enabling and encouraging it to carry on long trains of thought. A long
+and complex train of thought can no more be carried on without the aid
+of words, whether spoken or silent, than a long calculation without the
+use of figures or algebra. It appears, also, that even ordinary trains
+of thought almost require some form of language, for the dumb, deaf, and
+blind girl, Laura Bridgman, was observed to use her fingers whilst
+dreaming.[81] Nevertheless a long succession of vivid and connected
+ideas, may pass through the mind without the aid of any form of
+language, as we may infer from the prolonged dreams of dogs. We have,
+also, seen that retriever-dogs are able to reason to a certain extent;
+and this they manifestly do without the aid of language. The intimate
+connection between the brain, as it is now developed in us, and the
+faculty of speech, is well shewn by those curious cases of
+brain-disease, in which speech is specially affected, as when the power
+to remember substantives is lost, whilst other words can be correctly
+used.[82] There is no more improbability in the effects of the continued
+use of the vocal and mental organs being inherited, than in the case of
+handwriting, which depends partly on the structure of the hand and
+partly on the disposition of the mind; and handwriting is certainly
+inherited.[83]
+
+Why the organs now used for speech should have been originally perfected
+for this purpose, rather than any other organs, it is not difficult to
+see. Ants have considerable powers of intercommunication by means of
+their antennae, as shewn by Huber, who devotes a whole chapter to their
+language. We might have used our fingers as efficient instruments, for a
+person with practice can report to a deaf man every word of a speech
+rapidly delivered at a public meeting; but the loss of our hands, whilst
+thus employed, would have been a serious inconvenience. As all the
+higher mammals possess vocal organs constructed on the same general
+plan with ours, and which are used as a means of communication, it was
+obviously probable, if the power of communication had to be improved,
+that these same organs would have been still further developed; and this
+has been effected by the aid of adjoining and well-adapted parts, namely
+the tongue and lips.[84] The fact of the higher apes not using their
+vocal organs for speech, no doubt depends on their intelligence not
+having been sufficiently advanced. The possession by them of organs,
+which with long-continued practice might have been used for speech,
+although not thus used, is paralleled by the case of many birds which
+possess organs fitted for singing, though they never sing. Thus, the
+nightingale and crow have vocal organs similarly constructed, these
+being used by the former for diversified song, and by the latter merely
+for croaking.[85]
+
+The formation of different languages and of distinct species, and the
+proofs that both have been developed through a gradual process, are
+curiously the same.[86] But we can trace the origin of many words
+further back than in the case of species, for we can perceive that they
+have arisen from the imitation of various sounds, as in alliterative
+poetry. We find in distinct languages striking homologies due to
+community of descent, and analogies due to a similar process of
+formation. The manner in which certain letters or sounds change when
+others change is very like correlated growth. We have in both cases the
+reduplication of parts, the effects of long-continued use, and so forth.
+The frequent presence of rudiments, both in languages and in species, is
+still more remarkable. The letter _m_ in the word _am_, means _I_; so
+that in the expression _I am_, a superfluous and useless rudiment has
+been retained. In the spelling also of words, letters often remain as
+the rudiments of ancient forms of pronunciation. Languages, like organic
+beings, can be classed in groups under groups; and they can be classed
+either naturally according to descent, or artificially by other
+characters. Dominant languages and dialects spread widely and lead to
+the gradual extinction of other tongues. A language, like a species,
+when once extinct, never, as Sir C. Lyell remarks, reappears. The same
+language never has two birthplaces. Distinct languages may be crossed
+or blended together.[87] We see variability in every tongue, and new
+words are continually cropping up; but as there is a limit to the powers
+of the memory, single words, like whole languages, gradually become
+extinct. As Max Mueller[88] has well remarked:--"A struggle for life is
+constantly going on amongst the words and grammatical forms in each
+language. The better, the shorter, the easier forms are constantly
+gaining the upper hand, and they owe their success to their own inherent
+virtue." To these more important causes of the survival of certain
+words, mere novelty may, I think, be added; for there is in the mind of
+man a strong love for slight changes in all things. The survival or
+preservation of certain favoured words in the struggle for existence is
+natural selection.
+
+The perfectly regular and wonderfully complex construction of the
+languages of many barbarous nations has often been advanced as a proof,
+either of the divine origin of these languages, or of the high art and
+former civilisation of their founders. Thus F. von Schlegel writes: "In
+those languages which appear to be at the lowest grade of intellectual
+culture, we frequently observe a very high and elaborate degree of art
+in their grammatical structure. This is especially the case with the
+Basque and the Lapponian, and many of the American languages."[89] But
+it is assuredly an error to speak of any language as an art in the sense
+of its having been elaborately and methodically formed. Philologists now
+admit that conjugations, declensions, &c., originally existed as
+distinct words, since joined together; and as such words express the
+most obvious relations between objects and persons, it is not surprising
+that they should have been used by the men of most races during the
+earliest ages. With respect to perfection, the following illustration
+will best shew how easily we may err: a Crinoid sometimes consists of no
+less than 150,000 pieces of shell,[90] all arranged with perfect
+symmetry in radiating lines; but a naturalist does not consider an
+animal of this kind as more perfect than a bilateral one with
+comparatively few parts, and with none of these alike, excepting on the
+opposite sides of the body. He justly considers the differentiation and
+specialisation of organs as the test of perfection. So with languages,
+the most symmetrical and complex ought not to be ranked above irregular,
+abbreviated, and bastardised languages, which have borrowed expressive
+words and useful forms of construction from various conquering, or
+conquered, or immigrant races.
+
+From these few and imperfect remarks I conclude that the extremely
+complex and regular construction of many barbarous languages, is no
+proof that they owe their origin to a special act of creation.[91] Nor,
+as we have seen, does the faculty of articulate speech in itself offer
+any insuperable objection to the belief that man has been developed from
+some lower form.
+
+
+_Self-consciousness, Individuality, Abstraction, General Ideas, &c._--It
+would be useless to attempt discussing these high faculties, which,
+according to several recent writers, make the sole and complete
+distinction between man and the brutes, for hardly two authors agree in
+their definitions. Such faculties could not have been fully developed in
+man until his mental powers had advanced to a high standard, and this
+implies the use of a perfect language. No one supposes that one of the
+lower animals reflects whence he comes or whither he goes,--what is
+death or what is life, and so forth. But can we feel sure that an old
+dog with an excellent memory and some power of imagination, as shewn by
+his dreams, never reflects on his past pleasures in the chase? and this
+would be a form of self-consciousness. On the other hand, as Buechner[92]
+has remarked, how little can the hard-worked wife of a degraded
+Australian savage, who uses hardly any abstract words and cannot count
+above four, exert her self-consciousness, or reflect on the nature of
+her own existence.
+
+That animals retain their mental individuality is unquestionable. When
+my voice awakened a train of old associations in the mind of the
+above-mentioned dog, he must have retained his mental individuality,
+although every atom of his brain had probably undergone change more than
+once during the interval of five years. This dog might have brought
+forward the argument lately advanced to crush all evolutionists, and
+said, "I abide amid all mental moods and all material changes.... The
+teaching that atoms leave their impressions as legacies to other atoms
+falling into the places they have vacated is contradictory of the
+utterance of consciousness, and is therefore false; but it is the
+teaching necessitated by evolutionism, consequently the hypothesis is a
+false one."[93]
+
+
+_Sense of Beauty._--This sense has been declared to be peculiar to man.
+But when we behold male birds elaborately displaying their plumes and
+splendid colours before the females, whilst other birds not thus
+decorated make no such display, it is impossible to doubt that the
+females admire the beauty of their male partners. As women everywhere
+deck themselves with these plumes, the beauty of such ornaments cannot
+be disputed. The Bower-birds by tastefully ornamenting their
+playing-passages with gaily-coloured objects, as do certain
+humming-birds their nests, offer additional evidence that they possess a
+sense of beauty. So with the song of birds, the sweet strains poured
+forth by the males during the season of love are certainly admired by
+the females, of which fact evidence will hereafter be given. If female
+birds had been incapable of appreciating the beautiful colours, the
+ornaments, and voices of their male partners, all the labour and
+anxiety exhibited by them in displaying their charms before the females
+would have been thrown away; and this it is impossible to admit. Why
+certain bright colours and certain sounds should excite pleasure, when
+in harmony, cannot, I presume, be explained any more than why certain
+flavours and scents are agreeable; but assuredly the same colours and
+the same sounds are admired by us and by many of the lower animals.
+
+The taste for the beautiful, at least as far as female beauty is
+concerned, is not of a special nature in the human mind; for it differs
+widely in the different races of man, as will hereafter be shewn, and is
+not quite the same even in the different nations of the same race.
+Judging from the hideous ornaments and the equally hideous music admired
+by most savages, it might be urged that their aesthetic faculty was not
+so highly developed as in certain animals, for instance, in birds.
+Obviously no animal would be capable of admiring such scenes as the
+heavens at night, a beautiful landscape, or refined music; but such high
+tastes, depending as they do on culture and complex associations, are
+not enjoyed by barbarians or by uneducated persons.
+
+Many of the faculties, which have been of inestimable service to man for
+his progressive advancement, such as the powers of the imagination,
+wonder, curiosity, an undefined sense of beauty, a tendency to
+imitation, and the love of excitement or novelty, could not fail to have
+led to the most capricious changes of customs and fashions. I have
+alluded to this point, because a recent writer[94] has oddly fixed on
+Caprice "as one of the most remarkable and typical differences between
+savages and brutes." But not only can we perceive how it is that roan is
+capricious, but the lower animals are, as we shall hereafter see,
+capricious in their affections, aversions, and sense of beauty. There is
+also good reason to suspect that they love novelty, for its own sake.
+
+
+_Belief in God--Religion._--There is no evidence that man was
+aboriginally endowed with the ennobling belief in the existence of an
+Omnipotent God. On the contrary there is ample evidence, derived not
+from hasty travellers, but from men who have long resided with savages,
+that numerous races have existed and still exist, who have no idea of
+one or more gods, and who have no words in their languages to express
+such an idea.[95] The question is of course wholly distinct from that
+higher one, whether there exists a Creator and Ruler of the universe;
+and this has been answered in the affirmative by the highest intellects
+that have ever lived.
+
+If, however, we include under the term "religion" the belief in unseen
+or spiritual agencies, the case is wholly different; for this belief
+seems to be almost universal with the less civilised races. Nor is it
+difficult to comprehend how it arose. As soon as the important faculties
+of the imagination, wonder, and curiosity, together with some power of
+reasoning, had become partially developed, man would naturally have
+craved to understand what was passing around him, and have vaguely
+speculated on his own existence. As Mr. M'Lennan[96] has remarked,
+"Some explanation of the phenomena of life, a man must feign for
+himself; and to judge from the universality of it, the simplest
+hypothesis, and the first to occur to men, seems to have been that
+natural phenomena are ascribable to the presence in animals, plants, and
+things, and in the forces of nature, of such spirits prompting to action
+as men are conscious they themselves possess." It is probable, as Mr.
+Tylor has clearly shewn, that dreams may have first given rise to the
+notion of spirits; for savages do not readily distinguish between
+subjective and objective impressions. When a savage dreams, the figures
+which appear before him are believed to have come from a distance and to
+stand over him; or "the soul of the dreamer goes out on its travels, and
+comes home with a remembrance of what it has seen."[97] But until the
+above-named faculties of imagination, curiosity, reason, &c., had been
+fairly well developed in the mind of man, his dreams would not have led
+him to believe in spirits, any more than in the case of a dog.
+
+The tendency in savages to imagine that natural objects and agencies
+are animated by spiritual or living essences, is perhaps illustrated by
+a little fact which I once noticed: my dog, a full-grown and very
+sensible animal, was lying on the lawn during a hot and still day; but
+at a little distance a slight breeze occasionally moved an open parasol,
+which would have been wholly disregarded by the dog, had any one stood
+near it. As it was, every time that the parasol slightly moved, the dog
+growled fiercely and barked. He must, I think, have reasoned to himself
+in a rapid and unconscious manner, that movement without any apparent
+cause indicated the presence of some strange living agent, and no
+stranger had a right to be on his territory.
+
+The belief in spiritual agencies would easily pass into the belief in
+the existence of one or more gods. For savages would naturally attribute
+to spirits the same passions, the same love of vengeance or simplest
+form of justice, and the same affections which they themselves
+experienced. The Fuegians appear to be in this respect in an
+intermediate condition, for when the surgeon on board the "Beagle" shot
+some young ducklings as specimens, York Minster declared in the most
+solemn manner, "Oh! Mr. Bynoe, much rain, much snow, blow much;" and
+this was evidently a retributive punishment for wasting human food. So
+again he related how, when his brother killed a "wild man," storms long
+raged, much rain and snow fell. Yet we could never discover that the
+Fuegians believed in what we should call a God, or practised any
+religious rites; and Jemmy Button, with justifiable pride, stoutly
+maintained that there was no devil in his land. This latter assertion is
+the more remarkable, as with savages the belief in bad spirits is far
+more common than the belief in good spirits.
+
+The feeling of religious devotion is a highly complex one, consisting of
+love, complete submission to an exalted and mysterious superior, a
+strong sense of dependence,[98] fear, reverence, gratitude, hope for the
+future, and perhaps other elements. No being could experience so complex
+an emotion until advanced in his intellectual and moral faculties to at
+least a moderately high level. Nevertheless we see some distant approach
+to this state of mind, in the deep love of a dog for his master,
+associated with complete submission, some fear, and perhaps other
+feelings. The behaviour of a dog when returning to his master after an
+absence, and, as I may add, of a monkey to his beloved keeper, is widely
+different from that towards their fellows. In the latter case the
+transports of joy appear to be somewhat less, and the sense of equality
+is shewn in every action. Professor Braubach[99] goes so far as to
+maintain that a dog looks on his master as on a god.
+
+The same high mental faculties which first led man to believe in unseen
+spiritual agencies, then in fetishism, polytheism, and ultimately in
+monotheism, would infallibly lead him, as long as his reasoning powers
+remained poorly developed, to various strange superstitions and customs.
+Many of these are terrible to think of--such as the sacrifice of human
+beings to a blood-loving god; the trial of innocent persons by the
+ordeal of poison or fire; witchcraft, &c.--yet it is well occasionally
+to reflect on these superstitions, for they shew us what an infinite
+debt of gratitude we owe to the improvement of our reason, to science,
+and our accumulated knowledge.[100] As Sir J. Lubbock has well
+observed, "it is not too much to say that the horrible dread of unknown
+evil hangs like a thick cloud over savage life, and embitters every
+pleasure." These miserable and indirect consequences of our highest
+faculties may be compared with the incidental and occasional mistakes of
+the instincts of the lower animals.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+COMPARISON OF THE MENTAL POWERS OF MAN AND THE LOWER
+ANIMALS--_continued_.
+
+
+  The moral sense--Fundamental proposition--The qualities of
+  social animals--Origin of sociability--Struggle between opposed
+  instincts--Man a social animal--The more enduring social
+  instincts conquer other less persistent instincts--The social
+  virtues alone regarded by savages--The self-regarding virtues
+  acquired at a later stage of development--The importance of the
+  judgment of the members of the same community on
+  conduct--Transmission of moral tendencies--Summary.
+
+
+I fully subscribe to the judgment of those writers[101] who maintain
+that of all the differences between man and the lower animals, the moral
+sense or conscience is by far the most important. This sense, as
+Mackintosh[102] remarks, "has a rightful supremacy over every other
+principle of human action;" it is summed up in that short but imperious
+word _ought_, so full of high significance. It is the most noble of all
+the attributes of man, leading him without a moment's hesitation to risk
+his life for that of a fellow-creature; or after due deliberation,
+impelled simply by the deep feeling of right or duty, to sacrifice it in
+some great cause. Immanuel Kant exclaims, "Duty! Wondrous thought, that
+workest neither by fond insinuation, flattery, nor by any threat, but
+merely by holding up thy naked law in the soul, and so extorting for
+thyself always reverence, if not always obedience; before whom all
+appetites are dumb, however secretly they rebel; whence thy
+original?"[103]
+
+This great question has been discussed by many writers[104] of
+consummate ability; and my sole excuse for touching on it is the
+impossibility of here passing it over, and because, as far as I know, no
+one has approached it exclusively from the side of natural history. The
+investigation possesses, also, some independent interest, as an attempt
+to see how far the study of the lower animals can throw light on one of
+the highest psychical faculties of man.
+
+The following proposition seems to me in a high degree probable--namely,
+that any animal whatever, endowed with well-marked social
+instincts,[105] would inevitably acquire a moral sense or conscience, as
+soon as its intellectual powers had become as well developed, or nearly
+as well developed, as in man. For, _firstly_, the social instincts lead
+an animal to take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a
+certain amount of sympathy with them, and to perform various services
+for them. The services may be of a definite and evidently instinctive
+nature; or there may be only a wish and readiness, as with most of the
+higher social animals, to aid their fellows in certain general ways. But
+these feelings and services are by no means extended to all the
+individuals of the same species, only to those of the same association.
+_Secondly_, as soon as the mental faculties had become highly developed,
+images of all past actions and motives would be incessantly passing
+through the brain of each individual; and that feeling of
+dissatisfaction which invariably results, as we shall hereafter see,
+from any unsatisfied instinct, would arise, as often as it was perceived
+that the enduring and always present social instinct had yielded to some
+other instinct, at the time stronger, but neither enduring in its
+nature, nor leaving behind it a very vivid impression. It is clear that
+many instinctive desires, such as that of hunger, are in their nature of
+short duration; and after being satisfied are not readily or vividly
+recalled. _Thirdly_, after the power of language had been acquired and
+the wishes of the members of the same community could be distinctly
+expressed, the common opinion how each member ought to act for the
+public good, would naturally become to a large extent the guide to
+action. But the social instincts would still give the impulse to act for
+the good of the community, this impulse being strengthened, directed,
+and sometimes even deflected by public opinion, the power of which
+rests, as we shall presently see, on instinctive sympathy. _Lastly_,
+habit in the individual would ultimately play a very important part in
+guiding the conduct of each member; for the social instincts and
+impulses, like all other instincts, would be greatly strengthened by
+habit, as would obedience to the wishes and judgment of the community.
+These several subordinate propositions must now be discussed; and some
+of them at considerable length.
+
+It may be well first to premise that I do not wish to maintain that any
+strictly social animal, if its intellectual faculties were to become as
+active and as highly developed as in man, would acquire exactly the same
+moral sense as ours. In the same manner as various animals have some
+sense of beauty, though they admire widely different objects, so they
+might have a sense of right and wrong, though led by it to follow widely
+different lines of conduct. If, for instance, to take an extreme case,
+men were reared under precisely the same conditions as hive-bees, there
+can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females would, like the
+worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and mothers
+would strive to kill their fertile daughters; and no one would think of
+interfering. Nevertheless the bee, or any other social animal, would in
+our supposed case gain, as it appears to me, some feeling of right and
+wrong, or a conscience. For each individual would have an inward sense
+of possessing certain stronger or more enduring instincts, and others
+less strong or enduring; so that there would often be a struggle which
+impulse should be followed; and satisfaction or dissatisfaction would be
+felt, as past impressions were compared during their incessant passage
+through the mind. In this case an inward monitor would tell the animal
+that it would have been better to have followed the one impulse rather
+than the other. The one course ought to have been followed: the one
+would have been right and the other wrong; but to these terms I shall
+have to recur.
+
+
+_Sociability._--Animals of many kinds are social; we find even distinct
+species living together, as with some American monkeys, and with the
+united flocks of rooks, jackdaws, and starlings. Man shows the same
+feeling in his strong love for the dog, which the dog returns with
+interest. Every one must have noticed how miserable horses, dogs, sheep,
+&c. are when separated from their companions; and what affection at
+least the two former kinds show on their reunion. It is curious to
+speculate on the feelings of a dog, who will rest peacefully for hours
+in a room with his master or any of the family, without the least notice
+being taken of him; but if left for a short time by himself, barks or
+howls dismally. We will confine our attention to the higher social
+animals, excluding insects, although these aid each other in many
+important ways. The most common service which the higher animals perform
+for each other, is the warning each other of danger by means of the
+united senses of all. Every sportsman knows, as Dr. Jaeger remarks,[106]
+how difficult it is to approach animals in a herd or troop. Wild horses
+and cattle do not, I believe, make any danger-signal; but the attitude
+of any one who first discovers an enemy, warns the others. Rabbits stamp
+loudly on the ground with their hind-feet as a signal: sheep and chamois
+do the same, but with their fore-feet, uttering likewise a whistle. Many
+birds and some mammals post sentinels, which in the case of seals are
+said[107] generally to be the females. The leader of a troop of monkeys
+acts as the sentinel, and utters cries expressive both of danger and of
+safety.[108] Social animals perform many little services for each
+other: horses nibble, and cows lick each other, on any spot which
+itches: monkeys search for each other's external parasites; and Brehm
+states that after a troop of the _Cercopithecus griseo-viridis_ has
+rushed through a thorny brake, each monkey stretches itself on a branch,
+and another monkey sitting by "conscientiously" examines its fur and
+extracts every thorn or burr.
+
+Animals also render more important services to each other: thus wolves
+and some other beasts of prey hunt in packs, and aid each other in
+attacking their victims. Pelicans fish in concert. The Hamadryas baboons
+turn over stones to find insects, &c.; and when they come to a large
+one, as many as can stand round, turn it over together and share the
+booty. Social animals mutually defend each other. The males of some
+ruminants come to the front when there is danger and defend the herd
+with their horns. I shall also in a future chapter give cases of two
+young wild bulls attacking an old one in concert, and of two stallions
+together trying to drive away a third stallion from a troop of mares.
+Brehm encountered in Abyssinia a great troop of baboons which were
+crossing a valley: some had already ascended the opposite mountain, and
+some were still in the valley: the latter were attacked by the dogs, but
+the old males immediately hurried down from the rocks, and with mouths
+widely opened roared so fearfully, that the dogs precipitately
+retreated. They were again encouraged to the attack; but by this time
+all the baboons had reascended the heights, excepting a young one, about
+six months old, who, loudly calling for aid, climbed on a block of rock
+and was surrounded. Now one of the largest males, a true hero, came down
+again from the mountain, slowly went to the young one, coaxed him, and
+triumphantly led him away--the dogs being too much astonished to make an
+attack. I cannot resist giving another scene which was witnessed by this
+same naturalist; an eagle seized a young Cercopithecus, which, by
+clinging to a branch, was not at once carried off; it cried loudly for
+assistance, upon which the other members of the troop with much uproar
+rushed to the rescue, surrounded the eagle, and pulled out so many
+feathers, that he no longer thought of his prey, but only how to escape.
+This eagle, as Brehm remarks, assuredly would never again attack a
+monkey in a troop.
+
+It is certain that associated animals have a feeling of love for each
+other which is not felt by adult and non-social animals. How far in most
+cases they actually sympathise with each other's pains and pleasures is
+more doubtful, especially with respect to the latter. Mr. Buxton,
+however, who had excellent means of observation,[109] states that his
+macaws, which lived free in Norfolk, took "an extravagant interest" in a
+pair with a nest, and whenever the female left it, she was surrounded by
+a troop "screaming horrible acclamations in her honour." It is often
+difficult to judge whether animals have any feeling for each other's
+sufferings. Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and stare
+intently on a dying or dead companion? That animals sometimes are far
+from feeling any sympathy is too certain; for they will expel a wounded
+animal from the herd, or gore or worry it to death. This is almost the
+blackest fact in natural history, unless indeed the explanation which
+has been suggested is true, that their instinct or reason leads them to
+expel an injured companion, lest beasts of prey, including man, should
+be tempted to follow the troop. In this case their conduct is not much
+worse than that of the North American Indians who leave their feeble
+comrades to perish on the plains, or the Feegeans, who, when their
+parents get old or fall ill, bury them alive.[110]
+
+Many animals, however, certainly sympathise with each other's distress
+or danger. This is the case even with birds; Capt. Stansbury[111] found
+on a salt lake in Utah an old and completely blind pelican, which was
+very fat, and must have been long and well fed by his companions. Mr.
+Blyth, as he informs me, saw Indian crows feeding two or three of their
+companions which were blind; and I have heard of an analogous case with
+the domestic cock. We may, if we choose, call these actions instinctive;
+but such cases are much too rare for the development of any special
+instinct.[112] I have myself seen a dog, who never passed a great friend
+of his, a cat which lay sick in a basket, without giving her a few licks
+with his tongue, the surest sign of kind feeling in a dog.
+
+It must be called sympathy that leads a courageous dog to fly at any one
+who strikes his master, as he certainly will. I saw a person pretending
+to beat a lady who had a very timid little dog on her lap, and the trial
+had never before been made. The little creature instantly jumped away,
+but after the pretended beating was over, it was really pathetic to see
+how perseveringly he tried to lick his mistress's face and comfort her.
+Brehm[113] states that when a baboon in confinement was pursued to be
+punished, the others tried to protect him. It must have been sympathy in
+the cases above given which led the baboons and Cercopitheci to defend
+their young comrades from the dogs and the eagle. I will give only one
+other instance of sympathetic and heroic conduct in a little American
+monkey. Several years ago a keeper at the Zoological Gardens, showed me
+some deep and scarcely healed wounds on the nape of his neck, inflicted
+on him whilst kneeling on the floor by a fierce baboon. The little
+American monkey, who was a warm friend of this keeper, lived in the same
+large compartment, and was dreadfully afraid of the great baboon.
+Nevertheless, as soon as he saw his friend the keeper in peril, he
+rushed to the rescue, and by screams and bites so distracted the baboon
+that the man was able to escape, after running great risk, as the
+surgeon who attended him thought, of his life.
+
+Besides love and sympathy, animals exhibit other qualities which in us
+would be called moral; and I agree with Agassiz[114] that dogs possess
+something very like a conscience. They certainly possess some power of
+self-command, and this does not appear to be wholly the result of fear.
+As Braubach[115] remarks, a dog will refrain from stealing food in the
+absence of his master. Dogs have long been accepted as the very type of
+fidelity and obedience. All animals living in a body which defend each
+other or attack their enemies in concert, must be in some degree
+faithful to each other; and those that follow a leader must be in some
+degree obedient. When the baboons in Abyssinia[116] plunder a garden,
+they silently follow their leader; and if an imprudent young animal
+makes a noise, he receives a slap from the others to teach him silence
+and obedience; but as soon as they are sure that there is no danger, all
+show their joy by much clamour.
+
+With respect to the impulse which leads certain animals to associate
+together, and to aid each other in many ways, we may infer that in most
+cases they are impelled by the same sense of satisfaction or pleasure
+which they experience in performing other instinctive actions; or by the
+same sense of dissatisfaction, as in other cases of prevented
+instinctive actions. We see this in innumerable instances, and it is
+illustrated in a striking manner by the acquired instincts of our
+domesticated animals; thus a young shepherd-dog delights in driving and
+running round a flock of sheep, but not in worrying them; a young
+foxhound delights in hunting a fox, whilst some other kinds of dogs as I
+have witnessed, utterly disregard foxes. What a strong feeling of inward
+satisfaction must impel a bird, so full of activity, to brood day after
+day over her eggs. Migratory birds are miserable if prevented from
+migrating, and perhaps they enjoy starting on their long flight. Some
+few instincts are determined solely by painful feelings, as by fear,
+which leads to self-preservation, or is specially directed against
+certain enemies. No one, I presume, can analyse the sensations of
+pleasure or pain. In many cases, however, it is probable that instincts
+are persistently followed from the mere force of inheritance, without
+the stimulus of either pleasure or pain. A young pointer, when it first
+scents game, apparently cannot help pointing. A squirrel in a cage who
+pats the nuts which it cannot eat, as if to bury them in the ground, can
+hardly be thought to act thus either from pleasure or pain. Hence the
+common assumption that men must be impelled to every action by
+experiencing some pleasure or pain may be erroneous. Although a habit
+may be blindly and implicitly followed, independently of any pleasure or
+pain felt at the moment, yet if it be forcibly and abruptly checked, a
+vague sense of dissatisfaction is generally experienced; and this is
+especially true in regard to persons of feeble intellect.
+
+It has often been assumed that animals were in the first place rendered
+social, and that they feel as a consequence uncomfortable when separated
+from each other, and comfortable whilst together; but it is a more
+probable view that these sensations were first developed, in order that
+those animals which would profit by living in society, should be induced
+to live together. In the same manner as the sense of hunger and the
+pleasure of eating were, no doubt, first acquired in order to induce
+animals to eat. The feeling of pleasure from society is probably an
+extension of the parental or filial affections; and this extension may
+be in chief part attributed to natural selection, but perhaps in part to
+mere habit. For with those animals which were benefited by living in
+close association, the individuals which took the greatest pleasure in
+society would best escape various dangers; whilst those that cared least
+for their comrades and lived solitary would perish in greater numbers.
+With respect to the origin of the parental and filial affections, which
+apparently lie at the basis of the social affections, it is hopeless to
+speculate; but we may infer that they have been to a large extent
+gained through natural selection. So it has almost certainly been with
+the unusual and opposite feeling of hatred between the nearest
+relations, as with the worker-bees which kill their brother-drones, and
+with the queen-bees which kill their daughter-queens; the desire to
+destroy, instead of loving, their nearest relations having been here of
+service to the community.
+
+The all-important emotion of sympathy is distinct from that of love. A
+mother may passionately love her sleeping and passive infant, but she
+can then hardly be said to feel sympathy for it. The love of a man for
+his dog is distinct from sympathy, and so is that of a dog for his
+master. Adam Smith formerly argued, as has Mr. Bain recently, that the
+basis of sympathy lies in our strong retentiveness of former states of
+pain or pleasure. Hence, "the sight of another person enduring hunger,
+cold, fatigue, revives in us some recollection of these states, which
+are painful even in idea." We are thus impelled to relieve the
+sufferings of another, in order that our own painful feelings may be at
+the same time relieved. In like manner we are led to participate in the
+pleasures of others.[117] But I cannot see how this view explains the
+fact that sympathy is excited in an immeasurably stronger degree by a
+beloved than by an indifferent person. The mere sight of suffering,
+independently of love, would suffice to call up in us vivid
+recollections and associations. Sympathy may at first have originated in
+the manner above suggested; but it seems now to have become an instinct,
+which is especially directed towards beloved objects, in the same manner
+as fear with animals is especially directed against certain enemies. As
+sympathy is thus directed, the mutual love of the members of the same
+community will extend its limits. No doubt a tiger or lion feels
+sympathy for the sufferings of its own young, but not for any other
+animal. With strictly social animals the feeling will be more or less
+extended to all the associated members, as we know to be the case. With
+mankind selfishness, experience, and imitation probably add, as Mr. Bain
+has shewn, to the power of sympathy; for we are led by the hope of
+receiving good in return to perform acts of sympathetic kindness to
+others; and there can be no doubt that the feeling of sympathy is much
+strengthened by habit. In however complex a manner this feeling may have
+originated, as it is one of high importance to all those animals which
+aid and defend each other, it will have been increased, through natural
+selection; for those communities, which included the greatest number of
+the most sympathetic members, would flourish best and rear the greatest
+number of offspring.
+
+In many cases it is impossible to decide whether certain social
+instincts have been acquired through natural selection, or are the
+indirect result of other instincts and faculties, such as sympathy,
+reason, experience, and a tendency to imitation; or again, whether they
+are simply the result of long-continued habit. So remarkable an instinct
+as the placing sentinels to warn the community of danger, can hardly
+have been the indirect result of any other faculty; it must therefore
+have been directly acquired. On the other hand, the habit followed by
+the males of some social animals, of defending the community and of
+attacking their enemies or their prey in concert, may perhaps have
+originated from mutual sympathy; but courage, and in most cases
+strength, must have been previously acquired, probably through natural
+selection.
+
+Of the various instincts and habits, some are much stronger than others,
+that is, some either give more pleasure in their performance and more
+distress in their prevention than others; or, which is probably quite as
+important, they are more persistently followed through inheritance
+without exciting any special feeling of pleasure or pain. We are
+ourselves conscious that some habits are much more difficult to cure or
+change than others. Hence a struggle may often be observed in animals
+between different instincts, or between an instinct and some habitual
+disposition; as when a dog rushes after a hare, is rebuked, pauses,
+hesitates, pursues again or returns ashamed to his master; or as between
+the love of a female dog for her young puppies and for her master, for
+she may be seen to slink away to them, as if half ashamed of not
+accompanying her master. But the most curious instance known to me of
+one instinct conquering another, is the migratory instinct conquering
+the maternal instinct. The former is wonderfully strong; a confined bird
+will at the proper season beat her breast against the wires of her cage,
+until it is bare and bloody. It causes young salmon to leap out of the
+fresh water, where they could still continue to live, and thus
+unintentionally to commit suicide. Every one knows how strong the
+maternal instinct is, leading even timid birds to face great danger,
+though with hesitation and in opposition to the instinct of
+self-preservation. Nevertheless the migratory instinct is so powerful
+that late in the autumn swallows and house-martins frequently desert
+their tender young, leaving them to perish miserably in their
+nests.[118]
+
+We can perceive that an instinctive impulse, if it be in any way more
+beneficial to a species than some other or opposed instinct, would be
+rendered the more potent of the two through natural selection; for the
+individuals which had it most strongly developed would survive in larger
+numbers. Whether this is the case with the migratory in comparison with
+the maternal instinct, may well be doubted. The great persistence or
+steady action of the former at certain seasons of the year during the
+whole day, may give it for a time paramount force.
+
+
+_Man a social animal._--Most persons admit that man is a social being.
+We see this in his dislike of solitude, and in his wish for society
+beyond that of his own family. Solitary confinement is one of the
+severest punishments which can be inflicted. Some authors suppose that
+man primevally lived in single families; but at the present day, though
+single families, or only two or three together, roam the solitudes of
+some savage lands, they are always, as far as I can discover, friendly
+with other families inhabiting the same district. Such families
+occasionally meet in council, and they unite for their common defence.
+It is no argument against savage man being a social animal, that the
+tribes inhabiting adjacent districts are almost always at war with each
+other; for the social instincts never extend to all the individuals of
+the same species. Judging from the analogy of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, it is probable that the early ape-like progenitors of man
+were likewise social; but this is not of much importance for us.
+Although man, as he now exists, has few special instincts, having lost
+any which his early progenitors may have possessed, this is no reason
+why he should not have retained from an extremely remote period some
+degree of instinctive love and sympathy for his fellows. We are indeed
+all conscious that we do possess such sympathetic feelings;[119] but our
+consciousness does not tell us whether they are instinctive, having
+originated long ago in the same manner as with the lower animals, or
+whether they have been acquired by each of us during our early years. As
+man is a social animal, it is also probable that he would inherit a
+tendency to be faithful to his comrades, for this quality is common to
+most social animals. He would in like manner possess some capacity for
+self-command, and perhaps of obedience to the leader of the community.
+He would from an inherited tendency still be willing to defend, in
+concert with others, his fellow-men, and would be ready to aid them in
+any way which did not too greatly interfere with his own welfare or his
+own strong desires.
+
+The social animals which stand at the bottom of the scale are guided
+almost exclusively, and those which stand higher in the scale are
+largely guided, in the aid which they give to the members of the same
+community, by special instincts; but they are likewise in part impelled
+by mutual love and sympathy, assisted apparently by some amount of
+reason. Although man, as just remarked, has no special instincts to tell
+him how to aid his fellow-men, he still has the impulse, and with his
+improved intellectual faculties would naturally be much guided in this
+respect by reason and experience. Instinctive sympathy would, also,
+cause him to value highly the approbation of his fellow-men; for, as Mr.
+Bain has clearly shewn,[120] the love of praise and the strong feeling
+of glory, and the still stronger horror of scorn and infamy, "are due to
+the workings of sympathy." Consequently man would be greatly influenced
+by the wishes, approbation, and blame of his fellow-men, as expressed by
+their gestures and language. Thus the social instincts, which must have
+been acquired by man in a very rude state, and probably even by his
+early ape-like progenitors, still give the impulse to many of his best
+actions; but his actions are largely determined by the expressed wishes
+and judgment of his fellow-men, and unfortunately still oftener by his
+own strong, selfish desires. But as the feelings of love and sympathy
+and the power of self-command become strengthened by habit, and as the
+power of reasoning becomes clearer so that man can appreciate the
+justice of the judgments of his fellow-men, he will feel himself
+impelled, independently of any pleasure or pain felt at the moment, to
+certain lines of conduct. He may then say, I am the supreme judge of my
+own conduct, and in the words of Kant, I will not in my own person
+violate the dignity of humanity.
+
+
+_The more enduring Social Instincts conquer the less Persistent
+Instincts._--We have, however, not as yet considered the main point, on
+which the whole question of the moral sense hinges. Why should a man
+feel that he ought to obey one instinctive desire rather than another?
+Why does he bitterly regret if he has yielded to the strong sense of
+self-preservation, and has not risked his life to save that of a
+fellow-creature; or why does he regret having stolen food from severe
+hunger?
+
+It is evident in the first place, that with mankind the instinctive
+impulses have different degrees of strength; a young and timid mother
+urged by the maternal instinct will, without a moment's hesitation, run
+the greatest danger for her infant, but not for a mere fellow-creature.
+Many a man, or even boy, who never before risked his life for another,
+but in whom courage and sympathy were well developed, has, disregarding
+the instinct of self-preservation, instantaneously plunged into a
+torrent to save a drowning fellow-creature. In this case man is impelled
+by the same instinctive motive, which caused the heroic little American
+monkey, formerly described, to attack the great and dreaded baboon, to
+save his keeper. Such actions as the above appear to be the simple
+result of the greater strength of the social or maternal instincts than
+of any other instinct or motive; for they are performed too
+instantaneously for reflection, or for the sensation of pleasure or
+pain; though if prevented distress would be caused.
+
+I am aware that some persons maintain that actions performed
+impulsively, as in the above cases, do not come under the dominion of
+the moral sense, and cannot be called moral. They confine this term to
+actions done deliberately, after a victory over opposing desires, or to
+actions prompted by some lofty motive. But it appears scarcely possible
+to draw any clear line of distinction of this kind; though the
+distinction may be real. As far as exalted motives are concerned, many
+instances have been recorded of barbarians, destitute of any feeling of
+general benevolence towards mankind, and not guided by any religious
+motive, who have deliberately as prisoners sacrificed their lives,[121]
+rather than betray their comrades; and surely their conduct ought to be
+considered as moral. As far as deliberation and the victory over
+opposing motives are concerned, animals may be seen doubting between
+opposed instincts, as in rescuing their offspring or comrades from
+danger; yet their actions, though done for the good of others, are not
+called moral. Moreover, an action repeatedly performed by us, will at
+last be done without deliberation or hesitation, and can then hardly be
+distinguished from an instinct; yet surely no one will pretend that an
+action thus done ceases to be moral. On the contrary, we all feel that
+an act cannot be considered as perfect, or as performed in the most
+noble manner, unless it be done impulsively, without deliberation or
+effort, in the same manner as by a man in whom the requisite qualities
+are innate. He who is forced to overcome his fear or want of sympathy
+before he acts, deserves, however, in one way higher credit than the man
+whose innate disposition leads him to a good act without effort. As we
+cannot distinguish between motives, we rank all actions of a certain
+class as moral, when they are performed by a moral being. A moral being
+is one who is capable of comparing his past and future actions or
+motives, and of approving or disapproving of them. We have no reason to
+suppose that any of the lower animals have this capacity; therefore
+when a monkey faces danger to rescue its comrade, or takes charge of an
+orphan-monkey, we do not call its conduct moral. But in the case of man,
+who alone can with certainty be ranked as a moral being, actions of a
+certain class are called moral, whether performed deliberately after a
+struggle with opposing motives, or from the effects of slowly-gained
+habit, or impulsively through instinct.
+
+But to return to our more immediate subject; although some instincts are
+more powerful than others, thus leading to corresponding actions, yet it
+cannot be maintained that the social instincts are ordinarily stronger
+in man, or have become stronger through long-continued habit, than the
+instincts, for instance, of self-preservation, hunger, lust, vengeance,
+&c. Why then does man regret, even though he may endeavour to banish any
+such regret, that he has followed the one natural impulse, rather than
+the other; and why does he further feel that he ought to regret his
+conduct? Man in this respect differs profoundly from the lower animals.
+Nevertheless we can, I think, see with some degree of clearness the
+reason of this difference.
+
+Man, from the activity of his mental faculties, cannot avoid reflection:
+past impressions and images are incessantly passing through his mind
+with distinctness. Now with those animals which live permanently in a
+body, the social instincts are ever present and persistent. Such animals
+are always ready to utter the danger-signal, to defend the community,
+and to give aid to their fellows in accordance with their habits; they
+feel at all times, without the stimulus of any special passion or
+desire, some degree of love and sympathy for them; they are unhappy if
+long separated from them, and always happy to be in their company. So it
+is with ourselves. A man who possessed no trace of such feelings would
+be an unnatural monster. On the other hand, the desire to satisfy
+hunger, or any passion, such as vengeance, is in its nature temporary,
+and can for a time be fully satisfied. Nor is it easy, perhaps hardly
+possible, to call up with complete vividness the feeling, for instance,
+of hunger; nor indeed, as has often been remarked, of any suffering. The
+instinct of self-preservation is not felt except in the presence of
+danger; and many a coward has thought himself brave until he has met his
+enemy face to face. The wish for another man's property is perhaps as
+persistent a desire as any that can be named; but even in this case the
+satisfaction of actual possession is generally a weaker feeling than the
+desire: many a thief, if not an habitual one, after success has wondered
+why he stole some article.
+
+Thus, as man cannot prevent old impressions continually repassing
+through his mind, he will be compelled to compare the weaker impressions
+of, for instance, past hunger, or of vengeance satisfied or danger
+avoided at the cost of other men, with the instinct of sympathy and
+good-will to his fellows, which is still present and ever in some degree
+active in his mind. He will then feel in his imagination that a stronger
+instinct has yielded to one which now seems comparatively weak; and then
+that sense of dissatisfaction will inevitably be felt with which man is
+endowed, like every other animal, in order that his instincts may be
+obeyed. The case before given, of the swallow, affords an illustration,
+though of a reversed nature, of a temporary though for the time strongly
+persistent instinct conquering another instinct which is usually
+dominant over all others. At the proper season these birds seem all day
+long to be impressed with the desire to migrate; their habits change;
+they become restless, are noisy, and congregate in flocks. Whilst the
+mother-bird is feeding or brooding over her nestlings, the maternal
+instinct is probably stronger than the migratory; but the instinct which
+is more persistent gains the victory, and at last, at a moment when her
+young ones are not in sight, she takes flight and deserts them. When
+arrived at the end of her long journey, and the migratory instinct
+ceases to act, what an agony of remorse each bird would feel, if, from
+being endowed with great mental activity, she could not prevent the
+image continually passing before her mind of her young ones perishing in
+the bleak north from cold and hunger.
+
+At the moment of action, man will no doubt be apt to follow the stronger
+impulse; and though this may occasionally prompt him to the noblest
+deeds, it will far more commonly lead him to gratify his own desires at
+the expense of other men. But after their gratification, when past and
+weaker impressions are contrasted with the ever-enduring social
+instincts, retribution will surely come. Man will then feel dissatisfied
+with himself, and will resolve with more or less force to act
+differently for the future. This is conscience; for conscience looks
+backwards and judges past actions, inducing that kind of
+dissatisfaction, which if weak we call regret, and if severe remorse.
+
+These sensations are, no doubt, different from those experienced when
+other instincts or desires are left unsatisfied; but every unsatisfied
+instinct has its own proper prompting sensation, as we recognise with
+hunger, thirst, &c. Man thus prompted, will through long habit acquire
+such perfect self-command, that his desires and passions will at last
+instantly yield to his social sympathies, and there will no longer be a
+struggle between them. The still hungry, or the still revengeful man
+will not think of stealing food, or of wreaking his vengeance. It is
+possible, or, as we shall hereafter see, even probable, that the habit
+of self-command may, like other habits, be inherited. Thus at last man
+comes to feel, through acquired and perhaps inherited habit, that it is
+best for him to obey his more persistent instincts. The imperious word
+_ought_ seems merely to imply the consciousness of the existence of a
+persistent instinct, either innate or partly acquired, serving him as a
+guide, though liable to be disobeyed. We hardly use the word _ought_ in
+a metaphorical sense, when we say hounds ought to hunt, pointers to
+point, and retrievers to retrieve their game. If they fail thus to act,
+they fail in their duty and act wrongly.
+
+If any desire or instinct, leading to an action opposed to the good of
+others, still appears to a man, when recalled to mind, as strong as, or
+stronger than, his social instinct, he will feel no keen regret at
+having followed it; but he will be conscious that if his conduct were
+known to his fellows, it would meet with their disapprobation; and few
+are so destitute of sympathy as not to feel discomfort when this is
+realised. If he has no such sympathy, and if his desires leading to bad
+actions are at the time strong, and when recalled are not overmastered
+by the persistent social instincts, then he is essentially a bad
+man;[122] and the sole restraining motive left is the fear of
+punishment, and the conviction that in the long run it would be best for
+his own selfish interests to regard the good of others rather than his
+own.
+
+It is obvious that every one may with an easy conscience gratify his own
+desires, if they do not interfere with his social instincts, that is
+with the good of others; but in order to be quite free from
+self-reproach, or at least of anxiety, it is almost necessary for him to
+avoid the disapprobation, whether reasonable or not, of his fellow men.
+Nor must he break through the fixed habits of his life, especially if
+these are supported by reason; for if he does, he will assuredly feel
+dissatisfaction. He must likewise avoid the reprobation of the one God
+or gods, in whom according to his knowledge or superstition he may
+believe; but in this case the additional fear of divine punishment often
+supervenes.
+
+
+_The strictly Social Virtues at first alone regarded._--The above view
+of the first origin and nature of the moral sense, which tells us what
+we ought to do, and of the conscience which reproves us if we disobey
+it, accords well with what we see of the early and undeveloped condition
+of this faculty in mankind. The virtues which must be practised, at
+least generally, by rude men, so that they may associate in a body, are
+those which are still recognised as the most important. But they are
+practised almost exclusively in relation to the men of the same tribe;
+and their opposites are not regarded as crimes in relation to the men of
+other tribes. No tribe could hold together if murder, robbery,
+treachery, &c., were common; consequently such crimes within the limits
+of the same tribe "are branded with everlasting infamy;"[123] but excite
+no such sentiment beyond these limits. A North-American Indian is well
+pleased with himself, and is honoured by others, when he scalps a man of
+another tribe; and a Dyak cuts off the head of an unoffending person
+and dries it as a trophy. The murder of infants has prevailed on the
+largest scale throughout the world,[124] and has met with no reproach;
+but infanticide, especially of females, has been thought to be good for
+the tribe, or at least not injurious. Suicide during former times was
+not generally considered as a crime,[125] but rather from the courage
+displayed as an honourable act; and it is still largely practised by
+some semi-civilised nations without reproach, for the loss to a nation
+of a single individual is not felt: whatever the explanation may be,
+suicide, as I hear from Sir J. Lubbock, is rarely practised by the
+lowest barbarians. It has been recorded that an Indian Thug
+conscientiously regretted that he had not strangled and robbed as many
+travellers as did his father before him. In a rude state of civilisation
+the robbery of strangers is, indeed, generally considered as honourable.
+
+The great sin of Slavery has been almost universal, and slaves have
+often been treated in an infamous manner. As barbarians do not regard
+the opinion of their women, wives are commonly treated like slaves. Most
+savages are utterly indifferent to the sufferings of strangers, or even
+delight in witnessing them. It is well known that the women and children
+of the North-American Indians aided in torturing their enemies. Some
+savages take a horrid pleasure in cruelty to animals,[126] and humanity
+with them is an unknown virtue. Nevertheless, feelings of sympathy and
+kindness are common, especially during sickness, between the members of
+the same tribe, and are sometimes extended beyond the limits of the
+tribe. Mungo Park's touching account of the kindness of the negro women
+of the interior to him is well known. Many instances could be given of
+the noble fidelity of savages towards each other, but not to strangers;
+common experience justifies the maxim of the Spaniard, "Never, never
+trust an Indian." There cannot be fidelity without truth; and this
+fundamental virtue is not rare between the members of the same tribe:
+thus Mungo Park heard the negro women teaching their young children to
+love the truth. This, again, is one of the virtues which becomes so
+deeply rooted in the mind that it is sometimes practised by savages even
+at a high cost, towards strangers; but to lie to your enemy has rarely
+been thought a sin, as the history of modern diplomacy too plainly
+shews. As soon as a tribe has a recognised leader, disobedience becomes
+a crime, and even abject submission is looked at as a sacred virtue.
+
+As during rude times no man can be useful or faithful to his tribe
+without courage, this quality has universally been placed in the highest
+rank; and although, in civilised countries, a good, yet timid, man may
+be far more useful to the community than a brave one, we cannot help
+instinctively honouring the latter above a coward, however benevolent.
+Prudence, on the other hand, which does not concern the welfare of
+others, though a very useful virtue, has never been highly esteemed. As
+no man can practise the virtues necessary for the welfare of his tribe
+without self-sacrifice, self-command, and the power of endurance, these
+qualities have been at all times highly and most justly valued. The
+American savage voluntarily submits without a groan to the most horrid
+tortures to prove and strengthen his fortitude and courage; and we
+cannot help admiring him, or even an Indian Fakir, who, from a foolish
+religious motive, swings suspended by a hook buried in his flesh.
+
+The other self-regarding virtues, which do not obviously, though they
+may really, affect the welfare of the tribe, have never been esteemed by
+savages, though now highly appreciated by civilised nations. The
+greatest intemperance with savages is no reproach. Their utter
+licentiousness, not to mention unnatural crimes, is something
+astounding.[127] As soon, however, as marriage, whether polygamous or
+monogamous, becomes common, jealousy will lead to the inculcation of
+female virtue; and this being honoured will tend to spread to the
+unmarried females. How slowly it spreads to the male sex we see at the
+present day. Chastity eminently requires self-command; therefore it has
+been honoured from a very early period in the moral history of civilised
+man. As a consequence of this, the senseless practice of celibacy has
+been ranked from a remote period as a virtue.[128] The hatred of
+indecency, which appears to us so natural as to be thought innate, and
+which is so valuable an aid to chastity, is a modern virtue,
+appertaining exclusively, as Sir G. Staunton remarks,[129] to civilised
+life. This is shewn by the ancient religious rites of various nations,
+by the drawings on the walls of Pompeii, and by the practices of many
+savages.
+
+We have now seen that actions are regarded by savages, and were probably
+so regarded by primeval man, as good or bad, solely as they affect in an
+obvious manner the welfare of the tribe,--not that of the species, nor
+that of man as an individual member of the tribe. This conclusion
+agrees well with the belief that the so-called moral sense is
+aboriginally derived from the social instincts, for both relate at first
+exclusively to the community. The chief causes of the low morality of
+savages, as judged by our standard, are, firstly, the confinement of
+sympathy to the same tribe. Secondly, insufficient powers of reasoning,
+so that the bearing of many virtues, especially of the self-regarding
+virtues, on the general welfare of the tribe is not recognised. Savages,
+for instance, fail to trace the multiplied evils consequent on a want of
+temperance, chastity, &c. And, thirdly, weak power of self-command; for
+this power has not been strengthened through long-continued, perhaps
+inherited, habit, instruction and religion.
+
+I have entered into the above details on the immorality of savages,[130]
+because some authors have recently taken a high view of their moral
+nature, or have attributed most of their crimes to mistaken
+benevolence.[131] These authors appear to rest their conclusion on
+savages possessing, as they undoubtedly do possess, and often in a high
+degree, those virtues which are serviceable, or even necessary, for the
+existence of a tribal community.
+
+
+_Concluding Remarks._--Philosophers of the derivative[132] school of
+morals formerly assumed that the foundation of morality lay in a form of
+Selfishness; but more recently in the "Greatest Happiness principle."
+According to the view given above, the moral sense is fundamentally
+identical with the social instincts; and in the case of the lower
+animals it would be absurd to speak of these instincts as having been
+developed from selfishness, or for the happiness of the community. They
+have, however, certainly been developed for the general good of the
+community. The term, general good, may be defined as the means by which
+the greatest possible number of individuals can be reared in full vigour
+and health, with all their faculties perfect, under the conditions to
+which they are exposed. As the social instincts both of man and the
+lower animals have no doubt been developed by the same steps, it would
+be advisable, if found practicable, to use the same definition in both
+cases, and to take as the test of morality, the general good or welfare
+of the community, rather than the general happiness; but this definition
+would perhaps require some limitation on account of political ethics.
+
+When a man risks his life to save that of a fellow-creature, it seems
+more appropriate to say that he acts for the general good or welfare,
+rather than for the general happiness of mankind. No doubt the welfare
+and the happiness of the individual usually coincide; and a contented,
+happy tribe will flourish better than one that is discontented and
+unhappy. We have seen that at an early period in the history of man, the
+expressed wishes of the community will have naturally influenced to a
+large extent the conduct of each member; and as all wish for happiness,
+the "greatest happiness principle" will have become a most important
+secondary guide and object; the social instincts, including sympathy,
+always serving as the primary impulse and guide. Thus the reproach of
+laying the foundation of the most noble part of our nature in the base
+principle of selfishness is removed; unless indeed the satisfaction
+which every animal feels when it follows its proper instincts, and the
+dissatisfaction felt when prevented, be called selfish.
+
+The expression of the wishes and judgment of the members of the same
+community, at first by oral and afterwards by written language, serves,
+as just remarked, as a most important secondary guide of conduct, in aid
+of the social instincts, but sometimes in opposition to them. This
+latter fact is well exemplified by the _Law of Honour_, that is the law
+of the opinion of our equals, and not of all our countrymen. The breach
+of this law, even when the breach is known to be strictly accordant with
+true morality, has caused many a man more agony than a real crime. We
+recognise the same influence in the burning sense of shame which most of
+us have felt even after the interval of years, when calling to mind some
+accidental breach of a trifling though fixed rule of etiquette. The
+judgment of the community will generally be guided by some rude
+experience of what is best in the long run for all the members; but this
+judgment will not rarely err from ignorance and from weak powers of
+reasoning. Hence the strangest customs and superstitions, in complete
+opposition to the true welfare and happiness of mankind, have become
+all-powerful throughout the world. We see this in the horror felt by a
+Hindoo who breaks his caste, in the shame of a Mahometan woman who
+exposes her face, and in innumerable other instances. It would be
+difficult to distinguish between the remorse felt by a Hindoo who has
+eaten unclean food, from that felt after committing a theft; but the
+former would probably be the more severe.
+
+How so many absurd rules of conduct, as well as so many absurd religious
+beliefs, have originated we do not know; nor how it is that they have
+become, in all quarters of the world, so deeply impressed on the mind
+of men; but it is worthy of remark that a belief constantly inculcated
+during the early years of life, whilst the brain is impressible, appears
+to acquire almost the nature of an instinct; and the very essence of an
+instinct is that it is followed independently of reason. Neither can we
+say why certain admirable virtues, such as the love of truth, are much
+more highly appreciated by some savage tribes than by others;[133] nor,
+again, why similar differences prevail even amongst civilised nations.
+Knowing how firmly fixed many strange customs and superstitions have
+become, we need feel no surprise that the self-regarding virtues should
+now appear to us so natural, supported as they are by reason, as to be
+thought innate, although they were not valued by man in his early
+condition.
+
+Notwithstanding many sources of doubt, man can generally and readily
+distinguish between the higher and lower moral rules. The higher are
+founded on the social instincts, and relate to the welfare of others.
+They are supported by the approbation of our fellow-men and by reason.
+The lower rules, though some of them when implying self-sacrifice hardly
+deserve to be called lower, relate chiefly to self, and owe their origin
+to public opinion, when matured by experience and cultivated; for they
+are not practised by rude tribes.
+
+As man advances in civilisation, and small tribes are united into larger
+communities, the simplest reason would tell each individual that he
+ought to extend his social instincts and sympathies to all the members
+of the same nation, though personally unknown to him. This point being
+once reached, there is only an artificial barrier to prevent his
+sympathies extending to the men of all nations and races. If, indeed,
+such men are separated from him by great differences in appearance or
+habits, experience unfortunately shews us how long it is before we look
+at them as our fellow-creatures. Sympathy beyond the confines of man,
+that is humanity to the lower animals, seems to be one of the latest
+moral acquisitions. It is apparently unfelt by savages, except towards
+their pets. How little the old Romans knew of it is shewn by their
+abhorrent gladiatorial exhibitions. The very idea of humanity, as far as
+I could observe, was new to most of the Gauchos of the Pampas. This
+virtue, one of the noblest with which man is endowed, seems to arise
+incidentally from our sympathies becoming more tender and more widely
+diffused, until they are extended to all sentient beings. As soon as
+this virtue is honoured and practised by some few men, it spreads
+through instruction and example to the young, and eventually through
+public opinion.
+
+The highest stage in moral culture at which we can arrive, is when we
+recognise that we ought to control our thoughts, and "not even in inmost
+thought to think again the sins that made the past so pleasant to
+us."[134] Whatever makes any bad action familiar to the mind, renders
+its performance by so much the easier. As Marcus Aurelius long ago said,
+"Such as are thy habitual thoughts, such also will be the character of
+thy mind; for the soul is dyed by the thoughts."[135]
+
+Our great philosopher, Herbert Spencer, has recently explained his views
+on the moral sense. He says,[136] "I believe that the experiences of
+utility organised and consolidated through all past generations of the
+human race, have been producing corresponding modifications, which, by
+continued transmission and accumulation, have become in us certain
+faculties of moral intuition--certain emotions responding to right and
+wrong conduct, which have no apparent basis in the individual
+experiences of utility." There is not the least inherent improbability,
+as it seems to me, in virtuous tendencies being more or less strongly
+inherited; for, not to mention the various dispositions and habits
+transmitted by many of our domestic animals, I have heard of cases in
+which a desire to steal and a tendency to lie appeared to run in
+families of the upper ranks; and as stealing is so rare a crime in the
+wealthy classes, we can hardly account by accidental coincidence for the
+tendency occurring in two or three members of the same family. If bad
+tendencies are transmitted, it is probable that good ones are likewise
+transmitted. Excepting through the principle of the transmission of
+moral tendencies, we cannot understand the differences believed to exist
+in this respect between the various races of mankind. We have, however,
+as yet, hardly sufficient evidence on this head.
+
+Even the partial transmission of virtuous tendencies would be an immense
+assistance to the primary impulse derived directly from the social
+instincts, and indirectly from the approbation of our fellow-men.
+Admitting for the moment that virtuous tendencies are inherited, it
+appears probable, at least in such cases as chastity, temperance,
+humanity to animals, &c., that they become first impressed on the mental
+organisation through habit, instruction, and example, continued during
+several generations in the same family, and in a quite subordinate
+degree, or not at all, by the individuals possessing such virtues,
+having succeeded best in the struggle for life. My chief source of doubt
+with respect to any such inheritance, is that senseless customs,
+superstitions, and tastes, such as the horror of a Hindoo for unclean
+food, ought on the same principle to be transmitted. Although this in
+itself is perhaps not less probable than that animals should acquire
+inherited tastes for certain kinds of food or fear of certain foes, I
+have not met with any evidence in support of the transmission of
+superstitious customs or senseless habits.
+
+
+Finally, the social instincts which no doubt were acquired by man, as by
+the lower animals, for the good of the community, will from the first
+have given to him some wish to aid his fellows, and some feeling of
+sympathy. Such impulses will have served him at a very early period as a
+rude rule of right and wrong. But as man gradually advanced in
+intellectual power and was enabled to trace the more remote consequences
+of his actions; as he acquired sufficient knowledge to reject baneful
+customs and superstitions; as he regarded more and more not only the
+welfare but the happiness of his fellow-men; as from habit, following on
+beneficial experience, instruction, and example, his sympathies became
+more tender and widely diffused, so as to extend to the men of all
+races, to the imbecile, the maimed, and other useless members of
+society, and finally to the lower animals,--so would the standard of his
+morality rise higher and higher. And it is admitted by moralists of the
+derivative school and by some intuitionists, that the standard of
+morality has risen since an early period in the history of man.[137]
+
+As a struggle may sometimes be seen going on between the various
+instincts of the lower animals, it is not surprising that there should
+be a struggle in man between his social instincts, with their derived
+virtues, and his lower, though at the moment, stronger impulses or
+desires. This, as Mr. Galton[138] has remarked, is all the less
+surprising, as man has emerged from a state of barbarism within a
+comparatively recent period. After having yielded to some temptation we
+feel a sense of dissatisfaction, analogous to that felt from other
+unsatisfied instincts, called in this case conscience; for we cannot
+prevent past images and impressions continually passing through our
+minds, and these in their weakened state we compare with the
+ever-present social instincts, or with habits gained in early youth and
+strengthened during our whole lives, perhaps inherited, so that they are
+at last rendered almost as strong as instincts. Looking to future
+generations, there is no cause to fear that the social instincts will
+grow weaker, and we may expect that virtuous habits will grow stronger,
+becoming perhaps fixed by inheritance. In this case the struggle between
+our higher and lower impulses will be less severe, and virtue will be
+triumphant.
+
+
+_Summary of the two last Chapters._--There can be no doubt that the
+difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest
+animal is immense. An anthropomorphous ape, if he could take a
+dispassionate view of his own case, would admit that though he could
+form an artful plan to plunder a garden--though he could use stones for
+fighting or for breaking open nuts, yet that the thought of fashioning
+a stone into a tool was quite beyond his scope. Still less, as he would
+admit, could he follow out a train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a
+mathematical problem, or reflect on God, or admire a grand natural
+scene. Some apes, however, would probably declare that they could and
+did admire the beauty of the coloured skin and fur of their partners in
+marriage. They would admit, that though they could make other apes
+understand by cries some of their perceptions and simpler wants, the
+notion of expressing definite ideas by definite sounds had never crossed
+their minds. They might insist that they were ready to aid their
+fellow-apes of the same troop in many ways, to risk their lives for
+them, and to take charge of their orphans; but they would be forced to
+acknowledge that disinterested love for all living creatures, the most
+noble attribute of man, was quite beyond their comprehension.
+
+Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals,
+great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind. We have seen
+that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such
+as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, &c., of which
+man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a
+well-developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of
+some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic dog compared with
+the wolf or jackal. If it be maintained that certain powers, such as
+self-consciousness, abstraction, &c., are peculiar to man, it may well
+be that these are the incidental results of other highly-advanced
+intellectual faculties; and these again are mainly the result of the
+continued use of a highly developed language. At what age does the
+new-born infant possess the power of abstraction, or become
+self-conscious and reflect on its own existence? We cannot answer; nor
+can we answer in regard to the ascending organic scale. The half-art and
+half-instinct of language still bears the stamp of its gradual
+evolution. The ennobling belief in God is not universal with man; and
+the belief in active spiritual agencies naturally follows from his other
+mental powers. The moral sense perhaps affords the best and highest
+distinction between man and the lower animals; but I need not say
+anything on this head, as I have so lately endeavoured to shew
+that the social instincts,--the prime principle of man's moral
+constitution[139]--with the aid of active intellectual powers and the
+effects of habit, naturally lead to the golden rule, "As ye would that
+men should do to you, do ye to them likewise;" and this lies at the
+foundation of morality.
+
+In a future chapter I shall make some few remarks on the probable steps
+and means by which the several mental and moral faculties of man have
+been gradually evolved. That this at least is possible ought not to be
+denied, when we daily see their development in every infant; and when we
+may trace a perfect gradation from the mind of an utter idiot, lower
+than that of the lowest animal, to the mind of a Newton.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+ON THE MANNER OF DEVELOPMENT OF MAN FROM SOME LOWER FORM.
+
+
+  Variability of body and mind in man--Inheritance--Causes of
+  variability--Laws of variation the same in man as in the lower
+  animals--Direct action of the conditions of life--Effects of
+  the increased use and disuse of parts--Arrested
+  development--Reversion--Correlated variation--Rate of
+  increase--Checks to increase--Natural selection--Man the most
+  dominant animal in the world--Importance of his corporeal
+  structure--The causes which have led to his becoming
+  erect--Consequent changes of structure--Decrease in size of the
+  canine teeth--Increased size and altered shape of the
+  skull--Nakedness--Absence of a tail--Defenceless condition of
+  man.
+
+
+We have seen in the first chapter that the homological structure of man,
+his embryological development and the rudiments which he still retains,
+all declare in the plainest manner that he is descended from some lower
+form. The possession of exalted mental powers is no insuperable
+objection to this conclusion. In order that an ape-like creature should
+have been transformed into man, it is necessary that this early form, as
+well as many successive links, should all have varied in mind and body.
+It is impossible to obtain direct evidence on this head; but if it can
+be shewn that man now varies--that his variations are induced by the
+same general causes, and obey the same general laws, as in the case of
+the lower animals--there can be little doubt that the preceding
+intermediate links varied in a like manner. The variations at each
+successive stage of descent must, also, have been in some manner
+accumulated and fixed.
+
+The facts and conclusions to be given in this chapter relate almost
+exclusively to the probable means by which the transformation of man has
+been effected, as far as his bodily structure is concerned. The
+following chapter will be devoted to the development of his intellectual
+and moral faculties. But the present discussion likewise bears on the
+origin of the different races or species of mankind, whichever term may
+be preferred.
+
+It is manifest that man is now subject to much variability. No two
+individuals of the same race are quite alike. We may compare millions of
+faces, and each will be distinct. There is an equally great amount of
+diversity in the proportions and dimensions of the various parts of the
+body; the length of the legs being one of the most variable points.[140]
+Although in some quarters of the world an elongated skull, and in other
+quarters a short skull prevails, yet there is great diversity of shape
+even within the limits of the same race, as with the aborigines of
+America and South Australia,--the latter a race "probably as pure and
+homogeneous in blood, customs, and language as any in existence"--and
+even with the inhabitants of so confined an area as the Sandwich
+Islands.[141] An eminent dentist assures me that there is nearly as much
+diversity in the teeth, as in the features. The chief arteries so
+frequently run in abnormal courses, that it has been found useful for
+surgical purposes to calculate from 12,000 corpses how often each
+course prevails.[142] The muscles are eminently variable: thus those of
+the foot were found by Prof. Turner[143] not to be strictly alike in any
+two out of fifty bodies; and in some the deviations were considerable.
+Prof. Turner adds that the power of performing the appropriate movements
+must have been modified in accordance with the several deviations. Mr.
+J. Wood has recorded[144] the occurrence of 295 muscular variations in
+thirty-six subjects, and in another set of the same number no less than
+558 variations, reckoning both sides of the body as one. In the last
+set, not one body out of the thirty-six was "found totally wanting in
+departures from the standard descriptions of the muscular system given
+in anatomical text-books." A single body presented the extraordinary
+number of twenty-five distinct abnormalities. The same muscle sometimes
+varies in many ways: thus Prof. Macalister describes[145] no less than
+twenty distinct variations in the _palmaris accessorius_.
+
+The famous old anatomist, Wolff,[146] insists that the internal viscera
+are more variable than the external parts: _Nulla particula est quae non
+aliter et aliter in aliis se habeat hominibus._ He has even written a
+treatise on the choice of typical examples of the viscera for
+representation. A discussion on the beau-ideal of the liver, lungs,
+kidneys, &c., as of the human face divine, sounds strange in our ears.
+
+The variability or diversity of the mental faculties in men of the same
+race, not to mention the greater differences between the men of
+distinct races, is so notorious that not a word need here be said. So it
+is with the lower animals, as has been illustrated by a few examples in
+the last chapter. All who have had charge of menageries admit this fact,
+and we see it plainly in our dogs and other domestic animals. Brehm
+especially insists that each individual monkey of those which he kept
+under confinement in Africa had its own peculiar disposition and temper:
+he mentions one baboon remarkable for its high intelligence; and the
+keepers in the Zoological Gardens pointed out to me a monkey, belonging
+to the New World division, equally remarkable for intelligence. Rengger,
+also, insists on the diversity in the various mental characters of the
+monkeys of the same species which he kept in Paraguay; and this
+diversity, as he adds, is partly innate, and partly the result of the
+manner in which they have been treated or educated.[147]
+
+I have elsewhere[148] so fully discussed the subject of Inheritance that
+I need here add hardly anything. A greater number of facts have been
+collected with respect to the transmission of the most trifling, as well
+as of the most important characters in man than in any of the lower
+animals; though the facts are copious enough with respect to the latter.
+So in regard to mental qualities, their transmission is manifest in our
+dogs, horses, and other domestic animals. Besides special tastes and
+habits, general intelligence, courage, bad and good temper, &c., are
+certainly transmitted. With man we see similar facts in almost every
+family; and we now know through the admirable labours of Mr. Galton[149]
+that genius, which implies a wonderfully complex combination of high
+faculties, tends to be inherited; and, on the other hand, it is too
+certain that insanity and deteriorated mental powers likewise run in the
+same families.
+
+With respect to the causes of variability we are in all cases very
+ignorant; but we can see that in man as in the lower animals, they stand
+in some relation with the conditions to which each species has been
+exposed during several generations. Domesticated animals vary more than
+those in a state of nature; and this is apparently due to the
+diversified and changing nature of their conditions. The different races
+of man resemble in this respect domesticated animals, and so do the
+individuals of the same race when inhabiting a very wide area, like that
+of America. We see the influence of diversified conditions in the more
+civilised nations, the members of which belong to different grades of
+rank and follow different occupations, presenting a greater range of
+character than the members of barbarous nations. But the uniformity of
+savages has often been exaggerated, and in some cases can hardly be said
+to exist.[150] It is nevertheless an error to speak of man, even if we
+look only to the conditions to which he has been subjected, as "far more
+domesticated"[151] than any other animal. Some savage races, such as
+the Australians, are not exposed to more diversified conditions than are
+many species which have very wide ranges. In another and much more
+important respect, man differs widely from any strictly domesticated
+animal; for his breeding has not been controlled, either through
+methodical or unconscious selection. No race or body of men has been so
+completely subjugated by other men, that certain individuals have been
+preserved and thus unconsciously selected, from being in some way more
+useful to their masters. Nor have certain male and female individuals
+been intentionally picked out and matched, except in the well-known case
+of the Prussian grenadiers; and in this case man obeyed, as might have
+been expected, the law of methodical selection; for it is asserted that
+many tall men were reared in the villages inhabited by the grenadiers
+with their tall wives.
+
+If we consider all the races of man, as forming a single species, his
+range is enormous; but some separate races, as the Americans and
+Polynesians, have very wide ranges. It is a well-known law that
+widely-ranging species are much more variable than species with
+restricted ranges; and the variability of man may with more truth be
+compared with that of widely-ranging species, than with that of
+domesticated animals.
+
+Not only does variability appear to be induced in man and the lower
+animals by the same general causes, but in both the same characters are
+affected in a closely analogous manner. This has been proved in such
+full detail by Godron and Quatrefages, that I need here only refer to
+their works.[152] Monstrosities, which graduate into slight variations,
+are likewise so similar in man and the lower animals, that the same
+classification and the same terms can be used for both, as may be seen
+in Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire's great work.[153] This is a necessary
+consequence of the same laws of change prevailing throughout the animal
+kingdom. In my work on the variation of domestic animals, I have
+attempted to arrange in a rude fashion the laws of variation under the
+following heads:--The direct and definite action of changed conditions,
+as shewn by all or nearly all the individuals of the same species
+varying in the same manner under the same circumstances. The effects of
+the long-continued use or disuse of parts. The cohesion of homologous
+parts. The variability of multiple parts. Compensation of growth; but of
+this law I have found no good instances in the case of man. The effects
+of the mechanical pressure of one part on another; as of the pelvis on
+the cranium of the infant in the womb. Arrests of development, leading
+to the diminution or suppression of parts. The reappearance of long-lost
+characters through reversion. And lastly, correlated variation. All
+these so-called laws apply equally to man and the lower animals; and
+most of them even to plants. It would be superfluous here to discuss all
+of them;[154] but several are so important for us, that they must be
+treated at considerable length.
+
+
+_The direct and definite action of changed conditions._--This is a most
+perplexing subject. It cannot be denied that changed conditions produce
+some effect, and occasionally a considerable effect, on organisms of all
+kinds; and it seems at first probable that if sufficient time were
+allowed this would be the invariable result. But I have failed to obtain
+clear evidence in favour of this conclusion; and valid reasons may be
+urged on the other side, at least as far as the innumerable structures
+are concerned, which are adapted for special ends. There can, however,
+be no doubt that changed conditions induce an almost indefinite amount
+of fluctuating variability, by which the whole organisation is rendered
+in some degree plastic.
+
+In the United States, above 1,000,000 soldiers, who served in the late
+war, were measured, and the States in which they were born and reared
+recorded.[155] From this astonishing number of observations it is proved
+that local influences of some kind act directly on stature; and we
+further learn that "the State where the physical growth has in great
+measure taken place, and the State of birth, which indicates the
+ancestry, seem to exert a marked influence on the stature." For instance
+it is established, "that residence in the Western States, during the
+years of growth, tends to produce increase of stature." On the other
+hand, it is certain that with sailors, their manner of life delays
+growth, as shewn "by the great difference between the statures of
+soldiers and sailors at the ages of 17 and 18 years." Mr. B. A. Gould
+endeavoured to ascertain the nature of the influences which thus act on
+stature; but he arrived only at negative results, namely, that they did
+not relate to climate, the elevation of the land, soil, nor even "in any
+controlling degree" to the abundance or need of the comforts of life.
+This latter conclusion is directly opposed to that arrived at by
+Villerme from the statistics of the height of the conscripts in
+different parts of France. When we compare the differences in stature
+between the Polynesian chiefs and the lower orders within the same
+islands, or between the inhabitants of the fertile volcanic and low
+barren coral islands of the same ocean,[156] or again between the
+Fuegians on the eastern and western shores of their country, where the
+means of subsistence are very different, it is scarcely possible to
+avoid the conclusion that better food and greater comfort do influence
+stature. But the preceding statements shew how difficult it is to arrive
+at any precise result. Dr. Beddoe has lately proved that, with the
+inhabitants of Britain, residence in towns and certain occupations have
+a deteriorating influence on height; and he infers that the result is to
+a certain extent inherited, as is likewise the case in the United
+States. Dr. Beddoe further believes that wherever a "race attains its
+maximum of physical development, it rises highest in energy and moral
+vigour."[157]
+
+Whether external conditions produce any other direct effect on man is
+not known. It might have been expected that differences of climate would
+have had a marked influence, as the lungs and kidneys are brought into
+fuller activity under a low temperature, and the liver and skin under a
+high one.[158] It was formerly thought that the colour of the skin and
+the character of the hair were determined by light or heat; and
+although it can hardly be denied that some effect is thus produced,
+almost all observers now agree that the effect has been very small, even
+after exposure during many ages. But this subject will be more properly
+discussed when we treat of the different races of mankind. With our
+domestic animals there are grounds for believing that cold and damp
+directly affect the growth of the hair; but I have not met with any
+evidence on this head in the case of man.
+
+
+_Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts._--It is well known
+that use strengthens the muscles in the individual, and complete disuse,
+or the destruction of the proper nerve, weakens them. When the eye is
+destroyed the optic nerve often becomes atrophied. When an artery is
+tied, the lateral channels increase not only in diameter, but in the
+thickness and strength of their coats. When one kidney ceases acting
+from disease, the other increases in size and does double work. Bones
+increase not only in thickness, but in length, from carrying a greater
+weight.[159] Different occupations habitually followed lead to changed
+proportions in various parts of the body. Thus it was clearly
+ascertained by the United States Commission[160] that the legs of the
+sailors employed in the late war were longer by 0.217 of an inch than
+those of the soldiers, though the sailors were on an average shorter
+men; whilst their arms were shorter by 1.09 of an inch, and therefore
+out of proportion shorter in relation to their lesser height. This
+shortness of the arms is apparently due to their greater use, and is an
+unexpected result; but sailors chiefly use their arms in pulling and not
+in supporting weights. The girth of the neck and the depth of the instep
+are greater, whilst the circumference of the chest, waist, and hips is
+less in sailors than in soldiers.
+
+Whether the several foregoing modifications would become hereditary, if
+the same habits of life were followed during many generations, is not
+known, but is probable. Rengger[161] attributes the thin legs and thick
+arms of the Payaguas Indians to successive generations having passed
+nearly their whole lives in canoes, with their lower extremities
+motionless. Other writers have come to a similar conclusion in other
+analogous cases. According to Cranz,[162] who lived for a long time with
+the Esquimaux, "the natives believe that ingenuity and dexterity in
+seal-catching (their highest art and virtue) is hereditary; there is
+really something in it, for the son of a celebrated seal-catcher will
+distinguish himself though he lost his father in childhood." But in this
+case it is mental aptitude, quite as much as bodily structure, which
+appears to be inherited. It is asserted that the hands of English
+labourers are at birth larger than those of the gentry.[163] From the
+correlation which exists, at least in some cases,[164] between the
+development of the extremities and of the jaws, it is possible that in
+those classes which do not labour much with their hands and feet, the
+jaws would be reduced in size from this cause. That they are generally
+smaller in refined and civilised men than in hard-working men or
+savages, is certain. But with savages, as Mr. Herbert Spencer[165] has
+remarked, the greater use of the jaws in chewing coarse, uncooked food,
+would act in a direct manner on the masticatory muscles and on the bones
+to which they are attached. In infants long before birth, the skin on
+the soles of the feet is thicker than on any other part of the
+body;[166] and it can hardly be doubted that this is due to the
+inherited effects of pressure during a long series of generations.
+
+It is familiar to every one that watchmakers and engravers are liable to
+become short-sighted, whilst sailors and especially savages are
+generally long-sighted. Short-sight and long-sight certainly tend to be
+inherited.[167] The inferiority of Europeans, in comparison with
+savages, in eyesight and in the other senses, is no doubt the
+accumulated and transmitted effect of lessened use during many
+generations; for Rengger[168] states that he has repeatedly observed
+Europeans, who had been brought up and spent their whole lives with the
+wild Indians, who nevertheless did not equal them in the sharpness of
+their senses. The same naturalist observes that the cavities in the
+skull for the reception of the several sense-organs are larger in the
+American aborigines than in Europeans; and this no doubt indicates a
+corresponding difference in the dimensions of the organs themselves.
+Blumenbach has also remarked on the large size of the nasal cavities in
+the skulls of the American aborigines, and connects this fact with their
+remarkably acute power of smell. The Mongolians of the plains of
+Northern Asia, according to Pallas, have wonderfully perfect senses; and
+Prichard believes that the great breadth of their skulls across the
+zygomas follows from their highly-developed sense-organs.[169]
+
+The Quechua Indians inhabit the lofty plateaux of Peru, and Alcide
+d'Orbigny states[170] that from continually breathing a highly rarefied
+atmosphere they have acquired chests and lungs of extraordinary
+dimensions. The cells, also, of the lungs are larger and more numerous
+than in Europeans. These observations have been doubted; but Mr. D.
+Forbes carefully measured many Aymaras, an allied race, living at the
+height of between ten and fifteen thousand feet; and he informs me[171]
+that they differ conspicuously from the men of all other races seen by
+him, in the circumference and length of their bodies. In his table of
+measurements, the stature of each man is taken at 1000, and the other
+measurements are reduced to this standard. It is here seen that the
+extended arms of the Aymaras are shorter than those of Europeans, and
+much shorter than those of Negroes. The legs are likewise shorter, and
+they present this remarkable peculiarity, that in every Aymara measured
+the femur is actually shorter than the tibia. On an average the length
+of the femur to that of the tibia is as 211 to 252; whilst in two
+Europeans measured at the same time, the femora to the tibiae were as
+244 to 230; and in three Negroes as 258 to 241. The humerus is likewise
+shorter relatively to the fore-arm. This shortening of that part of the
+limb which is nearest to the body, appears to be, as suggested to me by
+Mr. Forbes, a case of compensation in relation with the greatly
+increased length of the trunk. The Aymaras present some other singular
+points of structure, for instance, the very small projection of the
+heel.
+
+These men are so thoroughly acclimatised to their cold and lofty abode,
+that when formerly carried down by the Spaniards to the low Eastern
+plains, and when now tempted down by high wages to the gold-washings,
+they suffer a frightful rate of mortality. Nevertheless Mr. Forbes found
+a few pure families which had survived during two generations; and he
+observed that they still inherited their characteristic peculiarities.
+But it was manifest, even without measurement, that these peculiarities
+had all decreased; and on measurement their bodies were found not to be
+so much elongated as those of the men on the high plateau; whilst their
+femora had become somewhat lengthened, as had their tibiae but in a less
+degree. The actual measurements may be seen by consulting Mr. Forbes'
+memoir. From these valuable observations, there can, I think, be no
+doubt that residence during many generations at a great elevation tends,
+both directly and indirectly, to induce inherited modifications in the
+proportions of the body.[172]
+
+Although man may not have been much modified during the latter stages of
+his existence through the increased or decreased use of parts, the
+facts now given shew that his liability in this respect has not been
+lost; and we positively know that the same law holds good with the lower
+animals. Consequently we may infer, that when at a remote epoch the
+progenitors of man were in a transitional state, and were changing from
+quadrupeds into bipeds, natural selection would probably have been
+greatly aided by the inherited effects of the increased or diminished
+use of the different parts of the body.
+
+
+_Arrests of Development._--Arrested development differs from arrested
+growth, as parts in the former state continue to grow whilst still
+retaining their early condition. Various monstrosities come under this
+head, and some are known to be occasionally inherited, as a
+cleft-palate. It will suffice for our purpose to refer to the arrested
+brain-development of microcephalous idiots, as described in Vogt's great
+memoir.[173] Their skulls are smaller, and the convolutions of the brain
+are less complex than in normal men. The frontal sinus, or the
+projection over the eyebrows, is largely developed, and the jaws are
+prognathous to an "_effrayant_" degree; so that these idiots somewhat
+resemble the lower types of mankind. Their intelligence and most of
+their mental faculties are extremely feeble. They cannot acquire the
+power of speech, and are wholly incapable of prolonged attention, but
+are much given to imitation. They are strong and remarkably active,
+continually gamboling and jumping about, and making grimaces. They often
+ascend stairs on all-fours; and are curiously fond of climbing up
+furniture or trees. We are thus reminded of the delight shewn by almost
+all boys in climbing trees; and this again reminds us how lambs and
+kids, originally alpine animals, delight to frisk on any hillock,
+however small.
+
+
+_Reversion._--Many of the cases to be here given might have been
+introduced under the last heading. Whenever a structure is arrested in
+its development, but still continues growing until it closely resembles
+a corresponding structure in some lower and adult member of the same
+group, we may in one sense consider it as a case of reversion. The lower
+members in a group give us some idea how the common progenitor of the
+group was probably constructed; and it is hardly credible that a part
+arrested at an early phase of embryonic development should be enabled to
+continue growing so as ultimately to perform its proper function, unless
+it had acquired this power of continued growth during some earlier state
+of existence, when the present exceptional or arrested structure was
+normal. The simple brain of a microcephalous idiot, in as far as it
+resembles that of an ape, may in this sense be said to offer a case of
+reversion. There are other cases which come more strictly under our
+present heading of reversion. Certain structures, regularly occurring in
+the lower members of the group to which man belongs, occasionally make
+their appearance in him, though not found in the normal human embryo;
+or, if present in the normal human embryo, they become developed in an
+abnormal manner, though this manner of development is proper to the
+lower members of the same group. These remarks will be rendered clearer
+by the following illustrations.
+
+In various mammals the uterus graduates from a double organ with two
+distinct orifices and two passages, as in the marsupials, into a single
+organ, showing no signs of doubleness except a slight internal fold, as
+in the higher apes and man. The rodents exhibit a perfect series of
+gradations between these two extreme states. In all mammals the uterus
+is developed from two simple primitive tubes, the inferior portions of
+which form the cornua; and it is in the words of Dr. Farre "by the
+coalescence of the two cornua at their lower extremities that the body
+of the uterus is formed in man; while in those animals in which no
+middle portion or body exists, the cornua remain ununited. As the
+development of the uterus proceeds, the two cornua become gradually
+shorter, until at length they are lost, or, as it were, absorbed into
+the body of the uterus." The angles of the uterus are still produced
+into cornua, even so high in the scale as in the lower apes, and their
+allies the lemurs.
+
+Now in women anomalous cases are not very infrequent, in which the
+mature uterus is furnished with cornua, or is partially divided into two
+organs; and such cases, according to Owen, repeat "the grade of
+concentrative development," attained by certain rodents. Here perhaps we
+have an instance of a simple arrest of embryonic development, with
+subsequent growth and perfect functional development, for either side of
+the partially double uterus is capable of performing the proper office
+of gestation. In other and rarer cases, two distinct uterine cavities
+are formed, each having its proper orifice and passage.[174] No such
+stage is passed through during the ordinary development of the embryo,
+and it is difficult to believe, though perhaps not impossible, that the
+two simple, minute, primitive tubes could know how (if such an
+expression may be used) to grow into two distinct uteri, each with a
+well-constructed orifice and passage, and each furnished with numerous
+muscles, nerves, glands and vessels, if they had not formerly passed
+through a similar course of development, as in the case of existing
+marsupials. No one will pretend that so perfect a structure as the
+abnormal double uterus in woman could be the result of mere chance. But
+the principle of reversion, by which long-lost dormant structures are
+called back into existence, might serve as the guide for the full
+development of the organ, even after the lapse of an enormous interval
+of time.
+
+Professor Canestrini,[175] after discussing the foregoing and various
+analogous cases, arrives at the same conclusion as that just given. He
+adduces, as another instance, the malar bone, which, in some of the
+Quadrumana and other mammals, normally consists of two portions. This is
+its condition in the two-months-old human foetus; and thus it
+sometimes remains, through arrested development, in man when adult, more
+especially in the lower prognathous races. Hence Canestrini concludes
+that some ancient progenitor of man must have possessed this bone
+normally divided into two portions, which subsequently became fused
+together. In man the frontal bone consists of a single piece, but in the
+embryo and in children, and in almost all the lower mammals, it consists
+of two pieces separated by a distinct suture. This suture occasionally
+persists, more or less distinctly, in man after maturity, and more
+frequently in ancient than in recent crania, especially as Canestrini
+has observed in those exhumed from the Drift and belonging to the
+brachycephalic type. Here again he comes to the same conclusion as in
+the analogous case of the malar bones. In this and other instances
+presently to be given, the cause of ancient races approaching the lower
+animals in certain characters more frequently than do the modern races,
+appears to be that the latter stand at a somewhat greater distance in
+the long line of descent from their early semi-human progenitors.
+
+Various other anomalies in man, more or less analogous with the
+foregoing, have been advanced by different authors[176] as cases of
+reversion; but these seem not a little doubtful, for we have to descend
+extremely low in the mammalian series before we find such structures
+normally present.[177]
+
+In man the canine teeth are perfectly efficient instruments for
+mastication. But their true canine character, as Owen[178] remarks, "is
+indicated by the conical form of the crown, which terminates in an
+obtuse point, is convex outward and flat or sub-concave within, at the
+base of which surface there is a feeble prominence. The conical form is
+best expressed in the Melanian races, especially the Australian. The
+canine is more deeply implanted, and by a stronger fang than the
+incisors." Nevertheless this tooth no longer serves man as a special
+weapon for tearing his enemies or prey; it may, therefore, as far as its
+proper function is concerned, be considered as rudimentary. In every
+large collection of human skulls some may be found, as Haeckel[179]
+observes, with the canine teeth projecting considerably beyond the
+others in the same manner, but in a less degree, as in the
+anthropomorphous apes. In these cases, open spaces between the teeth in
+the one jaw are left for the reception of the canines belonging to the
+opposite jaw. An interspace of this kind in a Kaffir skull, figured by
+Wagner, is surprisingly wide.[180] Considering how few ancient skulls
+have been examined in comparison with recent skulls, it is an
+interesting fact that in at least three cases the canines project
+largely; and in the Naulette jaw they are spoken of as enormous.[181]
+
+The males alone of the anthropomorphous apes have their canines fully
+developed; but in the female gorilla, and in a less degree in the female
+orang, these teeth project considerably beyond the others; therefore the
+fact that women sometimes have, as I have been assured, considerably
+projecting canines, is no serious objection to the belief that their
+occasional great development in man is a case of reversion to an
+ape-like progenitor. He who rejects with scorn the belief that the shape
+of his own canines, and their occasional great development in other men,
+are due to our early progenitors having been provided with these
+formidable weapons, will probably reveal by sneering the line of his
+descent. For though he no longer intends, nor has the power, to use
+these teeth as weapons, he will unconsciously retract his "snarling
+muscles" (thus named by Sir C. Bell)[182] so as to expose them ready for
+action, like a dog prepared to fight.
+
+Many muscles are occasionally developed in man, which are proper to the
+Quadrumana or other mammals. Professor Vlacovich[183] examined forty
+male subjects, and found a muscle, called by him the ischiopubic, in
+nineteen of them; in three others there was a ligament which represented
+this muscle; and in the remaining eighteen no trace of it. Out of thirty
+female subjects this muscle was developed on both sides in only two, but
+in three others the rudimentary ligament was present. This muscle,
+therefore, appears to be much more common in the male than in the female
+sex; and on the principle of the descent of man from some lower form,
+its presence can be understood; for it has been detected in several of
+the lower animals, and in all of these it serves exclusively to aid the
+male in the act of reproduction.
+
+Mr. J. Wood, in his valuable series of papers,[184] has minutely
+described a vast number of muscular variations in man, which resemble
+normal structures in the lower animals. Looking only to the muscles
+which closely resemble those regularly present in our nearest allies,
+the Quadrumana, they are too numerous to be here even specified. In a
+single male subject, having a strong bodily frame and well-formed skull,
+no less than seven muscular variations were observed, all of which
+plainly represented muscles proper to various kinds of apes. This man,
+for instance, had on both sides of his neck a true and powerful
+"_levator claviculae_," such as is found in all kinds of apes, and which
+is said to occur in about one out of sixty human subjects.[185] Again,
+this man had "a special abductor of the metatarsal bone of the fifth
+digit, such as Professor Huxley and Mr. Flower have shewn to exist
+uniformly in the higher and lower apes." The hands and arms of man are
+eminently characteristic structures, but their muscles are extremely
+liable to vary, so as to resemble the corresponding muscles in the lower
+animals.[186] Such resemblances are either complete and perfect or
+imperfect, yet in this latter case manifestly of a transitional nature.
+Certain variations are more common in man, and others in woman, without
+our being able to assign any reason. Mr. Wood, after describing numerous
+cases, makes the following pregnant remark: "Notable departures from the
+ordinary type of the muscular structures run in grooves or directions,
+which must be taken to indicate some unknown factor, of much importance
+to a comprehensive knowledge of general and scientific anatomy."[187]
+
+That this unknown factor is reversion to a former state of existence may
+be admitted as in the highest degree probable. It is quite incredible
+that a man should through mere accident abnormally resemble, in no less
+than seven of his muscles, certain apes, if there had been no genetic
+connection between them. On the other hand, if man is descended from
+some ape-like creature, no valid reason can be assigned why certain
+muscles should not suddenly reappear after an interval of many thousand
+generations, in the same manner as with horses, asses, and mules,
+dark-coloured stripes suddenly reappear on the legs and shoulders, after
+an interval of hundreds, or more probably thousands, of generations.
+
+These various cases of reversion are so closely related to those of
+rudimentary organs given in the first chapter, that many of them might
+have been indifferently introduced in either chapter. Thus a human
+uterus furnished with cornua may be said to represent in a rudimentary
+condition the same organ in its normal state in certain mammals. Some
+parts which are rudimental in man, as the os coccyx in both sexes and
+the mammae in the male sex, are always present; whilst others, such as
+the supra-condyloid foramen, only occasionally appear, and therefore
+might have been introduced under the head of reversion. These several
+reversionary, as well as the strictly rudimentary, structures reveal the
+descent of man from some lower form in an unmistakeable manner.
+
+
+_Correlated Variation._--In man, as in the lower animals, many
+structures are so intimately related, that when one part varies so does
+another, without our being able, in most cases, to assign any reason. We
+cannot say whether the one part governs the other, or whether both are
+governed by some earlier developed part. Various monstrosities, as I.
+Geoffroy repeatedly insists, are thus intimately connected. Homologous
+structures are particularly liable to change together, as we see on the
+opposite sides of the body, and in the upper and lower extremities.
+Meckel long ago remarked that when the muscles of the arm depart from
+their proper type, they almost always imitate those of the leg; and so
+conversely with the muscles of the legs. The organs of sight and
+hearing, the teeth and hair, the colour of the skin and hair, colour and
+constitution, are more or less correlated.[188] Professor Schaaffhausen
+first drew attention to the relation apparently existing between a
+muscular frame and strongly-pronounced supra-orbital ridges, which are
+so characteristic of the lower races of man.
+
+Besides the variations which can be grouped with more or less
+probability under the foregoing heads, there is a large class of
+variations which may be provisionally called spontaneous, for they
+appear, owing to our ignorance, to arise without any exciting cause. It
+can, however, be shewn that such variations, whether consisting of
+slight individual differences, or of strongly-marked and abrupt
+deviations of structure, depend much more on the constitution of the
+organism than on the nature of the conditions to which it has been
+subjected.[189]
+
+
+_Rate of Increase._--Civilised populations have been known under
+favourable conditions, as in the United States, to double their number
+in twenty-five years; and according to a calculation by Euler, this
+might occur in a little over twelve years.[190] At the former rate the
+present population of the United States, namely, thirty millions, would
+in 657 years cover the whole terraqueous globe so thickly, that four men
+would have to stand on each square yard of surface. The primary or
+fundamental check to the continued increase of man is the difficulty of
+gaining subsistence and of living in comfort. We may infer that this is
+the case from what we see, for instance, in the United States, where
+subsistence is easy and there is plenty of room. If such means were
+suddenly doubled in Great Britain, our number would be quickly doubled.
+With civilised nations the above primary check acts chiefly by
+restraining marriages. The greater death-rate of infants in the poorest
+classes is also very important; as well as the greater mortality at all
+ages, and from various diseases, of the inhabitants of crowded and
+miserable houses. The effects of severe epidemics and wars are soon
+counterbalanced, and more than counterbalanced, in nations placed under
+favourable conditions. Emigration also comes in aid as a temporary
+check, but not to any great extent with the extremely poor classes.
+
+There is reason to suspect, as Malthus has remarked, that the
+reproductive power is actually less in barbarous than in civilised
+races. We know nothing positively on this head, for with savages no
+census has been taken; but from the concurrent testimony of
+missionaries, and of others who have long resided with such people, it
+appears that their families are usually small, and large ones rare. This
+may be partly accounted for, as it is believed, by the women suckling
+their infants for a prolonged period; but it is highly probable that
+savages, who often suffer much hardship, and who do not obtain so much
+nutritious food as civilised men, would be actually less prolific. I
+have shewn in a former work,[191] that all our domesticated quadrupeds
+and birds, and all our cultivated plants, are more fertile than the
+corresponding species in a state of nature. It is no valid objection to
+this conclusion that animals suddenly supplied with an excess of food,
+or when rendered very fat, and that most plants when suddenly removed
+from very poor to very rich soil, are rendered more or less sterile. We
+might, therefore, expect that civilised men, who in one sense are highly
+domesticated, would be more prolific than wild men. It is also probable
+that the increased fertility of civilised nations would become, as with
+our domestic animals, an inherited character: it is at least known that
+with mankind a tendency to produce twins runs in families.[192]
+
+Notwithstanding that savages appear to be less prolific than civilised
+people, they would no doubt rapidly increase if their numbers were not
+by some means rigidly kept down. The Santali, or hill-tribes of India,
+have recently afforded a good illustration of this fact; for they have
+increased, as shewn by Mr. Hunter,[193] at an extraordinary rate since
+vaccination has been introduced, other pestilences mitigated, and war
+sternly repressed. This increase, however, would not have been possible
+had not these rude people spread into the adjoining districts and worked
+for hire. Savages almost always marry; yet there is some prudential
+restraint, for they do not commonly marry at the earliest possible age.
+The young men are often required to show that they can support a wife,
+and they generally have first to earn the price with which to purchase
+her from her parents. With savages the difficulty of obtaining
+subsistence occasionally limits their number in a much more direct
+manner than with civilised people, for all tribes periodically suffer
+from severe famines. At such times savages are forced to devour much bad
+food, and their health can hardly fail to be injured. Many accounts have
+been published of their protruding stomachs and emaciated limbs after
+and during famines. They are then, also, compelled to wander much about,
+and their infants, as I was assured in Australia, perish in large
+numbers. As famines are periodical, depending chiefly on extreme
+seasons, all tribes must fluctuate in number. They cannot steadily and
+regularly increase, as there is no artificial increase in the supply of
+food. Savages when hardly pressed encroach on each other's territories,
+and war is the result; but they are indeed almost always at war with
+their neighbours. They are liable to many accidents on land and water in
+their search for food; and in some countries they must suffer much from
+the larger beasts of prey. Even in India, districts have been
+depopulated by the ravages of tigers.
+
+Malthus has discussed these several checks, but he does not lay stress
+enough on what is probably the most important of all, namely
+infanticide, especially of female infants, and the habit of procuring
+abortion. These practices now prevail in many quarters of the world, and
+infanticide seems formerly to have prevailed, as Mr. M'Lennan[194] has
+shewn, on a still more extensive scale. These practices appear to have
+originated in savages recognising the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility of supporting all the infants that are born.
+Licentiousness may also be added to the foregoing checks; but this does
+not follow from failing means of subsistence; though there is reason to
+believe that in some cases (as in Japan) it has been intentionally
+encouraged as a means of keeping down the population.
+
+If we look back to an extremely remote epoch, before man had arrived at
+the dignity of manhood, he would have been guided more by instinct and
+less by reason than are savages at the present time. Our early
+semi-human progenitors would not have practised infanticide, for the
+instincts of the lower animals are never so perverted as to lead them
+regularly to destroy their own offspring. There would have been no
+prudential restraint from marriage, and the sexes would have freely
+united at an early age. Hence the progenitors of man would have tended
+to increase rapidly, but checks of some kind, either periodical or
+constant, must have kept down their numbers, even more severely than
+with existing savages. What the precise nature of these checks may have
+been, we cannot say, any more than with most other animals. We know that
+horses and cattle, which are not highly prolific animals, when first
+turned loose in South America, increased at an enormous rate. The
+slowest breeder of all known animals, namely the elephant, would in a
+few thousand years stock the whole world. The increase of every species
+of monkey must be checked by some means; but not, as Brehm remarks, by
+the attacks of beasts of prey. No one will assume that the actual power
+of reproduction in the wild horses and cattle of America, was at first
+in any sensible degree increased; or that, as each district became fully
+stocked, this same power was diminished. No doubt in this case and in
+all others, many checks concur, and different checks under different
+circumstances; periodical dearths, depending on unfavourable seasons,
+being probably the most important of all. So it will have been with the
+early progenitors of man.
+
+
+_Natural Selection._--We have now seen that man is variable in body and
+mind; and that the variations are induced, either directly or
+indirectly, by the same general causes, and obey the same general laws,
+as with the lower animals. Man has spread widely over the face of the
+earth, and must have been exposed, during his incessant migrations,[195]
+to the most diversified conditions. The inhabitants of Tierra del
+Fuego, the Cape of Good Hope, and Tasmania in the one hemisphere, and of
+the Arctic regions in the other, must have passed through many climates
+and changed their habits many times, before they reached their present
+homes.[196] The early progenitors of man must also have tended, like all
+other animals, to have increased beyond their means of subsistence; they
+must therefore occasionally have been exposed to a struggle for
+existence, and consequently to the rigid law of natural selection.
+Beneficial variations of all kinds will thus, either occasionally or
+habitually, have been preserved, and injurious ones eliminated. I do not
+refer to strongly-marked deviations of structure, which occur only at
+long intervals of time, but to mere individual differences. We know, for
+instance, that the muscles of our hands and feet, which determine our
+powers of movement, are liable, like those of the lower animals,[197] to
+incessant variability. If then the ape-like progenitors of man which
+inhabited any district, especially one undergoing some change in its
+conditions, were divided into two equal bodies, the one half which
+included all the individuals best adapted by their powers of movement
+for gaining subsistence or for defending themselves, would on an average
+survive in greater number and procreate more offspring than the other
+and less well endowed half.
+
+Man in the rudest state in which he now exists is the most dominant
+animal that has ever appeared on the earth. He has spread more widely
+than any other highly organised form; and all others have yielded
+before him. He manifestly owes this immense superiority to his
+intellectual faculties, his social habits, which lead him to aid and
+defend his fellows, and to his corporeal structure. The supreme
+importance of these characters has been proved by the final arbitrament
+of the battle for life. Through his powers of intellect, articulate
+language has been evolved; and on this his wonderful advancement has
+mainly depended. He has invented and is able to use various weapons,
+tools, traps, &c., with which he defends himself, kills or catches prey,
+and otherwise obtains food. He has made rafts or canoes on which to fish
+or cross over to neighbouring fertile islands. He has discovered the art
+of making fire, by which hard and stringy roots can be rendered
+digestible, and poisonous roots or herbs innocuous. This last discovery,
+probably the greatest, excepting language, ever made by man, dates from
+before the dawn of history. These several inventions, by which man in
+the rudest state has become so preeminent, are the direct result of the
+development of his powers of observation, memory, curiosity,
+imagination, and reason. I cannot, therefore, understand how it is that
+Mr. Wallace[198] maintains, that "natural selection could only have
+endowed the savage with a brain a little superior to that of an ape."
+
+Although the intellectual powers and social habits of man are of
+paramount importance to him, we must not underrate the importance of his
+bodily structure, to which subject the remainder of this chapter will be
+devoted. The development of the intellectual and social or moral
+faculties will be discussed in the following chapter.
+
+Even to hammer with precision is no easy matter, as every one who has
+tried to learn carpentry will admit. To throw a stone with as true an
+aim as can a Fuegian in defending himself, or in killing birds, requires
+the most consummate perfection in the correlated action of the muscles
+of the hand, arm, and shoulder, not to mention a fine sense of touch. In
+throwing a stone or spear, and in many other actions, a man must stand
+firmly on his feet; and this again demands the perfect coadaptation of
+numerous muscles. To chip a flint into the rudest tool, or to form a
+barbed spear or hook from a bone, demands the use of a perfect hand;
+for, as a most capable judge, Mr. Schoolcraft,[199] remarks, the shaping
+fragments of stone into knives, lances, or arrow-heads, shews
+"extraordinary ability and long practice." We have evidence of this in
+primeval men having practised a division of labour; each man did not
+manufacture his own flint tools or rude pottery; but certain individuals
+appear to have devoted themselves to such work, no doubt receiving in
+exchange the produce of the chase. Archaeologists are convinced that an
+enormous interval of time elapsed before our ancestors thought of
+grinding chipped flints into smooth tools. A man-like animal who
+possessed a hand and arm sufficiently perfect to throw a stone with
+precision or to form a flint into a rude tool, could, it can hardly be
+doubted, with sufficient practice make almost anything, as far as
+mechanical skill alone is concerned, which a civilised man can make. The
+structure of the hand in this respect may be compared with that of the
+vocal organs, which in the apes are used for uttering various
+signal-cries, or, as in one species, musical cadences; but in man
+closely similar vocal organs have become adapted through the inherited
+effects of use for the utterance of articulate language.
+
+Turning now to the nearest allies of man, and therefore to the best
+representatives of our early progenitors, we find that the hands in the
+Quadrumana are constructed on the same general pattern as in us, but are
+far less perfectly adapted for diversified uses. Their hands do not
+serve so well as the feet of a dog for locomotion; as may be seen in
+those monkeys which walk on the outer margins of the palms, or on the
+backs of their bent fingers, as in the chimpanzee and orang.[200] Their
+hands, however, are admirably adapted for climbing trees. Monkeys seize
+thin branches or ropes, with the thumb on one side and the fingers and
+palm on the other side, in the same manner as we do. They can thus also
+carry rather large objects, such as the neck of a bottle, to their
+mouths. Baboons turn over stones and scratch up roots with their hands.
+They seize nuts, insects, or other small objects with the thumb in
+opposition to the fingers, and no doubt they thus extract eggs and the
+young from the nests of birds. American monkeys beat the wild oranges on
+the branches until the rind is cracked, and then tear it off with the
+fingers of the two hands. Other monkeys open mussel-shells with the two
+thumbs. With their fingers they pull out thorns and burrs, and hunt for
+each other's parasites. In a state of nature they break open hard fruits
+with the aid of stones. They roll down stones or throw them at their
+enemies; nevertheless, they perform these various actions clumsily, and
+they are quite unable, as I have myself seen, to throw a stone with
+precision.
+
+It seems to me far from true that because "objects are grasped clumsily"
+by monkeys, "a much less specialised organ of prehension" would have
+served them[201] as well as their present hands. On the contrary, I see
+no reason to doubt that a more perfectly constructed hand would have
+been an advantage to them, provided, and it is important to note this,
+that their hands had not thus been rendered less well adapted for
+climbing trees. We may suspect that a perfect hand would have been
+disadvantageous for climbing; as the most arboreal monkeys in the world,
+namely Ateles in America and Hylobates in Asia, either have their thumbs
+much reduced in size and even rudimentary, or their fingers
+partially coherent, so that their hands are converted into mere
+grasping-hooks.[202]
+
+As soon as some ancient member in the great series of the Primates came,
+owing to a change in its manner of procuring subsistence, or to a change
+in the conditions of its native country, to live somewhat less on trees
+and more on the ground, its manner of progression would have been
+modified; and in this case it would have had to become either more
+strictly quadrupedal or bipedal. Baboons frequent hilly and rocky
+districts, and only from necessity climb up high trees;[203] and they
+have acquired almost the gait of a dog. Man alone has become a biped;
+and we can, I think, partly see how he has come to assume his erect
+attitude, which forms one of the most conspicuous differences between
+him and his nearest allies. Man could not have attained his present
+dominant position in the world without the use of his hands which are so
+admirably adapted to act in obedience to his will. As Sir C. Bell[204]
+insists "the hand supplies all instruments, and by its correspondence
+with the intellect gives him universal dominion." But the hands and arms
+could hardly have become perfect enough to have manufactured weapons, or
+to have hurled stones and spears with a true aim, as long as they were
+habitually used for locomotion and for supporting the whole weight of
+the body, or as long as they were especially well adapted, as previously
+remarked, for climbing trees. Such rough treatment would also have
+blunted the sense of touch, on which their delicate use largely depends.
+From these causes alone it would have been an advantage to man to have
+become a biped; but for many actions it is almost necessary that both
+arms and the whole upper part of the body should be free; and he must
+for this end stand firmly on his feet. To gain this great advantage, the
+feet have been rendered flat, and the great toe peculiarly modified,
+though this has entailed the loss of the power of prehension. It accords
+with the principle of the division of physiological labour, which
+prevails throughout the animal kingdom, that as the hands became
+perfected for prehension, the feet should have become perfected for
+support and locomotion. With some savages, however, the foot has not
+altogether lost its prehensile power, as shewn by their manner of
+climbing trees and of using them in other ways.[205]
+
+If it be an advantage to man to have his hands and arms free and to
+stand firmly on his feet, of which there can be no doubt from his
+preeminent success in the battle of life, then I can see no reason why
+it should not have been advantageous to the progenitors of man to have
+become more and more erect or bipedal. They would thus have been better
+able to have defended themselves with stones or clubs, or to have
+attacked their prey, or otherwise obtained food. The best constructed
+individuals would in the long run have succeeded best, and have survived
+in larger numbers. If the gorilla and a few allied forms had become
+extinct, it might have been argued with great force and apparent truth,
+that an animal could not have been gradually converted from a quadruped
+into a biped; as all the individuals in an intermediate condition would
+have been miserably ill-fitted for progression. But we know (and this is
+well worthy of reflection) that several kinds of apes are now actually
+in this intermediate condition; and no one doubts that they are on the
+whole well adapted for their conditions of life. Thus the gorilla runs
+with a sidelong shambling gait, but more commonly progresses by resting
+on its bent hands. The long-armed apes occasionally use their arms like
+crutches, swinging their bodies forward between them, and some kinds of
+Hylobates, without having been taught, can walk or run upright with
+tolerable quickness; yet they move awkwardly, and much less securely
+than man. We see, in short, with existing monkeys various gradations
+between a form of progression strictly like that of a quadruped and that
+of a biped or man.
+
+As the progenitors of man became more and more erect, with their hands
+and arms more and more modified for prehension and other purposes, with
+their feet and legs at the same time modified for firm support and
+progression, endless other changes of structure would have been
+necessary. The pelvis would have had to be made broader, the spine
+peculiarly curved and the head fixed in an altered position, and all
+these changes have been attained by man. Prof. Schaaffhausen[206]
+maintains that "the powerful mastoid processes of the human skull are
+the result of his erect position;" and these processes are absent in the
+orang, chimpanzee, &c., and are smaller in the gorilla than in man.
+Various other structures might here have been specified, which appear
+connected with man's erect position. It is very difficult to decide how
+far all these correlated modifications are the result of natural
+selection, and how far of the inherited effects of the increased use of
+certain parts, or of the action of one part on another. No doubt these
+means of change act and react on each other: thus when certain muscles,
+and the crests of bone to which they are attached, become enlarged by
+habitual use, this shews that certain fictions are habitually performed
+and must be serviceable. Hence the individuals which performed them
+best, would tend to survive in greater numbers.
+
+The free use of the arms and hands, partly the cause and partly the
+result of man's erect position, appears to have led in an indirect
+manner to other modifications of structure. The early male progenitors
+of man were, as previously stated, probably furnished with great canine
+teeth; but as they gradually acquired the habit of using stones, clubs,
+or other weapons, for fighting with their enemies, they would have used
+their jaws and teeth less and less. In this case, the jaws, together
+with the teeth, would have become reduced in size, as we may feel sure
+from innumerable analogous cases. In a future chapter we shall meet with
+a closely-parallel case, in the reduction or complete disappearance of
+the canine teeth in male ruminants, apparently in relation with the
+development of their horns; and in horses, in relation with their habit
+of fighting with their incisor teeth and hoofs.
+
+In the adult male anthropomorphous apes, as Ruetimeyer,[207] and others
+have insisted, it is precisely the effect which the jaw-muscles by their
+great development have produced on the skull, that causes it to differ
+so greatly in many respects from that of man, and has given to it "a
+truly frightful physiognomy." Therefore as the jaws and teeth in the
+progenitors of man gradually become reduced in size, the adult skull
+would have presented nearly the same characters which it offers in the
+young of the anthropomorphous apes, and would thus have come to resemble
+more nearly that of existing man. A great reduction of the canine teeth
+in the males would almost certainly, as we shall hereafter see, have
+affected through inheritance the teeth of the females.
+
+As the various mental faculties were gradually developed, the brain
+would almost certainly have become larger. No one, I presume, doubts
+that the large size of the brain in man, relatively to his body, in
+comparison with that of the gorilla or orang, is closely connected with
+his higher mental powers. We meet with closely analogous facts with
+insects, in which the cerebral ganglia are of extraordinary dimensions
+in ants; these ganglia in all the Hymenoptera being many times larger
+than in the less intelligent orders, such as beetles.[208] On the other
+hand, no one supposes that the intellect of any two animals or of any
+two men can be accurately gauged by the cubic contents of their skulls.
+It is certain that there may be extraordinary mental activity with an
+extremely small absolute mass of nervous matter: thus the wonderfully
+diversified instincts, mental powers, and affections of ants are
+generally known, yet their cerebral ganglia are not so large as the
+quarter of a small pin's head. Under this latter point of view, the
+brain of an ant is one of the most marvellous atoms of matter in the
+world, perhaps more marvellous than the brain of man.
+
+The belief that there exists in man some close relation between the size
+of the brain and the development of the intellectual faculties is
+supported by the comparison of the skulls of savage and civilised races,
+of ancient and modern people, and by the analogy of the whole
+vertebrate series. Dr. J. Barnard Davis has proved[209] by many careful
+measurements, that the mean internal capacity of the skull in Europeans
+is 92.3 cubic inches; in Americans 87.5; in Asiatics 87.1; and in
+Australians only 81.9 inches. Professor Broca[210] found that skulls
+from graves in Paris of the nineteenth century, were larger than those
+from vaults of the twelfth century, in the proportion of 1484 to 1426;
+and Prichard is persuaded that the present inhabitants of Britain have
+"much more capacious brain-cases" than the ancient inhabitants.
+Nevertheless it must be admitted that some skulls of very high
+antiquity, such as the famous one of Neanderthal, are well developed and
+capacious. With respect to the lower animals, M. E. Lartet,[211] by
+comparing the crania of tertiary and recent mammals, belonging to the
+same groups, has come to the remarkable conclusion that the brain is
+generally larger and the convolutions more complex in the more recent
+form. On the other hand I have shewn[212] that the brains of domestic
+rabbits are considerably reduced in bulk, in comparison with those of
+the wild rabbit or hare; and this may be attributed to their having been
+closely confined during many generations, so that they have exerted but
+little their intellect, instincts, senses, and voluntary movements.
+
+The gradually increasing weight of the brain and skull in man must have
+influenced the development of the supporting spinal column, more
+especially whilst he was becoming erect. As this change of position was
+being brought about, the internal pressure of the brain, will, also,
+have influenced the form of the skull; for many facts shew how easily
+the skull is thus affected. Ethnologists believe that it is modified by
+the kind of cradle in which infants sleep. Habitual spasms of the
+muscles and a cicatrix from a severe burn have permanently modified the
+facial bones. In young persons whose heads from disease have become
+fixed either sideways or backwards, one of the eyes has changed its
+position, and the bones of the skull have been modified; and this
+apparently results from the brain pressing in a new direction.[213] I
+have shewn that with long-eared rabbits, even so trifling a cause as the
+lopping forward of one ear drags forward on that side almost every bone
+of the skull; so that the bones on the opposite sides no longer strictly
+correspond. Lastly, if any animal were to increase or diminish much in
+general size, without any change in its mental powers; or if the mental
+powers were to be much increased or diminished without any great change
+in the size of the body; the shape of the skull would almost certainly
+be altered. I infer this from my observations on domestic rabbits, some
+kinds of which have become very much larger than the wild animal, whilst
+others have retained nearly the same size, but in both cases the brain
+has been much reduced relatively to the size of the body. Now I was at
+first much surprised by finding that in all these rabbits the skull had
+become elongated or dolichocephalic; for instance, of two skulls of
+nearly equal breadth, the one from a wild rabbit and the other from a
+large domestic kind, the former was only 3.15 and the latter 4.3 inches
+in length.[214] One of the most marked distinctions in different races
+of man is that the skull in some is elongated, and in others rounded;
+and here the explanation suggested by the case of the rabbits may
+partially hold good; for Welcker finds that short "men incline more to
+brachycephaly, and tall men to dolichocephaly;"[215] and tall men may be
+compared with the larger and longer-bodied rabbits, all of which have
+elongated skulls, or are dolichocephalic.
+
+From these several facts we can to a certain extent understand the means
+through which the great size and more or less rounded form of the skull
+has been acquired by man; and these are characters eminently distinctive
+of him in comparison with the lower animals.
+
+Another most conspicuous difference between man and the lower animals is
+the nakedness of his skin. Whales and dolphins (Cetacea), dugongs
+(Sirenia) and the hippopotamus are naked; and this may be advantageous
+to them for gliding through the water; nor would it be injurious to them
+from the loss of warmth, as the species which inhabit the colder regions
+are protected by a thick layer of blubber, serving the same purpose as
+the fur of seals and otters. Elephants and rhinoceroses are almost
+hairless; and as certain extinct species which formerly lived under an
+arctic climate were covered with long wool or hair, it would almost
+appear as if the existing species of both genera had lost their hairy
+covering from exposure to heat. This appears the more probable, as the
+elephants in India which live on elevated and cool districts are more
+hairy[216] than those on the lowlands. May we then infer that man became
+divested of hair from having aboriginally inhabited some tropical land?
+The fact of the hair being chiefly retained in the male sex on the chest
+and face, and in both sexes at the junction of all four limbs with the
+trunk, favours this inference, assuming that the hair was lost before
+man became erect; for the parts which now retain most hair would then
+have been most protected from the heat of the sun. The crown of the
+head, however, offers a curious exception, for at all times it must have
+been one of the most exposed parts, yet it is thickly clothed with hair.
+In this respect man agrees with the great majority of quadrupeds, which
+generally have their upper and exposed surfaces more thickly clothed
+than the lower surface. Nevertheless, the fact that the other members of
+the order of Primates, to which man belongs, although inhabiting various
+hot regions, are well clothed with hair, generally thickest on the upper
+surface,[217] is strongly opposed to the supposition that man became
+naked through the action of the sun. I am inclined to believe, as we
+shall see under sexual selection, that man, or rather primarily woman,
+became divested of hair for ornamental purposes; and according to this
+belief it is not surprising that man should differ so greatly in
+hairiness from all his lower brethren, for characters gained through
+sexual selection often differ in closely-related forms to an
+extraordinary degree.
+
+According to a popular impression, the absence of a tail is eminently
+distinctive of man; but as those apes which come nearest to man are
+destitute of this organ, its disappearance does not especially concern
+us. Nevertheless it may be well to own that no explanation, as far as I
+am aware, has ever been given of the loss of the tail by certain apes
+and man. Its loss, however, is not surprising, for it sometimes differs
+remarkably in length in species of the same genera: thus in some species
+of Macacus the tail is longer than the whole body, consisting of
+twenty-four vertebrae; in others it consists of a scarcely visible stump,
+containing only three or four vertebrae. In some kinds of baboons there
+are twenty-five, whilst in the mandrill there are ten very small stunted
+caudal vertebrae, or, according to Cuvier,[218] sometimes only five. This
+great diversity in the structure and length of the tail in animals
+belonging to the same genera, and following nearly the same habits of
+life, renders it probable that the tail is not of much importance to
+them; and if so, we might have expected that it would sometimes have
+become more or less rudimentary, in accordance with what we incessantly
+see with other structures. The tail almost always tapers towards the end
+whether it be long or short; and this, I presume, results from the
+atrophy, through disuse, of the terminal muscles together with their
+arteries and nerves, leading to the atrophy of the terminal bones. With
+respect to the os coccyx, which in man and the higher apes manifestly
+consists of the few basal and tapering segments of an ordinary tail, I
+have heard it asked how could these have become completely embedded
+within the body; but there is no difficulty in this respect, for in many
+monkeys the basal segments of the true tail are thus embedded. For
+instance, Mr. Murie informs me that in the skeleton of a not full-grown
+_Macacus inornatus_, he counted nine or ten caudal vertebrae, which
+altogether were only 1.8 inch in length. Of these the three basal ones
+appeared to have been embedded; the remainder forming the free part of
+the tail, which was only one inch in length, and half an inch in
+diameter. Here, then, the three embedded caudal vertebrae plainly
+correspond with the four coalesced vertebrae of the human os coccyx.
+
+
+I have now endeavoured to shew that some of the most distinctive
+characters of man have in all probability been acquired, either
+directly, or more commonly indirectly, through natural selection. We
+should bear in mind that modifications in structure or constitution,
+which are of no service to an organism in adapting it to its habits of
+life, to the food which it consumes, or passively to the surrounding
+conditions, cannot have been thus acquired. We must not, however, be too
+confident in deciding what modifications are of service to each being:
+we should remember how little we know about the use of many parts, or
+what changes in the blood or tissues may serve to fit an organism for a
+new climate or some new kind of food. Nor must we forget the principle
+of correlation, by which, as Isidore Geoffroy has shewn in the case of
+man, many fit-range deviations of structure are tied together.
+Independently of correlation, a change in one part often leads through
+the increased or decreased use of other parts, to other changes of a
+quite unexpected nature. It is also well to reflect on such facts, as
+the wonderful growth of galls on plants caused by the poison of an
+insect, and on the remarkable changes of colour in the plumage of
+parrots when fed on certain fishes, or inoculated with the poison of
+toads;[219] for we can thus see that the fluids of the system, if
+altered for some special purpose, might induce other strange changes. We
+should especially bear in mind that modifications acquired and
+continually used during past ages for some useful purpose would probably
+become firmly fixed and might be long inherited.
+
+Thus a very large yet undefined extension may safely be given to the
+direct and indirect results of natural selection; but I now admit, after
+reading the essay by Naegeli on plants, and the remarks by various
+authors with respect to animals, more especially those recently made by
+Professor Broca, that in the earlier editions of my 'Origin of Species'
+I probably attributed too much to the action of natural selection or the
+survival of the fittest. I have altered the fifth edition of the Origin
+so as to confine my remarks to adaptive changes of structure. I had not
+formerly sufficiently considered the existence of many structures which
+appear to be, as far as we can judge, neither beneficial nor injurious;
+and this I believe to be one of the greatest oversights as yet detected
+in my work. I may be permitted to say as some excuse, that I had two
+distinct objects in view, firstly, to shew that species had not been
+separately created, and secondly, that natural selection had been the
+chief agent of change, though largely aided by the inherited effects of
+habit, and slightly by the direct action of the surrounding conditions.
+Nevertheless I was not able to annul the influence of my former belief,
+then widely prevalent, that each species had been purposely created; and
+this led to my tacitly assuming that every detail of structure,
+excepting rudiments, was of some special, though unrecognised, service.
+Any one with this assumption in his mind would naturally extend the
+action of natural selection, either during past or present times, too
+far. Some of those who admit the principle of evolution, but reject
+natural selection, seem to forget, when criticising my book, that I had
+the above two objects in view; hence if I have erred in giving to
+natural selection great power, which I am far from admitting, or in
+having exaggerated its power, which is in itself probable, I have at
+least, as I hope, done good service in aiding to overthrow the dogma of
+separate creations.
+
+That all organic beings, including man, present many modifications of
+structure which are of no service to them at present, nor have been
+formerly, is, as I can now see, probable. We know not what produces the
+numberless slight differences between the individuals of each species,
+for reversion only carries the problem a few steps backwards; but each
+peculiarity must have had its own efficient cause. If these causes,
+whatever they may be, were to act more uniformly and energetically
+during a lengthened period (and no reason can be assigned why this
+should not sometimes occur), the result would probably be not mere
+slight individual differences, but well-marked, constant modifications.
+Modifications which are in no way beneficial cannot have been kept
+uniform through natural selection, though any which were injurious would
+have been thus eliminated. Uniformity of character would, however,
+naturally follow from, the assumed uniformity of the exciting causes,
+and likewise from the free intercrossing of many individuals. The same
+organism might acquire in this manner during successive periods
+successive modifications, and these would be transmitted in a nearly
+uniform state as long as the exciting causes remained the same and there
+was free intercrossing. With respect to the exciting causes we can only
+say, as when speaking of so-called spontaneous variations, that they
+relate much more closely to the constitution of the varying organism,
+than to the nature of the conditions to which it has been subjected.
+
+
+_Conclusion._--In this chapter we have seen that as man at the present
+day is liable, like every other animal, to multiform individual
+differences or slight variations, so no doubt were the early progenitors
+of man; the variations being then as now induced by the same general
+causes, and governed by the same general and complex laws. As all
+animals tend to multiply beyond their means of subsistence, so it must
+have been with the progenitors of man; and this will inevitably have led
+to a struggle for existence and to natural selection. This latter
+process will have been greatly aided by the inherited effects of the
+increased use of parts; these two processes incessantly reacting on each
+other. It appears, also, as we shall hereafter see, that various
+unimportant characters have been acquired by man through sexual
+selection. An unexplained residuum of change, perhaps a large one, must
+be left to the assumed uniform action of those unknown agencies, which
+occasionally induce strongly-marked and abrupt deviations of structure
+in our domestic productions.
+
+Judging from the habits of savages and of the greater number of the
+Quadrumana, primeval men, and even the ape-like progenitors of man,
+probably lived in society. With strictly social animals, natural
+selection sometimes acts indirectly on the individual, through the
+preservation of variations which are beneficial only to the community. A
+community including a large number of well-endowed individuals increases
+in number and is victorious over other and less well-endowed
+communities; although each separate member may gain no advantage over
+the other members of the same community. With associated insects many
+remarkable structures, which are of little or no service to the
+individual or its own offspring, such as the pollen-collecting
+apparatus, or the sting of the worker-bee, or the great jaws of
+soldier-ants, have been thus acquired. With the higher social animals, I
+am not aware that any structure has been modified solely for the good of
+the community, though some are of secondary service to it. For instance,
+the horns of ruminants and the great canine teeth of baboons appear to
+have been acquired by the males as weapons for sexual strife, but they
+are used in defence of the herd or troop. In regard to certain mental
+faculties the case, as we shall see in the following chapter, is wholly
+different; for these faculties have been chiefly, or even exclusively,
+gained for the benefit of the community; the individuals composing the
+community being at the same time indirectly benefited.
+
+It has often been objected to such views as the foregoing, that man is
+one of the most helpless and defenceless creatures in the world; and
+that during his early and less well-developed condition he would have
+been still more helpless. The Duke of Argyll, for instance, insists[220]
+that "the human frame has diverged from the structure of brutes, in the
+direction of greater physical helplessness and weakness. That is to say,
+it is a divergence which of all others it is most impossible to ascribe
+to mere natural selection." He adduces the naked and unprotected state
+of the body, the absence of great teeth or claws for defence, the little
+strength of man, his small speed in running, and his slight power of
+smell, by which to discover food or to avoid danger. To these
+deficiencies there might have been added the still more serious loss of
+the power of quickly climbing trees, so as to escape from enemies.
+Seeing that the unclothed Fuegians can exist under their wretched
+climate, the loss of hair would not have been a great injury to primeval
+man, if he inhabited a warm country. When we compare defenceless man
+with the apes, many of which are provided with formidable canine teeth,
+we must remember that these in their fully-developed condition are
+possessed by the males alone, being chiefly used by them for fighting
+with their rivals; yet the females which are not thus provided, are able
+to survive.
+
+In regard to bodily size or strength, we do not know whether man is
+descended from some comparatively small species, like the chimpanzee, or
+from one as powerful as the gorilla; and, therefore, we cannot say
+whether man has become larger and stronger, or smaller and weaker, in
+comparison with his progenitors. We should, however, bear in mind that
+an animal possessing great size, strength, and ferocity, and which, like
+the gorilla, could defend itself from all enemies, would probably,
+though not necessarily, have failed to become social; and this would
+most effectually have checked the acquirement by man of his higher
+mental qualities, such as sympathy and the love of his fellow-creatures.
+Hence it might have been an immense advantage to man to have sprung
+from some comparatively weak creature.
+
+The slight corporeal strength of man, his little speed, his want of
+natural weapons, &c., are more than counterbalanced, firstly by his
+intellectual powers, through which he has, whilst still remaining in a
+barbarous state, formed for himself weapons, tools, &c., and secondly by
+his social qualities which lead him to give aid to his fellow-men and to
+receive it in return. No country in the world abounds in a greater
+degree with dangerous beasts than Southern Africa; no country presents
+more fearful physical hardships than the Arctic regions; yet one of the
+puniest races, namely, the Bushmen, maintain themselves in Southern
+Africa, as do the dwarfed Esquimaux in the Arctic regions. The early
+progenitors of man were, no doubt, inferior in intellect, and probably
+in social disposition, to the lowest existing savages; but it is quite
+conceivable that they might have existed, or even flourished, if, whilst
+they gradually lost their brute-like powers, such as climbing trees,
+&c., they at the same time advanced in intellect. But granting that the
+progenitors of man were far more helpless and defenceless than any
+existing savages, if they had inhabited some warm continent or large
+island, such as Australia or New Guinea, or Borneo (the latter island
+being now tenanted by the orang), they would not have been exposed to
+any special danger. In an area as large as one of these islands, the
+competition between tribe and tribe would have been sufficient, under
+favourable conditions, to have raised man, through the survival of the
+fittest, combined with the inherited effects of habit, to his present
+high position in the organic scale.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTELLECTUAL AND MORAL FACULTIES DURING
+PRIMEVAL AND CIVILISED TIMES.
+
+
+  The advancement of the intellectual powers through natural
+  selection--Importance of imitation--Social and moral
+  faculties--Their development within the limits of the same
+  tribe--Natural selection as affecting civilised
+  nations--Evidence that civilised nations were once barbarous.
+
+
+The subjects to be discussed in this chapter are of the highest
+interest, but are treated by me in a most imperfect and fragmentary
+manner. Mr. Wallace, in an admirable paper before referred to,[221]
+argues that man after he had partially acquired those intellectual and
+moral faculties which distinguish him from the lower animals, would have
+been but little liable to have had his bodily structure modified through
+natural selection or any other means. For man is enabled through his
+mental faculties "to keep with an unchanged body in harmony with the
+changing universe." He has great power of adapting his habits to new
+conditions of life. He invents weapons, tools and various stratagems, by
+which he procures food and defends himself. When he migrates into a
+colder climate he uses clothes, builds sheds, and makes fires; and, by
+the aid of fire, cooks food otherwise indigestible. He aids his
+fellow-men in many ways, and anticipates future events. Even at a remote
+period he practised some subdivision of labour.
+
+The lower animals, on the other hand, must have their bodily structure
+modified in order to survive under greatly changed conditions. They must
+be rendered stronger, or acquire more effective teeth or claws, in order
+to defend themselves from new enemies; or they must be reduced in size
+so as to escape detection and danger. When they migrate into a colder
+climate they must become clothed with thicker fur, or have their
+constitutions altered. If they fail to be thus modified, they will cease
+to exist.
+
+The case, however, is widely different, as Mr. Wallace has with justice
+insisted, in relation to the intellectual and moral faculties of man.
+These faculties are variable; and we have every reason to believe that
+the variations tend to be inherited. Therefore, if they were formerly of
+high importance to primeval man and to his ape-like progenitors, they
+would have been perfected or advanced through natural selection. Of the
+high importance of the intellectual faculties there can be no doubt, for
+man mainly owes to them his preeminent position in the world. We can
+see that, in the rudest state of society, the individuals who were the
+most sagacious, who invented and used the best weapons or traps, and who
+were best able to defend themselves, would rear the greatest number of
+offspring. The tribes which included the largest number of men thus
+endowed would increase in number and supplant other tribes. Numbers
+depend primarily on the means of subsistence, and this, partly on the
+physical nature of the country, but in a much higher degree on the arts
+which are there practised. As a tribe increases and is victorious, it is
+often still further increased by the absorption of other tribes.[222]
+The stature and strength of the men of a tribe are likewise of some
+importance for its success, and these depend in part on the nature and
+amount of the food which can be obtained. In Europe the men of the
+Bronze period were supplanted by a more powerful and, judging from their
+sword-handles, larger-handed race;[223] but their success was probably
+due in a much higher degree to their superiority in the arts.
+
+All that we know about savages, or may infer from their traditions and
+from old monuments, the history of which is quite forgotten by the
+present inhabitants, shew that from the remotest times successful tribes
+have supplanted other tribes. Relics of extinct or forgotten tribes have
+been discovered throughout the civilised regions of the earth, on the
+wild plains of America, and on the isolated islands in the Pacific
+Ocean. At the present day civilised nations are everywhere supplanting
+barbarous nations, excepting where the climate opposes a deadly barrier;
+and they succeed mainly, though not exclusively, through their arts,
+which are the products of the intellect. It is, therefore, highly
+probable that with mankind the intellectual faculties have been
+gradually perfected through natural selection; and this conclusion is
+sufficient for our purpose. Undoubtedly it would have been very
+interesting to have traced the development of each separate faculty from
+the state in which it exists in the lower animals to that in which it
+exists in man; but neither my ability nor knowledge permit the attempt.
+
+It deserves notice that as soon as the progenitors of man became social
+(and this probably occurred at a very early period), the advancement of
+the intellectual faculties will have been aided and modified in an
+important manner, of which we see only traces in the lower animals,
+namely, through the principle of imitation, together with reason and
+experience. Apes are much given to imitation, as are the lowest savages;
+and the simple fact previously referred to, that after a time no animal
+can be caught in the same place by the same sort of trap, shews that
+animals learn by experience, and imitate each others' caution. Now, if
+some one man in a tribe, more sagacious than the others, invented a new
+snare or weapon, or other means of attack or defence, the plainest
+self-interest, without the assistance of much reasoning power, would
+prompt the other members to imitate him; and all would thus profit. The
+habitual practice of each new art must likewise in some slight degree
+strengthen the intellect. If the new invention were an important one,
+the tribe would increase in number, spread, and supplant other tribes.
+In a tribe thus rendered more numerous there would always be a rather
+better chance of the birth of other superior and inventive members. If
+such men left children to inherit their mental superiority, the chance
+of the birth of still more ingenious members would be somewhat better,
+and in a very small tribe decidedly better. Even if they left no
+children, the tribe would still include their blood-relations; and it
+has been ascertained by agriculturists[224] that by preserving and
+breeding from the family of an animal, which when slaughtered was found
+to be valuable, the desired character has been obtained.
+
+
+Turning now to the social and moral faculties. In order that primeval
+men, or the ape-like progenitors of man, should have become social, they
+must have acquired the same instinctive feelings which impel other
+animals to live in a body; and they no doubt exhibited the same general
+disposition. They would have felt uneasy when separated from their
+comrades, for whom they would have felt some degree of love; they would
+have warned each other of danger, and have given mutual aid in attack or
+defence. All this implies some degree of sympathy, fidelity, and
+courage. Such social qualities, the paramount importance of which to the
+lower animals is disputed by no one, were no doubt acquired by the
+progenitors of man in a similar manner, namely, through natural
+selection, aided by inherited habit. When two tribes of primeval man,
+living in the same country, came into competition, if the one tribe
+included (other circumstances being equal) a greater number of
+courageous, sympathetic, and faithful members, who were always ready to
+warn each other of danger, to aid and defend each other, this tribe
+would without doubt succeed best and conquer the other. Let it be borne
+in mind how all-important, in the never-ceasing wars of savages,
+fidelity and courage must be. The advantage which disciplined soldiers
+have over undisciplined hordes follows chiefly from the confidence which
+each man feels in his comrades. Obedience, as Mr. Bagehot has well
+shewn,[225] is of the highest value, for any form of government is
+better than none. Selfish and contentious people will not cohere, and
+without coherence nothing can be effected. A tribe possessing the above
+qualities in a high degree would spread and be victorious over other
+tribes; but in the course of time it would, judging from all past
+history, be in its turn overcome by some other and still more highly
+endowed tribe. Thus the social and moral qualities would tend slowly to
+advance and be diffused throughout the world.
+
+But it may be asked, how within the limits of the same tribe did a large
+number of members first become endowed with these social and moral
+qualities, and how was the standard of excellence raised? It is
+extremely doubtful whether the offspring of the more sympathetic and
+benevolent parents, or of those which were the most faithful to their
+comrades, would be reared in greater number than the children of selfish
+and treacherous parents of the same tribe. He who was ready to sacrifice
+his life, as many a savage has been, rather than betray his comrades,
+would often leave no offspring to inherit his noble nature. The bravest
+men, who were always willing to come to the front in war, and who freely
+risked their lives for others, would on an average perish in larger
+number than other men. Therefore it seems scarcely possible (bearing in
+mind that we are not here speaking of one tribe being victorious over
+another) that the number of men gifted with such virtues, or that the
+standard of their excellence, could be increased through natural
+selection, that is, by the survival of the fittest.
+
+Although the circumstances which lead to an increase in the number of
+men thus endowed within the same tribe are too complex to be clearly
+followed out, we can trace some of the probable steps. In the first
+place, as the reasoning powers and foresight of the members became
+improved, each man would soon learn from experience that if he aided his
+fellow-men, he would commonly receive aid in return. From this low
+motive he might acquire the habit of aiding his fellows; and the habit
+of performing benevolent actions certainly strengthens the feeling of
+sympathy, which gives the first impulse to benevolent actions. Habits,
+moreover, followed during many generations probably tend to be
+inherited.
+
+But there is another and much more powerful stimulus to the development
+of the social virtues, namely, the praise and the blame of our
+fellow-men. The love of approbation and the dread of infamy, as well as
+the bestowal of praise or blame, are primarily due, as we have seen in
+the third chapter, to the instinct of sympathy; and this instinct no
+doubt was originally acquired, like all the other social instincts,
+through natural selection. At how early a period the progenitors of man,
+in the course of their development, became capable of feeling and being
+impelled by the praise or blame of their fellow-creatures, we cannot, of
+course, say. But it appears that even dogs appreciate encouragement,
+praise, and blame. The rudest savages feel the sentiment of glory, as
+they clearly show by preserving the trophies of their prowess, by their
+habit of excessive boasting, and even by the extreme care which they
+take of their personal appearance and decorations; for unless they
+regarded the opinion of their comrades, such habits would be senseless.
+
+They certainly feel shame at the breach of some of their lesser rules;
+but how far they experience remorse is doubtful. I was at first
+surprised that I could not recollect any recorded instances of this
+feeling in savages; and Sir J. Lubbock[226] states that he knows of
+none. But if we banish from our minds all cases given in novels and
+plays and in death-bed confessions made to priests, I doubt whether many
+of us have actually witnessed remorse; though we may have often seen
+shame and contrition for smaller offences. Remorse is a deeply hidden
+feeling. It is incredible that a savage, who will sacrifice his life
+rather than betray his tribe, or one who will deliver himself up as a
+prisoner rather than break his parole,[227] would not feel remorse in
+his inmost soul, though he might conceal it, if he had failed in a duty
+which he held sacred.
+
+We may therefore conclude that primeval man, at a very remote period,
+would have been influenced by the praise and blame of his fellows. It is
+obvious, that the members of the same tribe would approve of conduct
+which appeared to them to be for the general good, and would reprobate
+that which appeared evil. To do good unto others--to do unto others as
+ye would they should do unto you,--is the foundation-stone of morality.
+It is, therefore, hardly possible to exaggerate the importance during
+rude times of the love of praise and the dread of blame. A man who was
+not impelled by any deep, instinctive feeling, to sacrifice his life for
+the good of others, yet was roused to such actions by a sense of glory,
+would by his example excite the same wish for glory in other men, and
+would strengthen by exercise the noble feeling of admiration. He might
+thus do far more good to his tribe than by begetting offspring with a
+tendency to inherit his own high character.
+
+With increased experience and reason, man perceives the more remote
+consequences of his actions, and the self-regarding virtues, such as
+temperance, chastity, &c., which during early times are, as we have
+before seen, utterly disregarded, come to be highly esteemed or even
+held sacred. I need not, however, repeat what I have said on this head
+in the third chapter. Ultimately a highly complex sentiment, having its
+first origin in the social instincts, largely guided by the approbation
+of our fellow-men, ruled by reason, self-interest, and in later times by
+deep religious feelings, confirmed by instruction and habit, all
+combined, constitute our moral sense or conscience.
+
+It must not be forgotten that although a high standard of morality gives
+but a slight or no advantage to each individual man and his children
+over the other men of the same tribe, yet that an advancement in the
+standard of morality and an increase in the number of well-endowed men
+will certainly give an immense advantage to one tribe over another.
+There can be no doubt that a tribe including many members who, from
+possessing in a high degree the spirit of patriotism, fidelity,
+obedience, courage, and sympathy, were always ready to give aid to each
+other and to sacrifice themselves for the common good, would be
+victorious over most other tribes; and this would be natural selection.
+At all times throughout the world tribes have supplanted other tribes;
+and as morality is one element in their success, the standard of
+morality and the number of well-endowed men will thus everywhere tend to
+rise and increase.
+
+It is, however, very difficult to form any judgment why one particular
+tribe and not another has been successful and has risen in the scale of
+civilisation. Many savages are in the same condition as when first
+discovered several centuries ago. As Mr. Bagehot has remarked, we are
+apt to look at progress as the normal rule in human society; but history
+refutes this. The ancients did not even entertain the idea; nor do the
+oriental nations at the present day. According to another high
+authority, Mr. Maine,[228] "the greatest part of mankind has never
+shewn a particle of desire that its civil institutions should be
+improved." Progress seems to depend on many concurrent favourable
+conditions, far too complex to be followed out. But it has often been
+remarked, that a cool climate from leading to industry and the various
+arts has been highly favourable, or even indispensable for this end. The
+Esquimaux, pressed by hard necessity, have succeeded in many ingenious
+inventions, but their climate has been too severe for continued
+progress. Nomadic habits, whether over wide plains, or through the dense
+forests of the tropics, or along the shores of the sea, have in every
+case been highly detrimental. Whilst observing the barbarous inhabitants
+of Tierra del Fuego, it struck me that the possession of some property,
+a fixed abode, and the union of many families under a chief, were the
+indispensable requisites for civilisation. Such habits almost
+necessitate the cultivation of the ground; and the first steps in
+cultivation would probably result, as I have elsewhere shewn,[229] from
+some such accident as the seeds of a fruit-tree falling on a heap of
+refuse and producing an unusually fine variety. The problem, however, of
+the first advance of savages towards civilisation is at present much too
+difficult to be solved.
+
+
+_Natural Selection as affecting Civilised Nations._--In the last and
+present chapters I have considered the advancement of man from a former
+semi-human condition to his present state as a barbarian. But some
+remarks on the agency of natural selection on civilised nations may be
+here worth adding. This subject has been ably discussed by Mr. W. R.
+Greg,[230] and previously by Mr. Wallace and Mr. Galton.[231] Most of
+my remarks are taken from these three authors. With savages, the weak in
+body or mind are soon eliminated; and those that survive commonly
+exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilised men, on the other hand,
+do our utmost to check the process of elimination; we build asylums for
+the imbecile, the maimed, and the sick; we institute poor-laws; and our
+medical men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to
+the last moment. There is reason to believe that vaccination has
+preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution would formerly have
+succumbed to small-pox. Thus the weak members of civilised societies
+propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of
+domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the
+race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care, or care wrongly
+directed, leads to the degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in
+the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his
+worst animals to breed.
+
+The aid which we feel impelled to give to the helpless is mainly an
+incidental result of the instinct of sympathy, which was originally
+acquired as part of the social instincts, but subsequently rendered, in
+the manner previously indicated, more tender and more widely diffused.
+Nor could we check our sympathy, if so urged by hard reason, without
+deterioration in the noblest part of our nature. The surgeon may harden
+himself whilst performing an operation, for he knows that he is acting
+for the good of his patient; but if we were intentionally to neglect the
+weak and helpless, it could only be for a contingent benefit, with a
+certain and great present evil. Hence we must bear without complaining
+the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their
+kind; but there appears to be at least one check in steady action,
+namely the weaker and inferior members of society not marrying so freely
+as the sound; and this check might be indefinitely increased, though
+this is more to be hoped for than expected, by the weak in body or mind
+refraining from marriage.
+
+In all civilised countries man accumulates property and bequeaths it to
+his children. So that the children in the same country do not by any
+means start fair in the race for success. But this is far from an
+unmixed evil; for without the accumulation of capital the arts could not
+progress; and it is chiefly through their power that the civilised races
+have extended, and are now everywhere extending, their range, so as to
+take the place of the lower races. Nor does the moderate accumulation of
+wealth interfere with the process of selection. When a poor man becomes
+rich, his children enter trades or professions in which there is
+struggle enough, so that the able in body and mind succeed best. The
+presence of a body of well-instructed men, who have not to labour for
+their daily bread, is important to a degree which cannot be
+over-estimated; as all high intellectual work is carried on by them, and
+on such work material progress of all kinds mainly depends, not to
+mention other and higher advantages. No doubt wealth when very great
+tends to convert men into useless drones, but their number is never
+large; and some degree of elimination here occurs, as we daily see rich
+men, who happen to be fools or profligate, squandering away all their
+wealth.
+
+Primogeniture with entailed estates is a more direct evil, though it may
+formerly have been a great advantage by the creation of a dominant
+class, and any government is better than anarchy. The eldest sons,
+though they may be weak in body or mind, generally marry, whilst the
+younger sons, however superior in these respects, do not so generally
+marry. Nor can worthless eldest sons with entailed estates squander
+their wealth. But here, as elsewhere, the relations of civilised life
+are so complex that some compensatory checks intervene. The men who are
+rich through primogeniture are able to select generation after
+generation the more beautiful and charming women; and these must
+generally be healthy in body and active in mind. The evil consequences,
+such as they may be, of the continued preservation of the same line of
+descent, without any selection, are checked by men of rank always
+wishing to increase their wealth and power; and this they effect by
+marrying heiresses. But the daughters of parents who have produced
+single children, are themselves, as Mr. Galton has shewn,[232] apt to be
+sterile; and thus noble families are continually cut off in the direct
+line, and their wealth flows into some side channel; but unfortunately
+this channel is not determined by superiority of any kind.
+
+Although civilisation thus checks in many ways the action of natural
+selection, it apparently favours, by means of improved food and the
+freedom from occasional hardships, the better development of the body.
+This may be inferred from civilised men having been found, wherever
+compared, to be physically stronger than savages. They appear also to
+have equal powers of endurance, as has been proved in many adventurous
+expeditions. Even the great luxury of the rich can be but little
+detrimental; for the expectation of life of our aristocracy, at all ages
+and of both sexes, is very little inferior to that of healthy English
+lives in the lower classes.[233]
+
+We will now look to the intellectual faculties alone. If in each grade
+of society the members were divided into two equal bodies, the one
+including the intellectually superior and the other the inferior, there
+can be little doubt that the former would succeed best in all
+occupations and rear a greater number of children. Even in the lowest
+walks of life, skill and ability must be of some advantage, though in
+many occupations, owing to the great division of labour, a very small
+one. Hence in civilised nations there will be some tendency to an
+increase both in the number and in the standard of the intellectually
+able. But I do not wish to assert that this tendency may not be more
+than counterbalanced in other ways, as by the multiplication of the
+reckless and improvident; but even to such as these, ability must be
+some advantage.
+
+It has often been objected to views like the foregoing, that the most
+eminent men who have ever lived have left no offspring to inherit their
+great intellect. Mr. Galton says,[234] "I regret I am unable to solve
+the simple question whether, and how far, men and women who are
+prodigies of genius are infertile. I have, however, shewn that men of
+eminence are by no means so."
+
+Great lawgivers, the founders of beneficent religions, great
+philosophers and discoverers in science, aid the progress of mankind in
+a far higher degree by their works than by leaving a numerous progeny.
+In the case of corporeal structures, it is the selection of the slightly
+better-endowed and the elimination of the slightly less well-endowed
+individuals, and not the preservation of strongly-marked and rare
+anomalies, that leads to the advancement of a species.[235] So it will
+be with the intellectual faculties, namely from the somewhat more able
+men in each grade of society succeeding rather better than the less
+able, and consequently increasing in number, if not otherwise prevented.
+When in any nation the standard of intellect and the number of
+intellectual men have increased, we may expect from the law of the
+deviation from an average, as shewn by Mr. Galton, that prodigies of
+genius will appear somewhat more frequently than before.
+
+In regard to the moral qualities, some elimination of the worst
+dispositions is always in progress even in the most civilised nations.
+Malefactors are executed, or imprisoned for long periods, so that they
+cannot freely transmit their bad qualities. Melancholic and insane
+persons are confined, or commit suicide. Violent and quarrelsome men
+often come to a bloody end. Restless men who will not follow any steady
+occupation--and this relic of barbarism is a great check to
+civilisation[236]--emigrate to newly-settled countries, where they prove
+useful pioneers. Intemperance is so highly destructive, that the
+expectation of life of the intemperate, at the age, for instance, of
+thirty, is only 13.8 years; whilst for the rural labourers of England at
+the same age it is 40.59 years.[237] Profligate women bear few children,
+and profligate men rarely marry; both suffer from disease. In the
+breeding of domestic animals, the elimination of those individuals,
+though few in number, which are in any marked manner inferior, is by no
+means an unimportant element towards success. This especially holds good
+with injurious characters which tend to reappear through reversion, such
+as blackness in sheep; and with mankind some of the worst dispositions,
+which occasionally without any assignable cause make their appearance in
+families, may perhaps be reversions to a savage state, from which we are
+not removed by very many generations. This view seems indeed recognised
+in the common expression that such men are the black sheep of the
+family.
+
+With civilised nations, as far as an advanced standard of morality, and
+an increased number of fairly well-endowed men are concerned, natural
+selection apparently effects but little; though the fundamental social
+instincts were originally thus gained. But I have already said enough,
+whilst treating of the lower races, on the causes which lead to the
+advance of morality, namely, the approbation of our fellow-men--the
+strengthening of our sympathies by habit--example and imitation--
+reason--experience and even self-interest--instruction during
+youth, and religious feelings.
+
+A most important obstacle in civilised countries to an increase in the
+number of men of a superior class has been strongly urged by Mr. Greg
+and Mr. Galton,[238] namely, the fact that the very poor and reckless,
+who are often degraded by vice, almost invariably marry early, whilst
+the careful and frugal, who are generally otherwise virtuous, marry late
+in life, so that they may be able to support themselves and their
+children in comfort. Those who marry early produce within a given period
+not only a greater number of generations, but, as shewn by Dr.
+Duncan,[239] they produce many more children. The children, moreover,
+that are born by mothers during the prime of life are heavier and
+larger, and therefore probably more vigorous, than those born at other
+periods. Thus the reckless, degraded, and often vicious members of
+society, tend to increase at a quicker rate than the provident and
+generally virtuous members. Or as Mr. Greg puts the case: "The careless,
+squalid, unaspiring Irishman multiplies like rabbits: the frugal,
+foreseeing, self-respecting, ambitious Scot, stern in his morality,
+spiritual in his faith, sagacious and disciplined in his intelligence,
+passes his best years in struggle and in celibacy, marries late, and
+leaves few behind him. Given a land originally peopled by a thousand
+Saxons and a thousand Celts--and in a dozen generations five-sixths of
+the population would be Celts, but five-sixths of the property, of the
+power, of the intellect, would belong to the one-sixth of Saxons that
+remained. In the eternal 'struggle for existence,' it would be the
+inferior and _less_ favoured race that had prevailed--and prevailed by
+virtue not of its good qualities but of its faults."
+
+There are, however, some checks to this downward tendency. We have seen
+that the intemperate suffer from a high rate of mortality, and the
+extremely profligate leave few offspring. The poorest classes crowd into
+towns, and it has been proved by Dr. Stark from the statistics of ten
+years in Scotland,[240] that at all ages the death-rate is higher in
+towns than in rural districts, "and during the first five years of life
+the town death-rate is almost exactly double that of the rural
+districts." As these returns include both the rich and the poor, no
+doubt more than double the number of births would be requisite to keep
+up the number of the very poor inhabitants in the towns, relatively to
+those in the country. With women, marriage at too early an age is highly
+injurious; for it has been found in France that, "twice as many wives
+under twenty die in the year, as died out of the same number of the
+unmarried." The mortality, also, of husbands under twenty is
+"excessively high,"[241] but what the cause of this may be seems
+doubtful. Lastly, if the men who prudently delay marrying until they can
+bring up their families in comfort, were to select, as they often do,
+women in the prime of life, the rate of increase in the better class
+would be only slightly lessened.
+
+It was established from an enormous body of statistics, taken during
+1853, that the unmarried men throughout France, between the ages of
+twenty and eighty, die in a much larger proportion than the married: for
+instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the ages of twenty
+and thirty, 11.3 annually died, whilst of the married only 6.5
+died.[242] A similar law was proved to hold good, during the years 1863
+and 1864, with the entire population above the age of twenty in
+Scotland: for instance, out of every 1000 unmarried men, between the
+ages of twenty and thirty, 14.97 annually died, whilst of the married
+only 7.24 died, that is less than half.[243] Dr. Stark remarks on this,
+"Bachelorhood is more destructive to life than the most unwholesome
+trades, or than residence in an unwholesome house or district where
+there has never been the most distant attempt at sanitary improvement."
+He considers that the lessened mortality is the direct result of
+"marriage, and the more regular domestic habits which attend that
+state." He admits, however, that the intemperate, profligate, and
+criminal classes, whose duration of life is low, do not commonly marry;
+and it must likewise be admitted that men with a weak constitution,
+ill health, or any great infirmity in body or mind, will often not wish
+to marry, or will be rejected. Dr. Stark seems to have come to the
+conclusion that marriage in itself is a main cause of prolonged life,
+from finding that aged married men still have a considerable advantage
+in this respect over the unmarried of the same advanced age; but every
+one must have known instances of men, who with weak health during youth
+did not marry, and yet have survived to old age, though remaining weak
+and therefore always with a lessened chance of life. There is another
+remarkable circumstance which seems to support Dr. Stark's conclusion,
+namely, that widows and widowers in France suffer in comparison with the
+married a very heavy rate of mortality; but Dr. Farr attributes this to
+the poverty and evil habits consequent on the disruption of the family,
+and to grief. On the whole we may conclude with Dr. Farr that the lesser
+mortality of married than of unmarried men, which seems to be a general
+law, "is mainly due to the constant elimination of imperfect types, and
+to the skilful selection of the finest individuals out of each
+successive generation;" the selection relating only to the marriage
+state, and acting on all corporeal, intellectual, and moral qualities.
+We may, therefore, infer that sound and good men who out of prudence
+remain for a time unmarried do not suffer a high rate of mortality.
+
+If the various checks specified in the two last paragraphs, and perhaps
+others as yet unknown, do not prevent the reckless, the vicious and
+otherwise inferior members of society from increasing at a quicker rate
+than the better class of men, the nation will retrograde, as has
+occurred too often in the history of the world. We must remember that
+progress is no invariable rule. It is most difficult to say why one
+civilised nation rises, becomes more powerful, and spreads more widely,
+than another; or why the same nation progresses more at one time than at
+another. We can only say that it depends on an increase in the actual
+number of the population, on the number of the men endowed with high
+intellectual and moral faculties, as well as on their standard of
+excellence. Corporeal structure, except so far as vigour of body leads
+to vigour of mind, appears to have little influence.
+
+It has been urged by several writers that as high intellectual powers
+are advantageous to a nation, the old Greeks, who stood some grades
+higher in intellect than any race that has ever existed,[244] ought to
+have risen, if the power of natural selection were real, still higher
+in the scale, increased in number, and stocked the whole of Europe. Here
+we have the tacit assumption, so often made with respect to corporeal
+structures, that there is some innate tendency towards continued
+development in mind and body. But development of all kinds depends on
+many concurrent favourable circumstances. Natural selection acts only in
+a tentative manner. Individuals and races may have acquired certain
+indisputable advantages, and yet have perished from failing in other
+characters. The Greeks may have retrograded from a want of coherence
+between the many small states, from the small size of their whole
+country, from the practice of slavery, or from extreme sensuality; for
+they did not succumb until "they were enervated and corrupt to the very
+core."[245] The western nations of Europe, who now so immeasurably
+surpass their former savage progenitors and stand at the summit of
+civilisation, owe little or none of their superiority to direct
+inheritance from the old Greeks; though they owe much to the written
+works of this wonderful people.
+
+Who can positively say why the Spanish nation, so dominant at one time,
+has been distanced in the race. The awakening of the nations of Europe
+from the dark ages is a still more perplexing problem. At this early
+period, as Mr. Galton[246] has remarked, almost all the men of a gentle
+nature, those given to meditation or culture of the mind, had no refuge
+except in the bosom of the Church which demanded celibacy; and this
+could hardly fail to have had a deteriorating influence on each
+successive generation. During this same period the Holy Inquisition
+selected with extreme care the freest and boldest men in order to burn
+or imprison them. In Spain alone some of the best men--those who doubted
+and questioned, and without doubting there can be no progress--were
+eliminated during three centuries at the rate of a thousand a year. The
+evil which the Catholic Church has thus effected, though no doubt
+counterbalanced to a certain, perhaps large extent in other ways, is
+incalculable; nevertheless, Europe has progressed at an unparalleled
+rate.
+
+The remarkable success of the English as colonists over other European
+nations, which is well illustrated by comparing the progress of the
+Canadians of English and French extraction, has been ascribed to their
+"daring and persistent energy;" but who can say how the English gained
+their energy. There is apparently much truth in the belief that the
+wonderful progress of the United States, as well as the character of the
+people, are the results of natural selection; the more energetic,
+restless, and courageous men from all parts of Europe having emigrated
+during the last ten or twelve generations to that great country, and
+having there succeeded best.[247] Looking to the distant future, I do
+not think that the Rev. Mr. Zincke takes an exaggerated view when he
+says:[248] "All other series of events--as that which resulted in the
+culture of mind in Greece, and that which resulted in the empire of
+Rome--only appear to have purpose and value when viewed in connection
+with, or rather as subsidiary to ... the great stream of Anglo-Saxon
+emigration to the west."
+
+Obscure as is the problem of the advance of civilisation, we can at
+least see that a nation which produced during a lengthened period the
+greatest number of highly intellectual, energetic, brave, patriotic, and
+benevolent men, would generally prevail over less favoured nations.
+
+Natural selection follows from the struggle for existence; and this from
+a rapid rate of increase. It is impossible not bitterly to regret, but
+whether wisely is another question, the rate at which man tends to
+increase; for this leads in barbarous tribes to infanticide and many
+other evils, and in civilised nations to abject poverty, celibacy, and
+to the late marriages of the prudent. But as man suffers from the same
+physical evils with the lower animals, he has no right to expect an
+immunity from the evils consequent on the struggle for existence. Had he
+not been subjected to natural selection, assuredly he would never have
+attained to the rank of manhood. When we see in many parts of the world
+enormous areas of the most fertile land peopled by a few wandering
+savages, but which are capable of supporting numerous happy homes, it
+might be argued that the struggle for existence had not been
+sufficiently severe to force man upwards to his highest standard.
+Judging from all that we know of man and the lower animals, there has
+always been sufficient variability in the intellectual and moral
+faculties, for their steady advancement through natural selection. No
+doubt such advancement demands many favourable concurrent circumstances;
+but it may well be doubted whether the most favourable would have
+sufficed, had not the rate of increase been rapid, and the consequent
+struggle for existence severe to an extreme degree.
+
+
+_On the evidence that all civilised nations were once barbarous._--As we
+have had to consider the steps by which some semi-human creature has
+been gradually raised to the rank of man in his most perfect state, the
+present subject cannot be quite passed over. But it has been treated in
+so full and admirable a manner by Sir J. Lubbock,[249] Mr. Tylor, Mr.
+M'Lennan, and others, that I need here give only the briefest summary of
+their results. The arguments recently advanced by the Duke of
+Argyll[250] and formerly by Archbishop Whately, in favour of the belief
+that man came into the world as a civilised being and that all savages
+have since undergone degradation, seem to me weak in comparison with
+those advanced on the other side. Many nations, no doubt, have fallen
+away in civilisation, and some may have lapsed into utter barbarism,
+though on this latter head I have not met with any evidence. The
+Fuegians were probably compelled by other conquering hordes to settle in
+their inhospitable country, and they may have become in consequence
+somewhat more degraded; but it would be difficult to prove that they
+have fallen much below the Botocudos who inhabit the finest parts of
+Brazil.
+
+The evidence that all civilised nations are the descendants of
+barbarians, consists, on the one side, of clear traces of their former
+low condition in still-existing customs, beliefs, language, &c.; and on
+the other side, of proofs that savages are independently able to raise
+themselves a few steps in the scale of civilisation, and have actually
+thus risen. The evidence on the first head is extremely curious, but
+cannot be here given: I refer to such cases as that, for instance, of
+the art of enumeration, which, as Mr. Tylor clearly shews by the words
+still used in some places, originated in counting the fingers, first of
+one hand and then of the other, and lastly of the toes. We have traces
+of this in our own decimal system, and in the Roman numerals, which
+after reaching to the number V., change into VI., &c., when the other
+hand no doubt was used. So again, "when we speak of three-score and ten,
+we are counting by the vigesimal system, each score thus ideally made,
+standing for 20--for 'one man' as a Mexican or Carib would put it."[251]
+According to a large and increasing school of philologists, every
+language bears the marks of its slow and gradual evolution. So it is
+with the art of writing, as letters are rudiments of pictorial
+representations. It is hardly possible to read Mr. M'Lennan's work[252]
+and not admit that almost all civilised nations still retain some traces
+of such rude habits as the forcible capture of wives. What ancient
+nation, as the same author asks, can be named that was originally
+monogamous? The primitive idea of justice, as shewn by the law of battle
+and other customs of which traces still remain, was likewise most rude.
+Many existing superstitions are the remnants of former false religious
+beliefs. The highest form of religion--the grand idea of God hating sin
+and loving righteousness--was unknown during primeval times.
+
+Turning to the other kind of evidence: Sir J. Lubbock has shewn that
+some savages have recently improved a little in some of their simpler
+arts. From the extremely curious account which he gives of the weapons,
+tools, and arts, used or practised by savages in various parts of the
+world, it cannot be doubted that these have nearly all been independent
+discoveries, excepting perhaps the art of making fire.[253] The
+Australian boomerang is a good instance of one such independent
+discovery. The Tahitians when first visited had advanced in many
+respects beyond the inhabitants of most of the other Polynesian islands.
+There are no just grounds for the belief that the high culture of the
+native Peruvians and Mexicans was derived from any foreign source;[254]
+many native plants were there cultivated, and a few native animals
+domesticated. We should bear in mind that a wandering crew from some
+semi-civilised land, if washed to the shores of America, would not,
+judging from the small influence of most missionaries, have produced any
+marked effect on the natives, unless they had already become somewhat
+advanced. Looking to a very remote period in the history of the world,
+we find, to use Sir J. Lubbock's well-known terms, a paleolithic and
+neolithic period; and no one will pretend that the art of grinding rough
+flint tools was a borrowed one. In all parts of Europe, as far east as
+Greece, in Palestine, India, Japan, New Zealand, and Africa, including
+Egypt, flint tools have been discovered in abundance; and of their use
+the existing inhabitants retain no tradition. There is also indirect
+evidence of their former use by the Chinese and ancient Jews. Hence
+there can hardly be a doubt that the inhabitants of these many
+countries, which include nearly the whole civilised world, were once in
+a barbarous condition. To believe that man was aboriginally civilised
+and then suffered utter degradation in so many regions, is to take a
+pitiably low view of human nature. It is apparently a truer and more
+cheerful view that progress has been much more general than
+retrogression; that man has risen, though by slow and interrupted steps,
+from a lowly condition to the highest standard as yet attained by him in
+knowledge, morals, and religion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+ON THE AFFINITIES AND GENEALOGY OF MAN.
+
+
+  Position of man in the animal series--The natural system
+  genealogical--Adaptive characters of slight value--Various
+  small points of resemblance between man and the
+  Quadrumana--Rank of man in the natural system--Birthplace and
+  antiquity of man--Absence of fossil connecting-links--Lower
+  stages in the genealogy of man, as inferred, firstly from his
+  affinities and secondly from his structure--Early androgynous
+  condition of the Vertebrata--Conclusion.
+
+
+Even if it be granted that the difference between man and his nearest
+allies is as great in corporeal structure as some naturalists maintain,
+and although we must grant that the difference between them is immense
+in mental power, yet the facts given in the previous chapters declare,
+as it appears to me, in the plainest manner, that man is descended from
+some lower form, notwithstanding that connecting-links have not hitherto
+been discovered.
+
+Man is liable to numerous, slight, and diversified variations, which are
+induced by the same general causes, are governed and transmitted in
+accordance with the same general laws, as in the lower animals. Man
+tends to multiply at so rapid a rate that his offspring are necessarily
+exposed to a struggle for existence, and consequently to natural
+selection. He has given rise to many races, some of which are so
+different that they have often been ranked by naturalists as distinct
+species. His body is constructed on the same homological plan as that of
+other mammals, independently of the uses to which the several parts may
+be put. He passes through the same phases of embryological development.
+He retains many rudimentary and useless structures, which no doubt were
+once serviceable. Characters occasionally make their reappearance in
+him, which we have every reason to believe were possessed by his early
+progenitors. If the origin of man had been wholly different from that of
+all other animals, these various appearances would be mere empty
+deceptions; but such an admission is incredible. These appearances, on
+the other hand, are intelligible, at least to a large extent, if man is
+the co-descendant with other mammals of some unknown and lower form.
+
+Some naturalists, from being deeply impressed with the mental and
+spiritual powers of man, have divided the whole organic world into three
+kingdoms, the Human, the Animal, and the Vegetable, thus giving to man a
+separate kingdom.[255] Spiritual powers cannot be compared or classed by
+the naturalist; but he may endeavour to shew, as I have done, that the
+mental faculties of man and the lower animals do not differ in kind,
+although immensely in degree. A difference in degree, however great,
+does not justify us in placing man in a distinct kingdom, as will
+perhaps be best illustrated by comparing the mental powers of two
+insects, namely, a coccus or scale-insect and an ant, which undoubtedly
+belong to the same class. The difference is here greater, though of a
+somewhat different kind, than that between man and the highest mammal.
+The female coccus, whilst young, attaches itself by its proboscis to a
+plant; sucks the sap but never moves again; is fertilised and lays eggs;
+and this is its whole history. On the other hand, to describe the habits
+and mental powers of a female ant, would require, as Pierre Huber has
+shewn, a large volume; I may, however, briefly specify a few points.
+Ants communicate information to each other, and several unite for the
+same work, or games of play. They recognise their fellow-ants after
+months of absence. They build great edifices, keep them clean, close the
+doors in the evening, and post sentries. They make roads, and even
+tunnels under rivers. They collect food for the community, and when an
+object, too large for entrance, is brought to the nest, they enlarge the
+door, and afterwards build it up again.[256] They go out to battle in
+regular bands, and freely sacrifice their lives for the common weal.
+They emigrate in accordance with a preconcerted plan. They capture
+slaves. They keep Aphides as milch-cows. They move the eggs of their
+aphides, as well as their own eggs and cocoons, into warm parts of the
+nest, in order that they may be quickly hatched; and endless similar
+facts could be given. On the whole, the difference in mental power
+between an ant and a coccus is immense; yet no one has ever dreamed of
+placing them in distinct classes, much less in distinct kingdoms. No
+doubt this interval is bridged over by the intermediate mental powers of
+many other insects; and this is not the case with man and the higher
+apes. But we have every reason to believe that breaks in the series are
+simply the result of many forms having become extinct.
+
+Professor Owen, relying chiefly on the structure of the brain, has
+divided the mammalian series into four sub-classes. One of these he
+devotes to man; in another he places both the marsupials and the
+monotremata; so that he makes man as distinct from all other mammals as
+are these two latter groups conjoined. This view has not been accepted,
+as far as I am aware, by any naturalist capable of forming an
+independent judgment, and therefore need not here be further considered.
+
+We can understand why a classification founded on any single character
+or organ--even an organ so wonderfully complex and important as the
+brain--or on the high development of the mental faculties, is almost
+sure to prove unsatisfactory. This principle has indeed been tried with
+hymenopterous insects; but when thus classed by their habits or
+instincts, the arrangement proved thoroughly artificial.[257]
+Classifications may, of course, be based on any character whatever, as
+on size, colour, or the element inhabited; but naturalists have long
+felt a profound conviction that there is a natural system. This system,
+it is now generally admitted, must be, as far as possible, genealogical
+in arrangement,--that is, the co-descendants of the same form must be
+kept together in one group, separate from the co-descendants of any
+other form; but if the parent-forms are related, so will be their
+descendants, and the two groups together will form a larger group. The
+amount of difference between the several groups--that is the amount of
+modification which each has undergone--will be expressed by such terms
+as genera, families, orders, and classes. As we have no record of the
+lines of descent, these lines can be discovered only by observing the
+degrees of resemblance between the beings which are to be classed. For
+this object numerous points of resemblance are of much more importance
+than the amount of similarity or dissimilarity in a few points. If two
+languages were found to resemble each other in a multitude of words and
+points of construction, they would be universally recognised as having
+sprung from a common source, notwithstanding that they differed greatly
+in some few words or points of construction. But with organic beings the
+points of resemblance must not consist of adaptations to similar habits
+of life: two animals may, for instance, have had their whole frames
+modified for living in the water, and yet they will not be brought any
+nearer to each other in the natural system. Hence we can see how it is
+that resemblances in unimportant structures, in useless and rudimentary
+organs, and in parts not as yet fully developed or functionally active,
+are by far the most serviceable for classification; for they can hardly
+be due to adaptations within a late period; and thus they reveal the old
+lines of descent or of true affinity.
+
+We can further see why a great amount of modification in some one
+character ought not to lead us to separate widely any two organisms. A
+part which already differs much from the same part in other allied forms
+has already, according to the theory of evolution, varied much;
+consequently it would (as long as the organism remained exposed to the
+same exciting conditions) be liable to further variations of the same
+kind; and these, if beneficial, would be preserved, and thus continually
+augmented. In many cases the continued development of a part, for
+instance, of the beak of a bird, or of the teeth of a mammal, would not
+be advantageous to the species for gaining its food, or for any other
+object; but with man we can see no definite limit, as far as advantage
+is concerned, to the continued development of the brain and mental
+faculties. Therefore in determining the position of man in the natural
+or genealogical system, the extreme development of his brain ought not
+to outweigh a multitude of resemblances in other less important or
+quite unimportant points.
+
+The greater number of naturalists who have taken into consideration the
+whole structure of man, including his mental faculties, have followed
+Blumenbach and Cuvier, and have placed man in a separate Order, under
+the title of the Bimana, and therefore on an equality with the Orders of
+the Quadrumana, Carnivora, &c. Recently many of our best naturalists
+have recurred to the view first propounded by Linnaeus, so remarkable for
+his sagacity, and have placed man in the same Order with the Quadrumana,
+under the title of the Primates. The justice of this conclusion will be
+admitted if, in the first place, we bear in mind the remarks just made
+on the comparatively small importance for classification of the great
+development of the brain in man; bearing, also, in mind that the
+strongly-marked differences between the skulls of man and the Quadrumana
+(lately insisted upon by Bischoff, Aeby, and others) apparently follow
+from their differently developed brains. In the second place, we must
+remember that nearly all the other and more important differences
+between man and the Quadrumana are manifestly adaptive in their nature,
+and relate chiefly to the erect position of man; such as the structure
+of his hand, foot, and pelvis, the curvature of his spine, and the
+position of his head. The family of seals offers a good illustration of
+the small importance of adaptive characters for classification. These
+animals differ from all other Carnivora in the form of their bodies and
+in the structure of their limbs, far more than does man from the higher
+apes; yet in every system, from that of Cuvier to the most recent one by
+Mr. Flower,[258] seals are ranked as a mere family in the Order of the
+Carnivora. If man had not been his own classifier, he would never have
+thought of founding a separate order for his own reception.
+
+It would be beyond my limits, and quite beyond my knowledge, even to
+name the innumerable points of structure in which man agrees with the
+other Primates. Our great anatomist and philosopher, Prof. Huxley, has
+fully discussed this subject,[259] and has come to the conclusion that
+man in all parts of his organisation differs less from the higher apes,
+than these do from the lower members of the same group. Consequently
+there "is no justification for placing man in a distinct order."
+
+In an early part of this volume I brought forward various facts, shewing
+how closely man agrees in constitution with the higher mammals; and this
+agreement, no doubt, depends on our close similarity in minute structure
+and chemical composition. I gave, as instances, our liability to the
+same diseases, and to the attacks of allied parasites; our tastes in
+common for the same stimulants, and the similar effects thus produced,
+as well as by various drugs; and other such facts.
+
+As small unimportant points of resemblance between man and the higher
+apes are not commonly noticed in systematic works, and as, when
+numerous, they clearly reveal our relationship, I will specify a few
+such points. The relative position of the features are manifestly the
+same in man and the Quadrumana; and the various emotions are displayed
+by nearly similar movements of the muscles and skin, chiefly above the
+eyebrows and round the mouth. Some few expressions are, indeed, almost
+the same, as in the weeping of certain kinds of monkeys, and in the
+laughing noise made by others, during which the corners of the mouth are
+drawn backwards, and the lower eyelids wrinkled. The external ears are
+curiously alike. In man the nose is much more prominent than in most
+monkeys; but we may trace the commencement of an aquiline curvature in
+the nose of the Hoolock Gibbon; and this in the _Semnopithecus nasica_
+is carried to a ridiculous extreme.
+
+The faces of many monkeys are ornamented with beards, whiskers, or
+moustaches. The hair on the head grows to a great length in some species
+of Semnopithecus;[260] and in the Bonnet monkey (_Macacus radiatus_) it
+radiates from a point on the crown, with a parting down the middle, as
+in man. It is commonly said that the forehead gives to man his noble and
+intellectual appearance; but the thick hair on the head of the Bonnet
+monkey terminates abruptly downwards, and is succeeded by such short and
+fine hair, or down, that at a little distance the forehead, with the
+exception of the eyebrows, appears quite naked. It has been erroneously
+asserted that eyebrows are not present in any monkey. In the species
+just named the degree of nakedness of the forehead differs in different
+individuals; and Eschricht states[261] that in our children the limit
+between the hairy scalp and the naked forehead is sometimes not well
+defined; so that here we seem to have a trifling case of reversion to a
+progenitor, in whom the forehead had not as yet become quite naked.
+
+It is well known that the hair on our arms tends to converge from above
+and below to a point at the elbow. This curious arrangement, so unlike
+that in most of the lower mammals, is common to the gorilla, chimpanzee,
+orang, some species of Hylobates, and even to some few American monkeys.
+But in _Hylobates agilis_ the hair on the fore-arm is directed
+downwards or towards the wrist in the ordinary manner; and in _H. lar_
+it is nearly erect, with only a very slight forward inclination; so that
+in this latter species it is in a transitional state. It can hardly be
+doubted that with most mammals the thickness of the hair and its
+direction on the back is adapted to throw off the rain; even the
+transverse hairs on the fore-legs of a dog may serve for this end when
+he is coiled up asleep. Mr. Wallace remarks that the convergence of the
+hair towards the elbow on the arms of the orang (whose habits he has so
+carefully studied) serves to throw off the rain, when, as is the custom
+of this animal, the arms are bent, with the hands clasped round a branch
+or over its own head. We should, however, bear in mind that the attitude
+of an animal may perhaps be in part determined by the direction of the
+hair; and not the direction of the hair by the attitude. If the above
+explanation is correct in the case of the orang, the hair on our
+fore-arms offers a curious record of our former state; for no one
+supposes that it is now of any use in throwing off the rain, nor in our
+present erect condition is it properly directed for this purpose.
+
+It would, however, be rash to trust too much to the principle of
+adaptation in regard to the direction of the hair in man or his early
+progenitors; for it is impossible to study the figures given by
+Eschricht of the arrangement of the hair on the human foetus (this
+being the same as in the adult) and not agree with this excellent
+observer that other and more complex causes have intervened. The points
+of convergence seem to stand in some relation to those points in the
+embryo which are last closed in during development. There appears, also,
+to exist some relation between the arrangement of the hair on the
+limbs, and the course of the medullary arteries.[262]
+
+It must not be supposed that the resemblances between man and certain
+apes in the above and many other points--such as in having a naked
+forehead, long tresses on the head, &c.--are all necessarily the result
+of unbroken inheritance from a common progenitor thus characterised, or
+of subsequent reversion. Many of these resemblances are more probably
+due to analogous variation, which follows, as I have elsewhere attempted
+to shew,[263] from co-descended organisms having a similar constitution
+and having been acted on by similar causes inducing variability. With
+respect to the similar direction of the hair on the fore-arms of man and
+certain monkeys, as this character is common to almost all the
+anthropomorphous apes, it may probably be attributed to inheritance; but
+not certainly so, as some very distinct American monkeys are thus
+characterised. The same remark is applicable to the tailless condition
+of man; for the tail is absent in all the anthropomorphous apes.
+Nevertheless this character cannot with certainty be attributed to
+inheritance, as the tail, though not absent, is rudimentary in several
+other Old World and in some New World species, and is quite absent in
+several species belonging to the allied group of Lemurs.
+
+Although, as we have now seen, man has no just right to form a separate
+Order for his own reception, he may perhaps claim a distinct Sub-order
+or Family. Prof. Huxley, in his last work,[264] divides the Primates
+into three Sub-orders; namely, the Anthropidae with man alone, the
+Simiadae including monkeys of all kinds, and the Lemuridae with the
+diversified genera of lemurs. As far as differences in certain important
+points of structure are concerned, man may no doubt rightly claim the
+rank of a Sub-order; and this rank is too low, if we look chiefly to his
+mental faculties. Nevertheless, under a genealogical point of view it
+appears that this rank is too high, and that man ought to form merely a
+Family, or possibly even only a Sub-family. If we imagine three lines of
+descent proceeding from a common source, it is quite conceivable that
+two of them might after the lapse of ages be so slightly changed as
+still to remain as species of the same genus; whilst the third line
+might become so greatly modified as to deserve to rank as a distinct
+Sub-family, Family, or even Order. But in this case it is almost certain
+that the third line would still retain through inheritance numerous
+small points of resemblance with the other two lines. Here then would
+occur the difficulty, at present insoluble, how much weight we ought to
+assign in our classifications to strongly-marked differences in some few
+points,--that is to the amount of modification undergone; and how much
+to close resemblance in numerous unimportant points, as indicating the
+lines of descent or genealogy. The former alternative is the most
+obvious, and perhaps the safest, though the latter appears the most
+correct as giving a truly natural classification.
+
+To form a judgment on this head, with reference to man we must glance at
+the classification of the Simiadae. This family is divided by almost all
+naturalists into the Catarhine group, or Old World monkeys, all of which
+are characterised (as their name expresses) by the peculiar structure of
+their nostrils and by having four premolars in each jaw; and into the
+Platyrhine group or New World monkeys (including two very distinct
+sub-groups), all of which are characterised by differently-constructed
+nostrils and by having six premolars in each jaw. Some other small
+differences might be mentioned. Now man unquestionably belongs in his
+dentition, in the structure of his nostrils, and some other respects, to
+the Catarhine or Old World division; nor does he resemble the
+Platyrhines more closely than the Catarhines in any characters,
+excepting in a few of not much importance and apparently of an adaptive
+nature. Therefore it would be against all probability to suppose that
+some ancient New World species had varied, and had thus produced a
+man-like creature with all the distinctive characters proper to the Old
+World division; losing at the same time all its own distinctive
+characters. There can consequently hardly be a doubt that man is an
+offshoot from the Old World Simian stem; and that under a genealogical
+point of view, he must be classed with the Catarhine division.[265]
+
+The anthropomorphous apes, namely the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang, and
+hylobates, are separated as a distinct sub-group from the other Old
+World monkeys by most naturalists. I am aware that Gratiolet, relying on
+the structure of the brain, does not admit the existence of this
+sub-group, and no doubt it is a broken one; thus the orang, as Mr. St.
+G. Mivart remarks,[266] "is one of the most peculiar and aberrant forms
+to be found in the Order." The remaining, non-anthropomorphous, Old
+World monkeys, are again divided by some naturalists into two or three
+smaller sub-groups; the genus Semnopithecus, with its peculiar
+sacculated stomach, being the type of one such sub-group. But it appears
+from M. Gaudry's wonderful discoveries in Attica, that during the
+Miocene period a form existed there, which connected Semnopithecus and
+Macacus; and this probably illustrates the manner in which the other and
+higher groups were once blended together.
+
+If the anthropomorphous apes be admitted to form a natural sub-group,
+then as man agrees with them, not only in all those characters which he
+possesses in common with the whole Catarhine group, but in other
+peculiar characters, such as the absence of a tail and of callosities
+and in general appearance, we may infer that some ancient member of the
+anthropomorphous sub-group gave birth to man. It is not probable that a
+member of one of the other lower sub-groups should, through the law of
+analogous variation, have given rise to a man-like creature, resembling
+the higher anthropomorphous apes in so many respects. No doubt man, in
+comparison with most of his allies, has undergone an extraordinary
+amount of modification, chiefly in consequence of his greatly developed
+brain and erect position; nevertheless we should bear in mind that he
+"is but one of several exceptional forms of Primates."[267]
+
+Every naturalist, who believes in the principle of evolution, will
+grant that the two main divisions of the Simiadae, namely the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine monkeys, with their sub-groups, have all proceeded from
+some one extremely ancient progenitor. The early descendants of this
+progenitor, before they had diverged to any considerable extent from
+each other, would still have formed a single natural group; but some of
+the species or incipient genera would have already begun to indicate by
+their diverging characters the future distinctive marks of the Catarhine
+and Platyrhine divisions. Hence the members of this supposed ancient
+group would not have been so uniform in their dentition or in the
+structure of their nostrils, as are the existing Catarhine monkeys in
+one way and the Platyrhines in another way, but would have resembled in
+this respect the allied Lemuridae which differ greatly from each other in
+the form of their muzzles,[268] and to an extraordinary degree in their
+dentition.
+
+The Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys agree in a multitude of characters,
+as is shewn by their unquestionably belonging to one and the same Order.
+The many characters which they possess in common can hardly have been
+independently acquired by so many distinct species; so that these
+characters must have been inherited. But an ancient form which possessed
+many characters common to the Catarhine and Platyrhine monkeys, and
+others in an intermediate condition, and some few perhaps distinct from
+those now present in either group, would undoubtedly have been ranked,
+if seen by a naturalist, as an ape or monkey. And as man under a
+genealogical point of view belongs to the Catarhine or Old World stock,
+we must conclude, however much the conclusion may revolt our pride,
+that our early progenitors would have been properly thus
+designated.[269] But we must not fall into the error of supposing that
+the early progenitor of the whole Simian stock, including man, was
+identical with, or even closely resembled, any existing ape or monkey.
+
+
+_On the Birthplace and Antiquity of Man._--We are naturally led to
+enquire where was the birthplace of man at that stage of descent when
+our progenitors diverged from the Catarhine stock. The fact that they
+belonged to this stock clearly shews that they inhabited the Old World;
+but not Australia nor any oceanic island, as we may infer from the laws
+of geographical distribution. In each great region of the world the
+living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same
+region. It is therefore probable that Africa was formerly inhabited by
+extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee; and as these
+two species are now man's nearest allies, it is somewhat more probable
+that our early progenitors lived on the African continent than
+elsewhere. But it is useless to speculate on this subject, for an ape
+nearly as large as a man, namely the Dryopithecus of Lartet, which was
+closely allied to the anthropomorphous Hylobates, existed in Europe
+during the Upper Miocene period; and since so remote a period the earth
+has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample
+time for migration on the largest scale.
+
+At the period and place, whenever and wherever it may have been, when
+man first lost his hairy covering, he probably inhabited a hot country;
+and this would have been favourable for a frugiferous diet, on which,
+judging from analogy, he subsisted. We are far from knowing how long ago
+it was when man first diverged from the Catarhine stock; but this may
+have occurred at an epoch as remote as the Eocene period; for the higher
+apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the Upper Miocene
+period, as shewn by the existence of the Dryopithecus. We are also quite
+ignorant at how rapid a rate organisms, whether high or low in the
+scale, may under favourable circumstances be modified: we know, however,
+that some have retained the same form during an enormous lapse of time.
+From what we see going on under domestication, we learn that within the
+same period some of the co-descendants of the same species may be not at
+all changed, some a little, and some greatly changed. Thus it may have
+been with man, who has undergone a great amount of modification in
+certain characters in comparison with the higher apes.
+
+The great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies,
+which cannot be bridged over by any extinct or living species, has often
+been advanced as a grave objection to the belief that man is descended
+from some lower form; but this objection will not appear of much weight
+to those who, convinced by general reasons, believe in the general
+principle of evolution. Breaks incessantly occur in all parts of the
+series, some being wide, sharp and defined, others less so in various
+degrees; as between the orang and its nearest allies--between the
+Tarsius and the other Lemuridae--between the elephant and in a more
+striking manner between the Ornithorhynchus or Echidna, and other
+mammals. But all these breaks depend merely on the number of related
+forms which have become extinct. At some future period, not very distant
+as measured by centuries, the civilised races of man will almost
+certainly exterminate and replace throughout the world the savage races.
+At the same time the anthropomorphous apes, as Professor Schaaffhausen
+has remarked,[270] will no doubt be exterminated. The break will then be
+rendered wider, for it will intervene between man in a more civilised
+state, as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a
+baboon, instead of as at present between the negro or Australian and the
+gorilla.
+
+With respect to the absence of fossil remains, serving to connect man
+with his ape-like progenitors, no one will lay much stress on this fact,
+who will read Sir C. Lyell's discussion,[271] in which he shews that in
+all the vertebrate classes the discovery of fossil remains has been an
+extremely slow and fortuitous process. Nor should it be forgotten that
+those regions which are the most likely to afford remains connecting man
+with some extinct ape-like creature, have not as yet been searched by
+geologists.
+
+
+_Lower Stages in the Genealogy of Man._--We have seen that man appears
+to have diverged from the Catarhine or Old World division of the
+Simiadae, after these had diverged from the New World division. We will
+now endeavour to follow the more remote traces of his genealogy,
+trusting in the first place to the mutual affinities between the various
+classes and orders, with some slight aid from the periods, as far as
+ascertained, of their successive appearance on the earth. The Lemuridae
+stand below and close to the Simiadae, constituting a very distinct
+family of the Primates, or, according to Haeckel, a distinct Order. This
+group is diversified and broken to an extraordinary degree, and includes
+many aberrant forms. It has, therefore, probably suffered much
+extinction. Most of the remnants survive on islands, namely in
+Madagascar and in the islands of the Malayan archipelago, where they
+have not been exposed to such severe competition as they would have been
+on well-stocked continents. This group likewise presents many
+gradations, leading, as Huxley remarks,[272] "insensibly from the crown
+and summit of the animal creation down to creatures from which there is
+but a step, as it seems, to the lowest, smallest, and least intelligent
+of the placental mammalia." From these various considerations it is
+probable that the Simiadae were originally developed from the progenitors
+of the existing Lemuridae; and these in their turn from forms standing
+very low in the mammalian series.
+
+The Marsupials stand in many important characters below the placental
+mammals. They appeared at an earlier geological period, and their range
+was formerly much more extensive than what it now is. Hence the
+Placentata are generally supposed to have been derived from the
+Implacentata or Marsupials; not, however, from forms closely like the
+existing Marsupials, but from their early progenitors. The Monotremata
+are plainly allied to the Marsupials; forming a third and still lower
+division in the great mammalian series. They are represented at the
+present day solely by the Ornithorhynchus and Echidna; and these two
+forms may be safely considered as relics of a much larger group which
+have been preserved in Australia through some favourable concurrence of
+circumstances. The Monotremata are eminently interesting, as in several
+important points of structure they lead towards the class of reptiles.
+
+In attempting to trace the genealogy of the Mammalia, and therefore of
+man, lower down in the series, we become involved in greater and greater
+obscurity. He who wishes to see what ingenuity and knowledge can effect,
+may consult Prof. Haeckel's works.[273] I will content myself with a few
+general remarks. Every evolutionist will admit that the five great
+vertebrate classes, namely, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and
+fishes, are all descended from some one prototype; for they have much in
+common, especially during their embryonic state. As the class of fishes
+is the most lowly organised and appeared before the others, we may
+conclude that all the members of the vertebrate kingdom are derived from
+some fish-like animal, less highly organised than any as yet found in
+the lowest known formations. The belief that animals so distinct as a
+monkey or elephant and a humming-bird, a snake, frog, and fish, &c.,
+could all have sprung from the same parents, will appear monstrous to
+those who have not attended to the recent progress of natural history.
+For this belief implies the former existence of links closely binding
+together all these forms, now so utterly unlike.
+
+Nevertheless it is certain that groups of animals have existed, or do
+now exist, which serve to connect more or less closely the several great
+vertebrate classes. We have seen that the Ornithorhynchus graduates
+towards reptiles; and Prof. Huxley has made the remarkable discovery,
+confirmed by Mr. Cope and others, that the old Dinosaurians are
+intermediate in many important respects between certain reptiles and
+certain birds--the latter consisting of the ostrich-tribe (itself
+evidently a widely-diffused remnant of a larger group) and of the
+Archeopteryx, that strange Secondary bird having a long tail like that
+of the lizard. Again, according to Prof. Owen,[274] the
+Ichthyosaurians--great sea-lizards furnished with paddles--present many
+affinities with fishes, or rather, according to Huxley, with amphibians.
+This latter class (including in its highest division frogs and toads) is
+plainly allied to the Ganoid fishes. These latter fishes swarmed during
+the earlier geological periods, and were constructed on what is called a
+highly generalised type, that is they presented diversified affinities
+with other groups of organisms. The amphibians and fishes are also so
+closely united by the Lepidosiren, that naturalists long disputed in
+which of these two classes it ought to be placed. The Lepidosiren and
+some few Ganoid fishes have been preserved from utter extinction by
+inhabiting our rivers, which are harbours of refuge, bearing the same
+relation to the great waters of the ocean that islands bear to
+continents.
+
+Lastly, one single member of the immense and diversified class of
+fishes, namely the lancelet or amphioxus, is so different from all other
+fishes, that Haeckel maintains that it ought to form a distinct class in
+the vertebrate kingdom. This fish is remarkable for its negative
+characters; it can hardly be said to possess a brain, vertebral column,
+or heart, &c.; so that it was classed by the older naturalists amongst
+the worms. Many years ago Prof. Goodsir perceived that the lancelet
+presented some affinities with the Ascidians, which are invertebrate,
+hermaphrodite, marine creatures permanently attached to a support. They
+hardly appear like animals, and consist of a simple, tough, leathery
+sack, with two small projecting orifices. They belong to the Molluscoida
+of Huxley--a lower division of the great kingdom of the Mollusca; but
+they have recently been placed by some naturalists amongst the Vermes or
+worms. Their larvae somewhat resemble tadpoles in shape,[275] and have
+the power of swimming freely about. Some observations lately made by M.
+Kowalevsky,[276] since confirmed by Prof. Kuppfer, will form a discovery
+of extraordinary interest, if still further extended, as I hear from M.
+Kowalevsky in Naples he has now effected. The discovery is that the
+larvae of Ascidians are related to the Vertebrata, in their manner of
+development, in the relative position of the nervous system, and in
+possessing a structure closely like the _chorda dorsalis_ of vertebrate
+animals. It thus appears, if we may rely on embryology, which has always
+proved the safest guide in classification, that we have at last gained a
+clue to the source whence the Vertebrata have been derived. We should
+thus be justified in believing that at an extremely remote period a
+group of animals existed, resembling in many respects the larvae of our
+present Ascidians, which diverged into two great branches--the one
+retrograding in development and producing the present class of
+Ascidians, the other rising to the crown and summit of the animal
+kingdom by giving birth to the Vertebrata.
+
+
+We have thus far endeavoured rudely to trace the genealogy of the
+Vertebrata by the aid of their mutual affinities. We will now look to
+man as he exists; and we shall, I think, be able partially to restore
+during successive periods, but not in due order of time, the structure
+of our early progenitors. This can be effected by means of the rudiments
+which man still retains, by the characters which occasionally make their
+appearance in him through reversion, and by the aid of the principles of
+morphology and embryology. The various facts, to which I shall here
+allude, have been given in the previous chapters. The early progenitors
+of man were no doubt once covered with hair, both sexes having beards;
+their ears were pointed and capable of movement; and their bodies were
+provided with a tail, having the proper muscles. Their limbs and bodies
+were also acted on by many muscles which now only occasionally reappear,
+but are normally present in the Quadrumana. The great artery and nerve
+of the humerus ran through a supra-condyloid foramen. At this or some
+earlier period, the intestine gave forth a much larger diverticulum or
+caecum than that now existing. The foot, judging from the condition of
+the great toe in the foetus, was then prehensile; and our progenitors,
+no doubt, were arboreal in their habits, frequenting some warm,
+forest-clad land. The males were provided with great canine teeth,
+which served them as formidable weapons.
+
+At a much earlier period the uterus was double; the excreta were voided
+through a cloaca; and the eye was protected by a third eyelid or
+nictitating membrane. At a still earlier period the progenitors of man
+must have been aquatic in their habits; for morphology plainly tells us
+that our lungs consist of a modified swim-bladder, which once served as
+a float. The clefts on the neck in the embryo of man show where the
+branchiae once existed. At about this period the true kidneys were
+replaced by the corpora Wolffiana. The heart existed as a simple
+pulsating vessel; and the chorda dorsalis took the place of a vertebral
+column. These early predecessors of man, thus seen in the dim recesses
+of time, must have been as lowly organised as the lancelet or amphioxus,
+or even still more lowly organised.
+
+There is one other point deserving a fuller notice. It has long been
+known that in the vertebrate kingdom one sex bears rudiments of various
+accessory parts, appertaining to the reproductive system, which properly
+belong to the opposite sex; and it has now been ascertained that at a
+very early embryonic period both sexes possess true male and female
+glands. Hence some extremely remote progenitor of the whole vertebrate
+kingdom appears to have been hermaphrodite or androgynous.[277] But here
+we encounter a singular difficulty. In the mammalian class the males
+possess in their vesiculae prostaticae rudiments of a uterus with the
+adjacent passage; they bear also rudiments of mammae, and some male
+marsupials have rudiments of a marsupial sack.[278] Other analogous
+facts could be added. Are we, then, to suppose that some extremely
+ancient mammal possessed organs proper to both sexes, that is, continued
+androgynous after it had acquired the chief distinctions of its proper
+class, and therefore after it had diverged from the lower classes of the
+vertebrate kingdom? This seems improbable in the highest degree; for had
+this been the case, we might have expected that some few members of the
+two lower classes, namely fishes[279] and amphibians, would still have
+remained androgynous. We must, on the contrary, believe that when the
+five vertebrate classes diverged from their common progenitor the sexes
+had already become separated. To account, however, for male mammals
+possessing rudiments of the accessory female organs, and for female
+mammals possessing rudiments of the masculine organs, we need not
+suppose that their early progenitors were still androgynous after they
+had assumed their chief mammalian characters. It is quite possible that
+as the one sex gradually acquired the accessory organs proper to it,
+some of the successive steps or modifications were transmitted to the
+opposite sex. When we treat of sexual selection, we shall meet with
+innumerable instances of this form of transmission,--as in the case of
+the spurs, plumes, and brilliant colours, acquired by male birds for
+battle or ornament, and transferred to the females in an imperfect or
+rudimentary condition.
+
+The possession by male mammals of functionally imperfect mammary organs
+is, in some respects, especially curious. The Monotremata have the
+proper milk-secreting glands with orifices, but no nipples; and as these
+animals stand at the very base of the mammalian series, it is probable
+that the progenitors of the class possessed, in like manner, the
+milk-secreting glands, but no nipples. This conclusion is supported by
+what is known of their manner of development; for Professor Turner
+informs me, on the authority of Koelliker and Lauger, that in the embryo
+the mammary glands can be distinctly traced before the nipples are in
+the least visible; and it should be borne in mind that the development
+of successive parts in the individual generally seems to represent and
+accord with the development of successive beings in the same line of
+descent. The Marsupials differ from the Monotremata by possessing
+nipples; so that these organs were probably first acquired by the
+Marsupials after they had diverged from, and risen above, the
+Monotremata, and were then transmitted to the placental mammals. No one
+will suppose that after the Marsupials had approximately acquired their
+present structure, and therefore at a rather late period in the
+development of the mammalian series, any of its members still remained
+androgynous. We seem, therefore, compelled to recur to the foregoing
+view, and to conclude that the nipples were first developed in the
+females of some very early marsupial form, and were then, in accordance
+with a common law of inheritance, transferred in a functionally
+imperfect condition to the males.
+
+Nevertheless a suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that long after
+the progenitors of the whole mammalian class had ceased to be
+androgynous, both sexes might have yielded milk and thus nourished their
+young; and in the case of the Marsupials, that both sexes might have
+carried their young in marsupial sacks. This will not appear utterly
+incredible, if we reflect that the males of syngnathous fishes receive
+the eggs of the females in their abdominal pouches, hatch them, and
+afterwards, as some believe, nourish the young;[280]--that certain other
+male fishes hatch the eggs within their mouths or branchial
+cavities;--that certain male toads take the chaplets of eggs from the
+females and wind them round their own thighs, keeping them there until
+the tadpoles are born;--that certain male birds undertake the whole duty
+of incubation, and that male pigeons, as well as the females, feed their
+nestlings with a secretion from their crops. But the above suspicion
+first occurred to me from the mammary glands in male mammals being
+developed so much more perfectly than the rudiments of those other
+accessory reproductive parts, which are found in the one sex though
+proper to the other. The mammary glands and nipples, as they exist in
+male mammals, can indeed hardly be called rudimentary; they are simply
+not fully developed and not functionally active. They are
+sympathetically affected under the influence of certain diseases, like
+the same organs in the female. At birth they often secrete a few drops
+of milk; and they have been known occasionally in man and other mammals
+to become well developed, and to yield a fair supply of milk. Now if we
+suppose that during a former prolonged period male mammals aided the
+females in nursing their offspring, and that afterwards from some cause,
+as from a smaller number of young being produced, the males ceased
+giving this aid, disuse of the organs during maturity would lead to
+their becoming inactive; and from two well-known principles of
+inheritance this state of inactivity would probably be transmitted to
+the males at the corresponding age of maturity. But at all earlier ages
+these organs would be left unaffected, so that they would be equally
+well developed in the young of both sexes.
+
+
+_Conclusion._--The best definition of advancement or progress in the
+organic scale ever given, is that by Von Baer; and this rests on the
+amount of differentiation and specialisation of the several parts of the
+same being, when arrived, as I should be inclined to add, at maturity.
+Now as organisms have become slowly adapted by means of natural
+selection for diversified lines of life, their parts will have become,
+from the advantage gained by the division of physiological labour, more
+and more differentiated and specialised for various functions. The same
+part appears often to have been modified first for one purpose, and then
+long afterwards for some other and quite distinct purpose; and thus all
+the parts are rendered more and more complex. But each organism will
+still retain the general type of structure of the progenitor from which
+it was aboriginally derived. In accordance with this view it seems, if
+we turn to geological evidence, that organisation on the whole has
+advanced throughout the world by slow and interrupted steps. In the
+great kingdom of the Vertebrata it has culminated in man. It must not,
+however, be supposed that groups of organic beings are always supplanted
+and disappear as soon as they have given birth to other and more perfect
+groups. The latter, though victorious over their predecessors, may not
+have become better adapted for all places in the economy of nature. Some
+old forms appear to have survived from inhabiting protected sites, where
+they have not been exposed to very severe competition; and these often
+aid us in constructing our genealogies, by giving us a fair idea of
+former and lost populations. But we must not fall into the error of
+looking at the existing members of any lowly-organised group as perfect
+representatives of their ancient predecessors.
+
+The most ancient progenitors in the kingdom of the Vertebrata, at which
+we are able to obtain an obscure glance, apparently consisted of a group
+of marine animals,[281] resembling the larvae of existing Ascidians.
+These animals probably gave rise to a group of fishes, as lowly
+organised as the lancelet; and from these the Ganoids, and other fishes
+like the Lepidosiren, must have been developed. From such fish a very
+small advance would carry us on to the amphibians. We have seen that
+birds and reptiles were once intimately connected together; and the
+Monotremata now, in a slight degree, connect mammals with reptiles. But
+no one can at present say by what line of descent the three higher and
+related classes, namely, mammals, birds, and reptiles, were derived from
+either of the two lower vertebrate classes, namely amphibians and
+fishes. In the class of mammals the steps are not difficult to conceive
+which led from the ancient Monotremata to the ancient Marsupials; and
+from these to the early progenitors of the placental mammals. We may
+thus ascend to the Lemuridae; and the interval is not wide from these to
+the Simiadae. The Simiadae then branched off into two great stems, the New
+World and Old World monkeys; and from the latter, at a remote period,
+Man, the wonder and glory of the Universe, proceeded.
+
+Thus we have given to man a pedigree of prodigious length, but not, it
+may be said, of noble quality. The world, it has often been remarked,
+appears as if it had long been preparing for the advent of man; and
+this, in one sense is strictly true, for he owes his birth to a long
+line of progenitors. If any single link in this chain had never existed,
+man would not have been exactly what he now is. Unless we wilfully close
+our eyes, we may, with our present knowledge, approximately recognise
+our parentage; nor need we feel ashamed of it. The most humble organism
+is something much higher than the inorganic dust under our feet; and no
+one with an unbiassed mind can study any living creature, however
+humble, without being struck with enthusiasm at its marvellous structure
+and properties.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+ON THE RACES OF MAN.
+
+
+  The nature and value of specific characters--Application to the
+  races of man--Arguments in favour of, and opposed to, ranking
+  the so-called races of man as distinct
+  species--Sub-species--Monogenists and polygenists--Convergence
+  of character--Numerous points of resemblance in body and mind
+  between the most distinct races of man--The state of man when
+  he first spread over the earth--Each race not descended from a
+  single pair--The extinction of races--The formation of
+  races--The effects of crossing--Slight influence of the direct
+  action of the conditions of life--Slight or no influence of
+  natural selection--Sexual selection.
+
+
+It is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of
+men; but to inquire what is the value of the differences between them
+under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated. In
+determining whether two or more allied forms ought to be ranked as
+species or varieties, naturalists are practically guided by the
+following considerations; namely, the amount of difference between them,
+and whether such differences relate to few or many points of structure,
+and whether they are of physiological importance; but more especially
+whether they are constant. Constancy of character is what is chiefly
+valued and sought for by naturalists. Whenever it can be shewn, or
+rendered probable, that the forms in question have remained distinct for
+a long period, this becomes an argument of much weight in favour of
+treating them as species. Even a slight degree of sterility between any
+two forms when first crossed, or in their offspring, is generally
+considered as a decisive test of their specific distinctness; and their
+continued persistence without blending within the same area, is usually
+accepted as sufficient evidence, either of some degree of mutual
+sterility, or in the case of animals of some repugnance to mutual
+pairing.
+
+Independently of blending from intercrossing, the complete absence, in a
+well-investigated region, of varieties linking together any two
+closely-allied forms, is probably the most important of all the
+criterions of their specific distinctness; and this is a somewhat
+different consideration from mere constancy of character, for two forms
+may be highly variable and yet not yield intermediate varieties.
+Geographical distribution is often unconsciously and sometimes
+consciously brought into play; so that forms living in two widely
+separated areas, in which most of the other inhabitants are specifically
+distinct, are themselves usually looked at as distinct; but in truth
+this affords no aid in distinguishing geographical races from so-called
+good or true species.
+
+Now let us apply these generally-admitted principles to the races of
+man, viewing him in the same spirit as a naturalist would any other
+animal. In regard to the amount of difference between the races, we must
+make some allowance for our nice powers of discrimination gained by the
+long habit of observing ourselves. In India, as Elphinstone
+remarks,[282] although a newly-arrived European cannot at first
+distinguish the various native races, yet they soon appear to him
+extremely dissimilar; and the Hindoo cannot at first perceive any
+difference between the several European nations. Even the most distinct
+races of man, with the exception of certain negro tribes, are much more
+like each other in form than would at first be supposed. This is well
+shewn by the French photographs in the Collection Anthropologique du
+Museum of the men belonging to various races, the greater number of
+which, as many persons to whom I have shown them have remarked, might
+pass for Europeans. Nevertheless, these men if seen alive would
+undoubtedly appear very distinct, so that we are clearly much influenced
+in our judgment by the mere colour of the skin and hair, by slight
+differences in the features, and by expression.
+
+There is, however, no doubt that the various races, when carefully
+compared and measured, differ much from each other,--as in the texture
+of the hair, the relative proportions of all parts of the body,[283] the
+capacity of the lungs, the form and capacity of the skull, and even in
+the convolutions of the brain.[284] But it would be an endless task to
+specify the numerous points of structural difference. The races differ
+also in constitution, in acclimatisation, and in liability to certain
+diseases. Their mental characteristics are likewise very distinct;
+chiefly as it would appear in their emotional, but partly in their
+intellectual, faculties. Every one who has had the opportunity of
+comparison, must have been struck with the contrast between the
+taciturn, even morose, aborigines of S. America and the light-hearted,
+talkative negroes. There is a nearly similar contrast between the Malays
+and the Papuans,[285] who live under the same physical conditions, and
+are separated from each other only by a narrow space of sea.
+
+We will first consider the arguments which may be advanced in favour of
+classing the races of man as distinct species, and then those on the
+other side. If a naturalist, who had never before seen such beings, were
+to compare a Negro, Hottentot, Australian, or Mongolian, he would at
+once perceive that they differed in a multitude of characters, some of
+slight and some of considerable importance. On inquiry he would find
+that they were adapted to live under widely different climates, and that
+they differed somewhat in bodily constitution and mental disposition. If
+he were then told that hundreds of similar specimens could be brought
+from the same countries, he would assuredly declare that they were as
+good species as many to which he had been in the habit of affixing
+specific names. This conclusion would be greatly strengthened as soon as
+he had ascertained that these forms had all retained the same character
+for many centuries; and that negroes, apparently identical with existing
+negroes, had lived at least 4000 years ago.[286] He would also hear from
+an excellent observer, Dr. Lund,[287] that the human skulls found in
+the caves of Brazil, entombed with many extinct mammals, belonged to the
+same type as that now prevailing throughout the American Continent.
+
+Our naturalist would then perhaps turn to geographical distribution, and
+he would probably declare that forms differing not only in appearance,
+but fitted for the hottest and dampest or driest countries, as well as
+for the arctic regions, must be distinct species. He might appeal to the
+fact that no one species in the group next to man, namely the
+Quadrumana, can resist a low temperature or any considerable change of
+climate; and that those species which come nearest to man have never
+been reared to maturity, even under the temperate climate of Europe. He
+would be deeply impressed with the fact, first noticed by Agassiz,[288]
+that the different races of man are distributed over the world in the
+same zoological provinces, as those inhabited by undoubtedly distinct
+species and genera of mammals. This is manifestly the case with the
+Australian, Mongolian, and Negro races of man; in a less well-marked
+manner with the Hottentots; but plainly with the Papuans and Malays, who
+are separated, as Mr. Wallace has shewn, by nearly the same line which
+divides the great Malayan and Australian zoological provinces. The
+aborigines of America range throughout the Continent; and this at first
+appears opposed to the above rule, for most of the productions of the
+Southern and Northern halves differ widely; yet some few living forms,
+as the opossum, range from the one into the other, as did formerly some
+of the gigantic Edentata. The Esquimaux, like other Arctic animals,
+extend round the whole polar regions. It should be observed that the
+mammalian forms which inhabit the several zoological provinces, do not
+differ from each other in the same degree; so that it can hardly be
+considered as an anomaly that the Negro differs more, and the American
+much less, from the other races of man than do the mammals of the same
+continents from those of the other provinces. Man, it may be added, does
+not appear to have aboriginally inhabited any oceanic island; and in
+this respect he resembles the other members of his class.
+
+In determining whether the varieties of the same kind of domestic animal
+should be ranked as specifically distinct, that is, whether any of them
+are descended from distinct wild species, every naturalist would lay
+much stress on the fact, if established, of their external parasites
+being specifically distinct. All the more stress would be laid on this
+fact, as it would be an exceptional one, for I am informed by Mr. Denny
+that the most different kinds of dogs, fowls, and pigeons, in England,
+are infested by the same species of Pediculi or lice. Now Mr. A. Murray
+has carefully examined the Pediculi collected in different countries
+from the different races of man;[289] and he finds that they differ, not
+only in colour, but in the structure of their claws and limbs. In every
+case in which numerous specimens were obtained the differences were
+constant. The surgeon of a whaling ship in the Pacific assured me that
+when the Pediculi, with which some Sandwich Islanders on board swarmed,
+strayed on to the bodies of the English sailors, they died in the course
+of three or four days. These Pediculi were darker coloured and appeared
+different from those proper to the natives of Chiloe in South America,
+of which he gave me specimens. These, again, appeared larger and much
+softer than European lice. Mr. Murray procured four kinds from Africa,
+namely from the Negroes of the Eastern and Western coasts, from the
+Hottentots and Caffres; two kinds from the natives of Australia; two
+from North, and two from South America. In these latter cases it may be
+presumed that the Pediculi came from natives inhabiting different
+districts. With insects slight structural differences, if constant, are
+generally esteemed of specific value: and the fact of the races of man
+being infested by parasites, which appear to be specifically distinct,
+might fairly be urged as an argument that the races themselves ought to
+be classed as distinct species.
+
+Our supposed naturalist having proceeded thus far in his investigation,
+would next inquire whether the races of men, when crossed, were in any
+degree sterile. He might consult the work[290] of a cautious and
+philosophical observer, Professor Broca; and in this he would find good,
+evidence that some races were quite fertile together; but evidence of an
+opposite nature in regard to other races. Thus it has been asserted that
+the native women of Australia and Tasmania rarely produce children to
+European men; the evidence, however, on this head has now been shewn to
+be almost valueless. The half-castes are killed by the pure blacks; and
+an account has lately been published of eleven half-caste youths
+murdered and burnt at the same time, whose remains were found by the
+police.[291] Again, it has often been said that when mulattoes
+intermarry they produce few children; on the other hand, Dr. Bachman of
+Charlestown[292] positively asserts that he has known mulatto families
+which have intermarried for several generations, and have continued on
+an average as fertile as either pure whites or pure blacks. Inquiries
+formerly made by Sir C. Lyell on this subject led him, as he informs me,
+to the same conclusion. In the United States the census for the year
+1854 included, according to Dr. Bachman, 405,751 mulattoes; and this
+number, considering all the circumstances of the case, seems small; but
+it may partly be accounted for by the degraded and anomalous position of
+the class, and by the profligacy of the women. A certain amount of
+absorption of mulattoes into negroes must always be in progress; and
+this would lead to an apparent diminution of the former. The inferior
+vitality of mulattoes is spoken of in a trustworthy work[293] as a
+well-known phenomenon; but this is a different consideration from their
+lessened fertility; and can hardly be advanced as a proof of the
+specific distinctness of the parent races. No doubt both animal and
+vegetable hybrids, when produced from extremely distinct species, are
+liable to premature death; but the parents of mulattoes cannot be put
+under the category of extremely distinct species. The common Mule, so
+notorious for long life and vigour, and yet so sterile, shews how little
+necessary connection there is in hybrids between lessened fertility and
+vitality: other analogous cases could be added.
+
+Even if it should hereafter be proved that all the races of men were
+perfectly fertile together, he who was inclined from other reasons to
+rank them as distinct species, might with justice argue that fertility
+and sterility are not safe criterions of specific distinctness. We know
+that these qualities are easily affected by changed conditions of life
+or by close inter-breeding, and that they are governed by highly complex
+laws, for instance that of the unequal fertility of reciprocal crosses
+between the same two species. With forms which must be ranked as
+undoubted species, a perfect series exists from those which are
+absolutely sterile when crossed, to those which are almost or quite
+fertile. The degrees of sterility do not coincide strictly with the
+degrees of difference in external structure or habits of life. Man in
+many respects may be compared with those animals which have long been
+domesticated, and a large body of evidence can be advanced in favour of
+the Pallasian doctrine[294] that domestication tends to eliminate the
+sterility which is so general a result of the crossing of species in a
+state of nature. From these several considerations, it may be justly
+urged that the perfect fertility of the intercrossed races of man, if
+established, would not absolutely preclude us from ranking them as
+distinct species.
+
+Independently of fertility, the character of the offspring from a cross
+has sometimes been thought to afford evidence whether the parent-forms
+ought to be ranked as species or varieties; but after carefully studying
+the evidence, I have come to the conclusion that no general rules of
+this kind can be trusted. Thus with mankind the offspring of distinct
+races resemble in all respects the offspring of true species and of
+varieties. This is shewn, for instance, by the manner in which the
+characters of both parents are blended, and by one form absorbing
+another through repeated crosses. In this latter case the progeny both
+of crossed species and varieties retain for a long period a tendency to
+revert to their ancestors, especially to that one which is prepotent in
+transmission. When any character has suddenly appeared in a race or
+species as the result of a single act of variation, as is general with
+monstrosities,[295] and this race is crossed with another not thus
+characterised, the characters in question do not commonly appear in a
+blended condition in the young, but are transmitted to them either
+perfectly developed or not at all. As with the crossed races of man
+cases of this kind rarely or never occur, this may be used as an
+argument against the view suggested by some ethnologists, namely that
+certain characters, for instance the blackness of the negro, first
+appeared as a sudden variation or sport. Had this occurred, it is
+probable that mulattoes would often have been born, either completely
+black or completely white.
+
+We have now seen that a naturalist might feel himself fully justified in
+ranking the races of man as distinct species; for he has found that they
+are distinguished by many differences in structure and constitution,
+some being of importance. These differences have, also, remained nearly
+constant for very long periods of time. He will have been in some degree
+influenced by the enormous range of man, which is a great anomaly in the
+class of mammals, if mankind be viewed as a single species. He will have
+been struck with the distribution of the several so-called races, in
+accordance with that of other undoubtedly distinct species of mammals.
+Finally he might urge that the mutual fertility of all the races has not
+as yet been fully proved; and even if proved would not be an absolute
+proof of their specific identity.
+
+
+On the other side of the question, if our supposed naturalist were to
+enquire whether the forms of man kept distinct like ordinary species,
+when mingled together in large numbers in the same country, he would
+immediately discover that this was by no means the case. In Brazil he
+would behold an immense mongrel population of Negroes and Portuguese; in
+Chiloe and other parts of South America, he would behold the whole
+population consisting of Indians and Spaniards blended in various
+degrees.[296] In many parts of the same continent he would meet with the
+most complex crosses between Negroes, Indians, and Europeans; and such
+triple crosses afford the severest test, judging from the vegetable
+kingdom, of the mutual fertility of the parent-forms. In one island of
+the Pacific he would find a small population of mingled Polynesian and
+English blood; and in the Viti Archipelago a population of Polynesians
+and Negritos crossed in all degrees. Many analogous cases could be
+added, for instance, in South Africa. Hence the races of man are not
+sufficiently distinct to co-exist without fusion; and this it is, which
+in all ordinary cases affords the usual test of specific distinctness.
+
+Our naturalist would likewise be much disturbed as soon as he perceived
+that the distinctive characters of every race of man were highly
+variable. This strikes every one when he first beholds the negro-slaves
+in Brazil, who have been imported from all parts of Africa. The same
+remark holds good with the Polynesians, and with many other races. It
+may be doubted whether any character can be named which is distinctive
+of a race and is constant. Savages, even within the limits of the same
+tribe, are not nearly so uniform in character, as has often been said.
+Hottentot women offer certain peculiarities, more strongly marked than
+those occurring in any other race, but these are known not to be of
+constant occurrence. In the several American tribes, colour and
+hairyness differ considerably; as does colour to a certain degree, and
+the shape of the features greatly, in the Negroes of Africa. The shape
+of the skull varies much in some races;[297] and so it is with every
+other character. Now all naturalists have learnt by dearly-bought
+experience, how rash it is to attempt to define species by the aid of
+inconstant characters.
+
+But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of
+man as distinct species, is that they graduate into each other,
+independently in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having
+intercrossed. Man has been studied more carefully than any other organic
+being, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity amongst capable
+judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as
+two (Virey), as three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach),
+six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering),
+fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two (Morton),
+sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according to Burke.[298] This
+diversity of judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be
+ranked as species, but it shews that they graduate into each other, and
+that it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters
+between them.
+
+Every naturalist who has had the misfortune to undertake the
+description of a group of highly varying organisms, has encountered
+cases (I speak after experience) precisely like that of man; and if of a
+cautious disposition, he will end by uniting all the forms which
+graduate into each other as a single species; for he will say to himself
+that he has no right to give names to objects which he cannot define.
+Cases of this kind occur in the Order which includes man, namely in
+certain genera of monkeys; whilst in other genera, as in Cercopithecus,
+most of the species can be determined with certainty. In the American
+genus Cebus, the various forms are ranked by some naturalists as
+species, by others as mere geographical races. Now if numerous specimens
+of Cebus were collected from all parts of South America, and those forms
+which at present appear to be specifically distinct, were found to
+graduate into each other by close steps, they would be ranked by most
+naturalists as mere varieties or races; and thus the greater number of
+naturalists have acted with respect to the races of man. Nevertheless it
+must be confessed that there are forms, at least in the vegetable
+kingdom,[299] which we cannot avoid naming as species, but which are
+connected together, independently of intercrossing, by numberless
+gradations.
+
+Some naturalists have lately employed the term "sub-species" to
+designate forms which possess many of the characteristics of true
+species, but which hardly deserve so high a rank. Now if we reflect on
+the weighty arguments, above given, for raising the races of man to the
+dignity of species, and the insuperable difficulties on the other side
+in defining them, the term "sub-species" might here be used with much
+propriety. But from long habit the term "race" will perhaps always be
+employed. The choice of terms is only so far important as it is highly
+desirable to use, as far as that may be possible, the same terms for the
+same degrees of difference. Unfortunately this is rarely possible; for
+within the same family the larger genera generally include
+closely-allied forms, which can be distinguished only with much
+difficulty, whilst the smaller genera include forms that are perfectly
+distinct; yet all must equally be ranked as species. So again the
+species within the same large genus by no means resemble each other to
+the same degree: on the contrary, in most cases some of them can be
+arranged in little groups round other species, like satellites round
+planets.[300]
+
+
+The question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of
+late years been much agitated by anthropologists, who are divided into
+two schools of monogenists and polygenists. Those who do not admit the
+principle of evolution, must look at species either as separate
+creations or as in some manner distinct entities; and they must decide
+what forms to rank as species by the analogy of other organic beings
+which are commonly thus received. But it is a hopeless endeavour to
+decide this point on sound grounds, until some definition of the term
+"species" is generally accepted; and the definition must not include an
+element which cannot possibly be ascertained, such as an act of
+creation. We might as well attempt without any definition to decide
+whether a certain number of houses should be called a village, or town,
+or city. We have a practical illustration of the difficulty in the
+never-ending doubts whether many closely-allied mammals, birds,
+insects, and plants, which represent each other in North America and
+Europe, should be ranked species or geographical races; and so it is
+with the productions of many islands situated at some little distance
+from the nearest continent.
+
+Those naturalists, on the other hand, who admit the principle of
+evolution, and this is now admitted by the greater number of rising men,
+will feel no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single
+primitive stock; whether or not they think fit to designate them as
+distinct species, for the sake of expressing their amount of
+difference.[301] With our domestic animals the question whether the
+various races have arisen from one or more species is different.
+Although all such races, as well as all the natural species within the
+same genus, have undoubtedly sprung from the same primitive stock, yet
+it is a fit subject for discussion, whether, for instance, all the
+domestic races of the dog have acquired their present differences since
+some one species was first domesticated and bred by man; or whether they
+owe some of their characters to inheritance from distinct species, which
+had already been modified in a state of nature. With mankind no such
+question can arise, for he cannot be said to have been domesticated at
+any particular period.
+
+When the races of man diverged at an extremely remote epoch from their
+common progenitor, they will have differed but little from each other,
+and been few in number; consequently they will then, as far as their
+distinguishing characters are concerned, have had less claim to rank as
+distinct species, than the existing so-called races. Nevertheless such
+early races would perhaps have been ranked by some naturalists as
+distinct species, so arbitrary is the term, if their differences,
+although extremely slight, had been more constant than at present, and
+had not graduated into each other.
+
+It is, however, possible, though far from probable, that the early
+progenitors of man might at first have diverged much in character, until
+they became more unlike each other than are any existing races; but that
+subsequently, as suggested by Vogt,[302] they converged in character.
+When man selects for the same object the offspring of two distinct
+species, he sometimes induces, as far as general appearance is
+concerned, a considerable amount of convergence. This is the case, as
+shewn by Von Nathusius,[303] with the improved breeds of pigs, which are
+descended from two distinct species; and in a less well-marked manner
+with the improved breeds of cattle. A great anatomist, Gratiolet,
+maintains that the anthropomorphous apes do not form a natural
+sub-group; but that the orang is a highly developed gibbon or
+semnopithecus; the chimpanzee a highly developed macacus; and the
+gorilla a highly developed mandrill. If this conclusion, which rests
+almost exclusively on brain-characters, be admitted, we should have a
+case of convergence at least in external characters, for the
+anthropomorphous apes are certainly more like each other in many points
+than they are to other apes. All analogical resemblances, as of a whale
+to a fish, may indeed be said to be cases of convergence; but this term
+has never been applied to superficial and adaptive resemblances. It
+would be extremely rash in most cases to attribute to convergence close
+similarity in many points of structure in beings which had once been
+widely different. The form of a crystal is determined solely by the
+molecular forces, and it is not surprising that dissimilar substances
+should sometimes assume the same form; but with organic beings we should
+bear in mind that the form of each depends on an infinitude of complex
+relations, namely on the variations which have arisen, these being due
+to causes far too intricate to be followed out,--on the nature of the
+variations which have been preserved, and this depends on the
+surrounding physical conditions, and in a still higher degree on the
+surrounding organisms with which each has come into competition,--and
+lastly, on inheritance (in itself a fluctuating element) from
+innumerable progenitors, all of which have had their forms determined
+through equally complex relations. It appears utterly incredible that
+two organisms, if differing in a marked manner, should ever afterwards
+converge so closely as to lead to a near approach to identity throughout
+their whole organisation. In the case of the convergent pigs above
+referred to, evidence of their descent from two primitive stocks is
+still plainly retained, according to Von Nathusius, in certain bones of
+their skulls. If the races of man were descended, as supposed by some
+naturalists, from two or more distinct species, which had differed as
+much, or nearly as much, from each other, as the orang differs from the
+gorilla, it can hardly be doubted that marked differences in the
+structure of certain bones would still have been discoverable in man as
+he now exists.
+
+
+Although the existing races of man differ in many respects, as in
+colour, hair, shape of skull, proportions of the body, &c., yet if their
+whole organisation be taken into consideration they are found to
+resemble each other closely in a multitude of points. Many of these
+points are of so unimportant or of so singular a nature, that it is
+extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired
+by aboriginally distinct species or races. The same remark holds good
+with equal or greater force with respect to the numerous points of
+mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American
+aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind
+as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck,
+whilst living with the Fuegians on board the "Beagle," with the many
+little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to
+ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once
+to be intimate.
+
+He who will carefully read Mr. Tylor's and Sir J. Lubbock's interesting
+works[304] can hardly fail to be deeply impressed with the close
+similarity between the men of all races in tastes, dispositions and
+habits. This is shewn by the pleasure which they all take in dancing,
+rude music, acting, painting, tattooing, and otherwise decorating
+themselves,--in their mutual comprehension of gesture-language--and, as
+I shall be able to shew in a future essay, by the same expression in
+their features, and by the same inarticulate cries, when they are
+excited by various emotions. This similarity, or rather identity, is
+striking, when contrasted with the different expressions which may be
+observed in distinct species of monkeys. There is good evidence that the
+art of shooting with bows and arrows has not been handed down from any
+common progenitor of mankind, yet the stone arrow-heads, brought from
+the most distant parts of the world and manufactured at the most remote
+periods, are, as Nilsson has shewn,[305] almost identical; and this fact
+can only be accounted for by the various races having similar inventive
+or mental powers. The same observation has been made by
+archaeologists[306] with respect to certain widely-prevalent ornaments,
+such as zigzags, &c.; and with respect to various simple beliefs and
+customs, such as the burying of the dead under megalithic structures. I
+remember observing in South America,[307] that there, as in so many
+other parts of the world, man has generally chosen the summits of lofty
+hills, on which to throw up piles of stones, either for the sake of
+recording some remarkable event, or for burying his dead.
+
+Now when naturalists observe a close agreement in numerous small details
+of habits, tastes and dispositions between two or more domestic races,
+or between nearly-allied natural forms, they use this fact as an
+argument that all are descended from a common progenitor who was thus
+endowed; and consequently that all should be classed under the same
+species. The same argument may be applied with much force to the races
+of man.
+
+As it is improbable that the numerous and unimportant points of
+resemblance between the several races of man in bodily structure and
+mental faculties (I do not here refer to similar customs) should all
+have been independently acquired, they must have been inherited from
+progenitors who were thus characterised. We thus gain some insight into
+the early state of man, before he had spread step by step over the face
+of the earth. The spreading of man to regions widely separated by the
+sea, no doubt, preceded any considerable amount of divergence of
+character in the several races; for otherwise we should sometimes meet
+with the same race in distinct continents; and this is never the case.
+Sir J. Lubbock, after comparing the arts now practised by savages in all
+parts of the world, specifies those which man could not have known, when
+he first wandered from his original birthplace; for if once learnt they
+would never have been forgotten.[308] He thus shews that "the spear,
+which is but a development of the knife-point, and the club, which is
+but a long hammer, are the only things left." He admits, however, that
+the art of making fire probably had already been discovered, for it is
+common to all the races now existing, and was known to the ancient
+cave-inhabitants of Europe. Perhaps the art of making rude canoes or
+rafts was likewise known; but as man existed at a remote epoch, when the
+land in many places stood at a very different level, he would have been
+able, without the aid of canoes, to have spread widely. Sir J. Lubbock
+further remarks how improbable it is that our earliest ancestors could
+have "counted as high as ten, considering that so many races now in
+existence cannot get beyond four." Nevertheless, at this early period,
+the intellectual and social faculties of man could hardly have been
+inferior in any extreme degree to those now possessed by the lowest
+savages; otherwise primeval man could not have been so eminently
+successful in the struggle for life, as proved by his early and wide
+diffusion.
+
+From the fundamental differences between certain languages, some
+philologists have inferred that when man first became widely diffused he
+was not a speaking animal; but it may be suspected that languages, far
+less perfect than any now spoken, aided by gestures, might have been
+used, and yet have left no traces on subsequent and more
+highly-developed tongues. Without the use of some language, however
+imperfect, it appears doubtful whether man's intellect could have risen
+to the standard implied by his dominant position at an early period.
+
+Whether primeval man, when he possessed very few arts of the rudest
+kind, and when his power of language was extremely imperfect, would have
+deserved to be called man, must depend on the definition which we
+employ. In a series of forms graduating insensibly from some ape-like
+creature to man as he now exists, it would be impossible to fix on any
+definite point when the term "man" ought to be used. But this is a
+matter of very little importance. So again it is almost a matter of
+indifference whether the so-called races of man are thus designated, or
+are ranked as species or sub-species; but the latter term appears the
+most appropriate. Finally, we may conclude that when the principles of
+evolution are generally accepted, as they surely will be before long,
+the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a
+silent and unobserved death.
+
+
+One other question ought not to be passed over without notice, namely,
+whether, as is sometimes assumed, each sub-species or race of man has
+sprung from a single pair of progenitors. With our domestic animals a
+new race can readily be formed from a single pair possessing some new
+character, or even from a single individual thus characterised, by
+carefully matching the varying offspring; but most of our races have
+been formed, not intentionally from a selected pair, but unconsciously
+by the preservation of many individuals which have varied, however
+slightly, in some useful or desired manner. If in one country stronger
+and heavier horses, and in another country lighter and fleeter horses,
+were habitually preferred, we may feel sure that two distinct sub-breeds
+would, in the course of time, be produced, without any particular pairs
+or individuals having been separated and bred from in either country.
+Many races have been thus formed, and their manner of formation is
+closely analogous with that of natural species. We know, also, that the
+horses which have been brought to the Falkland Islands have become,
+during successive generations, smaller and weaker, whilst those which
+have run wild on the Pampas have acquired larger and coarser heads; and
+such changes are manifestly due, not to any one pair, but to all the
+individuals having been subjected to the same conditions, aided,
+perhaps, by the principle of reversion. The new sub-breeds in none of
+these cases are descended from any single pair, but from many
+individuals which have varied in different degrees, but in the same
+general manner; and we may conclude that the races of man have been
+similarly produced, the modifications being either the direct result of
+exposure to different conditions, or the indirect result of some form of
+selection. But to this latter subject we shall presently return.
+
+
+_On the Extinction of the Races of Man._--The partial and complete
+extinction of many races and sub-races of man are historically known
+events. Humboldt saw in South America a parrot which was the sole living
+creature that could speak the language of a lost tribe. Ancient
+monuments and stone implements found in all parts of the world, of which
+no tradition is preserved by the present inhabitants, indicate much
+extinction. Some small and broken tribes, remnants of former races,
+still survive in isolated and generally mountainous districts. In Europe
+the ancient races were all, according to Schaaffhausen,[309] "lower in
+the scale than the rudest living savages;" they must therefore have
+differed, to a certain extent, from any existing race. The remains
+described by Professor Broca[310] from Les Eyzies, though they
+unfortunately appear to have belonged to a single family, indicate a
+race with a most singular combination of low or simious and high
+characteristics, and is "entirely different from any other race, ancient
+or modern, that we have ever heard of." It differed, therefore, from the
+quaternary race of the caverns of Belgium.
+
+Unfavourable physical conditions appear to have had but little effect in
+the extinction of races.[311] Man has long lived in the extreme regions
+of the North, with no wood wherewith to make his canoes or other
+implements, and with blubber alone for burning and giving him warmth,
+but more especially for melting the snow. In the Southern extremity of
+America the Fuegians survive without the protection of clothes, or of
+any building worthy to be called a hovel. In South Africa the aborigines
+wander over the most arid plains, where dangerous beasts abound. Man can
+withstand the deadly influence of the Terai at the foot of the Himalaya,
+and the pestilential shores of tropical Africa.
+
+Extinction follows chiefly from the competition of tribe with tribe,
+and race with race. Various checks are always in action, as specified in
+a former chapter, which serve to keep down the numbers of each savage
+tribe,--such as periodical famines, the wandering of the parents and the
+consequent deaths of infants, prolonged suckling, the stealing of women,
+wars, accidents, sickness, licentiousness, especially infanticide, and,
+perhaps, lessened fertility from less nutritious food, and many
+hardships. If from any cause any one of these checks is lessened, even
+in a slight degree, the tribe thus favoured will tend to increase; and
+when one of two adjoining tribes becomes more numerous and powerful than
+the other, the contest is soon settled by war, slaughter, cannibalism,
+slavery, and absorption. Even when a weaker tribe is not thus abruptly
+swept away, if it once begins to decrease, it generally goes on
+decreasing until it is extinct.[312]
+
+When civilised nations come into contact with barbarians the struggle is
+short, except where a deadly climate gives its aid to the native race.
+Of the causes which lead to the victory of civilised nations, some are
+plain and some very obscure. We can see that the cultivation of the land
+will be fatal in many ways to savages, for they cannot, or will not,
+change their habits. New diseases and vices are highly destructive; and
+it appears that in every nation a new disease causes much death, until
+those who are most susceptible to its destructive influence are
+gradually weeded out;[313] and so it may be with the evil effects from
+spirituous liquors, as well as with the unconquerably strong taste for
+them shewn by so many savages. It further appears, mysterious as is the
+fact, that the first meeting of distinct and separated people generates
+disease.[314] Mr. Sproat, who in Vancouver Island closely attended to
+the subject of extinction, believes that changed habits of life, which
+always follow from the advent of Europeans, induces much ill-health. He
+lays, also, great stress on so trifling a cause as that the natives
+become "bewildered and dull by the new life around them; they lose the
+motives for exertion, and get no new ones in their place."[315]
+
+The grade of civilisation seems a most important element in the success
+of nations which come in competition. A few centuries ago Europe feared
+the inroads of Eastern barbarians; now, any such fear would be
+ridiculous. It is a more curious fact, that savages did not formerly
+waste away, as Mr. Bagehot has remarked, before the classical nations,
+as they now do before modern civilised nations; had they done so, the
+old moralists would have mused over the event; but there is no lament in
+any writer of that period over the perishing barbarians.[316]
+
+Although the gradual decrease and final extinction of the races of man
+is an obscure problem, we can see that it depends on many causes,
+differing in different places and at different times. It is the same
+difficult problem as that presented by the extinction of one of the
+higher animals--of the fossil horse, for instance, which disappeared
+from South America, soon afterwards to be replaced, within the same
+districts, by countless troops of the Spanish horse. The New Zealander
+seems conscious of this parallelism, for he compares his future fate
+with that of the native rat almost exterminated by the European rat. The
+difficulty, though great to our imagination, and really great if we wish
+to ascertain the precise causes, ought not to be so to our reason, as
+long as we keep steadily in mind that the increase of each species and
+each race is constantly hindered by various checks; so that if any new
+check, or cause of destruction, even a slight one, be superadded, the
+race will surely decrease in number; and as it has everywhere been
+observed that savages are much opposed to any change of habits, by which
+means injurious checks could be counterbalanced, decreasing numbers will
+sooner or later lead to extinction; the end, in most cases, being
+promptly determined by the inroads of increasing and conquering tribes.
+
+
+_On the Formation of the Races of Man._--It may be premised that when we
+find the same race, though broken up into distinct tribes, ranging over
+a great area, as over America, we may attribute their general
+resemblance to descent from a common stock. In some cases the crossing
+of races already, distinct has led to the formation of new races. The
+singular fact that Europeans and Hindoos, who belong to the same Aryan
+stock and speak a language fundamentally the same, differ widely in
+appearance, whilst Europeans differ but little from Jews, who belong to
+the Semitic stock and speak quite another language, has been accounted
+for by Broca[317] through the Aryan branches having been largely crossed
+during their wide diffusion by various indigenous tribes. When two races
+in close contact cross, the first result is a heterogeneous mixture:
+thus Mr. Hunter, in describing the Santali or hill-tribes of India, says
+that hundreds of imperceptible gradations may be traced "from the black,
+squat tribes of the mountains to the tall olive-coloured Brahman, with
+his intellectual brow, calm eyes, and high but narrow head;" so that it
+is necessary in courts of justice to ask the witnesses whether they are
+Santalis or Hindoos.[318] Whether a heterogeneous people, such as the
+inhabitants of some of the Polynesian islands, formed by the crossing of
+two distinct races, with few or no pure members left, would ever become
+homogeneous, is not known from direct evidence. But as with our
+domesticated animals, a crossed breed can certainly, in the course of a
+few generations, be fixed and made uniform by careful selection,[319] we
+may infer that the free and prolonged intercrossing during many
+generations of a heterogeneous mixture would supply the place of
+selection, and overcome any tendency to reversion, so that a crossed
+race would ultimately become homogeneous, though it might not partake in
+an equal degree of the characters of the two parent-races.
+
+Of all the differences between the races of man, the colour of the skin
+is the most conspicuous and one of the best marked. Differences of this
+kind, it was formerly thought, could be accounted for by long exposure
+under different climates; but Pallas first shewed that this view is not
+tenable, and he has been followed by almost all anthropologists.[320]
+The view has been rejected chiefly because the distribution of the
+variously coloured races, most of whom must have long inhabited their
+present homes, does not coincide with corresponding differences of
+climate. Weight must also be given to such cases as that of the Dutch
+families, who, as we hear on excellent authority,[321] have not
+undergone the least change of colour, after residing for three centuries
+in South Africa. The uniform appearance in various parts of the world of
+gypsies and Jews, though the uniformity of the latter has been somewhat
+exaggerated,[322] is likewise an argument on the same side. A very damp
+or a very dry atmosphere has been supposed to be more influential in
+modifying the colour of the skin than mere heat; but as D'Orbigny in
+South America, and Livingstone in Africa, arrived at diametrically
+opposite conclusions with respect to dampness and dryness, any
+conclusion on this head must be considered as very doubtful.[323]
+
+Various facts, which I have elsewhere given, prove that the colour of
+the skin and hair is sometimes correlated in a surprising manner with a
+complete immunity from the action of certain vegetable poisons and from
+the attacks of certain parasites. Hence it occurred to me, that negroes
+and other dark races might have acquired their dark tints by the darker
+individuals escaping during a long series of generations from the deadly
+influence of the miasmas of their native countries.
+
+I afterwards found that the same idea had long ago occurred to Dr.
+Wells.[324] That negroes, and even mulattoes, are almost completely
+exempt from the yellow-fever, which is so destructive in tropical
+America, has long been known.[325] They likewise escape to a large
+extent the fatal intermittent fevers that prevail along, at least, 2600
+miles of the shores of Africa, and which annually cause one-fifth of the
+white settlers to die, and another fifth to return home invalided.[326]
+This immunity in the negro seems to be partly inherent, depending on
+some unknown peculiarity of constitution, and partly the result of
+acclimatisation. Pouchet[327] states that the negro regiments, borrowed
+from the Viceroy of Egypt for the Mexican war, which had been recruited
+near the Soudan, escaped the yellow-fever almost equally well with the
+negroes originally brought from various parts of Africa, and accustomed
+to the climate of the West Indies. That acclimatisation plays a part is
+shewn by the many cases in which negroes, after having resided for some
+time in a colder climate, have become to a certain extent liable to
+tropical fevers.[328] The nature of the climate under which the white
+races have long resided, likewise has some influence on them; for during
+the fearful epidemic of yellow-fever in Demerara during 1837, Dr. Blair
+found that the death-rate of the immigrants was proportional to the
+latitude of the country whence they had come. With the negro the
+immunity, as far as it is the result of acclimatisation, implies
+exposure during a prodigious length of time; for the aborigines of
+tropical America, who have resided there from time immemorial, are not
+exempt from yellow-fever; and the Rev. B. Tristram states, that there
+are districts in Northern Africa which the native inhabitants are
+compelled annually to leave, though the negroes can remain with safety.
+
+That the immunity of the negro is in any degree correlated with the
+colour of his skin is a mere conjecture: it may be correlated with some
+difference in his blood, nervous system, or other tissues. Nevertheless,
+from the facts above alluded to, and from some connection apparently
+existing between complexion and a tendency to consumption, the
+conjecture seemed to me not improbable. Consequently I endeavoured, with
+but little success,[329] to ascertain how far it held good. The late
+Dr. Daniell, who had long lived on the West Coast of Africa, told me
+that he did not believe in any such relation. He was himself unusually
+fair, and had withstood the climate in a wonderful manner. When he first
+arrived as a boy on the coast, an old and experienced negro chief
+predicted from his appearance that this would prove the case. Dr.
+Nicholson, of Antigua, after having attended to this subject, wrote to
+me that he did not think that dark-coloured Europeans escaped the
+yellow-fever better than those that were light-coloured. Mr. J. M.
+Harris altogether denies[330] that Europeans with dark hair withstand a
+hot climate better than other men; on the contrary, experience has
+taught him in making a selection of men for service on the coast of
+Africa, to choose those with red hair. As far, therefore, as these
+slight indications serve, there seems no foundation for the hypothesis,
+which has been accepted by several writers, that the colour of the black
+races may have resulted from darker and darker individuals having
+survived in greater numbers, during their exposure to the
+fever-generating miasmas of their native countries.
+
+Although with our present knowledge we cannot account for the
+strongly-marked differences in colour between the races of man, either
+through correlation with constitutional peculiarities, or through the
+direct action of climate; yet we must not quite ignore the latter
+agency, for there is good reason to believe that some inherited effect
+is thus produced.[331]
+
+We have seen in our third chapter that the conditions of life, such as
+abundant food and general comfort, affect in a direct manner the
+development of the bodily frame, the effects being transmitted. Through
+the combined influences of climate and changed habits of life, European
+settlers, in the United States undergo, as is generally admitted, a
+slight but extraordinarily rapid change of appearance. There is, also, a
+considerable body of evidence shewing that in the Southern States the
+house-slaves of the third generation present a markedly different
+appearance from the field-slaves.[332]
+
+If, however, we look to the races of man, as distributed over the world,
+we must infer that their characteristic differences cannot be accounted
+for by the direct action of different conditions of life, even after
+exposure to them for an enormous period of time. The Esquimaux live
+exclusively on animal food; they are clothed in thick fur, and are
+exposed to intense cold and to prolonged darkness; yet they do not
+differ in any extreme degree from the inhabitants of Southern China, who
+live entirely on vegetable food and are exposed almost naked to a hot,
+glaring climate. The unclothed Fuegians live on the marine productions
+of their inhospitable shores; the Botocudos of Brazil wander about the
+hot forests of the interior and live chiefly on vegetable productions;
+yet these tribes resemble each other so closely that the Fuegians on
+board the "Beagle" were mistaken by some Brazilians for Botocudos. The
+Botocudos again, as well as the other inhabitants of tropical America,
+are wholly different from the Negroes who inhabit the opposite shores of
+the Atlantic, are exposed to a nearly similar climate, and follow nearly
+the same habits of life.
+
+Nor can the differences between the races of man be accounted for,
+except to a quite insignificant degree, by the inherited effects of the
+increased or decreased use of parts. Men who habitually live in canoes,
+may have their legs somewhat stunted; those who inhabit lofty regions
+have their chests enlarged; and those who constantly use certain
+sense-organs have the cavities in which they are lodged somewhat
+increased in size, and their features consequently a little modified.
+With civilised nations, the reduced size of the jaws from lessened use,
+the habitual play of different muscles serving to express different
+emotions, and the increased size of the brain from greater intellectual
+activity, have together produced a considerable effect on their general
+appearance in comparison with savages.[333] It is also possible that
+increased bodily stature, with no corresponding increase in the size of
+the brain, may have given to some races (judging from the previously
+adduced cases of the rabbits) an elongated skull of the dolichocephalic
+type.
+
+Lastly, the little-understood principle of correlation will almost
+certainly have come into action, as in the case of great muscular
+development and strongly projecting supra-orbital ridges. It is not
+improbable that the texture of the hair, which differs much in the
+different races, may stand in some kind of correlation with the
+structure of the skin; for the colour of the hair and skin are certainly
+correlated, as is its colour and texture with the Mandans.[334] The
+colour of the skin and the odour emitted by it are likewise in some
+manner connected. With the breeds of sheep the number of hairs within a
+given space and the number of the excretory pores stand in some relation
+to each other.[335] If we may judge from the analogy of our domesticated
+animals, many modifications of structure in man probably come under this
+principle of correlated growth.
+
+
+We have now seen that the characteristic differences between the races
+of man cannot be accounted for in a satisfactory manner by the direct
+action of the conditions of life, nor by the effects of the continued
+use of parts, nor through the principle of correlation. We are therefore
+led to inquire whether slight individual differences, to which man is
+eminently liable, may not have been preserved and augmented during a
+long series of generations through natural selection. But here we are at
+once met by the objection that beneficial variations alone can be thus
+preserved; and as far as we are enabled to judge (although always liable
+to error on this head) not one of the external differences between the
+races of man are of any direct or special service to him. The
+intellectual and moral or social faculties must of course be excepted
+from this remark; but differences in these faculties can have had little
+or no influence on external characters. The variability of all the
+characteristic differences between the races, before referred to,
+likewise indicates that these differences cannot be of much importance;
+for, had they been important, they would long ago have been either fixed
+and preserved, or eliminated. In this respect man resembles those forms,
+called by naturalists protean or polymorphic, which have remained
+extremely variable, owing, as it seems, to their variations being of an
+indifferent nature, and consequently to their having escaped the action
+of natural selection.
+
+We have thus far been baffled in all our attempts to account for the
+differences between the races of man; but there remains one important
+agency, namely Sexual Selection, which appears to have acted as
+powerfully on man, as on many other animals. I do not intend to assert
+that sexual selection will account for all the differences between the
+races. An unexplained residuum is left, about which we can in our
+ignorance only say, that as individuals are continually born with, for
+instance, heads a little rounder or narrower, and with noses a little
+longer or shorter, such slight differences might become fixed and
+uniform, if the unknown agencies which induced them were to act in a
+more constant manner, aided by long-continued intercrossing. Such
+modifications come under the provisional class, alluded to in our fourth
+chapter, which for the want of a better term have been called
+spontaneous variations. Nor do I pretend that the effects of sexual
+selection can be indicated with scientific precision; but it can be
+shewn that it would be an inexplicable fact if man had not been modified
+by this agency, which has acted so powerfully on innumerable animals,
+both high and low in the scale. It can further be shewn that the
+differences between the races of man, as in colour, hairyness, form of
+features, &c., are of the nature which it might have been expected would
+have been acted on by sexual selection. But in order to treat this
+subject in a fitting manner, I have found it necessary to pass the whole
+animal kingdom in review; I have therefore devoted to it the Second Part
+of this work. At the close I shall return to man, and, after attempting
+to shew how far he has been modified through sexual selection, will give
+a brief summary of the chapters in this First Part.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.--SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+PRINCIPLES OF SEXUAL SELECTION.
+
+
+  Secondary sexual characters--Sexual selection--Manner of
+  action--Excess of males--Polygamy--The male alone generally
+  modified through sexual selection--Eagerness of the
+  male--Variability of the male--Choice exerted by the
+  female--Sexual compared with natural selection--Inheritance, at
+  corresponding periods of life, at corresponding seasons of the
+  year, and as limited by sex--Relations between the several
+  forms of inheritance--Causes why one sex and the young are not
+  modified through sexual selection--Supplement on the
+  proportional numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal
+  kingdom--On the limitation of the numbers of the two sexes
+  through natural selection.
+
+
+With animals which have their sexes separated, the males necessarily
+differ from the females in their organs of reproduction; and these
+afford the primary sexual characters. But the sexes often differ in what
+Hunter has called secondary sexual characters, which are not directly
+connected with the act of reproduction; for instance, in the male
+possessing certain organs of sense or locomotion, of which the female is
+quite destitute, or in having them more highly-developed, in order that
+he may readily find or reach her; or again, in the male having special
+organs of prehension so as to hold her securely. These latter organs of
+infinitely diversified kinds graduate into, and in some cases can hardly
+be distinguished from, those which are commonly ranked as primary, such
+as the complex appendages at the apex of the abdomen in male insects.
+Unless indeed we confine the term "primary" to the reproductive glands,
+it is scarcely possible to decide, as far as the organs of prehension
+are concerned, which ought to be called primary and which secondary.
+
+The female often differs from the male in having organs for the
+nourishment or protection of her young, as the mammary glands of
+mammals, and the abdominal sacks of the marsupials. The male, also, in
+some few cases differs from the female in possessing analogous organs,
+as the receptacles for the ova possessed by the males of certain fishes,
+and those temporarily developed in certain male frogs. Female bees have
+a special apparatus for collecting and carrying pollen, and their
+ovipositor is modified into a sting for the defence of their larvae and
+the community. In the females of many insects the ovipositor is modified
+in the most complex manner for the safe placing of the eggs. Numerous
+similar cases could be given, but they do not here concern us. There
+are, however, other sexual differences quite disconnected with the
+primary organs with which we are more especially concerned--such as the
+greater size, strength, and pugnacity of the male, his weapons of
+offence or means of defence against rivals, his gaudy colouring and
+various ornaments, his power of song, and other such characters.
+
+Besides the foregoing primary and secondary sexual differences, the male
+and female sometimes differ in structures connected with different
+habits of life, and not at all, or only indirectly, related to the
+reproductive functions. Thus the females of certain flies (Culicidae and
+Tabanidae) are blood-suckers, whilst the males live on flowers and have
+their mouths destitute of mandibles.[336] The males alone of certain
+moths and of some crustaceans (_e.g._ Tanais) have imperfect, closed
+mouths, and cannot feed. The Complemental males of certain cirripedes
+live like epiphytic plants either on the female or hermaphrodite form,
+and are destitute of a mouth and prehensile limbs. In these cases it is
+the male which has been modified and has lost certain important organs,
+which the other members of the same group possess. In other cases it is
+the female which has lost such parts; for instance, the female glow-worm
+is destitute of wings, as are many female moths, some of which never
+leave their cocoons. Many female parasitic crustaceans have lost their
+natatory legs. In some weevil-beetles (Curculionidae) there is a great
+difference between the male and female in the length of the rostrum or
+snout;[337] but the meaning of this and of many analogous differences,
+is not at all understood. Differences of structure between the two sexes
+in relation to different habits of life are generally confined to the
+lower animals; but with some few birds the beak of the male differs from
+that of the female. No doubt in most, but apparently not in all these
+cases, the differences are indirectly connected with the propagation of
+the species: thus a female which has to nourish a multitude of ova will
+require more food than the male, and consequently will require special
+means for procuring it. A male animal which lived for a very short time
+might without detriment lose through disuse its organs for procuring
+food; but he would retain his locomotive organs in a perfect state, so
+that he might reach the female. The female, on the other hand, might
+safely lose her organs for flying, swimming, or walking, if she
+gradually acquired habits which rendered such powers useless.
+
+We are, however, here concerned only with that kind of selection, which
+I have called sexual selection. This depends on the advantage which
+certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and
+species, in exclusive relation to reproduction. When the two sexes
+differ in structure in relation to different habits of life, as in the
+cases above mentioned, they have no doubt been modified through natural
+selection, accompanied by inheritance limited to one and the same sex.
+So again the primary sexual organs, and those for nourishing or
+protecting the young, come under this same head; for those individuals
+which generated or nourished their offspring best, would leave, _caeteris
+paribus_, the greatest number to inherit their superiority; whilst those
+which generated or nourished their offspring badly, would leave but few
+to inherit their weaker powers. As the male has to search for the
+female, he requires for this purpose organs of sense and locomotion, but
+if these organs are necessary for the other purposes of life, as is
+generally the case, they will have been developed through natural
+selection. When the male has found the female he sometimes absolutely
+requires prehensile organs to hold her; thus Dr. Wallace informs me that
+the males of certain moths cannot unite with the females if their tarsi
+or feet are broken. The males of many oceanic crustaceans have their
+legs and antennae modified in an extraordinary manner for the prehension
+of the female; hence we may suspect that owing to these animals being
+washed about by the waves of the open sea, they absolutely require these
+organs in order to propagate their kind, and if so their development
+will have been the result of ordinary or natural selection.
+
+When the two sexes follow exactly the same habits of life, and the male
+has more highly developed sense or locomotive organs than the female, it
+may be that these in their perfected state are indispensable to the male
+for finding the female; but in the vast majority of cases, they serve
+only to give one male an advantage over another, for the less
+well-endowed males, if time were allowed them, would succeed in pairing
+with the females; and they would in all other respects, judging from the
+structure of the female, be equally well adapted for their ordinary
+habits of life. In such cases sexual selection must have come into
+action, for the males have acquired their present structure, not from
+being better fitted to survive in the struggle for existence, but from
+having gained an advantage over other males, and from having transmitted
+this advantage to their male offspring alone. It was the importance of
+this distinction which led me to designate this form of selection as
+sexual selection. So again, if the chief service rendered to the male by
+his prehensile organs is to prevent the escape of the female before the
+arrival of other males, or when assaulted by them, these organs will
+have been perfected through sexual selection, that is by the advantage
+acquired by certain males over their rivals. But in most cases it is
+scarcely possible to distinguish between the effects of natural and
+sexual selection. Whole chapters could easily be filled with details on
+the differences between the sexes in their sensory, locomotive, and
+prehensile organs. As, however, these structures are not more
+interesting than others adapted for the ordinary purposes of life, I
+shall almost pass them over, giving only a few instances under each
+class.
+
+There are many other structures and instincts which must have been
+developed through sexual selection--such as the weapons of offence and
+the means of defence possessed by the males for fighting with and
+driving away their rivals--their courage and pugnacity--their ornaments
+of many kinds--their organs for producing vocal or instrumental
+music--and their glands for emitting odours; most of these latter
+structures serving only to allure or excite the female. That these
+characters are the result of sexual and not of ordinary selection is
+clear, as unarmed, unornamented, or unattractive males would succeed
+equally well in the battle for life and in leaving a numerous progeny,
+if better endowed males were not present. We may infer that this would
+be the case, for the females, which are unarmed and unornamented, are
+able to survive and procreate their kind. Secondary sexual characters of
+the kind just referred to, will be fully discussed in the following
+chapters, as they are in many respects interesting, but more especially
+as they depend on the will, choice, and rivalry of the individuals of
+either sex. When we behold two males fighting for the possession of the
+female, or several male birds displaying their gorgeous plumage, and
+performing the strangest antics before an assembled body of females, we
+cannot doubt that, though led by instinct, they know what they are
+about, and consciously exert their mental and bodily powers.
+
+In the same manner as man can improve the breed of his game-cocks by the
+selection of those birds which are victorious in the cockpit, so it
+appears that the strongest and most vigorous males, or those provided
+with the best weapons, have prevailed under nature, and have led to the
+improvement of the natural breed or species. Through repeated deadly
+contests, a slight degree of variability, if it led to some advantage,
+however slight, would suffice for the work of sexual selection; and it
+is certain that secondary sexual characters are eminently variable. In
+the same manner as man can give beauty, according to his standard of
+taste, to his male poultry--can give to the Sebright bantam a new and
+elegant plumage, an erect and peculiar carriage--so it appears that in a
+state of nature female birds, by having long selected the more
+attractive males, have added to their beauty. No doubt this implies
+powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female which will
+at first appear extremely improbable; but I hope hereafter to shew that
+this is not the case.
+
+From our ignorance on several points, the precise manner in which sexual
+selection acts is to a certain extent uncertain. Nevertheless if those
+naturalists who already believe in the mutability of species, will read
+the following chapters, they will, I think, agree with me that sexual
+selection has played an important part in the history of the organic
+world. It is certain that with almost all animals there is a struggle
+between the males for the possession of the female. This fact is so
+notorious that it would be superfluous to give instances. Hence the
+females, supposing that their mental capacity sufficed for the exertion
+of a choice, could select one out of several males. But in numerous
+cases it appears as if it had been specially arranged that there should
+be a struggle between many males. Thus with migratory birds, the males
+generally arrive before the females at their place of breeding, so that
+many males are ready to contend for each female. The bird-catchers
+assert that this is invariably the case with the nightingale and
+blackcap, as I am informed by Mr. Jenner Weir, who confirms the
+statement with respect to the latter species.
+
+Mr. Swaysland of Brighton, who has been in the habit, during the last
+forty years, of catching our migratory birds on their first arrival,
+writes to me that he has never known the females of any species to
+arrive before their males. During one spring he shot thirty-nine males
+of Ray's wagtail (_Budytes Raii_) before he saw a single female. Mr.
+Gould has ascertained by dissection, as he informs me, that male snipes
+arrive in this country before the females. In the case of fish, at the
+period when the salmon ascend our rivers, the males in large numbers are
+ready to breed before the females. So it apparently is with frogs and
+toads. Throughout the great class of insects the males almost always
+emerge from the pupal state before the other sex, so that they generally
+swarm for a time before any females can be seen.[338] The cause of this
+difference between the males and females in their periods of arrival and
+maturity is sufficiently obvious. Those males which annually first
+migrated into any country, or which in the spring were first ready to
+breed, or were the most eager, would leave the largest number of
+offspring; and these would tend to inherit similar instincts and
+constitutions. On the whole there can be no doubt that with almost all
+animals, in which the sexes are separate, there is a constantly
+recurrent struggle between the males for the possession of the females.
+
+Our difficulty in regard to sexual selection lies in understanding how
+it is that the males which conquer other males, or those which prove the
+most attractive to the females, leave a greater number of offspring to
+inherit their superiority than the beaten and less attractive males.
+Unless this result followed, the characters which gave to certain males
+an advantage over others, could not be perfected and augmented through
+sexual selection. When the sexes exist in exactly equal numbers, the
+worst-endowed males will ultimately find females (excepting where
+polygamy prevails), and leave as many offspring, equally well fitted for
+their general habits of life, as the best-endowed males. From various
+facts and considerations, I formerly inferred that with most animals, in
+which secondary sexual characters were well developed, the males
+considerably exceeded the females in number; and this does hold good in
+some few cases. If the males were to the females as two to one, or as
+three to two, or even in a somewhat lower ratio, the whole affair would
+be simple; for the better-armed or more attractive males would leave the
+largest number of offspring. But after investigating, as far as
+possible, the numerical proportions of the sexes, I do not believe that
+any great inequality in number commonly exists. In most cases sexual
+selection appears to have been effective in the following manner.
+
+Let us take any species, a bird for instance, and divide the females
+inhabiting a district into two equal bodies: the one consisting of the
+more vigorous and better-nourished individuals, and the other of the
+less vigorous and healthy. The former, there can be little doubt, would
+be ready to breed in the spring before the others; and this is the
+opinion of Mr. Jenner Weir, who has during many years carefully attended
+to the habits of birds. There can also be no doubt that the most
+vigorous, healthy, and best-nourished females would on an average
+succeed in rearing the largest number of offspring. The males, as we
+have seen, are generally ready to breed before the females; of the males
+the strongest, and with some species the best armed, drive away the
+weaker males; and the former would then unite with the more vigorous and
+best-nourished females, as these are the first to breed. Such vigorous
+pairs would surely rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded
+females, which would be compelled, supposing the sexes to be numerically
+equal, to unite with the conquered and less powerful males; and this is
+all that is wanted to add, in the course of successive generations, to
+the size, strength and courage of the males, or to improve their
+weapons.
+
+But in a multitude of cases the males which conquer other males, do not
+obtain possession of the females, independently of choice on the part of
+the latter. The courtship of animals is by no means so simple and short
+an affair as might be thought. The females are most excited by, or
+prefer pairing with, the more ornamented males, or those which are the
+best songsters, or play the best antics; but it is obviously probable,
+as has been actually observed in some cases, that they would at the same
+time prefer the more vigorous and lively males.[339] Thus the more
+vigorous females, which are the first to breed, will have the choice of
+many males; and though they may not always select the strongest or best
+armed, they will select those which are vigorous and well armed, and in
+other respects the most attractive. Such early pairs would have the same
+advantage in rearing offspring on the female side as above explained,
+and nearly the same advantage on the male side. And this apparently has
+sufficed during a long course of generations to add not only to the
+strength and fighting-powers of the males, but likewise to their
+various ornaments or other attractions.
+
+In the converse and much rarer case of the males selecting particular
+females, it is plain that those which were the most vigorous and had
+conquered others, would have the freest choice; and it is almost certain
+that they would select vigorous as well as attractive females. Such
+pairs would have an advantage in rearing offspring, more especially if
+the male had the power to defend the female during the pairing-season,
+as occurs with some of the higher animals, or aided in providing for the
+young. The same principles would apply if both sexes mutually preferred
+and selected certain individuals of the opposite sex; supposing that
+they selected not only the more attractive, but likewise the more
+vigorous individuals.
+
+
+_Numerical Proportion of the Two Sexes._--I have remarked that sexual
+selection would be a simple affair if the males considerably exceeded in
+number the females. Hence I was led to investigate, as far as I could,
+the proportions between the two sexes of as many animals as possible;
+but the materials are scanty. I will here give only a brief abstract of
+the results, retaining the details for a supplementary discussion, so as
+not to interfere with the course of my argument. Domesticated animals
+alone afford the opportunity of ascertaining the proportional numbers at
+birth; but no records have been specially kept for this purpose. By
+indirect means, however, I have collected a considerable body of
+statistical data, from which it appears that with most of our domestic
+animals the sexes are nearly equal at birth. Thus with race-horses,
+25,560 births have been recorded during twenty-one years, and the male
+births have been to the female births as 99.7 to 100. With greyhounds
+the inequality is greater than with any other animal, for during twelve
+years, out of 6878 births, the male births have been as 110.1 to 100
+female births. It is, however, in some degree doubtful whether it is
+safe to infer that the same proportional numbers would hold good under
+natural conditions as under domestication; for slight and unknown
+differences in the conditions affect to a certain extent the proportion
+of the sexes. Thus with mankind, the male births in England are as
+104.5, in Russia as 108.9, and with the Jews of Livornia as 120 _to_ 100
+females. The proportion is also mysteriously affected by the
+circumstance of the births being legitimate or illegitimate.
+
+For our present purpose we are concerned with the proportion of the
+sexes, not at birth, but at maturity, and this adds another element of
+doubt; for it is a well ascertained fact that with man a considerably
+larger proportion of males than of females die before or during birth,
+and during the first few years of infancy. So it almost certainly is
+with male lambs, and so it may be with the males of other animals. The
+males of some animals kill each other by fighting; or they drive each
+other about until they become greatly emaciated. They must, also, whilst
+wandering about in eager search for the females, be often exposed to
+various dangers. With many kinds of fish the males are much smaller than
+the females, and they are believed often to be devoured by the latter or
+by other fishes. With some birds the females appear to die in larger
+proportion than the males: they are also liable to be destroyed on their
+nests, or whilst in charge of their young. With insects the female larvae
+are often larger than those of the males, and would consequently be more
+likely to be devoured: in some cases the mature females are less active
+and less rapid in their movements than the males, and would not be so
+well able to escape from danger. Hence, with animals in a state of
+nature, in order to judge of the proportions of the sexes at maturity,
+we must rely on mere estimation; and this, except perhaps when the
+inequality is strongly marked, is but little trustworthy. Nevertheless,
+as far as a judgment can be formed, we may conclude from the facts given
+in the supplement, that the males of some few mammals, of many birds, of
+some fish and insects, considerably exceed in number the females.
+
+The proportion between the sexes fluctuates slightly during successive
+years: thus with race-horses, for every 100 females born, the males
+varied from 107.1 in one year to 92.6 in another year, and with
+greyhounds from 116.3 to 95.3. But had larger numbers been tabulated
+throughout a more extensive area than England, these fluctuations would
+probably have disappeared; and such as they are, they would hardly
+suffice to lead under a state of nature to the effective action of
+sexual selection. Nevertheless with some few wild animals, the
+proportions seem, as shewn in the supplement, to fluctuate either during
+different seasons or in different localities in a sufficient degree to
+lead to such action. For it should be observed that any advantage gained
+during certain years or in certain localities by those males which were
+able to conquer other males, or were the most attractive to the females,
+would probably be transmitted to the offspring and would not
+subsequently be eliminated. During the succeeding seasons, when from the
+equality of the sexes every male was everywhere able to procure a
+female, the stronger or more attractive males previously produced would
+still have at least as good a chance of leaving offspring as the less
+strong or less attractive.
+
+
+_Polygamy._--The practice of polygamy leads to the same results as
+would follow from an actual inequality in the number of the sexes; for
+if each male secures two or more females, many males will not be able to
+pair; and the latter assuredly will be the weaker or less attractive
+individuals. Many mammals and some few birds are polygamous, but with
+animals belonging to the lower classes I have found no evidence of this
+habit. The intellectual powers of such animals are, perhaps, not
+sufficient to lead them to collect and guard a harem of females. That
+some relation exists between polygamy and the development of secondary
+sexual characters, appears nearly certain; and this supports the view
+that a numerical preponderance of males would be eminently favourable to
+the action of sexual selection. Nevertheless many animals, especially
+birds, which are strictly monogamous, display strongly-marked secondary
+sexual characters; whilst some few animals, which are polygamous, are
+not thus characterised.
+
+We will first briefly run through the class of mammals, and then turn to
+birds. The gorilla seems to be a polygamist, and the male differs
+considerably from the female; so it is with some baboons which live in
+herds containing twice as many adult females as males. In South America
+the _Mycetes caraya_ presents well-marked sexual differences in colour,
+beard, and vocal organs, and the male generally lives with two or three
+wives: the male of the _Cebus capucinus_ differs somewhat from the
+female, and appears to be polygamous.[340] Little is known on this head
+with respect to most other monkeys, but some species are strictly
+monogamous. The ruminants are eminently polygamous, and they more
+frequently present sexual differences than almost any other group of
+mammals, especially in their weapons, but likewise in other characters.
+Most deer, cattle, and sheep are polygamous; as are most antelopes,
+though some of the latter are monogamous. Sir Andrew Smith, in speaking
+of the antelopes of South Africa, says that in herds of about a dozen
+there was rarely more than one mature male. The Asiatic _Antilope saiga_
+appears to be the most inordinate polygamist in the world; for
+Pallas[341] states that the male drives away all rivals, and collects a
+herd of about a hundred, consisting of females and kids: the female is
+hornless and has softer hair, but does not otherwise differ much from
+the male. The horse is polygamous, but, except in his greater size and
+in the proportions of his body, differs but little from the mare. The
+wild boar, in his great tusks and some other characters, presents
+well-marked sexual characters; in Europe and in India he leads a
+solitary life, except during the breeding-season; but at this season he
+consorts in India with several females, as Sir W. Elliot, who has had
+large experience in observing this animal, believes: whether this holds
+good in Europe is doubtful, but is supported by some statements. The
+adult male Indian elephant, like the boar, passes much of his time in
+solitude; but when associating with others, "it is rare to find," as Dr.
+Campbell states, "more than one male with a whole herd of females." The
+larger males expel or kill the smaller and weaker ones. The male differs
+from the female by his immense tusks and greater size, strength, and
+endurance; so great is the difference in these latter respects, that
+the males when caught are valued at twenty per cent. above the
+females.[342] With other pachydermatous animals the sexes differ very
+little or not at all, and they are not, as far as known, polygamists.
+Hardly a single species amongst the Cheiroptera and Edentata, or in the
+great Orders of the Rodents and Insectivora, presents well-developed
+secondary sexual differences; and I can find no account of any species
+being polygamous, excepting, perhaps, the common rat, the males of
+which, as some rat-catchers affirm, live with several females.
+
+The lion in South Africa, as I hear from Sir Andrew Smith, sometimes
+lives with a single female, but generally with more than one, and, in
+one case, was found with as many as five females, so that he is
+polygamous. He is, as far as I can discover, the sole polygamist in the
+whole group of the terrestrial Carnivora, and he alone presents
+well-marked sexual characters. If, however, we turn to the marine
+Carnivora, the case is widely different; for many species of seals
+offer, as we shall hereafter see, extraordinary sexual differences, and
+they are eminently polygamous. Thus the male sea-elephant of the
+Southern Ocean, always possesses, according to Peron, several females,
+and the sea-lion of Forster is said to be surrounded by from twenty to
+thirty females. In the North, the male sea-bear of Steller is
+accompanied by even a greater number of females.
+
+With respect to birds, many species, the sexes of which differ greatly
+from each other, are certainly monogamous. In Great Britain we see
+well-marked sexual differences in, for instance, the wild-duck which
+pairs with a single female, with the common blackbird, and with the
+bullfinch which is said to pair for life. So it is, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, with the Chatterers or Cotingidae of South America, and
+numerous other birds. In several groups I have not been able to discover
+whether the species are polygamous or monogamous. Lesson says that birds
+of paradise, so remarkable for their sexual differences, are polygamous,
+but Mr. Wallace doubts whether he had sufficient evidence. Mr. Salvin
+informs me that he has been led to believe that humming-birds are
+polygamous. The male widow-bird; remarkable for his caudal plumes,
+certainly seems to be a polygamist.[343] I have been assured by Mr.
+Jenner Weir and by others, that three starlings not rarely frequent the
+same nest; but whether this is a case of polygamy or polyandry has not
+been ascertained.
+
+The Gallinaceae present almost as strongly marked sexual differences as
+birds of paradise or humming-birds, and many of the species are, as is
+well known, polygamous; others being strictly monogamous. What a
+contrast is presented between the sexes by the polygamous peacock or
+pheasant, and the monogamous guinea-fowl or partridge! Many similar
+cases could be given, as in the grouse tribe, in which the males of the
+polygamous capercailzie and black-cock differ greatly from the females;
+whilst the sexes of the monogamous red grouse and ptarmigan differ very
+little. Amongst the Cursores, no great number of species offer
+strongly-marked sexual differences, except the bustards, and the great
+bustard (_Otis tarda_), is said to be polygamous. With the Grallatores,
+extremely few species differ sexually, but the ruff (_Machetes pugnax_)
+affords a strong exception, and this species is believed by Montagu to
+be a polygamist. Hence it appears that with birds there often exists a
+close relation between polygamy and the development of strongly-marked
+sexual differences. On asking Mr. Bartlett, at the Zoological Gardens,
+who has had such large experience with birds, whether the male tragopan
+(one of the Gallinaceae) was polygamous, I was struck by his answering,
+"I do not know, but should think so from his splendid colours."
+
+It deserves notice that the instinct of pairing with a single female is
+easily lost under domestication. The wild-duck is strictly monogamous,
+the domestic-duck highly polygamous. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+with some half-tamed wild-ducks, kept on a large pond in his
+neighbourhood, so many mallards were shot by the gamekeeper that only
+one was left for every seven or eight females; yet unusually large
+broods were reared. The guinea-fowl is strictly monogamous; but Mr. Fox
+finds that his birds succeed best when he keeps one cock to two or three
+hens.[344] Canary-birds pair in a state of nature, but the breeders in
+England successfully put one male to four or five females; nevertheless
+the first female, as Mr. Fox has been assured, is alone treated as the
+wife, she and her young ones being fed by him; the others are treated as
+concubines. I have noticed these cases, as it renders it in some degree
+probable that monogamous species, in a state of nature, might readily
+become either temporarily or permanently polygamous.
+
+With respect to reptiles and fishes, too little is known of their habits
+to enable us to speak of their marriage arrangements. The stickle-back
+Gasterosteus, however, is said to be a polygamist;[345] and the male
+during the breeding-season differs conspicuously from the female.
+
+To sum up on the means through which, as far as we can judge, sexual
+selection has led to the development of secondary sexual characters. It
+has been shewn that the largest number of vigorous offspring will be
+reared from the pairing of the strongest and best-armed males, which
+have conquered other males, with the most vigorous and best-nourished
+females, which are the first to breed in the spring. Such females, if
+they select the more attractive, and at the same time vigorous, males,
+will rear a larger number of offspring than the retarded females, which
+must pair with the less vigorous and less attractive males. So it will
+be if the more vigorous males select the more attractive and at the same
+time healthy and vigorous females; and this will especially hold good if
+the male defends the female, and aids in providing food for the young.
+The advantage thus gained by the more vigorous pairs in rearing a larger
+number of offspring has apparently sufficed to render sexual selection
+efficient. But a large preponderance in number of the males over the
+females would be still more efficient; whether the preponderance was
+only occasional and local, or permanent; whether it occurred at birth,
+or subsequently from the greater destruction of the females; or whether
+it indirectly followed from the practice of polygamy.
+
+
+_The Male generally more modified than the Female._--Throughout the
+animal kingdom, when the sexes differ from each other in external
+appearance, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, has been chiefly
+modified; for the female still remains more like the young of her own
+species, and more like the other members of the same group. The cause of
+this seems to lie in the males of almost all animals having stronger
+passions than the females. Hence it is the males that fight together and
+sedulously display their charms before the females; and those which are
+victorious transmit their superiority to their male offspring. Why the
+males do not transmit their characters to both sexes will hereafter be
+considered. That the males of all mammals eagerly pursue the females is
+notorious to every one. So it is with birds; but many male birds do not
+so much pursue the female, as display their plumage, perform strange
+antics, and pour forth their song, in her presence. With the few fish
+which have been observed, the male seems much more eager than the
+female; and so it is with alligators, and apparently with Batrachians.
+Throughout the enormous class of insects, as Kirby remarks,[346] "the
+law is, that the male shall seek the female." With spiders and
+crustaceans, as I hear from two great authorities, Mr. Blackwall and Mr.
+C. Spence Bate, the males are more active and more erratic in their
+habits than the females. With insects and crustaceans, when the organs
+of sense or locomotion are present in the one sex and absent in the
+other, or when, as is frequently the case, they are more highly
+developed in the one than the other, it is almost invariably the male,
+as far as I can discover, which retains such organs, or has them most
+developed; and this shews that the male is the more active member in the
+courtship of the sexes.[347]
+
+The female, on the other hand, with the rarest exception, is less eager
+than the male. As the illustrious Hunter[348] long ago observed, she
+generally "requires to be courted;" she is coy, and may often be seen
+endeavouring for a long time to escape from the male. Every one who has
+attended to the habits of animals will be able to call to mind instances
+of this kind. Judging from various facts, hereafter to be given, and
+from the results which may fairly be attributed to sexual selection, the
+female, though comparatively passive, generally exerts some choice and
+accepts one male in preference to others. Or she may accept, as
+appearances would sometimes lead us to believe, not the male which is
+the most attractive to her, but the one which is the least distasteful.
+The exertion of some choice on the part of the female seems almost as
+general a law as the eagerness of the male.
+
+We are naturally led to enquire why the male in so many and such widely
+distinct classes has been rendered more eager than the female, so that
+he searches for her and plays the more active part in courtship. It
+would be no advantage and some loss of power if both sexes were mutually
+to search for each other; but why should the male almost always be the
+seeker? With plants, the ovules after fertilisation have to be nourished
+for a time; hence the pollen is necessarily brought to the female
+organs--being placed on the stigma, through the agency of insects or of
+the wind, or by the spontaneous movements of the stamens; and with the
+Algae, &c., by the locomotive power of the antherozooids. With
+lowly-organised animals permanently affixed to the same spot and having
+their sexes separate, the male element is invariably brought to the
+female; and we can see the reason; for the ova, even if detached before
+being fertilised and not requiring subsequent nourishment or protection,
+would be, from their larger relative size, less easily transported than
+the male element. Hence plants[349] and many of the lower animals are,
+in this respect, analogous. In the case of animals not affixed to the
+same spot, but enclosed within a shell with no power of protruding any
+part of their bodies, and in the case of animals having little power of
+locomotion, the males must trust the fertilising element to the risk of
+at least a short transit through the waters of the sea. It would,
+therefore, be a great advantage to such animals, as their organisation
+became perfected, if the males when ready to emit the fertilising
+element, were to acquire the habit of approaching the female as closely
+as possible. The males of various lowly-organised animals having thus
+aboriginally acquired the habit of approaching and seeking the females,
+the same habit would naturally be transmitted to their more highly
+developed male descendants; and in order that they should become
+efficient seekers, they would have to be endowed with strong passions.
+The acquirement of such passions would naturally follow from the more
+eager males leaving a larger number of offspring than the less eager.
+
+The great eagerness of the male has thus indirectly led to the much
+more frequent development of secondary sexual characters in the male
+than in the female. But the development of such characters will have
+been much aided, if the conclusion at which I arrived after studying
+domesticated animals, can be trusted, namely, that the male is more
+liable to vary than the female. I am aware how difficult it is to verify
+a conclusion of this kind. Some slight evidence, however, can be gained
+by comparing the two sexes in mankind, as man has been more carefully
+observed than any other animal. During the Novara Expedition[350] a vast
+number of measurements of various parts of the body in different races
+were made, and the men were found in almost every case to present a
+greater range of variation than the women; but I shall have to recur to
+this subject in a future chapter. Mr. J. Wood,[351] who has carefully
+attended to the variation of the muscles in man, puts in italics the
+conclusion that "the greatest number of abnormalities in each subject is
+found in the males." He had previously remarked that "altogether in 102
+subjects the varieties of redundancy were found to be half as many again
+as in females, contrasting widely with the greater frequency of
+deficiency in females before described." Professor Macalister like wise
+remarks[352] that variations in the muscles "are probably more common in
+males than females." Certain muscles which are not normally present in
+mankind are also more frequently developed in the male than in the
+female sex, although exceptions to this rule are said to occur. Dr.
+Burt Wilder[353] has tabulated the cases of 152 individuals with
+supernumerary digits, of which 86 were males, and 39, or less than half,
+females; the remaining 27 being of unknown sex. It should not, however,
+be overlooked that women would more frequently endeavour to conceal a
+deformity of this kind than men. Whether the large proportional number
+of deaths of the male offspring of man and apparently of sheep, compared
+with the female offspring, before, during, and shortly after birth (see
+supplement), has any relation to a stronger tendency in the organs of
+the male to vary and thus to become abnormal in structure or function, I
+will not pretend to conjecture.
+
+In various classes of animals a few exceptional cases occur, in which
+the female instead of the male has acquired well pronounced secondary
+sexual characters, such as brighter colours, greater size, strength, or
+pugnacity. With birds, as we shall hereafter see, there has sometimes
+been a complete transposition of the ordinary characters proper to each
+sex; the females having become the more eager in courtship, the males
+remaining comparatively passive, but apparently selecting, as we may
+infer from the results, the more attractive females. Certain female
+birds have thus been rendered more highly coloured or otherwise
+ornamented, as well as more powerful and pugnacious than the males,
+these characters being transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+It may be suggested that in some cases a double process of selection has
+been carried on; the males having selected the more attractive females,
+and the latter the more attractive males. This process however, though
+it might lead to the modification of both sexes, would not make the one
+sex different from the other, unless indeed their taste for the
+beautiful differed; but this is a supposition too improbable in the case
+of any animal, excepting man, to be worth considering. There are,
+however, many animals, in which the sexes resemble each other, both
+being furnished with the same ornaments, which analogy would lead us to
+attribute to the agency of sexual selection. In such cases it may be
+suggested with more plausibility, that there has been a double or mutual
+process of sexual selection; the more vigorous and precocious females
+having selected the more attractive and vigorous males, the latter
+having rejected all except the more attractive females. But from what we
+know of the habits of animals, this view is hardly probable, the male
+being generally eager to pair with any female. It is more probable that
+the ornaments common to both sexes were acquired by one sex, generally
+the male, and then transmitted to the offspring of both sexes. If,
+indeed, during a lengthened period the males of any species were greatly
+to exceed the females in number, and then during another lengthened
+period under different conditions the reverse were to occur, a double,
+but not simultaneous, process of sexual selection might easily be
+carried on, by which the two sexes might be rendered widely different.
+
+We shall hereafter see that many animals exist, of which neither sex is
+brilliantly coloured or provided with special ornaments, and yet the
+members of both sexes or of one alone have probably been modified
+through sexual selection. The absence of bright tints or other ornaments
+may be the result of variations of the right kind never having occurred,
+or of the animals themselves preferring simple colours, such as plain
+black or white. Obscure colours have often been acquired through natural
+selection for the sake of protection, and the acquirement through
+sexual selection of conspicuous colours, may have been checked from the
+danger thus incurred. But in other cases the males have probably
+struggled together during long ages, through brute force, or by the
+display of their charms, or by both means combined, and yet no effect
+will have been produced unless a larger number of offspring were left by
+the more successful males to inherit their superiority, than by the less
+successful males; and this, as previously shewn, depends on various
+complex contingencies.
+
+Sexual selection acts in a less rigorous manner than natural selection.
+The latter produces its effects by the life or death at all ages of the
+more or less successful individuals. Death, indeed, not rarely ensues
+from the conflicts of rival males. But generally the less successful
+male merely fails to obtain a female, or obtains later in the season a
+retarded and less vigorous female, or, if polygamous, obtains fewer
+females; so that they leave fewer, or less vigorous, or no offspring. In
+regard to structures acquired through ordinary or natural selection,
+there is in most cases, as long as the conditions of life remain the
+same, a limit to the amount of advantageous modification in relation to
+certain special ends; but in regard to structures adapted to make one
+male victorious over another, either in fighting or in charming the
+female, there is no definite limit to the amount of advantageous
+modification; so that as long as the proper variations arise the work of
+sexual selection will go on. This circumstance may partly account for
+the frequent and extraordinary amount of variability presented by
+secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless, natural selection will
+determine that characters of this kind shall not be acquired by the
+victorious males, which would be injurious to them in any high degree,
+either by expending too much of their vital powers, or by exposing them
+to any great danger. The development, however, of certain structures--of
+the horns, for instance, in certain stags--has been carried to a
+wonderful extreme; and in some instances to an extreme which, as far as
+the general conditions of life are concerned, must be slightly injurious
+to the male. From this fact we learn that the advantages which favoured
+males have derived from conquering other males in battle or courtship,
+and thus leaving a numerous progeny, have been in the long run greater
+than those derived from rather more perfect adaptation to the external
+conditions of life. We shall further see, and this could never have been
+anticipated, that the power to charm the female has been in some few
+instances more important than the power to conquer other males in
+battle.
+
+
+LAWS OF INHERITANCE.
+
+In order to understand how sexual selection has acted, and in the course
+of ages has produced conspicuous results with many animals of many
+classes, it is necessary to bear in mind the laws of inheritance, as far
+as they are known. Two distinct elements are included under the term
+"inheritance," namely the transmission and the development of
+characters; but as these generally go together, the distinction is often
+overlooked. We see this distinction in those characters which are
+transmitted through the early years of life, but are developed only at
+maturity or during old age. We see the same distinction more clearly
+with secondary sexual characters, for these are transmitted through both
+sexes, though developed in one alone. That they are present in both
+sexes, is manifest when two species, having strongly-marked sexual
+characters, are crossed, for each transmits the characters proper to
+its own male and female sex to the hybrid offspring of both sexes. The
+same fact is likewise manifest, when characters proper to the male are
+occasionally developed in the female when she grows old or becomes
+diseased; and so conversely with the male. Again, characters
+occasionally appear, as if transferred from the male to the female, as
+when, in certain breeds of the fowl, spurs regularly appear in the young
+and healthy females; but in truth they are simply developed in the
+female; for in every breed each detail in the structure of the spur is
+transmitted through the female to her male offspring. In all cases of
+reversion, characters are transmitted through two, three, or many
+generations, and are then under certain unknown favourable conditions
+developed. This important distinction between transmission and
+development will be easiest kept in mind by the aid of the hypothesis of
+pangenesis, whether or not it be accepted as true. According to this
+hypothesis, every unit or cell of the body throws off gemmules or
+undeveloped atoms, which are transmitted to the offspring of both sexes,
+and are multiplied by self-division. They may remain undeveloped during
+the early years of life or during successive generations; their
+development into units or cells, like those from which they were
+derived, depending on their affinity for, and union with, other units or
+cells previously developed in the due order of growth.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Periods of Life._--This tendency is well
+established. If a new character appears in an animal whilst young,
+whether it endures throughout life or lasts only for a time, it will
+reappear, as a general rule, at the same age and in the same manner in
+the offspring. If, on the other hand, a new character appears at
+maturity, or even during old age, it tends to reappear in the offspring
+at the same advanced age. When deviations from this rule occur, the
+transmitted characters much oftener appear before than after the
+corresponding age. As I have discussed this subject at sufficient length
+in another work,[354] I will here merely give two or three instances,
+for the sake of recalling the subject to the reader's mind. In several
+breeds of the Fowl, the chickens whilst covered with down, in their
+first true plumage, and in their adult plumage, differ greatly from each
+other, as well as from their common parent-form, the _Gallus bankiva_;
+and these characters are faithfully transmitted by each breed to their
+offspring at the corresponding period of life. For instance, the
+chickens of spangled Hamburghs, whilst covered with down, have a few
+dark spots on the head and rump, but are not longitudinally striped, as
+in many other breeds; in their first true plumage, "they are beautifully
+pencilled," that is each feather is transversely marked by numerous dark
+bars; but in their second plumage the feathers all become spangled or
+tipped with a dark round spot.[355] Hence in this breed variations have
+occurred and have been transmitted at three distinct periods of life.
+The Pigeon offers a more remarkable case, because the aboriginal
+parent-species does not undergo with advancing age any change of
+plumage, excepting that at maturity the breast becomes more iridescent;
+yet there are breeds which do not acquire their characteristic colours
+until they have moulted two, three, or four times; and these
+modifications of plumage are regularly transmitted.
+
+
+_Inheritance at Corresponding Seasons of the Year._--With animals in a
+state of nature innumerable instances occur of characters periodically
+appearing at different seasons. We see this with the horns of the stag,
+and with the fur of arctic animals which becomes thick and white during
+the winter. Numerous birds acquire bright colours and other decorations
+during the breeding-season alone. I can throw but little light on this
+form of inheritance from facts observed under domestication. Pallas
+states,[356] that in Siberia domestic cattle and horses periodically
+become lighter-coloured during the winter; and I have observed a similar
+marked change of colour in certain ponies in England. Although I do not
+know that this tendency to assume a differently coloured coat during
+different seasons of the year is transmitted, yet it probably is so, as
+all shades of colour are strongly inherited by the horse. Nor is this
+form of inheritance, as limited by season, more remarkable than
+inheritance as limited by age or sex.
+
+
+_Inheritance as Limited by Sex._--The equal transmission of characters
+to both, sexes is the commonest form of inheritance, at least with those
+animals which do not present strongly-marked sexual differences, and
+indeed with many of these. But characters are not rarely transferred
+exclusively to that sex, in which they first appeared. Ample evidence on
+this head has been advanced in my work on Variation under
+Domestication; but a few instances may here be given. There are breeds
+of the sheep and goat, in which the horns of the male differ greatly in
+shape from those of the female; and these differences, acquired under
+domestication, are regularly transmitted to the same sex. With
+tortoise-shell cats the females alone, as a general rule, are thus
+coloured, the males being rusty-red. With most breeds of the fowl, the
+characters proper to each sex are transmitted to the same sex alone. So
+general is this form of transmission that it is an anomaly when we see
+in certain breeds variations transmitted equally to both sexes. There
+are also certain sub-breeds of the fowl in which the males can hardly be
+distinguished from each other, whilst the females differ considerably in
+colour. With the pigeon the sexes of the parent-species do not differ in
+any external character; nevertheless in certain domesticated breeds the
+male is differently coloured from the female.[357] The wattle in the
+English Carrier pigeon and the crop in the Pouter are more highly
+developed in the male than in the female; and although these characters
+have been gained through long-continued selection by man, the difference
+between the two sexes is wholly due to the form of inheritance which has
+prevailed; for it has arisen, not from, but rather in opposition to, the
+wishes of the breeder.
+
+Most of our domestic races have been formed by the accumulation of many
+slight variations; and as some of the successive steps have been
+transmitted to one sex alone, and some to both sexes, we find in the
+different breeds of the same species all gradations between great sexual
+dissimilarity and complete similarity. Instances have already been
+given with the breeds of the fowl and pigeon; and under nature analogous
+cases are of frequent occurrence. With animals under domestication, but
+whether under nature I will not venture to say, one sex may lose
+characters proper to it, and may thus come to resemble to a certain
+extent the opposite sex; for instance, the males of some breeds of the
+fowl have lost their masculine plumes and hackles. On the other hand the
+differences between the sexes may be increased under domestication, as
+with merino sheep, in which the ewes have lost their horns. Again,
+characters proper to one sex may suddenly appear in the other sex; as
+with those sub-breeds of the fowl in which the hens whilst young acquire
+spurs; or, as in certain Polish sub-breeds, in which the females, as
+there is reason to believe, originally acquired a crest, and
+subsequently transferred it to the males. All these cases are
+intelligible on the hypothesis of pangenesis; for they depend on the
+gemmules of certain units of the body, although present in both sexes,
+becoming through the influence of domestication dormant in the one sex;
+or if naturally dormant, becoming developed.
+
+There is one difficult question which it will be convenient to defer to
+a future chapter; namely, whether a character at first developed in both
+sexes, can be rendered through selection limited in its development to
+one sex alone. If, for instance, a breeder observed that some of his
+pigeons (in which species characters are usually transferred in an equal
+degree to both sexes) varied into pale blue; could he by long-continued
+selection make a breed, in which the males alone should be of this tint,
+whilst the females remained unchanged? I will here only say, that this,
+though perhaps not impossible, would be extremely difficult; for the
+natural result of breeding from the pale-blue males would be to change
+his whole stock, including both sexes, into this tint. If, however,
+variations of the desired tint appeared, which were from the first
+limited in their development to the male sex, there would not be the
+least difficulty in making a breed characterised by the two sexes being
+of a different colour, as indeed has been effected with a Belgian breed,
+in which the males alone are streaked with black. In a similar manner,
+if any variation appeared in a female pigeon, which was from the first
+sexually limited in its development, it would be easy to make a breed
+with the females alone thus characterised; but if the variation was not
+thus originally limited, the process would be extremely difficult,
+perhaps impossible.
+
+
+_On the Relation between the period of Development of a Character and
+its transmission to one sex or to both sexes._--Why certain characters
+should be inherited by both sexes, and other characters by one sex
+alone, namely by that sex in which the character first appeared, is in
+most cases quite unknown. We cannot even conjecture why with certain
+sub-breeds of the pigeon, black striae, though transmitted through the
+female, should be developed in the male alone, whilst every other
+character is equally transferred to both sexes. Why, again, with cats,
+the tortoise-shell colour should, with rare exceptions, be developed in
+the female alone. The very same characters, such as deficient or
+supernumerary digits, colour-blindness, &c., may with mankind be
+inherited by the males alone of one family, and in another family by the
+females alone, though in both cases transmitted through the opposite as
+well as the same sex.[358] Although we are thus ignorant, two rules
+often hold good, namely that variations which, first appear in either
+sex at a late period of life, tend to be developed in the same sex
+alone; whilst variations which first appear early in life in either sex
+tend to be developed in both sexes. I am, however, far from supposing
+that this is the sole determining cause. As I have not elsewhere
+discussed this subject, and as it has an important bearing on sexual
+selection, I must here enter into lengthy and somewhat intricate
+details.
+
+It is in itself probable that any character appearing at an early age
+would tend to be inherited equally by both sexes, for the sexes do not
+differ much in constitution, before the power of reproduction is gained.
+On the other hand, after this power has been gained and the sexes have
+come to differ in constitution, the gemmules (if I may again use the
+language of pangenesis) which are cast off from each varying part in the
+one sex would be much more likely to possess the proper affinities for
+uniting with the tissues of the same sex, and thus becoming developed,
+than with those of the opposite sex.
+
+I was first led to infer that a relation of this kind exists, from the
+fact that whenever and in whatever manner the adult male has come to
+differ from the adult female, he differs in the same manner from the
+young of both sexes. The generality of this fact is quite remarkable: it
+holds good with almost all mammals, birds, amphibians, and fishes; also
+with many crustaceans, spiders and some few insects, namely certain
+orthoptera and libellulae. In all these cases the variations, through the
+accumulation of which the male acquired his proper masculine characters,
+must have occurred at a somewhat late period of life; otherwise the
+young males would have been similarly characterised; and conformably
+with our rule, they are transmitted to and developed in the adult males
+alone. When, on the other hand, the adult male closely resembles the
+young of both sexes (these, with rare exceptions, being alike), he
+generally resembles the adult female; and in most of these cases the
+variations through which the young and old acquired their present
+characters, probably occurred in conformity with our rule during youth.
+But there is here room for doubt, as characters are sometimes
+transferred to the offspring at an earlier age than that at which they
+first appeared in the parents, so that the parents may have varied when
+adult, and have transferred their characters to their offspring whilst
+young. There are, moreover, many animals, in which the two sexes closely
+resemble each other, and yet both differ from their young; and here the
+characters of the adults must have been acquired late in life;
+nevertheless, these characters in apparent contradiction to our rule,
+are transferred to both sexes. We must not, however, overlook the
+possibility or even probability of successive variations of the same
+nature sometimes occurring, under exposure to similar conditions,
+simultaneously in both sexes at a rather late period of life; and in
+this case the variations would be transferred to the offspring of both
+sexes at a corresponding late age; and there would be no real
+contradiction to our rule of the variations which occur late in life
+being transferred exclusively to the sex in which they first appeared.
+This latter rule seems to hold true more generally than the second rule,
+namely, that variations which occur in either sex early in life tend to
+be transferred to both sexes. As it was obviously impossible even to
+estimate in how large a number of cases throughout the animal kingdom
+these two propositions hold good, it occurred to me to investigate some
+striking or crucial instances, and to rely on the result.
+
+An excellent case for investigation is afforded by the Deer Family. In
+all the species, excepting one, the horns are developed in the male
+alone, though certainly transmitted through the female, and capable of
+occasional abnormal development in her. In the reindeer, on the other
+hand, the female is provided with horns; so that in this species, the
+horns ought, according to our rule, to appear early in life, long before
+the two sexes had arrived at maturity and had come to differ much in
+constitution. In all the other species of deer the horns ought to appear
+later in life, leading to their development in that sex alone, in which
+they first appeared in the progenitor of the whole Family. Now in seven
+species, belonging to distinct sections of the family and inhabiting
+different regions, in which the stags alone bear horns, I find that the
+horns first appear at periods varying from nine months after birth in
+the roebuck to ten or twelve or even more months in the stags of the six
+other larger species.[359] But with the reindeer the case is widely
+different, for as I hear from Prof. Nilsson, who kindly made special
+enquiries for me in Lapland, the horns appear in the young animals
+within four or five weeks after birth, and at the same time in both
+sexes. So that here we have a structure, developed at a most unusually
+early age in one species of the family, and common to both sexes in this
+one species.
+
+In several kinds of antelopes the males alone are provided with horns,
+whilst in the greater number both sexes have horns. With respect to the
+period of development, Mr. Blyth informs me that there lived at one time
+in the Zoological Gardens a young koodoo (_Ant. strepsiceros_), in which
+species the males alone are horned, and the young of a closely-allied
+species, viz. the eland (_Ant. oreas_), in which both sexes are horned.
+Now in strict conformity with our rule, in the young male koodoo,
+although arrived at the age of ten months, the horns were remarkably
+small considering the size ultimately attained by them: whilst in the
+young male eland, although only three months old, the horns were already
+very much larger than in the koodoo. It is also worth notice that in the
+prong-horned antelope,[360] in which species the horns, though present
+in both sexes, are almost rudimentary in the female, they do not appear
+until about five or six months after birth. With sheep, goats, and
+cattle, in which the horns are well developed in both sexes, though not
+quite equal in size, they can be felt, or even seen, at birth or soon
+afterwards.[361] Our rule, however, fails in regard to some breeds of
+sheep, for instance merinos, in which the rams alone are horned; for I
+cannot find on enquiry,[362] that the horns are developed later in life
+in this breed than in ordinary sheep in which both sexes are horned. But
+with domesticated sheep the presence or absence of horns is not a firmly
+fixed character; a certain proportion of the merino ewes bearing small
+horns, and some of the rams being hornless; whilst with ordinary sheep
+hornless ewes are occasionally produced.
+
+In most of the species of the splendid family of the Pheasants, the
+males differ conspicuously from the females, and they acquire their
+ornaments at a rather late period of life. The eared pheasant
+(_Crossoptilon auritum_), however, offers a remarkable exception, for
+both sexes possess the fine caudal plumes, the large ear-tufts and the
+crimson velvet about the head; and I find on enquiry in the Zoological
+Gardens that all these characters, in accordance with our rule, appear
+very early in life. The adult male can, however, be distinguished from
+the adult female by one character, namely by the presence of spurs; and
+conformably with our rule, these do not begin to be developed, as I am
+assured by Mr. Bartlett, before the age of six months, and even at this
+age, can hardly be distinguished in the two sexes.[363] The male and
+female Peacock differ conspicuously from each other in almost every
+part of their plumage, except in the elegant head-crest, which is common
+to both sexes; and this is developed very early in life, long before the
+other ornaments which are confined to the male. The wild-duck offers an
+analogous case, for the beautiful green speculum on the wings is common
+to both sexes, though duller and somewhat smaller in the female, and it
+is developed early in life, whilst the curled tail-feathers and other
+ornaments peculiar to the male are developed later.[364] Between such
+extreme cases of close sexual resemblance and wide dissimilarity, as
+those of the Crossoptilon and peacock, many intermediate ones could be
+given, in which the characters follow in their order of development our
+two rules.
+
+As most insects emerge from their pupal state in a mature condition, it
+is doubtful whether the period of development determines the
+transference of their characters to one or both sexes. But we do not
+know that the coloured scales, for instance, in two species of
+butterflies, in one of which the sexes differ in colour, whilst in the
+other they are alike, are developed at the same relative age in the
+cocoon. Nor do we know whether all the scales are simultaneously
+developed on the wings of the same species of butterfly, in which
+certain coloured marks are confined to one sex, whilst other marks are
+common to both sexes. A difference of this kind in the period of
+development is not so improbable as it may at first appear; for with the
+Orthoptera, which assume their adult state, not by a single
+metamorphosis, but by a succession of moults, the young males of some
+species at first resemble the females, and acquire their distinctive
+masculine characters only during a later moult. Strictly analogous cases
+occur during the successive moults of certain male crustaceans.
+
+We have as yet only considered the transference of characters,
+relatively to their period of development, with species in a natural
+state; we will now turn to domesticated animals; first touching on
+monstrosities and diseases. The presence of supernumerary digits, and
+the absence of certain phalanges, must be determined at an early
+embryonic period--the tendency to profuse bleeding is at least
+congenital, as is probably colour-blindness--yet these peculiarities,
+and other similar ones, are often limited in their transmission to one
+sex; so that the rule that characters which are developed at an early
+period tend to be transmitted to both sexes, here wholly fails. But this
+rule, as before remarked, does not appear to be nearly so generally true
+as the converse proposition, namely, that characters which appear late
+in life in one sex are transmitted exclusively to the same sex. From the
+fact of the above abnormal peculiarities becoming attached to one sex,
+long before the sexual functions are active, we may infer that there
+must be a difference of some kind between the sexes at an extremely
+early age. With respect to sexually-limited diseases, we know too little
+of the period at which they originate, to draw any fair conclusion.
+Gout, however, seems to fall under our rule; for it is generally caused
+by intemperance after early youth, and is transmitted from the father to
+his sons in a much more marked manner than to his daughters.
+
+In the various domestic breeds of sheep, goats, and cattle, the males
+differ from their respective females in the shape or development of
+their horns, forehead, mane, dewlap, tail, and hump on the shoulders;
+and these peculiarities, in accordance with our rule, are not fully
+developed until rather late in life. With dogs, the sexes do not differ,
+except that in certain breeds, especially in the Scotch deer-hound, the
+male is much larger and heavier than the female; and as we shall see in
+a future chapter, the male goes on increasing in size to an unusually
+late period of life, which will account, according to our rule, for his
+increased size being transmitted to his male offspring alone. On the
+other hand, the tortoise-shell colour of the hair, which is confined to
+female cats, is quite distinct at birth, and this case violates our
+rule. There is a breed of pigeons in which the males alone are streaked
+with black, and the streaks can be detected even in the nestlings; but
+they become more conspicuous at each successive moult, so that this case
+partly opposes and partly supports the rule. With the English Carrier
+and Pouter pigeon the full development of the wattle and the crop occurs
+rather late in life, and these characters, conformably with our rule,
+are transmitted in full perfection to the males alone. The following
+cases perhaps come within the class previously alluded to, in which the
+two sexes have varied in the same manner at a rather late period of
+life, and have consequently transferred their new characters to both
+sexes at a corresponding late period; and if so, such cases are not
+opposed to our rule. Thus there are sub-breeds of the pigeon, described
+by Neumeister,[365] both sexes of which change colour after moulting
+twice or thrice, as does likewise the Almond Tumbler; nevertheless these
+changes, though occurring rather late in life, are common to both sexes.
+One variety of the Canary-bird, namely the London Prize, offers a nearly
+analogous case.
+
+With the breeds of the Fowl the inheritance of various characters by one
+sex or by both sexes, seems generally determined by the period at which
+such characters are developed. Thus in all the many breeds in which the
+adult male differs greatly in colour from the female and from the adult
+male parent-species, he differs from the young male, so that the newly
+acquired characters must have appeared at a rather late period of life.
+On the other hand with most of the breeds in which the two sexes
+resemble each other, the young are coloured in nearly the same manner as
+their parents, and this renders it probable that their colours first
+appeared early in life. We have instances of this fact in all black and
+white breeds, in which the young and old of both sexes are alike; nor
+can it be maintained that there is something peculiar in a black or
+white plumage, leading to its transference to both sexes; for the males
+alone of many natural species are either black or white, the females
+being very differently coloured. With the so-called Cuckoo sub-breeds of
+the fowl, in which the feathers are transversely pencilled with dark
+stripes, both sexes and the chickens are coloured in nearly the same
+manner. The laced plumage of the Sebright bantam is the same in both
+sexes, and in the chickens the feathers are tipped with black, which
+makes a near approach to lacing. Spangled Hamburghs, however, offer a
+partial exception, for the two sexes, though not quite alike, resemble
+each other more closely than do the sexes of the aboriginal
+parent-species, yet they acquire their characteristic plumage late in
+life, for the chickens are distinctly pencilled. Turning to other
+characters besides colour: the males alone of the wild parent-species
+and of most domestic breeds possess a fairly well developed comb, but in
+the young of the Spanish fowl it is largely developed at a very early
+age, and apparently in consequence of this it is of unusual size in the
+adult females. In the Game breeds pugnacity is developed at a
+wonderfully early age, of which curious proofs could be given; and this
+character is transmitted to both sexes, so that the hens, from their
+extreme pugnacity, are now generally exhibited in separate pens. With
+the Polish breeds the bony protuberance of the skull which supports the
+crest is partially developed even before the chickens are hatched, and
+the crest itself soon begins to grow, though at first feebly;[366] and
+in this breed a great bony protuberance and an immense crest
+characterise the adults of both sexes.
+
+Finally, from what we have now seen of the relation which exists in many
+natural species and domesticated races, between the period of the
+development of their characters and the manner of their
+transmission--for example the striking fact of the early growth of the
+horns in the reindeer, in which both sexes have horns, in comparison
+with their much later growth in the other species in which the male
+alone bears horns--we may conclude that one cause, though not the sole
+cause, of characters being exclusively inherited by one sex, is their
+development at a late age. And secondly, that one, though apparently a
+less efficient, cause of characters being inherited by both sexes is
+their development at an early age, whilst the sexes differ but little in
+constitution. It appears, however, that some difference must exist
+between the sexes even during an early embryonic period, for characters
+developed at this age not rarely become attached to one sex.
+
+
+_Summary and concluding remarks._--From the foregoing discussion on the
+various laws of inheritance, we learn that characters often or even
+generally tend to become developed in the same sex, at the same age, and
+periodically at the same season of the year, in which they first
+appeared in the parents. But these laws, from unknown causes, are very
+liable to change. Hence the successive steps in the modification of a
+species might readily be transmitted in different ways; some of the
+steps being transmitted to one sex, and some to both; some to the
+offspring at one age, and some at all ages. Not only are the laws of
+inheritance extremely complex, but so are the causes which induce and
+govern variability. The variations thus caused are preserved and
+accumulated by sexual selection, which is in itself an extremely complex
+affair, depending, as it does, on ardour in love, courage, and the
+rivalry of the males, and on the powers of perception, taste, and will
+of the female. Sexual selection will also be dominated by natural
+selection for the general welfare of the species. Hence the manner in
+which the individuals of either sex or of both sexes are affected
+through sexual selection cannot fail to be complex in the highest
+degree.
+
+When variations occur late in life in one sex, and are transmitted to
+the same sex at the same age, the other sex and the young are
+necessarily left unmodified. When they occur late in life, but are
+transmitted to both sexes at the same age, the young alone are left
+unmodified. Variations, however, may occur at any period of life in one
+sex or in both, and be transmitted to both sexes at all ages, and then
+all the individuals of the species will be similarly modified. In the
+following chapters it will be seen that all these cases frequently occur
+under nature.
+
+Sexual selection can never act on any animal whilst young, before the
+age for reproduction has arrived. From the great eagerness of the male
+it has generally acted on this sex and not on the females. The males
+have thus become provided with weapons for fighting with their rivals,
+or with organs for discovering and securely holding the female, or for
+exciting and charming her. When the sexes differ in these respects, it
+is also, as we have seen, an extremely general law that the adult male
+differs more or less from the young male; and we may conclude from this
+fact that the successive variations, by which the adult male became
+modified, cannot have occurred much before the age for reproduction. How
+then are we to account for this general and remarkable coincidence
+between the period of variability and that of sexual selection,--
+principles which are quite independent of each other? I
+think we can see the cause: it is not that the males have never varied
+at an early age, but that such variations have commonly been lost,
+whilst those occurring at a later age have been preserved.
+
+All animals produce more offspring than can survive to maturity; and we
+have every reason to believe that death falls heavily on the weak and
+inexperienced young. If then a certain proportion of the offspring were
+to vary at birth or soon afterwards, in some manner which at this age
+was of no service to them, the chance of the preservation of such
+variations would be small. We have good evidence under domestication how
+soon variations of all kinds are lost, if not selected. But variations
+which occurred at or near maturity, and which were of immediate service
+to either sex, would probably be preserved; as would similar variations
+occurring at an earlier period in any individuals which happened to
+survive. As this principle has an important bearing on sexual selection,
+it may be advisable to give an imaginary illustration. We will take a
+pair of animals, neither very fertile nor the reverse, and assume that
+after arriving at maturity they live on an average for five years,
+producing each year five young. They would thus produce 25 offspring;
+and it would not, I think, be an unfair estimate to assume that 18 or 20
+out of the 25 would perish before maturity, whilst still young and
+inexperienced; the remaining seven or five sufficing to keep up the
+stock of mature individuals. If so, we can see that variations which
+occurred during youth, for instance in brightness, and which were not of
+the least service to the young, would run a good chance of being utterly
+lost. Whilst similar variations, which occurring at or near maturity in
+the comparatively few individuals surviving to this age, and which
+immediately gave an advantage to certain males, by rendering them more
+attractive to the females, would be likely to be preserved. No doubt
+some of the variations in brightness which occurred at an earlier age
+would by chance be preserved, and eventually give to the male the same
+advantage as those which appeared later; and this will account for the
+young males commonly partaking to a certain extent (as may be observed
+with many birds) of the bright colours of their adult male parents. If
+only a few of the successive variations in brightness were to occur at a
+late age, the adult male would be only a little brighter than the young
+male; and such cases are common.
+
+In this illustration I have assumed that the young varied in a manner
+which was of no service to them; but many characters proper to the adult
+male would be actually injurious to the young,--as bright colours from
+making them conspicuous, or horns of large size from expending much
+vital force. Such variations in the young would promptly be eliminated
+through natural selection. With the adult and experienced males, on the
+other hand, the advantage thus derived in their rivalry with other males
+would often more than counterbalance exposure to some degree of danger.
+Thus we can understand how it is that variations which must originally
+have appeared rather late in life have alone or in chief part been
+preserved for the development of secondary sexual characters; and the
+remarkable coincidence between the periods of variability and of sexual
+selection is intelligible.
+
+As variations which give to the male an advantage in lighting with other
+males, or in finding, securing, or charming the female, would be of no
+use to the female, they will not have been preserved in this sex either
+during youth or maturity. Consequently such variations would be
+extremely liable to be lost; and the female, as far as these characters
+are concerned, would be left unmodified, excepting in so far as she may
+have received them by transference from the male. No doubt if the female
+varied and transferred serviceable characters to her male offspring,
+these would be favoured through sexual selection; and then both sexes
+would thus far be modified in the same manner. But I shall hereafter
+have to recur to these more intricate contingencies.
+
+In the following chapters, I shall treat of the secondary sexual
+characters in animals of all classes, and shall endeavour in each case
+to apply the principles explained in the present chapter. The lowest
+classes will detain us for a very short time, but the higher animals,
+especially birds, must be treated at considerable length. It should be
+borne in mind that for reasons already assigned, I intend to give only a
+few illustrative instances of the innumerable structures by the aid of
+which the male finds the female, or, when found, holds her. On the other
+hand, all structures and instincts by which the male conquers other
+males, and by which he allures or excites the female, will be fully
+discussed, as these are in many ways the most interesting.
+
+
+_Supplement on the proportional numbers of the two sexes in animals
+belonging to various classes._
+
+
+As no one, as far as I can discover, has paid attention to the relative
+numbers of the two sexes throughout the animal kingdom, I will here give
+such materials as I have been able to collect, although they are
+extremely imperfect. They consist in only a few instances of actual
+enumeration, and the numbers are not very large. As the proportions are
+known with certainty on a large scale in the case of man alone, I will
+first give them, as a standard of comparison.
+
+
+_Man._--In England during ten years (from 1857 to 1866) 707,120 children
+on an annual average have been born alive, in the proportion of 104.5
+males to 100 females. But in 1857 the male births throughout England
+were as 105.2, and in 1865 as 104.0 to 100. Looking to separate
+districts, in Buckinghamshire (where on an average 5000 children are
+annually born) the _mean_ proportion of male to female births, during
+the whole period of the above ten years, was as 102.8 to 100; whilst in
+N. Wales (where the average annual births are 12,873) it was as high as
+106.2 to 100. Taking a still smaller district, viz., Rutlandshire (where
+the annual births average only 739), in 1864 the male births were as
+114.6, and in 1862 as 97.0 to 100; but even in this small district the
+average of the 7385 births during the whole ten years was as 104.5 to
+100; that is in the same ratio as throughout England.[367] The
+proportions are sometimes slightly disturbed by unknown causes; thus
+Prof. Faye states "that in some districts of Norway there has been
+during a decennial period a steady deficiency of boys, whilst in others
+the opposite condition has existed." In France during forty-four years
+the male to the female births have been as 106.2 to 100; but during this
+period it has occurred five times in one department, and six times in
+another, that the female births have exceeded the males. In Russia the
+average proportion is as high as 108.9 to 100.[368] It is a singular
+fact that with Jews the proportion of male births is decidedly larger
+than with Christians: thus in Prussia the proportion is as 113, in
+Breslau as 114, and in Livonia as 120 to 100; the Christian births in
+these countries being the same as usual, for instance, in Livonia as 104
+to 100.[369] It is a still more singular fact that in different nations,
+under different conditions and climates, in Naples, Prussia, Westphalia,
+France and England, the excess of male over female births is less when
+they are illegitimate than when legitimate.[370]
+
+In various parts of Europe, according to Prof. Faye and other authors,
+"a still greater preponderance of males would be met with, if death
+struck both sexes in equal proportion in the womb and during birth. But
+the fact is, that for every 100 still-born females, we have in several
+countries from 134.6 to 144.9 still-born males." Moreover during the
+first four or five years of life more male children die than females;
+"for example in England, during the first year, 126 boys die
+for every 100 girls,--a proportion which in France is still more
+unfavourable."[371] As a consequence of this excess in the death-rate of
+male children, and of the exposure of men when adult to various dangers,
+and of their tendency to emigrate, the females in all old-settled
+countries, where statistical records have been kept,[372] are found to
+preponderate considerably over the males.
+
+It has often been supposed that the relative ages of the parents
+determine the sex of the offspring; and Prof. Leuckart[373] has advanced
+what he considers sufficient evidence, with respect to man and certain
+domesticated animals, to shew that this is one important factor in the
+result. So again the period of impregnation has been thought to be the
+efficient cause; but recent observations discountenance this belief.
+Again, with mankind polygamy has been supposed to lead to the birth of a
+greater proportion of female infants; but Dr. J. Campbell[374] carefully
+attended to this subject in the harems of Siam, and he concludes that
+the proportion of male to female births is the same as from monogamous
+unions. Hardly any animal has been rendered so highly polygamous as our
+English race-horses, and we shall immediately see that their male and
+female offspring are almost exactly equal in number.
+
+
+  _Horses._--Mr. Tegetmeier has been so kind as to tabulate for
+  me from the 'Racing Calendar' the births of race-horses during
+  a period of twenty-one years, viz. from 1846 to 1867; 1849
+  being omitted, as no returns were that year published. The
+  total births have been 25,560,[375] consisting of 12,763 males
+  and 12,797 females, or in the proportion of 99.7 males to 100
+  females. As these numbers are tolerably large, and as they are
+  drawn from all parts of England, during several years, we may
+  with much confidence conclude that with the domestic horse, or
+  at least with the race-horse, the two sexes are produced in
+  almost equal numbers. The fluctuations in the proportions
+  during successive years are closely like those which occur with
+  mankind, when a small and thinly-populated area is considered:
+  thus in 1856 the male horses were as 107.1, and in 1867 as only
+  92.6 to 100 females. In the tabulated returns the proportions
+  vary in cycles, for the males exceeded the females during six
+  successive years; and the females exceeded the males during two
+  periods each of four years: this, however, may be accidental;
+  at least I can detect nothing of the kind with man in the
+  decennial table in the Registrar's Report for 1866. I may add
+  that certain, mares, and this holds good with certain cows and
+  with women, tend to produce more of one sex than of the other;
+  Mr. Wright of Yeldersley House, informs me that one of his Arab
+  mares, though put seven times to different horses, produced
+  seven fillies.
+
+
+  _Dogs._--During a period of twelve years, from 1857 to 1868,
+  the births of a large number of greyhounds, throughout England,
+  have been sent to the 'Field' newspaper; and I am again
+  indebted to Mr. Tegetmeier for carefully tabulating the
+  results. The recorded, births have been 6878, consisting of
+  3605 males and 3273 females, that is, in the proportion of
+  110.1 males to 100 females. The greatest fluctuations occurred
+  in 1864, when the proportion was as 95.3 males, and in 1867, as
+  116.3 males to 100 females. The above average proportion of
+  110.1 to 100 is probably nearly correct in the case of the
+  greyhound, but whether it would hold with other domesticated
+  breeds is in some degree doubtful. Mr. Cupples has enquired
+  from several great breeders of dogs, and finds that all without
+  exception believe that females are produced in excess; he
+  suggests that this belief may have arisen from females being
+  less valued and the consequent disappointment producing a
+  stronger impression on the mind.
+
+
+  _Sheep._--The sexes of sheep are not ascertained by
+  agriculturists until several months after birth, at the period
+  when the males are castrated; so that the following returns do
+  not give the proportions at birth. Moreover, I find that
+  several great breeders in Scotland, who annually raise some
+  thousand sheep, are firmly convinced that a larger proportion
+  of males than of females die during the first one or two years;
+  therefore the proportion of males would be somewhat greater at
+  birth than at the age of castration. This is a remarkable
+  coincidence with what occurs, as we have seen, with mankind,
+  and both cases probably depend on some common cause. I have
+  received returns from four gentlemen in England who have bred
+  lowland sheep, chiefly Leicesters, during the last ten or
+  sixteen years; they amount altogether to 8965 births,
+  consisting of 4407 males and 4558 females; that is in the
+  proportion of 96.7 males to 100 females. With respect to
+  Cheviot and black-faced sheep bred in Scotland, I have received
+  returns from six breeders, two of them on a large scale,
+  chiefly for the years 1867-1869, but some of the returns
+  extending back to 1862. The total number recorded amounts to
+  50,685, consisting of 25,071 males and 25,614 females, or in
+  the proportion of 97.9 males to 100 females. If we take the
+  English and Scotch returns together, the total number amounts
+  to 59,650, consisting of 29,478 males and 30,172 females, or
+  as 97.7 to 100. So that with sheep at the age of castration the
+  females are certainly in excess of the males; but whether this
+  would hold good at birth is doubtful, owing to the greater
+  liability in the males to early death.[376]
+
+  Of _Cattle_ I have received returns from nine gentlemen of 982
+  births, too few to be trusted; these consisted of 477
+  bull-calves and 505 cow-calves; _i.e._ in the proportion of
+  94.4 males to 100 females. The Rev. W. D. Fox informs me that
+  in 1867 out of 34 calves born on a farm in Derbyshire only one
+  was a bull. Mr. Harrison Weir writes to me that he has enquired
+  from several breeders of _Pigs_, and most of them estimate the
+  male to the female births as about 7 to 6. This same gentleman
+  has bred _Rabbits_ for many years, and has noticed that a far
+  greater number of bucks are produced than does.
+
+  Of mammalia in a state of nature I have been able to learn very
+  little. In regard to the common rat, I have received
+  conflicting statements. Mr. R. Elliot of Laighwood, informs me
+  that a rat-catcher assured him that he had always found the
+  males in great excess, even with the young in the nest. In
+  consequence of this, Mr. Elliot himself subsequently examined
+  some hundred old ones, and found the statement true. Mr. F.
+  Buckland has bred a large number of white rats, and he also
+  believes that the males greatly exceed the females. In regard
+  to Moles, it is said that "the males are much more numerous
+  than the females;"[377] and as the catching of these animals is
+  a special occupation, the statement may perhaps be trusted. Sir
+  A. Smith, in describing an antelope of S. Africa[378] (_Kobus
+  ellipsiprymnus_), remarks, that in the herds of this and other
+  species, the males are few in number compared with the females:
+  the natives believe that they are born in this proportion;
+  others believe that the younger males are expelled from the
+  herds, and Sir A. Smith says, that though he has himself never
+  seen herds consisting of young males alone, others affirm that
+  this does occur. It appears probable that the young males when
+  expelled from the herd, would be likely to fell a prey to the
+  many beasts of prey of the country.
+
+
+  BIRDS.
+
+  With respect to the _Fowl_, I have received only one account,
+  namely, that out of 1001 chickens of a highly-bred stock of
+  Cochins, reared during eight years by Mr. Stretch, 487 proved
+  males and 514 females: _i.e._ as 94.7 to 100. In regard to
+  domestic pigeons there is good evidence that the males are
+  produced in excess, or that their lives are longer; for these
+  birds invariably pair, and single males, as Mr. Tegetmeier
+  informs me, can always be purchased cheaper than females.
+  Usually the two birds reared from the two eggs laid in the same
+  nest consist of a male and female; but Mr. Harrison Weir, who
+  has been so large a breeder, says that he has often bred two
+  cocks from the same nest, and seldom two hens; moreover the hen
+  is generally the weaker of the two, and more liable to perish.
+
+  With respect to birds in a state of nature, Mr. Gould and
+  others[379] are convinced that the males are generally the more
+  numerous; and as the young males of many species resemble the
+  females, the latter would naturally appear to be the most
+  numerous. Large numbers of pheasants are reared by Mr. Baker of
+  Leadenhall from eggs laid by wild birds, and he informs Mr.
+  Jenner Weir that four or five males to one female are generally
+  produced. An experienced observer remarks[380] that in
+  Scandinavia the broods of the capercailzie and black-cock
+  contain more males than females; and that with the Dal-ripa (a
+  kind of ptarmigan) more males than females attend the _leks_ or
+  places of courtship; but this latter circumstance is accounted
+  for by some observers by a greater number of hen birds being
+  killed by vermin. From various facts given by White of
+  Selbourne,[381] it seems clear that the males of the partridge
+  must be in considerable excess in the south of England; and I
+  have been assured that this is the case in Scotland. Mr. Weir
+  on enquiring from the dealers who receive at certain seasons
+  large numbers of ruffs (_Machetes pugnax_) was told that the
+  males are much the most numerous. This same naturalist has also
+  enquired for me from the bird-catchers, who annually catch an
+  astonishing number of various small species alive for the
+  London market, and he was unhesitatingly answered by an old and
+  trustworthy man, that with the chaffinch the males are in large
+  excess; he thought as high as 2 males to 1 female, or at least
+  as high as 5 to 3.[382] The males of the blackbird, he likewise
+  maintained, were by far the most numerous, whether caught by
+  traps or by netting at night. These statements may apparently
+  be trusted, because the same man said that the sexes are about
+  equal with the lark, the twite (_Linaria montana_), and
+  goldfinch. On the other hand he is certain that with the common
+  linnet, the females preponderate greatly, but unequally during
+  different years; during some years he has found the females to
+  the males as four to one. It should, however, be borne in mind,
+  that the chief season for catching birds does not begin till
+  September, so that with some species partial migrations may
+  have begun, and the flocks at this period often consist of hens
+  alone. Mr. Salvin paid particular attention to the sexes of the
+  humming-birds in Central America, and he is convinced that with
+  most of the species the males are in excess; thus one year he
+  procured 204 specimens belonging to ten species, and these
+  consisted of 166 males and of 38 females. With two other
+  species the females were in excess: but the proportions
+  apparently vary either during different seasons or in different
+  localities; for on one occasion the males of _Campylopterus
+  hemileucurus_ were to the females as five to two, and on
+  another occasion[383] in exactly the reversed ratio. As bearing
+  on this latter point, I may add, that Mr. Powys found in Corfu
+  and Epirus the sexes of the chaffinch keeping apart, and "the
+  females by far the most numerous;" whilst in Palestine Mr.
+  Tristram found "the male flocks appearing greatly to exceed the
+  female in number."[384] So again with the _Quiscalus major_,
+  Mr. G. Taylor[385] says, that in Florida there were "very few
+  females in proportion to the males," whilst in Honduras the
+  proportion was the other way, the species there having the
+  character of a polygamist.
+
+
+  FISH.
+
+  With Fish the proportional numbers of the sexes can be
+  ascertained only by catching them in the adult or nearly adult
+  state; and there are many difficulties in arriving at any just
+  conclusion.[386] Infertile females might readily be mistaken
+  for males, as Dr. Guenther has remarked to me in regard to
+  trout. With some species the males are believed to die soon
+  after fertilising the ova. With many species the males are of
+  much smaller size than the females, so that a large number of
+  males would escape from the same net by which the females were
+  caught. M. Carbonnier,[387] who has especially attended to the
+  natural history of the pike (_Esox lucius_) states that many
+  males, owing to their small size, are devoured by the larger
+  females; and he believes that the males of almost all fish are
+  exposed from the same cause to greater danger than the females.
+  Nevertheless in the few cases in which the proportional numbers
+  have been actually observed, the males appear to be largely in
+  excess. Thus Mr. R. Buist, the superintendent of the
+  Stormontfield experiments, says that in 1865, out of 70 salmon
+  first landed for the purpose of obtaining the ova, upwards of
+  60 were males. In 1867 he again "calls attention to the vast
+  disproportion of the males to the females. We had at the outset
+  at least ten males to one female." Afterwards sufficient
+  females for obtaining ova were procured. He adds, "from the
+  great proportion of the males, they are constantly fighting and
+  tearing each other on the spawning-beds."[388] This
+  disproportion, no doubt, can be accounted for in part, but
+  whether wholly is very doubtful, by the males ascending the
+  rivers before the females. Mr. F. Buckland remarks in regard to
+  trout, that "it is a curious fact that the males preponderate
+  very largely in number over the females. It _invariably_
+  happens that when the first rush of fish is made to the net,
+  there will be at least seven or eight males to one female found
+  captive. I cannot quite account for this; either the males are
+  more numerous than the females, or the latter seek safety by
+  concealment rather than flight." He then adds, that by
+  carefully searching the banks, sufficient females for obtaining
+  ova can be found.[389] Mr. H. Lee informs me that out of 212
+  trout, taken for this purpose in Lord Portsmouth's park, 150
+  were males and 62 females.
+
+  With the Cyprinidae the males likewise seem to be in excess; but
+  several members of this Family, viz., the carp, tench, bream
+  and minnow, appear regularly to follow the practice, rare in
+  the animal kingdom, of polyandry; for the female whilst
+  spawning is always attended by two males, one on each side, and
+  in the case of the bream by three or four males. This fact is
+  so well known, that it is always recommended to stock a pond
+  with two male tenches to one female, or at least with three
+  males to two females. With the minnow, an excellent observer
+  states, that on the spawning-beds the males are ten times as
+  numerous as the females; when a female comes amongst the males,
+  "she is immediately pressed closely by a male on each side; and
+  when they have been in that situation for a time, are
+  superseded by other two males."[390]
+
+
+  INSECTS.
+
+  In this class, the Lepidoptera alone afford the means of
+  judging of the proportional numbers of the sexes; for they have
+  been collected with special care by many good observers, and
+  have been largely bred from the egg or caterpillar state. I had
+  hoped that some breeders of silk-moths might have kept an exact
+  record, but after writing to France and Italy, and consulting
+  various treatises, I cannot find that this has ever been done.
+  The general opinion appears to be that the sexes are nearly
+  equal, but in Italy as I hear from Professor Canestrini, many
+  breeders are convinced that the females are produced in excess.
+  The same naturalist, however, informs me, that in the two
+  yearly broods of the Ailanthus silk-moth (_Bombyx cynthia_),
+  the males greatly preponderate in the first, whilst in the
+  second the two sexes are nearly equal, or the females rather in
+  excess.
+
+  In regard to Butterflies in a state of nature, several
+  observers have been much struck by the apparently enormous
+  preponderance of the males.[391] Thus Mr. Bates,[392] in
+  speaking of the species, no less than about a hundred in
+  number, which inhabit the Upper Amazons, says that the males
+  are much more numerous than the females, even in the proportion
+  of a hundred to one. In North America, Edwards, who had great
+  experience, estimates in the genus Papilio the males to the
+  females as four to one; and Mr. Walsh, who informed me of this
+  statement, says that with _P. turnus_ this is certainly the
+  case. In South Africa, Mr. R. Trimen found the males in excess
+  in 19 species;[393] and in one of these, which swarms in open
+  places, he estimated the number of males as fifty to one
+  female. With another species, in which the males are numerous
+  in certain localities, he collected during seven years only
+  five females. In the island of Bourbon, M. Maillard states that
+  the males of one species of Papilio are twenty times as
+  numerous as the females.[394] Mr. Trimen informs me that as far
+  as he has himself seen, or heard from others, it is rare for
+  the females of any butterfly to exceed in number the males; but
+  this is perhaps the case with three South African species. Mr.
+  Wallace[395] states that the females of _Ornithoptera
+  croesus_, in the Malay archipelago, are more common and more
+  easily caught than the males; but this is a rare butterfly. I
+  may here add, that in Hyperythra, a genus of moths, Guenee
+  says, that from four to five females are sent in collections
+  from India for one male.
+
+  When this subject of the proportional numbers of the sexes of
+  insects was brought before the Entomological Society,[396] it
+  was generally admitted that the males of most Lepidoptera, in
+  the adult or imago state, are caught in greater numbers than
+  the females; but this fact was attributed by various observers
+  to the more retiring habits of the females, and to the males
+  emerging earlier from the cocoon. This latter circumstance is
+  well known to occur with most Lepidoptera, as well as with
+  other insects. So that, as M. Personnat remarks, the males of
+  the domesticated _Bombyx yamamai_, are lost at the beginning of
+  the season, and the females at the end, from the want of
+  mates.[397] I cannot however persuade myself that these causes
+  suffice to explain the great excess of males in the cases,
+  above given, of butterflies which are extremely common in their
+  native countries. Mr. Stainton, who has paid such close
+  attention during many years to the smaller moths, informs me
+  that when he collected them in the imago state, he thought that
+  the males were ten times as numerous as the females, but that
+  since he has reared them on a large scale from the caterpillar
+  state, he is convinced that the females are the most numerous.
+  Several entomologists concur in this view. Mr. Doubleday,
+  however, and some others, take an opposite view, and are
+  convinced that they have reared from the egg and caterpillar
+  states a larger proportion of males than of females.
+
+  Besides the more active habits of the males, their earlier
+  emergence from the cocoon, and their frequenting in some cases
+  more open stations, other causes may be assigned for an
+  apparent or real difference in the proportional numbers of the
+  sexes of Lepidoptera, when captured in the imago state, and
+  when reared from the egg or caterpillar state. It is believed
+  by many breeders in Italy, as I hear from Professor Canestrini,
+  that the female caterpillar of the silk-moth suffers more from
+  the recent disease than the male; and Dr. Staudinger informs me
+  that in rearing Lepidoptera more females die in the cocoon than
+  males. With many species the female caterpillar is larger than
+  the male, and a collector would naturally choose the finest
+  specimens, and thus unintentionally collect a larger number of
+  females. Three collectors have told me that this was their
+  practice; but Dr. Wallace is sure that most collectors take all
+  the specimens which they can find of the rarer kinds, which
+  alone are worth the trouble of rearing. Birds when surrounded
+  by caterpillars would probably devour the largest; and
+  Professor Canestrini informs me that in Italy some breeders
+  believe, though on insufficient evidence, that in the first
+  brood of the Ailanthus silk-moth, the wasps destroy a larger
+  number of the female than of the male caterpillars. Dr. Wallace
+  further remarks that female caterpillars, from being larger
+  than the males, require more time for their development and
+  consume more food and moisture; and thus they would be exposed
+  during a longer time to danger from ichneumons, birds, &c., and
+  in times of scarcity would perish in greater numbers. Hence it
+  appears quite possible that, in a state of nature, fewer female
+  Lepidoptera may reach maturity than males; and for our special
+  object we are concerned with the numbers at maturity, when the
+  sexes are ready to propagate their kind.
+
+  The manner in which the males of certain moths congregate in
+  extraordinary numbers round a single female, apparently
+  indicates a great excess of males, though this fact may perhaps
+  be accounted for by the earlier emergence of the males from
+  their cocoons. Mr. Stainton informs me that from twelve to
+  twenty males may often be seen congregated round a female
+  _Elachista rufocinerea_. It is well known that if a virgin
+  _Lasiocampa quercus_ or _Saturnia carpini_ be exposed in a
+  cage, vast numbers of males collect round her, and if confined
+  in a room will even come down the chimney to her. Mr.
+  Doubleday believes that he has seen from fifty to a hundred
+  males of both these species attracted in the course of a single
+  day by a female under confinement. Mr. Trimen exposed in the
+  Isle of Wight a box in which a female of the Lasiocampa had
+  been confined on the previous day, and five males soon
+  endeavoured to gain admittance. M. Verreaux, in Australia,
+  having placed the female of a small Bombyx in a box in his
+  pocket, was followed by a crowd of males, so that about 200
+  entered the house with him.[398]
+
+  Mr. Doubleday has called my attention to Dr. Staudinger's[399]
+  list of Lepidoptera, which gives the prices of the males and
+  females of 300 species or well-marked varieties of
+  (Rhopalocera) butterflies. The prices for both sexes of the
+  very common species are of course the same; but with 114 of the
+  rarer species they differ; the males being in all cases,
+  excepting one, the cheapest. On an average of the prices of the
+  113 species, the price of the male to that of the female is as
+  100 to 149; and this apparently indicates that inversely the
+  males exceed the females in number in the same proportion.
+  About 2000 species or varieties of moths (Heterocera) are
+  catalogued, those with wingless females being here excluded on
+  account of the difference in habits of the two sexes: of these
+  2000 species, 141 differ in price according to sex, the males
+  of 130 being cheaper, and the males of only 11 being dearer
+  than the females. The average price of the males of the 130
+  species, to that of the females, is as 100 to 143. With respect
+  to the butterflies in this priced list, Mr. Doubleday thinks
+  (and no man in England has had more experience), that there is
+  nothing in the habits of the species which can account for the
+  difference in the prices of the two sexes, and that it can be
+  accounted for only by an excess in the numbers of the males.
+  But I am bound to add that Dr. Staudinger himself, as he
+  informs me, is of a different opinion. He thinks that the less
+  active habits of the females and the earlier emergence of the
+  males will account for his collectors securing a larger number
+  of males than of females, and consequently for the lower prices
+  of the former With respect to specimens reared from the
+  caterpillar-state, Dr. Staudinger believes, as previously
+  stated, that a greater number of females than of males die
+  under confinement in the cocoons. He adds that with certain
+  species one sex seems to preponderate over the other during
+  certain years.
+
+  Of direct observations on the sexes of Lepidoptera, reared
+  either from eggs or caterpillars, I have received only the few
+  following cases:--
+
+  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+                                                    Males. | Females.
+  The Rev. J. Hellins[400] of Exeter reared, during        |
+    1868, imagos of 73 species, which consisted of   153   |   137
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Albert Jones of Eltham reared, during 1868,          |
+    imagos of 9 species, which, consisted of         159   |   126
+                                                           |
+  During 1869 he reared imagos from 4 species,             |
+    consisting of                                    114   |   112
+                                                           |
+  Mr. Buckler of Emsworth, Hants, during 1869,             |
+    reared imagos from 74 species, consisting of     180   |   169
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace of Colchester reared from one brood          |
+    of Bombyx cynthia                                 52   |    48
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, from cocoons of Bombyx               |
+    Pernyi sent from China, during 1869              224   |   123
+                                                           |
+  Dr. Wallace raised, during 1868 and 1869,                |
+    from two lots of cocoons of Bombyx yamamai        52   |    46
+                                                    --------------+------------
+                        Total                        934   |   761
+  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+------------------
+
+  So that in these eight lots of cocoons and eggs, males were
+  produced in excess. Taken together the proportion of males is
+  as 122.7 to 100 females. But the numbers are hardly large
+  enough to be trustworthy.
+
+  On the whole, from the above various sources of evidence, all
+  pointing to the same direction, I infer that with most species
+  of Lepidoptera, the males in the imago state generally exceed
+  the females in number, whatever the proportions may be at their
+  first emergence from the egg.
+
+  With reference to the other Orders of insects, I have been able
+  to collect very little reliable information. With the
+  stag-beetle (_Lucanus cervus_) "the males appear to be much
+  more numerous than the females;" but when, as Cornelius
+  remarked during 1867, an unusual number of these beetles
+  appeared in one part of Germany, the females appeared to exceed
+  the males as six so one. With one of the Elateridae, the males
+  are said to be much more numerous than the females, and "two or
+  three are often found united with one female;"[401] so that here
+  polyandry seems to prevail. With Siagonium (Staphylinidae), in
+  which the males are furnished with horns, "the females are far
+  more numerous than the opposite sex." Mr. Janson stated at the
+  Entomological Society that the females of the bark-feeding
+  _Tomicus villosus_ are so common as to be a plague, whilst the
+  males are so rare as to be hardly known. In other Orders, from
+  unknown causes, but apparently in some instances owing to
+  parthenogenesis, the males of certain species have never been
+  discovered or are excessively rare, as with several of the
+  Cynipidae.[402] In all the gall-making Cynipidae known to Mr.
+  Walsh, the females are four or five times as numerous as the
+  males; and so it is, as he informs me, with the gall-making
+  Cecidomyiiae (Diptera). With some common species of Saw-flies
+  (Tenthredinae) Mr. F. Smith has reared hundreds of specimens
+  from larvae of all sizes, but has never reared a single male: on
+  the other hand Curtis says,[403] that with certain species
+  (Athalia), bred by him, the males to the females were as six to
+  one; whilst exactly the reverse occurred with the mature
+  insects of the same species caught in the fields. With the
+  Neuroptera, Mr. Walsh states that in many, but by no means in
+  all, the species of the Odonatous groups (Ephemerina), there is
+  a great overplus of males: in the genus Hetaerina, also, the
+  males are generally at least four times as numerous as the
+  females. In certain species in the genus Gomphus the males are
+  equally numerous, whilst in two other species, the females are
+  twice or thrice as numerous as the males. In some European
+  species of Psocus thousands of females may be collected without
+  a single male, whilst with other species of the same genus both
+  sexes are common.[404] In England, Mr. MacLachlan has captured
+  hundreds of the female _Apatania muliebris_, but has never seen
+  the male; and of _Boreus hyemalis_ only four or five males have
+  been here seen.[405] With most of these species (excepting, as
+  I have heard, with the Tenthredinae) there is no reason to
+  suppose that the females are subject to parthenogenesis; and
+  thus we see how ignorant we are on the causes of the apparent
+  discrepancy in the proportional numbers of the two sexes.
+
+  In the other Classes of the Articulata I have been able to
+  collect still less information. With Spiders, Mr. Blackwall,
+  who has carefully attended to this class during many years,
+  writes to me that the males from their more erratic habits are
+  more commonly seen, and therefore appear to be the more
+  numerous. This is actually the case with a few species; but he
+  mentions several species in six genera, in which the females
+  appear to be much more numerous than the males.[406] The small
+  size of the males in comparison with the females, which is
+  sometimes carried to an extreme degree, and their widely
+  different appearance, may account in some instances for their
+  rarity in collections.[407]
+
+  Some of the lower Crustaceans are able to propagate their kind
+  asexually, and this will account for the extreme rarity of the
+  males. With some other forms (as with Tanais and Cypris) there
+  is reason to believe, as Fritz Mueller informs me, that the male
+  is much shorter-lived than the female, which, supposing the two
+  sexes to be at first equal in number, would explain the
+  scarcity of the males. On the other hand this same naturalist
+  has invariably taken, on the shores of Brazil, far more males
+  than females of the Diastylidae and of Cypridina; thus with a
+  species in the latter genus, 63 specimens caught the same day,
+  included 57 males; but he suggests that this preponderance may
+  be due to some unknown difference in the habits of the two
+  sexes. With one of the higher Brazilian crabs, namely a
+  Gelasimus, Fritz Mueller found the males to be more numerous
+  than the females. The reverse seems to be the case, according
+  to the large experience of Mr. C. Spence Bate, with six common
+  British crabs, the names of which he has given me.
+
+
+_On the Power of Natural Selection to regulate the proportional Numbers
+of the Sexes, and General Fertility._--In some peculiar cases, an excess
+in the number of one sex over the other might be a great advantage to a
+species, as with the sterile females of social insects, or with those
+animals in which more than one male is requisite to fertilise the
+female, as with certain cirripedes and perhaps certain fishes. An
+inequality between the sexes in these cases might have been acquired
+through natural selection, but from their rarity they need not here be
+further considered. In all ordinary cases an inequality would be no
+advantage or disadvantage to certain individuals more than to others;
+and therefore it could hardly have resulted from natural selection. We
+must attribute the inequality to the direct action of those unknown
+conditions, which with mankind lead to the males being born in a
+somewhat larger excess in certain countries than in others, or which
+cause the proportion between the sexes to differ slightly in legitimate
+and illegitimate births.
+
+Let us now take the case of a species producing from the unknown causes
+just alluded to, an excess of one sex--we will say of males--these being
+superfluous and useless, or nearly useless. Could the sexes be equalised
+through natural selection? We may feel sure, from all characters being
+variable, that certain pairs would produce a somewhat less excess of
+males over females than other pairs. The former, supposing the actual
+number of the offspring to remain constant, would necessarily produce
+more females, and would therefore be more productive. On the doctrine of
+chances a greater number of the offspring of the more productive pairs
+would survive; and these would inherit a tendency to procreate fewer
+males and more females. Thus a tendency towards the equalisation of the
+sexes would be brought about. But our supposed species would by this
+process be rendered, as just remarked, more productive; and this would
+in many cases be far from an advantage; for whenever the limit to the
+numbers which exist, depends, not on destruction by enemies, but on the
+amount of food, increased fertility will lead to severer competition and
+to most of the survivors being badly fed. In this case, if the sexes
+were equalised by an increase in the number of the females, a
+simultaneous decrease in the total number of the offspring would be
+beneficial, or even necessary, for the existence of the species; and
+this, I believe, could be effected through natural selection in the
+manner hereafter to be described. The same train of reasoning is
+applicable in the above, as well as in the following case, if we assume
+that females instead of males are produced in excess, for such females
+from not uniting with males would be superfluous and useless. So it
+would be with polygamous species, if we assume the excess of females to
+be inordinately great.
+
+An excess of either sex, we will again say of the males, could, however,
+apparently be eliminated through natural selection in another and
+indirect manner, namely by an actual diminution of the males, without
+any increase of the females, and consequently without any increase in
+the productiveness of the species. From the variability of all
+characters, we may feel assured that some pairs, inhabiting any
+locality, would produce a rather smaller excess of superfluous males,
+but an equal number of productive females. When the offspring from the
+more and the less male-productive parents were all mingled together,
+none would have any direct advantage over the others; but those that
+produced few superfluous males would have one great indirect advantage,
+namely that their ova or embryos would probably be larger and finer, or
+their young better nurtured in the womb and afterwards. We see this
+principle illustrated with plants; as those which bear a vast number of
+seed produce small ones; whilst those which bear comparatively few
+seeds, often produce large ones well-stocked with nutriment for the use
+of the seedlings.[408] Hence the offspring of the parents which had
+wasted least force in producing superfluous males would be the most
+likely to survive, and would inherit the same tendency not to produce
+superfluous males, whilst retaining their full fertility in the
+production of females. So it would be with the converse case of the
+female sex. Any slight excess, however, of either sex could hardly be
+checked in so indirect a manner. Nor indeed has a considerable
+inequality between the sexes been always prevented, as we have seen in
+some of the cases given in the previous discussion. In these cases the
+unknown causes which determine the sex of the embryo, and which under
+certain conditions lead to the production of one sex in excess over the
+other, have not been mastered by the survival of those varieties which
+were subjected to the least waste of organised matter and force by the
+production of superfluous individuals of either sex. Nevertheless we may
+conclude that natural selection will always tend, though sometimes
+inefficiently, to equalise the relative numbers of the two sexes.
+
+Having said this much on the equalisation of the sexes, it may be well
+to add a few remarks on the regulation through natural selection of the
+ordinary fertility of species. Mr. Herbert Spencer has shewn in an able
+discussion[409] that with all organisms a ratio exists between what he
+calls individuation and genesis; whence it follows that beings which
+consume much matter or force in their growth, complicated structure or
+activity, or which produce ova and embryos of large size, or which
+expend much energy in nurturing their young, cannot be so productive as
+beings of an opposite nature. Mr. Spencer further shews that minor
+differences in fertility will be regulated through natural selection.
+Thus the fertility of each species will tend to increase, from the more
+fertile pairs producing a larger number of offspring, and these from
+their mere number will have the best chance of surviving, and will
+transmit their tendency to greater fertility. The only check to a
+continued augmentation of fertility in each organism seems to be either
+the expenditure of more power and the greater risks run by the parents
+that produce a more numerous progeny, or the contingency of very
+numerous eggs and young being produced of smaller size, or less
+vigorous, or subsequently not so well nurtured. To strike a balance in
+any case between the disadvantages which follow from the production of a
+numerous progeny, and the advantages (such as the escape of at least
+some individuals from various dangers) is quite beyond our power of
+judgment.
+
+When an organism has once been rendered extremely fertile, how its
+fertility can be reduced through natural selection is not so clear as
+how this capacity was first acquired. Yet it is obvious that if
+individuals of a species, from a decrease of their natural enemies, were
+habitually reared in larger numbers than could be supported, all the
+members would suffer. Nevertheless the offspring from the less fertile
+parents would have no direct advantage over the offspring from the more
+fertile parents, when all were mingled together in the same district.
+All the individuals would mutually tend to starve each other. The
+offspring indeed of the less fertile parents would lie under one great
+disadvantage, for from the simple fact of being produced in smaller
+numbers, they would be the most liable to extermination. Indirectly,
+however, they would partake of one great advantage; for under the
+supposed condition of severe competition, when all were pressed for
+food, it is extremely probable that those individuals which from some
+variation in their constitution produced fewer eggs or young, would
+produce them of greater size or vigour; and the adults reared from such
+eggs or young would manifestly have the best chance of surviving, and
+would inherit a tendency towards lessened fertility. The parents,
+moreover, which had to nourish or provide for fewer offspring would
+themselves be exposed to a less severe strain in the struggle for
+existence, and would have a better chance of surviving. By these steps,
+and by no others as far as I can see, natural selection under the above
+conditions of severe competition for food, would lead to the formation
+of a new race less fertile, but better adapted for survival, than the
+parent-race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS IN THE LOWER CLASSES OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
+
+
+  These characters absent in the lowest classes--Brilliant
+  colours--Mollusca--Annelids--Crustacea, secondary sexual
+  characters strongly developed; dimorphism; colour; characters
+  not acquired before maturity--Spiders, sexual colours of;
+  stridulation by the males--Myriapoda.
+
+
+In the lowest classes the two sexes are not rarely united in the same
+individual, and therefore secondary sexual characters cannot be
+developed. In many cases in which the two sexes are separate, both are
+permanently attached to some support, and the one cannot search or
+struggle for the other. Moreover it is almost certain that these animals
+have too imperfect senses and much too low mental powers to feel mutual
+rivalry, or to appreciate each other's beauty or other attractions.
+
+Hence in these classes, such as the Protozoa, Coelenterata,
+Echinodermata, Scolecida, true secondary sexual characters do not occur;
+and this fact agrees with the belief that such characters in the higher
+classes have been acquired through sexual selection, which depends on
+the will, desires, and choice of either sex. Nevertheless some few
+apparent exceptions occur; thus, as I hear from Dr. Baird, the males of
+certain Entozoa, or internal parasitic worms, differ slightly in colour
+from the females; but we have no reason to suppose that such differences
+have been augmented through sexual selection.
+
+Many of the lower animals, whether hermaphrodites or with the sexes
+separate, are ornamented with the most brilliant tints, or are shaded
+and striped in an elegant manner. This is the case with many corals and
+sea-anemonies (Actiniae), with some jelly-fish (Medusae, Porpita, &c.),
+with some Planariae, Ascidians, numerous Star-fishes, Echini, &c.; but we
+may conclude from the reasons already indicated, namely the union of the
+two sexes in some of these animals, the permanently affixed condition of
+others, and the low mental powers of all, that such colours do not serve
+as a sexual attraction, and have not been acquired through sexual
+selection. With the higher animals the case is very different; for with
+them when one sex is much more brilliantly or conspicuously coloured
+than the other, and there is no difference in the habits of the two
+sexes which will account for this difference, we have reason to believe
+in the influence of sexual selection; and this belief is strongly
+confirmed when the more ornamented individuals, which are almost always
+the males, display their attractions before the other sex. We may also
+extend this conclusion to both sexes, when coloured alike, if their
+colours are plainly analogous to those of one sex alone in certain other
+species of the same group.
+
+How, then, are we to account for the beautiful or even gorgeous colours
+of many animals in the lowest classes? It appears very doubtful whether
+such colours usually serve as a protection; but we are extremely liable
+to err in regard to characters of all kinds in relation to protection,
+as will be admitted by every one who has read Mr. Wallace's excellent
+essay on this subject. It would not, for instance, at first occur to any
+one that the perfect transparency of the Medusae, or jelly-fishes, was of
+the highest service to them as a protection; but when we are reminded
+by Haeckel that not only the medusae but many floating mollusca,
+crustaceans, and even small oceanic fishes partake of this same
+glass-like structure, we can hardly doubt that they thus escape the
+notice of pelagic birds and other enemies.
+
+Notwithstanding our ignorance how far colour in many cases serves as a
+protection, the most probable view in regard to the splendid tints of
+many of the lowest animals seems to be that their colours are the direct
+result either of the chemical nature or the minute structure of their
+tissues, independently of any benefit thus derived. Hardly any colour is
+finer than that of arterial blood; but there is no reason to suppose
+that the colour of the blood is in itself any advantage; and though it
+adds to the beauty of the maiden's cheek, no one will pretend that it
+has been acquired for this purpose. So again with many animals,
+especially the lower ones, the bile is richly coloured; thus the extreme
+beauty of the Eolidae (naked sea-slugs) is chiefly due, as I am informed
+by Mr. Hancock, to the biliary glands seen through the translucent
+integuments; this beauty being probably of no service to these animals.
+The tints of the decaying leaves in an American forest are described by
+every one as gorgeous; yet no one supposes that these tints are of the
+least advantage to the trees. Bearing in mind how many substances
+closely analogous to natural organic compounds have been recently formed
+by chemists, and which exhibit the most splendid colours, it would have
+been a strange fact if substances similarly coloured had not often
+originated, independently of any useful end being thus gained, in the
+complex laboratory of living organisms.
+
+
+_The sub-kingdom of the Mollusca._--Throughout this great division
+(taken in its largest acceptation) of the animal kingdom, secondary
+sexual characters, such as we are here considering, never, as far as I
+can discover, occur. Nor could they be expected in the three lowest
+classes, namely in the Ascidians, Polyzoa, and Brachiopods (constituting
+the Molluscoida of Huxley), for most of these animals are permanently
+affixed to a support or have their sexes united in the same individual.
+In the Lamellibranchiata, or bivalve shells, hermaphroditism is not
+rare. In the next higher class of the Gasteropoda, or marine univalve
+shells, the sexes are either united or separate. But in this latter case
+the males never possess special organs for finding, securing, or
+charming the females, or for fighting with other males. The sole
+external difference between the sexes consists, as I am informed by Mr.
+Gwyn Jeffreys, in the shell sometimes differing a little in form; for
+instance, the shell of the male periwinkle (_Littorina littorea_) is
+narrower and has a more elongated spire than that of the female. But
+differences of this nature, it may be presumed, are directly connected
+with the act of reproduction or with the development of the ova.
+
+The Gasteropoda, though capable of locomotion and furnished with
+imperfect eyes, do not appear to be endowed with sufficient mental
+powers for the members of the same sex to struggle together in rivalry,
+and thus to acquire secondary sexual characters. Nevertheless with the
+pulmoniferous gasteropods, or land-snails, the pairing is preceded by
+courtship; for these animals, though hermaphrodites, are compelled by
+their structure to pair together. Agassiz remarks,[410] "Quiconque a eu
+l'occasion d'observer les amours des limacons, ne saurait mettre en
+doute la seduction deployee dans les mouvements et les allures qui
+preparent et accomplissent le double embrassement de ces
+hermaphrodites." These animals appear also susceptible of some degree of
+permanent attachment: an accurate observer, Mr. Lonsdale, informs me
+that he placed a pair of land-shells (_Helix pomatia_), one of which was
+weakly, into a small and ill-provided garden. After a short time the
+strong and healthy individual disappeared, and was traced by its track
+of slime over a wall into an adjoining well-stocked garden. Mr. Lonsdale
+concluded that it had deserted its sickly mate; but after an absence of
+twenty-four hours it returned, and apparently communicated the result of
+its successful exploration, for both then started along the same track
+and disappeared over the wall.
+
+Even in the highest class of the Mollusca, namely the Cephalopoda or
+cuttle-fishes, in which the sexes are separate, secondary sexual
+characters of the kind which we are here considering, do not, as far as
+I can discover, occur. This is a surprising circumstance, as these
+animals possess highly-developed sense-organs and have considerable
+mental powers, as will be admitted by every one who has watched their
+artful endeavours to escape from an enemy.[411] Certain Cephalopoda,
+however, are characterised by one extraordinary sexual character,
+namely, that the male element collects within one of the arms or
+tentacles, which is then cast off, and, clinging by its sucking-discs to
+the female, lives for a time an independent life. So completely does the
+cast-off arm resemble a separate animal, that it was described by Cuvier
+as a parasitic worm under the name of Hectocotyle. But this marvellous
+structure may be classed as a primary rather than as a secondary sexual
+character.
+
+Although with the Mollusca sexual selection does not seem to have come
+into play; yet many univalve and bivalve shells, such as volutes, cones,
+scallops, &c., are beautifully coloured and shaped. The colours do not
+appear in most cases to be of any use as a protection; they are probably
+the direct result, as in the lowest classes, of the nature of the
+tissues; the patterns and the sculpture of the shell depending on its
+manner of growth. The amount of light seems to a certain extent to be
+influential; for although, as repeatedly stated by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys,
+the shells of some species living at a profound depth are brightly
+coloured, yet we generally see the lower surfaces and the parts covered
+by the mantle less highly coloured than the upper and exposed
+surfaces.[412] In some cases, as with shells living amongst corals or
+brightly-tinted sea-weeds, the bright colours may serve as a protection.
+But many of the nudibranch mollusca, or sea-slugs, are as beautifully
+coloured as any shells, as may be seen in Messrs. Alder and Hancock's
+magnificent work; and from information kindly given me by Mr. Hancock,
+it is extremely doubtful whether these colours usually serve as a
+protection. With some species this may be the case, as with one which
+lives on the green leaves of algae, and is itself bright-green. But many
+brightly-coloured, white or otherwise conspicuous species, do not seek
+concealment; whilst again some equally conspicuous species, as well as
+other dull-coloured kinds, live under stones and in dark recesses. So
+that with these nudibranch molluscs, colour apparently does not stand in
+any close relation to the nature of the places which they inhabit.
+
+These naked sea-slugs are hermaphrodites, yet they pair together, as do
+land-snails, many of which have extremely pretty shells. It is
+conceivable that two hermaphrodites, attracted by each others' greater
+beauty, might unite and leave offspring which would inherit their
+parents' greater beauty. But with such lowly-organised creatures this is
+extremely improbable. Nor is it at all obvious how the offspring from
+the more beautiful pairs of hermaphrodites would have any advantage, so
+as to increase in numbers, over the offspring of the less beautiful,
+unless indeed vigour and beauty generally coincided. We have not here a
+number of males becoming mature before the females, and the more
+beautiful ones selected by the more vigorous females. If, indeed,
+brilliant colours were beneficial to an hermaphrodite animal in relation
+to its general habits of life, the more brightly-tinted individuals
+would succeed best and would increase in number; but this would be a
+case of natural and not of sexual selection.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Vermes or Annulosa_: Class, _Annelida (or
+Sea-worms)_.--In this class, although the sexes (when separate)
+sometimes differ from each other in characters of such importance that
+they have been placed under distinct genera or even families, yet the
+differences do not seem of the kind which can be safely attributed to
+sexual selection. These animals, like those in the preceding classes,
+apparently stand too low in the scale, for the individuals of either sex
+to exert any choice in selecting a partner, or for the individuals of
+the same sex to struggle together in rivalry.
+
+
+_Sub-kingdom of the Arthropoda_: Class, _Crustacea_.--In this great
+class we first meet with undoubted secondary sexual characters, often
+developed in a remarkable manner. Unfortunately the habits of
+crustaceans are very imperfectly known, and we cannot explain the uses
+of many structures peculiar to one sex. With the lower parasitic species
+the males are of small size, and they alone are furnished with perfect
+swimming-legs, antennae and sense-organs; the females being destitute of
+these organs, with their bodies often consisting of a mere distorted
+mass. But these extraordinary differences between the two sexes are no
+doubt related to their widely different habits of life, and consequently
+do not concern us. In various crustaceans, belonging to distinct
+families, the anterior antennae are furnished with peculiar thread-like
+bodies, which are believed to act as smelling-organs, and these are much
+more numerous in the males than in the females. As the males, without
+any unusual development of their olfactory organs, would almost
+certainly be able sooner or later to find the females, the increased
+number of the smelling-threads has probably been acquired through sexual
+selection, by the better provided males having been the most successful
+in finding partners and in leaving offspring. Fritz Mueller has described
+a remarkable dimorphic species of Tanais, in which the male is
+represented by two distinct forms, never graduating into each other. In
+the one form the male is furnished with more numerous smelling-threads,
+and in the other form with more powerful and more elongated chelae or
+pincers which serve to hold the female. Fritz Mueller suggests that these
+differences between the two male forms of the same species must have
+originated in certain individuals having varied in the number of the
+smelling-threads, whilst other individuals varied in the shape and size
+of their chelae; so that of the former, those which were best able to
+find the female, and of the latter, those which were best able to hold
+her when found, have left the greater number of progeny to inherit their
+respective advantages.[413]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 3. Labidocera Darwinii, (from Lubbock).
+
+_a._ Part of right-hand anterior antenna of male, forming a prehensile
+organ.
+
+_b._ Posterior pair of thoracic legs of male.
+
+_c._ Ditto of female.]
+
+In some of the lower crustaceans, the right-hand anterior antenna of the
+male differs greatly in structure from the left-hand one, the latter
+resembling in its simple tapering joints the antennae of the female. In
+the male the modified antenna is either swollen in the middle or
+angularly bent, or converted (fig. 3) into an elegant, and sometimes
+wonderfully complex, prehensile organ.[414] It serves, as I hear from
+Sir J. Lubbock, to hold the female, and for this same purpose one of the
+two posterior legs (_b_) on the same side of the body is converted into
+a forceps. In another family the inferior or posterior antennae are
+"curiously zigzagged" in the males alone.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 4. Anterior part of body of Callianassa (from
+Milne-Edwards), showing the unequal and differently-constructed right
+and left-hand chelae of the male.
+
+N.B.--The artist by mistake has reversed the drawing, and made the
+left-hand chela the largest.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Second leg of male Orchestia Tucuratinga (from
+Fritz Mueller).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6. Ditto of female.]
+
+In the higher crustaceans the anterior legs form a pair of chelae or
+pincers, and these are generally larger in the male than in the female.
+In many species the chelae on the opposite sides of the body are of
+unequal size, the right-hand one being, as I am informed by Mr. C.
+Spence Bate, generally, though not invariably, the largest. This
+inequality is often much greater in the male than in the female. The two
+chelae also often differ in structure (figs. 4, 5, and 6), the smaller one
+resembling those of the female. What advantage is gained by their
+inequality in size on the opposite sides of the body, and by the
+inequality being much greater in the male than in the female; and why,
+when they are of equal size, both are often much larger in the male than
+in the female, is not known. The chelae are sometimes of such length and
+size that they cannot possibly be used, as I hear from Mr. Spence Bate,
+for carrying food to the mouth. In the males of certain freshwater
+prawns (Palaemon) the right leg is actually longer than the whole
+body.[415] It is probable that the great size of one leg with its chelae
+may aid the male in fighting with his rivals; but this use will not
+account for their inequality in the female on the opposite sides
+of the body. In Gelasimus, according to a statement quoted by
+Milne-Edwards,[416] the male and female live in the same burrow, which
+is worth notice, as shewing that they pair, and the male closes the
+mouth of the burrow with one of its chelae, which is enormously
+developed; so that here it indirectly serves as a means of defence.
+Their main use, however, probably is to seize and to secure the female,
+and this in some instances, as with Gammarus, is known to be the case.
+The sexes, however, of the common shore-crab (_Carcinus maenas_), as Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me, unite directly after the female has moulted her
+hard shell, and when she is so soft that she would be injured if seized
+by the strong pincers of the male; but as she is caught and carried
+about by the male previously to the act of moulting, she could then be
+seized with impunity.
+
+Fritz Mueller states that certain species of Melita are distinguished
+from all other amphipods by the females having "the coxal lamellae of the
+penultimate pair of feet produced into hook-like processes, of which the
+males lay hold with the hands of the first pair." The development of
+these hook-like processes probably resulted from those females which
+were the most securely held during the act of reproduction, having left
+the largest number of offspring. Another Brazilian amphipod (_Orchestia
+Darwinii_, fig. 7) is described by Fritz Mueller, as presenting a case of
+dimorphism, like that of Tanais; for there are two male forms, which
+differ in the structure of their chelae.[417] As chelae of either shape
+would certainly have sufficed to hold the female, for both are now used
+for this purpose, the two male forms probably originated, by some having
+varied in one manner and some in another; both forms having derived
+certain special, but nearly equal advantages, from their differently
+shaped organs.
+
+It is not known that male crustaceans fight together for the possession
+of the females, but this is probable; for with most animals when the
+male is larger than the female, he seems to have acquired his greater
+size by having conquered during many generations other males. Now Mr.
+Spence Bate informs me that in most of the crustacean orders, especially
+in the highest or the Brachyura, the male is larger than the female; the
+parasitic genera, however, in which the sexes follow different habits of
+life, and most of the Entomostraca must be excepted. The chelae of many
+crustaceans are weapons well adapted for fighting. Thus a Devil-crab
+(_Portunus puber_) was seen by a son of Mr. Bate fighting with a
+_Carcinus maenas_, and the latter was soon thrown on its back, and had
+every limb torn from its body. When several males of a Brazilian
+Gelasimus, a species furnished with immense pincers, were placed
+together by Fritz Mueller in a glass vessel, they mutilated and killed
+each other. Mr. Bate put a large male _Carcinus maenas_ into a pan of
+water, inhabited by a female paired with a smaller male; the latter was
+soon dispossessed, but, as Mr. Bate adds, "if they fought, the victory
+was a bloodless one, for I saw no wounds." This same naturalist
+separated a male sand-skipper (so common on our sea-shores), _Gammarus
+marinus_, from its female, both of which were imprisoned in the same
+vessel with many individuals of the same species. The female being thus
+divorced joined her comrades. After an interval the male was again put
+into the same vessel and he then, after swimming about for a time,
+dashed into the crowd, and without any fighting at once took away his
+wife. This fact shews that in the Amphipoda, an order low in the scale,
+the males and females recognise each other, and are mutually attached.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7. Orchestia Darwinii (from Fritz Mueller), showing
+the differently-constructed chelae of the two male forms.]
+
+The mental powers of the Crustacea are probably higher than might have
+been expected. Any one who has tried to catch one of the shore-crabs, so
+numerous on many tropical coasts, will have perceived how wary and alert
+they are. There is a large crab (_Birgus latro_), found on coral
+islands, which makes at the bottom of a deep burrow a thick bed of the
+picked fibres of the cocoa-nut. It feeds on the fallen fruit of this
+tree by tearing off the husk, fibre by fibre; and it always begins at
+that end where the three eye-like depressions are situated. It then
+breaks through one of these eyes by hammering with its heavy front
+pincers, and turning round, extracts the albuminous core with its narrow
+posterior pincers. But these actions are probably instinctive, so that
+they would be performed as well by a young as by an old animal. The
+following case, however, can hardly be so considered: a trustworthy
+naturalist, Mr. Gardner,[418] whilst watching a shore-crab (Gelasimus)
+making its burrow, threw some shells towards the hole. One rolled in,
+and three other shells remained within a few inches of the mouth. In
+about five minutes the crab brought out the shell which had fallen in,
+and carried it away to the distance of a foot; it then saw the three
+other shells lying near, and evidently thinking that they might likewise
+roll in, carried them to the spot where it had laid the first. It would,
+I think, be difficult to distinguish this act from one performed by man
+by the aid of reason.
+
+With respect to colour which so often differs in the two sexes of
+animals belonging to the higher classes, Mr. Spence Bate does not know
+of any well-marked instances with our British crustaceans. In some
+cases, however, the male and female differ slightly in tint, but Mr.
+Bate thinks not more than may be accounted for by their different habits
+of life, such as by the male wandering more about and being thus more
+exposed to the light. In a curious Bornean crab, which inhabits sponges,
+Mr. Bate could always distinguish the sexes by the male not having the
+epidermis so much rubbed off. Dr. Power tried to distinguish by colour
+the sexes of the species which inhabit the Mauritius, but always failed,
+except with one species of Squilla, probably the _S. stylifera_, the
+male of which is described as being "of a beautiful blueish-green," with
+some of the appendages cherry-red, whilst the female is clouded with
+brown and grey, "with the red about her much less vivid than in the
+male."[419] In this case, we may suspect the agency of sexual selection.
+With Saphirina (an oceanic genus of Entomostraca, and therefore low in
+the scale) the males are furnished with minute shields or cell-like
+bodies, which exhibit beautiful changing colours; these being absent in
+the females, and in the case of one species in both sexes.[420] It
+would, however, be extremely rash to conclude that these curious organs
+serve merely to attract the females. In the female of a Brazilian
+species of Gelasimus, the whole body, as I am informed by Fritz Mueller,
+is of a nearly uniform greyish-brown. In the male the posterior part of
+the cephalo-thorax is pure white, with the anterior part of a rich
+green, shading into dark brown; and it is remarkable that these colours
+are liable to change in the course of a few minutes--the white becoming
+dirty grey or even black, the green "losing much of its brilliancy." The
+males apparently are much more numerous than the females. It deserves
+especial notice that they do not acquire their bright colours until they
+become mature. They differ also from the females in the larger size of
+their chelae. In some species of the genus, probably in all, the sexes
+pair and inhabit the same burrow. They are also, as we have seen, highly
+intelligent animals. From these various considerations it seems highly
+probable that the male in this species has become gaily ornamented in
+order to attract or excite the female.
+
+It has just been stated that the male Gelasimus does not acquire his
+conspicuous colours until mature and nearly ready to breed. This seems
+the general rule in the whole class with the many remarkable differences
+in structure between the two sexes. We shall hereafter find the same law
+prevailing throughout the great sub-kingdom of the Vertebrata, and in
+all cases it is eminently distinctive of characters which have been
+acquired through sexual selection. Fritz Mueller[421] gives some
+striking instances of this law; thus the male sand-hopper (Orchestia)
+does not acquire his large claspers, which are very differently
+constructed from those of the female, until nearly full-grown; whilst
+young his claspers resemble those of the female. Thus, again, the male
+Brachyscelus possesses, like all other amphipods, a pair of posterior
+antennae; the female, and this is a most extraordinary circumstance, is
+destitute of them, and so is the male as long as he remains immature.
+
+
+Class, _Arachnida_ (Spiders).--The males are often darker, but sometimes
+lighter than the females, as may be seen in Mr. Blackwall's magnificent
+work.[422] In some species the sexes differ conspicuously from each
+other in colour; thus the female of _Sparassus smaragdulus_ is
+dullish-green; whilst the adult male has the abdomen of a fine yellow,
+with three longitudinal stripes of rich red. In some species of Thomisus
+the two sexes closely resemble each other; in others they differ much;
+thus in _T. citreus_ the legs and body of the female are pale-yellow or
+green, whilst the front legs of the male are reddish-brown: in _T.
+floricolens_, the legs of the female are pale-green, those of the male
+being ringed in a conspicuous manner with various tints. Numerous
+analogous cases could be given in the genera Epeira, Nephila,
+Philodromus, Theridion, Linyphia, &c. It is often difficult to say which
+of the two sexes departs most from the ordinary coloration of the genus
+to which the species belong; but Mr. Blackwall thinks that, as a
+general rule, it is the male. Both sexes whilst young, as I am informed
+by the same author, usually resemble each other; and both often undergo
+great changes in colour during their successive moults before arriving
+at maturity. In other cases the male alone appears to change colour.
+Thus the male of the above-mentioned brightly-coloured Sparassus at
+first resembles the female and acquires his peculiar tints only when
+nearly adult. Spiders are possessed of acute senses, and exhibit much
+intelligence. The females often shew, as is well known, the strongest
+affection for their eggs, which they carry about enveloped in a silken
+web. On the whole it appears probable that well-marked differences in
+colour between the sexes have generally resulted from sexual selection,
+either on the male or female side. But doubts may be entertained on this
+head from the extreme variability in colour of some species, for
+instance of _Theridion lineatum_, the sexes of which differ when adult;
+this great variability indicates that their colours have not been
+subjected to any form of selection.
+
+Mr. Blackwall does not remember to have seen the males of any species
+fighting together for the possession of the female. Nor, judging from
+analogy, is this probable; for the males are generally much smaller than
+the females, sometimes to an extraordinary degree.[423] Had the males
+been in the habit of fighting together, they would, it is probable, have
+gradually acquired greater size and strength. Mr. Blackwall has
+sometimes seen two or more males on the same web with a single female;
+but their courtship is too tedious and prolonged an affair to be easily
+observed. The male is extremely cautious in making his advances, as the
+female carries her coyness to a dangerous pitch. De Geer saw a male that
+"in the midst of his preparatory caresses was seized by the object of
+his attentions, enveloped by her in a web and then devoured, a sight
+which, as he adds, filled him with horror and indignation."[424]
+
+Westring has made the interesting discovery that the males of several
+species of Theridion[425] have the power of making a stridulating sound
+(like that made by many beetles and other insects, but feebler), whilst
+the females are quite mute. The apparatus consists of a serrated ridge
+at the base of the abdomen, against which the hard hinder part of the
+thorax is rubbed; and of this structure not a trace could be detected in
+the females. From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, to be
+described in the next chapter, we may feel almost sure that the
+stridulation serves, as Westring remarks, either to call or to excite
+the female; and this is the first case in the ascending scale of the
+animal kingdom, known to me, of sounds emitted for this purpose.
+
+
+Class, _Myriapoda_.--In neither of the two orders in this class,
+including the millipedes and centipedes, can I find any well-marked
+instances of sexual differences such as more particularly concern us. In
+_Glomeris limbata_, however, and perhaps in some few other species, the
+males differ slightly in colour from the females; but this Glomeris is a
+highly variable species. In the males of the Diplopoda, the legs
+belonging to one of the anterior segments of the body, or to the
+posterior segment, are modified into prehensile hooks which serve to
+secure the female. In some species of Iulus the tarsi of the male are
+furnished with membranous suckers for the same purpose. It is a much
+more unusual circumstance, as we shall see when we treat of Insects,
+that it is the female in Lithobius which is furnished with prehensile
+appendages at the extremity of the body for holding the male.[426]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERS OF INSECTS.
+
+
+  Diversified structures possessed by the males for seizing the
+  females--Differences between the sexes, of which the meaning is
+  not understood--Difference in size between the
+  sexes--Thysanura--Diptera--Hemiptera--Homoptera, musical powers
+  possessed by the males alone--Orthoptera, musical instruments
+  of the males, much diversified in structure; pugnacity;
+  colours--Neuroptera, sexual differences in colour--Hymenoptera,
+  pugnacity and colours--Coleoptera, colours; furnished with
+  great horns, apparently as an ornament; battles; stridulating
+  organs generally common to both sexes.
+
+
+In the immense class of insects the sexes sometimes differ in their
+organs for locomotion, and often in their sense-organs, as in the
+pectinated and beautifully plumose antennae of the males of many species.
+In one of the Ephemerae, namely Chloeon, the male has great pillared
+eyes, of which the female is entirely destitute.[427] The ocelli are
+absent in the females of certain other insects, as in the Mutillidae,
+which are likewise destitute of wings. But we are chiefly concerned with
+structures by which one male is enabled to conquer another, either in
+battle or courtship, through his strength, pugnacity, ornaments, or
+music. The innumerable contrivances, therefore, by which the male is
+able to seize the female, may be briefly passed over. Besides the
+complex structures at the apex of the abdomen, which ought perhaps to be
+ranked as primary organs,[428] "it is astonishing," as Mr. B. D.
+Walsh[429] has remarked, "how many different organs are worked in by
+nature, for the seemingly insignificant object of enabling the male to
+grasp the female firmly." The mandibles or jaws are sometimes used for
+this purpose; thus the male _Corydalis cornutus_ (a neuropterous insect
+in some degree allied to the Dragon-flies, &c.) has immense curved jaws,
+many times longer than those of the female; and they are smooth instead
+of being toothed, by which means he is enabled to seize her without
+injury.[430] One of the stag-beetles of North America (_Lucanus
+elaphus_) uses his jaws, which are much larger than those of the female,
+for the same purpose, but probably likewise for fighting. In one of the
+sand-wasps (_Ammophila_) the jaws in the two sexes are closely alike,
+but are used for widely different purposes; the males, as Professor
+Westwood observes, "are exceedingly ardent, seizing their partners round
+the neck with their sickle-shaped jaws;"[431] whilst the females use
+these organs for burrowing in sand-banks and making their nests.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Crabro cribrarius. Upper figure, male: lower
+figure, female.]
+
+The tarsi of the front-legs are dilated in many male beetles, or are
+furnished with broad cushions of hairs; and in many genera of
+water-beetles they are armed with a round flat sucker, so that the male
+may adhere to the slippery body of the female. It is a much more unusual
+circumstance that the females of some water-beetles (Dytiscus) have
+their elytra deeply grooved, and in _Acilius sulcatus_ thickly set with
+hairs, as an aid to the male. The females of some other water-beetles
+(Hydroporus) have their elytra punctured for the same object.[432] In
+the male of _Crabro cribrarius_ (fig. 8.), it is the tibia which is
+dilated into a broad horny plate, with minute membraneous dots, giving
+to it a singular appearance like that of a riddle.[433] In the male of
+Penthe (a genus of beetles) a few of the middle joints of the antennae
+are dilated and furnished on the inferior surface with cushions of
+hair, exactly like those on the tarsi of the Carabidae, "and obviously
+for the same end." In male dragon-flies, "the appendages at the tip of
+the tail are modified in an almost infinite variety of curious patterns
+to enable them to embrace the neck of the female." Lastly in the males
+of many insects, the legs are furnished with peculiar spines, knobs or
+spurs; or the whole leg is bowed or thickened, but this is by no means
+invariably a sexual character; or one pair, or all three pairs are
+elongated, sometimes to an extravagant length.[434]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Taphroderes distortus (much enlarged). Upper
+figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+In all the orders, the sexes of many species present differences, of
+which the meaning is not understood. One curious case is that of a
+beetle (fig. 9), the male of which has the left mandible much enlarged;
+so that the mouth is greatly distorted. In another Carabidous beetle,
+the Eurygnathus,[435] we have the unique case, as far as known to Mr.
+Wollaston, of the head of the female being much broader and larger,
+though in a variable degree, than that of the male. Any number of such
+cases could be given. They abound in the Lepidoptera: one of the most
+extraordinary is that certain male butterflies have their fore-legs more
+or less atrophied, with the tibiae and tarsi reduced to mere rudimentary
+knobs. The wings, also, in the two sexes often differ in neuration,[436]
+and sometimes considerably in outline, as in the _Aricoris epitus_,
+which was shown to me in the British Museum by Mr. A. Butler. The males
+of certain South American butterflies have tufts of hair on the margins
+of the wings, and horny excrescences on the discs of the posterior
+pair.[437] In several British butterflies, the males alone, as shewn by
+Mr. Wonfor, are in parts clothed with peculiar scales.
+
+The purpose of the luminosity in the female glow-worm is likewise not
+understood; for it is very doubtful whether the primary use of the light
+is to guide the male to the female. It is no serious objection to this
+latter belief that the males emit a feeble light; for secondary sexual
+characters proper to one sex are often developed in a slight degree in
+the other sex. It is a more valid objection that the larvae shine, and in
+some species brilliantly: Fritz Mueller informs me that the most luminous
+insect which he ever beheld in Brazil, was the larva of some beetle.
+Both sexes of certain luminous species of Elater emit light. Kirby and
+Spence suspect that the phosphorescence serves to frighten and drive
+away enemies.
+
+
+_Difference in Size between the Sexes._--With insects of all kinds the
+males are commonly smaller than the females;[438] and this difference
+can often be detected even in the larval state. So considerable is the
+difference between the male and female cocoons of the silk-moth
+(_Bombyx mori_), that in France they are separated by a particular mode
+of weighing.[439] In the lower classes of the animal kingdom, the
+greater size of the females seems generally to depend on their
+developing an enormous number of ova; and this may to a certain extent
+hold good with insects. But Dr. Wallace has suggested a much more
+probable explanation. He finds, after carefully attending to the
+development of the caterpillars of _Bombyx cynthia_ and _yamamai_, and
+especially of some dwarfed caterpillars reared from a second brood on
+unnatural food, "that in proportion as the individual moth is finer, so
+is the time required for its metamorphosis longer; and for this reason
+the female, which is the larger and heavier insect, from having to carry
+her numerous eggs, will be preceded by the male, which is smaller and
+has less to mature."[440] Now as most insects are short-lived, and as
+they are exposed to many dangers, it would manifestly be advantageous to
+the female to be impregnated as soon as possible. This end would be
+gained by the males being first matured in large numbers ready for the
+advent of the females; and this again would naturally follow, as Mr. A.
+E. Wallace has remarked,[441] through natural selection; for the smaller
+males would be first matured, and thus would procreate a large number of
+offspring which would inherit the reduced size of their male parents,
+whilst the larger males from being matured later would leave fewer
+offspring.
+
+There are, however, exceptions to the rule of male insects being smaller
+than the females; and some of these exceptions are intelligible. Size
+and strength would be an advantage to the males, which fight for the
+possession of the female; and in these cases the males, as with the
+stag-beetle (Lucanus), are larger than the females. There are, however,
+other beetles which are not known to fight together, of which the males
+exceed the females in size; and the meaning of this fact is not known;
+but in some of these cases, as with the huge Dynastes and Megasoma, we
+can at least see that there would be no necessity for the males to be
+smaller than the females, in order to be matured before them, for these
+beetles are not short-lived, and there would be ample time for the
+pairing of the sexes. So, again, male dragon-flies (Libellulidae) are
+sometimes sensibly larger, and never smaller, than the females;[442] and
+they do not, as Mr. MacLachlan believes, generally pair with the
+females, until a week or fortnight has elapsed, and until they have
+assumed their proper masculine colours. But the most curious case,
+shewing on what complex and easily-overlooked relations, so trifling a
+character as a difference in size between the sexes may depend, is that
+of the aculeate Hymenoptera; for Mr. F. Smith informs me that throughout
+nearly the whole of this large group the males, in accordance with the
+general rule, are smaller than the females and emerge about a week
+before them; but amongst the Bees, the males of _Apis mellifica_,
+_Anthidium manicatum_ and _Anthophora acervorum_, and amongst the
+Fossores, the males of the _Methoca ichneumonides_, are larger than the
+females. The explanation of this anomaly is that a marriage-flight is
+absolutely necessary with these species, and the males require great
+strength and size in order to carry the females through the air.
+Increased size has here been acquired in opposition to the usual
+relation between size and the period of development, for the males,
+though larger, emerge before the smaller females.
+
+We will now review the several Orders, selecting such facts as more
+particularly concern us. The Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths) will be
+retained for a separate chapter.
+
+
+Order, _Thysanura_.--The members of this Order are lowly organised for
+their class. They are wingless, dull-coloured, minute insects, with
+ugly, almost misshapen heads and bodies. The sexes do not differ; but
+they offer one interesting fact, by showing that the males pay sedulous
+court to their females even low down in the animal scale. Sir J.
+Lubbock[443] in describing the _Smynthurus luteus_, says: "it is very
+amusing to see these little creatures coquetting together. The male,
+which is much smaller than the female, runs round her, and they butt one
+another, standing face to face, and moving backward and forward like two
+playful lambs. Then the female pretends to run away and the male runs
+after her with a queer appearance of anger, gets in front and stands
+facing her again; then she turns coyly round, but he, quicker and more
+active, scuttles round too, and seems to whip her with his antennae; then
+for a bit they stand face to face, play with their antennae, and seem to
+be all in all to one another."
+
+
+Order, _Diptera_ (Flies).--The sexes differ little in colour. The
+greatest difference, known to Mr. F. Walker, is in the genus Bibio, in
+which the males are blackish or quite black, and the females obscure
+brownish-orange. The genus Elaphomyia, discovered by Mr. Wallace[444] in
+New Guinea, is highly remarkable, as the males are furnished with horns,
+of which the females are quite destitute. The horns spring from beneath
+the eyes, and curiously resemble those of stags, being either branched
+or palmated. They equal in length the whole of the body in one of the
+species. They might be thought to serve for fighting, but as in one
+species they are of a beautiful pink colour, edged with black, with a
+pale central stripe, and as these insects have altogether a very elegant
+appearance, it is perhaps more probable that the horns serve as
+ornaments. That the males of some Diptera fight together is certain; for
+Prof. Westwood[445] has several times seen this with some species of
+Tipula or Harry-long-legs. Many observers believe that when gnats
+(Culicidae) dance in the air in a body, alternately rising and falling,
+the males are courting the females. The mental faculties of the Diptera
+are probably fairly well developed, for their nervous system is more
+highly developed than in most other Orders of insects.[446]
+
+
+Order, _Hemiptera_ (Field-Bugs).--Mr. J. W. Douglas, who has
+particularly attended to the British species, has kindly given me an
+account of their sexual differences. The males of some species are
+furnished with wings, whilst the females are wingless; the sexes differ
+in the form of the body and elytra; in the second joints of their
+antennae and in their tarsi; but as the signification of these
+differences is quite unknown, they may be here passed over. The females
+are generally larger and more robust than the males. With British, and,
+as far as Mr. Douglas knows, with exotic species, the sexes do not
+commonly differ much in colour; but in about six British species the
+male is considerably darker than the female, and in about four other
+species the female is darker than the male. Both sexes of some species
+are beautifully marked with vermilion and black. It is doubtful whether
+these colours serve as a protection. If in any species the males had
+differed from the females in an analogous manner, we might have been
+justified in attributing such conspicuous colours to sexual selection
+with transference to both sexes.
+
+Some species of Reduvidae make a stridulating noise; and, in the case of
+_Pirates stridulus_, this is said[447] to be effected by the movement of
+the neck within the pro-thoracic cavity. According to Westring,
+_Reduvius personatus_ also stridulates. But I have not been able to
+learn any particulars about these insects; nor have I any reason to
+suppose that they differ sexually in this respect.
+
+
+Order, _Homoptera._--Every one who has wandered in a tropical forest
+must have been astonished at the din made by the male Cicadae. The
+females are mute; as the Grecian poet Xenarchus says, "Happy the Cicadas
+live, since they all have voiceless wives." The noise thus made could be
+plainly heard on board the "Beagle," when anchored at a quarter of a
+mile from the shore of Brazil; and Captain Hancock says it can be heard
+at the distance of a mile. The Greeks formerly kept, and the Chinese now
+keep, these insects in cages for the sake of their song, so that it
+must be pleasing to the ears of some men.[448] The Cicadidae usually sing
+during the day; whilst the Fulgoridae appear to be night-songsters. The
+sound, according to Landois,[449] who has recently studied the subject,
+is produced by the vibration of the lips of the spiracles, which are set
+into motion by a current of air emitted from the tracheae. It is
+increased by a wonderfully complex resounding apparatus, consisting of
+two cavities covered by scales. Hence the sound may truly be called a
+voice. In the female the musical apparatus is present, but very much
+less developed than in the male, and is never used for producing sound.
+
+With respect to the object of the music, Dr. Hartman in speaking of the
+_Cicada septemdecim_ of the United States, says,[450] "the drums are now
+(June 6th and 7th, 1851) heard in all directions. This I believe to be
+the marital summons from the males. Standing in thick chestnut sprouts
+about as high as my head, where hundreds were around me, I observed the
+females coming around the drumming males." He adds, "this season (Aug.
+1868) a dwarf pear-tree in my garden produced about fifty larvae of _Cic.
+pruinosa_; and I several times noticed the females to alight near a male
+while he was uttering his clanging notes." Fritz Mueller writes to me
+from S. Brazil that he has often listened to a musical contest between
+two or three males of a Cicada, having a particularly loud voice, and
+seated at a considerable distance from each other. As soon as the first
+had finished his song, a second immediately began; and after he had
+concluded, another began, and so on. As there is so much rivalry between
+the males, it is probable that the females not only discover them by the
+sounds emitted, but that, like female birds, they are excited or allured
+by the male with the most attractive voice.
+
+I have not found any well-marked cases of ornamental differences between
+the sexes of the Homoptera. Mr. Douglas informs me that there are three
+British species, in which the male is black or marked with black bands,
+whilst the females are pale-coloured or obscure.
+
+
+Order, _Orthoptera_.--The males in the three saltatorial families
+belonging to this Order are remarkable for their musical powers, namely
+the Achetidae or crickets, the Locustidae for which there is no exact
+equivalent name in English, and the Acridiidae or grasshoppers. The
+stridulation produced by some of the Locustidae is so loud that it can be
+heard during the night at the distance of a mile;[451] and that made by
+certain species is not unmusical even to the human ear, so that the
+Indians on the Amazons keep them in wicker cages. All observers agree
+that the sounds serve either to call or excite the mute females. But it
+has been noticed[452] that the male migratory locust of Russia (one of
+the Acridiidae) whilst coupled with the female, stridulates from anger or
+jealousy when approached by another male. The house-cricket when
+surprised at night uses its voice to warn its fellows.[453] In North
+America the Katy-did (_Platyphyllum concavum_, one of the Locustidae) is
+described[454] as mounting on the upper branches of a tree, and in the
+evening beginning "his noisy babble, while rival notes issue from the
+neighbouring trees, and the groves resound with the call of
+_Katy-did-she-did_, the live-long night." Mr. Bates, in speaking of the
+European field-cricket (one of the Achetidae), says, "the male has been
+observed to place itself in the evening at the entrance of its burrow,
+and stridulate until a female approaches, when the louder notes are
+succeeded by a more subdued tone, whilst the successful musician
+caresses with his antennae the mate he has won."[455] Dr. Scudder was
+able to excite one of these insects to answer him, by rubbing on a file
+with a quill.[456] In both sexes a remarkable auditory apparatus has
+been discovered by Von Siebold, situated in the front legs.[457]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 10. Gryllus campestris (from Landois).
+
+Right-hand figure, under side of part of the wing-nervure, much
+magnified, showing the teeth, _st_.
+
+Left-hand figure, upper surface of wing-cover, with the projecting,
+smooth nervure, _r._, across which the teeth (_st_) are scraped.]
+
+In the three Families the sounds are differently produced. In the males
+Of the Achetidae both wing-covers have the same structure; and this in
+the field-cricket (_Gryllus campestris_, fig. 10) consists, as
+described by Landois,[458] of from 131 to 138 sharp, transverse ridges
+or teeth (_st_) on the under side of one of the nervures of the
+wing-cover. This toothed nervure is rapidly scraped across a projecting,
+smooth, hard nervure (_r_) on the upper surface of the opposite wing.
+First one wing is rubbed over the other, and then the movement is
+reversed. Both wings are raised a little at the same time, so as to
+increase the resonance. In some species the wing-covers of the males are
+furnished at the base with a talc-like plate.[459] I have here given a
+drawing (fig. 11) of the teeth on the under side of the nervure of
+another species of Gryllus, viz. _G. domesticus_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Teeth of Nervure of Gryllus domesticus (from
+Landois).]
+
+In the Locustidae the opposite wing-covers differ in structure (fig. 12),
+and cannot, as in the last family, be indifferently used in a reversed
+manner. The left wing, which acts as the bow of the fiddle, lies over
+the right wing which serves as the fiddle itself. One of the nervures
+(_a_) on the under surface of the former is finely serrated, and is
+scraped across the prominent nervures on the upper surface of the
+opposite or right wing. In our British _Phasgonura viridissima_ it
+appeared to me that the serrated nervure is rubbed against the rounded
+hind corner of the opposite wing, the edge of which is thickened,
+coloured brown, and very sharp. In the right wing, but not in the left,
+there is a little plate, as transparent as talc, surrounded by nervures,
+and called the speculum. In _Ephippiger vitium_, a member of this same
+family, we have a curious subordinate modification; for the wing-covers
+are greatly reduced in size, but "the posterior part of the pro-thorax
+is elevated into a kind of dome over the wing-covers, and which has
+probably the effect of increasing the sound."[460]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 12. Chlorocoelus Tanana (from Bates). _a_, _b_.
+Lobes of opposite wing-covers.]
+
+We thus see that the musical apparatus is more differentiated or
+specialised in the Locustidae, which includes I believe the most powerful
+performers in the Order, than in the Achetidae, in which both wing-covers
+have the same structure and the same function.[461] Landois, however,
+detected in one of the Locustidae, namely in Decticus, a short and narrow
+row of small teeth, mere rudiments, on the inferior surface of the
+right wing-cover, which underlies the other and is never used as the
+bow. I observed the same rudimentary structure on the under side of the
+right wing-cover in _Phasgonura viridissima_. Hence we may with
+confidence infer that the Locustidae are descended from a form, in which,
+as in the existing Achetidae, both wing-covers had serrated nervures on
+the under surface, and could be indifferently used as the bow; but that
+in the Locustidae the two wing-covers gradually became differentiated and
+perfected, on the principle of the division of labour, the one to act
+exclusively as the bow and the other as the fiddle. By what steps the
+more simple apparatus in the Achetidae originated, we do not know, but it
+is probable that the basal portions of the wing-covers overlapped each
+other formerly as at present, and that the friction of the nervures
+produced a grating sound, as I find is now the case with the wing-covers
+of the females.[462] A grating sound thus occasionally and accidentally
+made by the males, if it served them ever so little as a love-call to
+the females, might readily have been intensified through sexual
+selection by fitting variations in the roughness of the nervures having
+been continually preserved.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 13, Hind-leg of Stenobothrus pratorum: _r_, the
+stridulating ridge; lower figure, the teeth, forming the ridge, much
+magnified (from Landois).]
+
+In the last and third Family, namely the Acridiidae or grasshoppers, the
+stridulation is produced in a very different manner, and is not so
+shrill, according to Dr. Scudder, as in the preceding Families. The
+inner surface of the femur (fig. 13, _r_) is furnished with a
+longitudinal row of minute, elegant, lancet-shaped, elastic teeth, from
+85 to 93 in number;[463] and these are scraped across the sharp,
+projecting nervures on the wing-covers, which, are thus made to vibrate
+and resound. Harris[464] says that when one of the males begins to play,
+he first "bends the shank of the hind-leg beneath, the thigh, where it
+is lodged in a furrow designed to receive it, and then draws the leg
+briskly up and down. He does not play both fiddles together, but
+alternately first upon one and then on the other." In many species, the
+base of the abdomen is hollowed out into a great cavity which is
+believed to act as a resounding board. In Pneumora (fig. 14), a S.
+African genus belonging to this same family, we meet with a new and
+remarkable modification: in the males a small notched ridge projects
+obliquely from each side of the abdomen, against which the hind femora
+are rubbed.[465] As the male is furnished with wings, the female being
+wingless, it is remarkable that the thighs are not rubbed in the usual
+manner against the wing-covers; but this may perhaps be accounted for by
+the unusually small size of the hind-legs. I have not been able to
+examine the inner surface of the thighs, which, judging from analogy,
+would be finely serrated. The species of Pneumora have been more
+profoundly modified for the sake of stridulation than any other
+orthopterous insect; for in the male the whole body has been converted
+into a musical instrument, being distended with air, like a great
+pellucid bladder, so as to increase the resonance. Mr. Trimen informs me
+that at the Cape of Good Hope these insects make a wonderful noise
+during the night There is one exception to the rule that the females in
+these three Families are destitute of an efficient musical apparatus;
+for both sexes of Ephippiger (Locustidae) are said[466] to be thus
+provided. This case may be compared with that of the reindeer, in which
+species alone both sexes possess horns. Although the female orthoptera
+are thus almost invariably mute, yet Landois[467] found rudiments of the
+stridulating organs on the femora of the female Acridiidae, and similar
+rudiments on the under surface of the wing-covers of the female
+Achetidae; but he failed to find any rudiments in the females of
+Decticus, one of the Locustidae. In the Homoptera the mute females of
+Cicada, have the proper musical apparatus in an undeveloped state; and
+we shall hereafter meet in other divisions of the animal kingdom with
+innumerable instances of structures proper to the male being present in
+a rudimentary condition in the female. Such cases appear at first sight
+to indicate that both sexes were primordially constructed in the same
+manner, but that certain organs were subsequently lost by the females.
+It is, however, a more probable view, as previously explained, that the
+organs in question were acquired by the males and partially transferred
+to the females.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. Pneumora (from specimens in the British Museum).
+Upper figure, male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Landois has observed another interesting fact, namely that in the
+females of the Acridiidae, the stridulating teeth on the femora remain
+throughout life in the same condition in which they first appear in both
+sexes during the larval state. In the males, on the other hand, they
+become fully developed and acquire their perfect structure at the last
+moult, when the insect is mature and ready to breed.
+
+From the facts now given, we see that the means by which the males
+produce their sounds are extremely diversified in the Orthoptera, and
+are altogether different from those employed by the Homoptera. But
+throughout the animal kingdom we incessantly find the same object
+gained by the most diversified means; this being due to the whole
+organisation undergoing in the course of ages multifarious changes; and
+as part after part varies, different variations are taken advantage of
+for the same general purpose. The diversification of the means for
+producing sound in the three families of the Orthoptera and in the
+Homoptera, impresses the mind with the high importance of these
+structures to the males, for the sake of calling or alluring the
+females. We need feel no surprise at the amount of modification which
+the Orthoptera have undergone in this respect, as we now know, from Dr.
+Scudder's remarkable discovery,[468] that there has been more than ample
+time. This naturalist has lately found a fossil insect in the Devonian
+formation of New Brunswick, which is furnished with "the well-known
+tympanum or stridulating apparatus of the male Locustidae." This insect,
+though in most respects related to the Neuroptera, appears to connect,
+as is so often the case with very ancient forms, the two Orders of the
+Neuroptera and Orthoptera which are now generally ranked as quite
+distinct.
+
+I have but little more to say on the Orthoptera. Some of the species are
+very pugnacious: when two male field-crickets (_Gryllus campestris_) are
+confined together, they fight till one kills the other; and the species
+of Mantis are described as manoeuvring with their sword-like
+front-limbs, like hussars with their sabres. The Chinese keep these
+insects in little bamboo cages and match them like game-cocks.[469] With
+respect to colour, some exotic locusts are beautifully ornamented; the
+posterior wings being marked with red, blue, and black; but as
+throughout the Order the two sexes rarely differ much in colour, it is
+doubtful whether they owe these bright tints to sexual selection.
+Conspicuous colours may be of use to these insects as a protection, on
+the principle to be explained in the next chapter, by giving notice to
+their enemies that they are unpalatable. Thus it has been observed[470]
+that an Indian brightly-coloured locust was invariably rejected when
+offered to birds and lizards. Some cases, however, of sexual differences
+in colour in this Order are known. The male of an American cricket[471]
+is described as being as white as ivory, whilst the female varies from
+almost white to greenish-yellow or dusky. Mr. Walsh informs me that the
+adult male of _Spectrum femoratum_ (one of the Phasmidae) "is of a
+shining brownish-yellow colour; the adult female being of a dull,
+opaque, cinereous-brown; the young of both sexes being green." Lastly, I
+may mention that the male of one curious kind of cricket[472] is
+furnished with "a long membranous appendage, which falls over the face
+like a veil;" but whether this serves as an ornament is not known.
+
+
+Order, _Neuroptera_.--Little need here be said, except in regard to
+colour. In the Ephemeridae the sexes often differ slightly in their
+obscure tints;[473] but it is not probable that the males are thus
+rendered attractive to the females. The Libellulidae or dragon-flies are
+ornamented with splendid green, blue, yellow, and vermilion metallic
+tints; and the sexes often differ. Thus, the males of some of the
+Agrionidae, as Prof. Westwood remarks[474] "are of a rich blue with black
+wings, whilst the females are fine green with colourless wings." But in
+_Agrion Ramburii_ these colours are exactly reversed in the two
+sexes.[475] In the extensive N. American genus of Hetaerina, the males
+alone have a beautiful carmine spot at the base of each wing. In _Anax
+junius_ the basal part of the abdomen in the male is a vivid
+ultra-marine blue, and in the female grass-green. In the allied genus
+Gomphus, on the other hand, and in some other genera, the sexes differ
+but little in colour. Throughout the animal kingdom, similar cases of
+the sexes of closely-allied forms either differing greatly, or very
+little, or not at all, are of frequent occurrence. Although with many
+Libellulidae there is so wide a difference in colour between the sexes,
+it is often difficult to say which is the most brilliant; and the
+ordinary coloration of the two sexes is exactly reversed, as we have
+just seen, in one species of Agrion. It is not probable that their
+colours in any case have been gained as a protection. As Mr. MacLachlan,
+who has closely attended to this family, writes to me, dragon-flies--the
+tyrants of the insect-world--are the least liable of any insect to be
+attacked by birds or other enemies. He believes that their bright
+colours serve as a sexual attraction. It deserves notice, as bearing on
+this subject, that certain dragon-flies appear to be attracted by
+particular colours: Mr. Patterson observed[476] that the species of
+Agrionidae, of which the males are blue, settled in numbers on the blue
+float of a fishing line; whilst two other species were attracted by
+shining white colours.
+
+It is an interesting fact, first observed by Schelver, that the males,
+in several genera belonging to two sub-families, when they first emerge
+from the pupal state are coloured exactly like the females; but that
+their bodies in a short time assume a conspicuous milky-blue tint, owing
+to the exudation of a kind of oil, soluble in ether and alcohol. Mr.
+MacLachlan believes that in the male of _Libellula depressa_ this change
+of colour does not occur until nearly a fortnight after the
+metamorphosis, when the sexes are ready to pair.
+
+Certain species of Neurothemis present, according to Brauer[477] a
+curious case of dimorphism, some of the females having their wings
+netted in the usual manner; whilst other females have them "very richly
+netted as in the males of the same species." Brauer "explains the
+phenomenon on Darwinian principles by the supposition that the close
+netting of the veins is a secondary sexual character in the males." This
+latter character is generally developed in the males alone, but being,
+like every other masculine character, latent in the female, is
+occasionally developed in them. We have here an illustration of the
+manner in which the two sexes of many animals have probably come to
+resemble each other, namely by variations first appearing in the males,
+being preserved in them, and then transmitted to and developed in the
+females; but in this particular genus a complete transference is
+occasionally and abruptly effected. Mr. MacLachlan informs me of another
+case of dimorphism occurring in several species of Agrion in which a
+certain number of individuals are found of an orange colour, and these
+are invariably females. This is probably a case of reversion, for in
+the true Libellulae, when the sexes differ in colour, the females are
+always orange or yellow, so that supposing Agrion to be descended from
+some primordial form having the characteristic sexual colours of the
+typical Libellulae, it would not be surprising that a tendency to vary in
+this manner should occur in the females alone.
+
+Although many dragon-flies are such large, powerful, and fierce insects,
+the males have not been observed by Mr. MacLachlan to fight together,
+except, as he believes, in the case of some of the smaller species of
+Agrion. In another very distinct group in this Order, namely in the
+Termites or white ants, both sexes at the time of swarming may be seen
+running about, "the male after the female, sometimes two chasing one
+female, and contending with great eagerness who shall win the
+prize."[478]
+
+
+Order, _Hymenoptera_.--That inimitable observer, M. Fabre,[479] in
+describing the habits of Cerceris, a wasp-like insect, remarks that
+"fights frequently ensue between the males for the possession of some
+particular female, who sits an apparently unconcerned beholder of the
+struggle for supremacy, and when the victory is decided, quietly flies
+away in company with the conqueror." Westwood[480] says that the males
+of one of the saw-flies (Tenthredinae) "have been found fighting
+together, with their mandibles locked." As M. Fabre speaks of the males
+of Cerceris striving to obtain a particular female, it may be well to
+bear in mind that insects belonging to this Order have the power of
+recognising each other after long intervals of time, and are deeply
+attached. For instance, Pierre Huber, whose accuracy no one doubts,
+separated some ants, and when after an interval of four months they met
+others which had formerly belonged to the same community, they mutually
+recognised and caressed each other with their antennae. Had they been
+strangers they would have fought together. Again, when two communities
+engage in a battle, the ants on the same side in the general confusion
+sometimes attack each other, but they soon perceive their mistake, and
+the one ant soothes the other.[481]
+
+In this Order slight differences in colour, according to sex, are
+common, but conspicuous differences are rare except in the family of
+Bees; yet both sexes of certain groups are so brilliantly coloured--for
+instance in Chrysis, in which vermilion and metallic greens
+prevail--that we are tempted to attribute the result to sexual
+selection. In the Ichneumonidae, according to Mr. Walsh,[482] the males
+are almost universally lighter coloured than the females. On the other
+hand, in the Tenthredinidae the males are generally darker than the
+females. In the Siricidae the sexes frequently differ; thus the male of
+_Sirex juvencus_ is banded with orange, whilst the female is dark
+purple; but it is difficult to say which sex is the most ornamented. In
+_Tremex columbae_ the female is much brighter coloured than the male.
+With ants, as I am informed by Mr. F. Smith, the males of several
+species are black, the females being testaceous. In the family of Bees,
+especially in the solitary species, as I hear from the same
+distinguished entomologist, the sexes often differ in colour. The males
+are generally the brightest, and in Bombus as well as in Apathus, much
+more variable in colour than the females. In _Anthophora retusa_ the
+male is of a rich fulvous-brown, whilst the female is quite black: so
+are the females of several species of Xylocopa, the males being bright
+yellow. In an Australian bee (_Lestis bombylans_), the female is of an
+extremely brilliant steel-blue, sometimes tinted with vivid green; the
+male being of a bright brassy colour clothed with rich fulvous
+pubescence. As in this group the females are provided with excellent
+defensive weapons in their stings, it is not probable that they have
+come to differ in colour from the males for the sake of protection.
+
+_Mutilla Europaea_ emits a stridulating noise; and according to
+Goureau[483] both sexes have this power. He attributes the sound to the
+friction of the third and preceding abdominal segments; and I find that
+these surfaces are marked with very fine concentric ridges, but so is
+the projecting thoracic collar, on which the head articulates; and this
+collar, when scratched with the point of a needle, emits the proper
+sound. It is rather surprising that both sexes should have the power of
+stridulating, as the male is winged and the female wingless. It is
+notorious that Bees express certain emotions, as of anger, by the tone
+of their humming, as do some dipterous insects; but I have not referred
+to these sounds, as they are not known to be in any way connected with
+the act of courtship.
+
+
+Order, _Coleoptera_ (Beetles).--Many beetles are coloured so as to
+resemble the surfaces which they habitually frequent. Other species are
+ornamented with gorgeous metallic tints,--for instance, many Carabidae,
+which live on the ground and have the power of defending themselves by
+an intensely acrid secretion,--the splendid diamond-beetles which are
+protected by an extremely hard covering,--many species of Chrysomela,
+such as _C. cerealis_, a large species beautifully striped with various
+colours, and in Britain confined to the bare summit of Snowdon,--and a
+host of other species. These splendid colours, which are often arranged
+in stripes, spots, crosses and other elegant patterns, can hardly be
+beneficial, as a protection, except in the case of some flower-feeding
+species; and we cannot believe that they are purposeless. Hence the
+suspicion arises, that they serve as a sexual attraction; but we have no
+evidence on this head, for the sexes rarely differ in colour. Blind
+beetles, which cannot of course behold each other's beauty, never
+exhibit, as I hear from Mr. Waterhouse, jun., bright colours, though
+they often have polished coats: but the explanation of their obscurity
+may be that blind insects inhabit caves and other obscure stations.
+
+Some Longicorns, however, especially certain Prionidae, offer an
+exception to the common rule that the sexes of beetles do not differ in
+colour. Most of these insects are large and splendidly coloured. The
+males in the genus Pyrodes,[484] as I saw in Mr. Bates' collection, are
+generally redder but rather duller than the females, the latter being
+coloured of a more or less splendid golden green. On the other hand, in
+one species the male is golden-green, the female being richly tinted
+with red and purple. In the genus Esmeralda the sexes differ so greatly
+in colour that they have been ranked as distinct species: in one species
+both are of a beautiful shining green, but the male has a red thorax. On
+the whole, as far as I could judge, the females of those Prionidae, in
+which the sexes differ, are coloured more richly than the males; and
+this does not accord with the common rule in regard to colour when
+acquired through sexual selection.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced);
+lower figure, female (nat. size).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 17. Phanaeus faunus.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 18. Dipelicus cantori.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged.]
+
+A most remarkable distinction between the sexes of many beetles is
+presented by the great horns which rise from the head, thorax, or
+clypeus of the males; and in some few cases from the under surface of
+the body. These horns, in the great family of the Lamellicorns, resemble
+those of various quadrupeds, such as stags, rhinoceroses, &c., and are
+wonderful both from their size and diversified shapes. Instead of
+describing them, I have given figures of the males and females of some
+of the more remarkable forms. (Figs. 15 to 19.) The females generally
+exhibit rudiments of the horns in the form of small knobs or ridges; but
+some are destitute of even a rudiment. On the other hand, the horns are
+nearly as well developed in the female as in the male of _Phanaeus
+lancifer_; and only a little less well developed in the females of some
+other species of the same genus and of Copris. In the several
+subdivisions of the family, the differences in structure of the horns do
+not run parallel, as I am informed by Mr. Bates, with their more
+important and characteristic differences; thus within the same natural
+section of the genus Onthophagus, there are species which have either a
+single cephalic horn, or two distinct horns.
+
+In almost all cases, the horns are remarkable from their excessive
+variability; so that a graduated series can be formed, from the most
+highly developed males to others so degenerate that they can barely be
+distinguished from the females. Mr. Walsh[485] found that in _Phanaeus
+carnifex_ the horns were thrice as long in some males as in others. Mr.
+Bates, after examining above a hundred males of _Onthophagus rangifer_
+(fig. 19), thought that he had at last discovered a species in which
+the horns did not vary; but further research proved the contrary.
+
+The extraordinary size of the horns, and their widely different
+structure in closely-allied forms, indicate that they have been formed
+for some important purpose; but their excessive variability in the males
+of the same species leads to the inference that this purpose cannot be
+of a definite nature. The horns do not show marks of friction, as if
+used for any ordinary work. Some authors suppose[486] that as the males
+wander much more than the females, they require horns as a defence
+against their enemies; but in many cases the horns do not seem well
+adapted for defence, as they are not sharp. The most obvious conjecture
+is that they are used by the males for fighting together; but they have
+never been observed to fight; nor could Mr. Bates, after a careful
+examination of numerous species, find any sufficient evidence in their
+mutilated or broken condition of their having been thus used. If the
+males had been habitual fighters, their size would probably have been
+increased through sexual selection, so as to have exceeded that of the
+female; but Mr. Bates, after comparing the two sexes in above a hundred
+species of the Copridae, does not find in well-developed individuals any
+marked difference in this respect. There is, moreover, one beetle,
+belonging to the same great division of the Lamellicorns, namely
+Lethrus, the males of which are known to fight, but they are not
+provided with horns, though their mandibles are much larger than those
+of the female.
+
+The conclusion, which best agrees with the fact of the horns having been
+so immensely yet not fixedly developed,--as shewn by their extreme
+variability in the same species and by their extreme diversity in
+closely-allied species--is that they have been acquired as ornaments.
+This view will at first appear extremely improbable; but we shall
+hereafter find with many animals, standing much higher in the scale,
+namely fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, that various kinds of
+crests, knobs, horns and combs have been developed apparently for this
+sole purpose.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20. Onitis furcifer, male, viewed from beneath.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer,
+viewed laterally. Right-hand figure, female. _a._ Rudiment of cephalic
+horn. _b._ Trace of thoracic horn or crest.]
+
+The males of _Onitis furcifer_ (fig. 20) are furnished with singular
+projections on their anterior femora, and with a great fork or pair of
+horns on the lower surface of the thorax. This situation seems extremely
+ill adapted for the display of these projections, and they may be of
+some real service; but no use can at present be assigned to them. It is
+a highly remarkable fact, that although the males do not exhibit even a
+trace of horns on the upper surface of the body, yet in the females a
+rudiment of a single horn on the head (fig. 21, _a_), and of a crest
+(_b_) on the thorax, are plainly visible. That the slight thoracic crest
+in the female is a rudiment of a projection proper to the male, though
+entirely absent in the male of this particular species, is clear: for
+the female of _Bubas bison_ (a form which comes next to _Onitis_) has a
+similar slight crest on the thorax, and the male has in the same
+situation a great projection. So again there can be no doubt that the
+little point (_a_) on the head of the female _Onitis furcifer_, as well
+of the females of two or three allied species, is a rudimentary
+representative of the cephalic horn, which is common to the males of so
+many lamellicorn beetles, as in Phanaeus, fig. 17. The males indeed of
+some unnamed beetles in the British Museum, which are believed actually
+to belong to the genus Onitis, are furnished with a similar horn. The
+remarkable nature of this case will be best perceived by an
+illustration: the Ruminant quadrupeds run parallel with the lamellicorn
+beetles, in some females possessing horns as large as those of the male,
+in others having them much smaller, or existing as mere rudiments
+(though this is as rare with ruminants as it is common with
+Lamellicorns), or in having none at all. Now if a new species of deer or
+sheep were discovered with the female bearing distinct rudiments of
+horns, whilst the head of the male was absolutely smooth, we should have
+a case like that of _Onitis furcifer_.
+
+In this case the old belief of rudiments having been created to complete
+the scheme of nature is so far from holding good, that all ordinary
+rules are completely broken through. The view which seems the most
+probable is that some early progenitor of Onitis acquired, like other
+Lamellicorns, horns on the head and thorax, and then transferred them,
+in a rudimentary condition, as with so many existing species, to the
+female, by whom they have ever since been retained. The subsequent loss
+of the horns by the male may have resulted through the principle of
+compensation from the development of the projections on the lower
+surface, whilst the female has not been thus affected, as she is not
+furnished with these projections, and consequently has retained the
+rudiments of the horns on the upper surface. Although this view is
+supported by the case of Bledius immediately to be given, yet the
+projections on the lower surface differ greatly in structure and
+development in the males of the several species of Onitis, and are even
+rudimentary in some; nevertheless the upper surface in all these species
+is quite destitute of horns. As secondary sexual characters are so
+eminently variable, it is possible that the projections on the lower
+surface may have been first acquired by some progenitor of Onitis and
+produced their effect through compensation, and then have been in
+certain cases almost completely lost.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure,
+male; right-hand figure, female.]
+
+All the cases hitherto given refer to the Lamellicorns, but the males of
+some few other beetles, belonging to two widely distinct groups, namely,
+the Curculionidae and Staphylinidae, are furnished with horns,--in the
+former on the lower surface of the body,[487] in the latter on the upper
+surface of the head and thorax. In the Staphylinidae the horns of the
+males in the same species are extraordinarily variable, just as we have
+seen with the Lamellicorns. In Siagonium we have a case of dimorphism,
+for the males can be divided into two sets, differing greatly in the
+size of their bodies, and in the development of their horns, without any
+intermediate gradations. In a species of Bledius (fig. 22), also
+belonging to the Staphylinidae, male specimens can be found in the same
+locality, as Professor Westwood states, "in which the central horn of
+the thorax is very large, but the horns of the head quite rudimental;
+and others, in which the thoracic horn is much shorter, whilst the
+protuberances on the head are long."[488] Here, then, we apparently have
+an instance of compensation of growth, which throws light on the curious
+case just given of the loss of the upper horns by the males of _Onitis
+furcifer_.
+
+
+_Law of Battle._--Some male beetles, which seem ill fitted for fighting,
+nevertheless engage in conflicts for the possession of the females. Mr.
+Wallace[489] saw two males of _Leptorhynchus angustatus_, a linear
+beetle with a much elongated rostrum, "fighting for a female, who stood
+close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other with their
+rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest rage." The
+smaller male, however, "soon ran away, acknowledging himself
+vanquished." In some few cases the males are well adapted for fighting,
+by possessing great toothed mandibles, much larger than those of the
+females. This is the case with the common stag-beetle (_Lucanus
+cervus_), the males of which emerge from the pupal state about a week
+before the other sex, so that several may often be seen pursuing the
+same female. At this period they engage in fierce conflicts. When Mr. A.
+H. Davis[490] enclosed two males with one female in a box, the larger
+male severely pinched the smaller one, until he resigned his
+pretensions. A friend informs me that when a boy he often put the males
+together to see them fight, and he noticed that they were much bolder
+and fiercer than the females, as is well known to be the case with the
+higher animals. The males would seize hold of his finger, if held in
+front, but not so the females. With many of the Lucanidae, as well as
+with the above-mentioned Leptorhynchus, the males are larger and more
+powerful insects than the females. The two sexes of _Lethrus cephalotes_
+(one of the Lamellicorns) inhabit the same burrow; and the male has
+larger mandibles than the female. If, during the breeding-season, a
+strange male attempts to enter the burrow, he is attacked; the female
+does not remain passive, but closes the mouth of the burrow, and
+encourages her mate by continually pushing him on from behind. The
+action does not cease until the aggressor is killed or runs away.[491]
+The two sexes of another lamellicorn beetle, the _Ateuchus cicatricosus_
+live in pairs, and seem much attached to each other; the male excites
+the female to roll the balls of dung in which the ova are deposited; and
+if she is removed, he becomes much agitated. If the male is removed, the
+female ceases all work, and as M. Brulerie[492] believes, would remain
+on the spot until she died.
+
+The great mandibles of the male Lucanidae are extremely variable both in
+size and structure, and in this respect resemble the horns on the head
+and thorax of many male Lamellicorns and Staphylinidae. A perfect series
+can be formed from the best-provided to the worst-provided or degenerate
+males. Although the mandibles of the common stag-beetle, and probably of
+many other species, are used as efficient weapons for fighting, it is
+doubtful whether their great size can thus be accounted for. We have
+seen that with the _Lucanus elaphus_ of N. America they are used for
+seizing the female. As they are so conspicuous and so elegantly
+branched, the suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that they may be
+serviceable to the males as an ornament, in the same manner as the horns
+on the head and thorax of the various above described species. The male
+_Chiasognathus grantii_ of S. Chile--a splendid beetle belonging to the
+same family--has enormously-developed mandibles (fig. 23); he is bold
+and pugnacious; when threatened on any side he faces round, opening his
+great jaws, and at the same time stridulating loudly; but the mandibles
+were not strong enough to pinch my finger so as to cause actual pain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23. Chiasognathus grantii, reduced. Upper figure,
+male; lower figure, female.]
+
+Sexual selection, which implies the possession of considerable
+perceptive powers and of strong passions, seems to have been more
+effective with the Lamellicorns than with any other family of the
+Coleoptera or beetles. With some species the males are provided with
+weapons for fighting; some live in pairs and show mutual affection;
+many have the power of stridulating when excited; many are furnished
+with the most extraordinary horns, apparently for the sake of ornament;
+some which are diurnal in their habits are gorgeously coloured; and,
+lastly, several of the largest beetles in the world belong to this
+family, which was placed by Linnaeus and Fabricius at the head of the
+Order of the Coleoptera.[493]
+
+
+_Stridulating organs._--Beetles belonging to many and widely distinct
+families possess these organs. The sound can sometimes be heard at the
+distance of several feet or even yards,[494] but is not comparable with
+that produced by the Orthoptera. The part which may be called the rasp
+generally consists of a narrow slightly-raised surface, crossed by very
+fine, parallel ribs, sometimes so fine as to cause iridescent colours,
+and having a very elegant appearance under the microscope. In some
+cases, for instance, with Typhaeus, it could be plainly seen that
+extremely minute, bristly, scale-like prominences, which cover the whole
+surrounding surface in approximately parallel lines, give rise to the
+ribs of the rasp by becoming confluent and straight, and at the same
+time more prominent and smooth. A hard ridge on any adjoining part of
+the body, which in some cases is specially modified for the purpose,
+serves as the scraper for the rasp. The scraper is rapidly moved across
+the rasp, or conversely the rasp across the scraper.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24. Necrophorus (from Landois). _r._ The two rasps.
+Left-hand figure, part of the rasp highly magnified.]
+
+These organs are situated in widely different positions. In the
+carrion-beetles (Necrophorus) two parallel rasps (_r_, fig. 24) stand on
+the dorsal surface of the fifth abdominal segment, each rasp being
+crossed, as described by Landois,[495] by from 126 to 140 fine ribs.
+These ribs are scraped by the posterior margins of the elytra, a small
+portion of which projects beyond the general outline. In many
+Crioceridae, and in _Clythra 4-punctata_ (one of the Chrysomelidae), and
+in some Tenebrionidae, &c.,[496] the rasp is seated on the dorsal apex of
+the abdomen, on the pygidium or pro-pygidium, and is scraped as above by
+the elytra. In Heterocerus, which belongs to another family, the rasps
+are placed on the sides of the first abdominal segment, and are scraped
+by ridges on the femora.[497] In certain Curculionidae and Carabidae,[498]
+the parts are completely reversed in position, for the rasps are seated
+on the inferior surface of the elytra, near their apices, or along their
+outer margins, and the edges of the abdominal segments serve as the
+scrapers. In _Pelobius hermanni_ (one of Dytiscidae or water-beetles) a
+strong ridge runs parallel and near to the sutural margin of the elytra,
+and is crossed by ribs, coarse in the middle part, but becoming
+gradually finer at both ends, especially at the upper end; when this
+insect is held under water or in the air, a stridulating noise is
+produced by scraping the extreme horny margin of the abdomen against the
+rasp. In a great number of long-horned beetles (Longicornia) the organs
+are altogether differently situated, the rasp being on the meso-thorax,
+which is rubbed against the pro-thorax; Landois counted 238 very fine
+ribs on the rasp of _Cerambyx heros_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. Hind-leg of Geotrupes stercorarius (from
+Landois). _r._ Rasp. _c._ Coxa. _f._ Femur. _t._ Tibia. _tr._ Tarsi.]
+
+Many Lamellicorns have the power of stridulating, and the organs differ
+greatly in position. Some species stridulate very loudly, so that when
+Mr. F. Smith caught a _Trox sabulosus_, a gamekeeper who stood by
+thought that he had caught a mouse; but I failed to discover the proper
+organs in this beetle. In Geotrupes and Typhaeus a narrow ridge runs
+obliquely across (_r_, fig. 25) the coxa of each hind-leg, having in
+_G. stercorarius_ 84 ribs, which are scraped by a specially-projecting
+part of one of the abdominal segments. In the nearly allied _Copris
+lunaris_, an excessively narrow fine rasp runs along the sutural margin
+of the elytra, with another short rasp near the basal outer margin; but
+in some other Coprini the rasp is seated, according to Leconte,[499] on
+the dorsal surface of the abdomen. In Oryctes it is seated on the
+pro-pygidium, and in some other Dynastini, according to the same
+entomologist, on the under surface of the elytra. Lastly, Westring
+states that in _Omaloplia brunnea_ the rasp is placed on the
+pro-sternum, and the scraper on the meta-sternum, the parts thus
+occupying the under surface of the body, instead of the upper surface as
+in the Longicorns.
+
+We thus see that the stridulating organs in the different coleopterous
+families are wonderfully diversified in position, but not much in
+structure. Within the same family some species are provided with these
+organs, and some are quite destitute of them. This diversity is
+intelligible, if we suppose that originally various species made a
+shuffling or hissing noise by the rubbing together of the hard and rough
+parts of their bodies which were in contact; and that from the noise
+thus produced being in some way useful, the rough surfaces were
+gradually developed into regular stridulating organs. Some beetles as
+they move, now produce, either intentionally or unintentionally, a
+shuffling noise, without possessing any proper organs for the purpose.
+Mr. Wallace informs me that the _Euchirus longimanus_ (a Lamellicorn,
+with the anterior legs wonderfully elongated in the male) "makes, whilst
+moving, a low hissing sound by the protrusion and contraction of the
+abdomen; and when seized it produces a grating sound by rubbing its
+hind-legs against the edges of the elytra." The hissing sound is clearly
+due to a narrow rasp running along the sutural margin of each elytron;
+and I could likewise make the grating sound by rubbing the shagreened
+surface of the femur against the granulated margin of the corresponding
+elytron; but I could not here detect any proper rasp; nor is it likely
+that I could have overlooked it in so large an insect. After examining
+Cychrus and reading what Westring has written in his two papers about
+this beetle, it seems very doubtful whether it possesses any true rasp,
+though it has the power of emitting a sound.
+
+From the analogy of the Orthoptera and Homoptera, I expected to find
+that the stridulating organs in the Coleoptera differed according to
+sex; but Landois, who has carefully examined several species, observed
+no such difference; nor did Westring; nor did Mr. G. R. Crotch in
+preparing the numerous specimens which he had the kindness to send me
+for examination. Any slight sexual difference, however, would be
+difficult to detect, on account of the great variability of these
+organs. Thus in the first pair of the _Necrophorus humator_ and of the
+_Pelobius_ which I examined, the rasp was considerably larger in the
+male than in the female; but not so with succeeding specimens. In
+_Geotrupes stercorarius_ the rasp appeared to me thicker, opaquer, and
+more prominent in three males than in the same number of females;
+consequently my son, Mr. F. Darwin, in order to discover whether the
+sexes differed in their power of stridulating, collected 57 living
+specimens, which he separated into two lots, according as they made,
+when held in the same manner, a greater or lesser noise. He then
+examined their sexes, but found that the males were very nearly in the
+same proportion to the females in both lots. Mr. F. Smith has kept alive
+numerous specimens of _Mononychus pseudacori_ (Curculionidae), and is
+satisfied that both sexes stridulate, and apparently in an equal degree.
+
+Nevertheless the power of stridulating is certainly a sexual character
+in some few Coleoptera. Mr. Crotch has discovered that the males alone
+of two species of Heliopathes (Tenebrionidae) possess stridulating
+organs. I examined five males of _H. gibbus_, and in all these there was
+a well-developed rasp, partially divided into two, on the dorsal surface
+of the terminal abdominal segment; whilst in the same number of females
+there was not even a rudiment of the rasp, the membrane of this segment
+being transparent and much thinner than in the male. In _H.
+cribratostriatus_ the male has a similar rasp, excepting that it is not
+partially divided into two portions, and the female is completely
+destitute of this organ; but in addition the male has on the apical
+margins of the elytra, on each side of the suture, three or four short
+longitudinal ridges, which are crossed by extremely fine ribs, parallel
+to and resembling those on the abdominal rasp; whether these ridges
+serve as an independent rasp, or as a scraper for the abdominal rasp, I
+could not decide: the female exhibits no trace of this latter structure.
+
+Again, in three species of the Lamellicorn genus Oryctes, we have a
+nearly parallel case. In the females of _O. gryphus_ and _nasicornis_
+the ribs on the rasp of the pro-pygidium are less continuous and less
+distinct than in the males; but the chief difference is that the whole
+upper surface of this segment, when held in the proper light, is seen to
+be clothed with hairs, which are absent or are represented by
+excessively fine down in the males. It should be noticed that in all
+Coleoptera the effective part of the rasp is destitute of hairs. In _O.
+senegalensis_ the difference between the sexes is more strongly marked,
+and this is best seen when the proper segment is cleaned and viewed as a
+transparent object. In the female the whole surface is covered with
+little separate crests, bearing spines; whilst in the male these crests
+become, in proceeding towards the apex, more and more confluent,
+regular, and naked; so that three-fourths of the segment is covered with
+extremely fine parallel ribs, which are quite absent in the female. In
+the females, however, of all three species of Oryctes, when the abdomen
+of a softened specimen is pushed backwards and forwards, a slight
+grating or stridulating sound can be produced.
+
+In the case of the Heliopathes and Oryctes there can hardly be a doubt
+that the males stridulate in order to call or to excite the females; but
+with most beetles the stridulation apparently serves both sexes as a
+mutual call. This view is not rendered improbable from beetles
+stridulating under various emotions; we know that birds use their voices
+for many purposes besides singing to their mates. The great
+Chiasognathus stridulates in anger or defiance; many species do the same
+from distress or fear, when held so that they cannot escape; Messrs.
+Wollaston and Crotch were able, by striking the hollow stems of trees in
+the Canary Islands, to discover the presence of beetles belonging to the
+genus Acalles by their stridulation. Lastly the male Ateuchus
+stridulates to encourage the female in her work, and from distress when
+she is removed.[500] Some naturalists believe that beetles make this
+noise to frighten away their enemies; but I cannot think that the
+quadrupeds and birds which are able to devour the larger beetles with
+their extremely hard coats, would be frightened by so slight a grating
+sound. The belief that the stridulation serves as a sexual call is
+supported by the fact that death-ticks (_Anobium tessellatum_) are well
+known to answer each other's ticking, or, as I have myself observed, a
+tapping noise artificially made; and Mr. Doubleday informs me that he
+has twice or thrice observed a female ticking,[501] and in the course of
+an hour or two has found her united with a male, and on one occasion
+surrounded by several males. Finally, it seems probable that the two
+sexes of many kinds of beetles were at first enabled to find each other
+by the slight shuffling noise produced by the rubbing together of the
+adjoining parts of their hard bodies; and that as the males or females
+which made the greatest noise succeeded best in finding partners, the
+rugosities on various parts of their bodies were gradually developed by
+means of sexual selection into true stridulating organs.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+INSECTS, _continued_.--ORDER LEPIDOPTERA.
+
+
+  Courtship of butterflies--Battles--Ticking noise--Colours
+  common to both sexes, or more brilliant in the
+  males--Examples--Not due to the direct action of the conditions
+  of life--Colours adapted for protection--Colours of
+  moths--Display--Perceptive powers of the
+  Lepidoptera--Variability--Causes of the difference in colour
+  between the males and females--Mimickry, female butterflies
+  more brilliantly coloured than the males--Bright colours of
+  caterpillars--Summary and concluding remarks on the secondary
+  sexual characters of insects--Birds and insects compared.
+
+
+In this great Order the most interesting point for us is the difference
+in colour between the sexes of the same species, and between the
+distinct species of the same genus. Nearly the whole of the following
+chapter will be devoted to this subject; but I will first make a few
+remarks on one or two other points. Several males may often be seen
+pursuing and crowding round the same female. Their courtship appears to
+be a prolonged affair, for I have frequently watched one or more males
+pirouetting round a female until I became tired, without seeing the end
+of the courtship. Although butterflies are such weak and fragile
+creatures, they are pugnacious, and an Emperor butterfly[502] has been
+captured with the tips of its wings broken from a conflict with another
+male. Mr. Collingwood in speaking of the frequent battles between the
+butterflies of Borneo says, "They whirl round each other with the
+greatest rapidity, and appear to be incited by the greatest ferocity."
+One case is known of a butterfly, namely the _Ageronia feronia_, which
+makes a noise like that produced by a toothed wheel passing under a
+spring catch, and which could be heard at the distance of several yards.
+At Rio de Janeiro this sound was noticed by me, only when two were
+chasing each other in an irregular course, so that it is probably made
+during the courtship of the sexes; but I neglected to attend to this
+point.[503]
+
+Every one has admired the extreme beauty of many butterflies and of some
+moths; and we are led to ask, how has this beauty been acquired? Have
+their colours and diversified patterns simply resulted from the direct
+action of the physical conditions to which these insects have been
+exposed, without any benefit being thus derived? Or have successive
+variations been accumulated and determined either as a protection or for
+some unknown purpose, or that one sex might be rendered attractive to
+the other? And, again, what is the meaning of the colours being widely
+different in the males and females of certain species, and alike in the
+two sexes of other species? Before attempting to answer these questions
+a body of facts must be given.
+
+With most of our English butterflies, both those which are beautiful,
+such as the admiral, peacock, and painted lady (Vanessae), and those
+which are plain-coloured, such as the meadow-browns (Hipparchiae), the
+sexes are alike. This is also the case with the magnificent Heliconidae
+and Danaidae of the tropics. But in certain other tropical groups, and
+with some of our English butterflies, as the purple emperor, orange-tip,
+&c. (_Apatura Iris_ and _Anthocharis cardamines_), the sexes differ
+either greatly or slightly in colour. No language suffices to describe
+the splendour of the males of some tropical species. Even within the
+same genus we often find species presenting an extraordinary difference
+between the sexes, whilst others have their sexes closely alike. Thus in
+the South American genus Epicalia, Mr. Bates, to whom I am much indebted
+for most of the following facts and for looking over this whole
+discussion, informs me that he knows twelve species, the two sexes of
+which haunt the same stations (and this is not always the case with
+butterflies), and therefore cannot have been differently affected by
+external conditions[504]. In nine of these species the males rank
+amongst the most brilliant of all butterflies, and differ so greatly
+from the comparatively plain females that they were formerly placed in
+distinct genera. The females of these nine species resemble each other
+in their general type of coloration, and likewise resemble both sexes in
+several allied genera, found in various parts of the world. Hence in
+accordance with the descent-theory we may infer that these nine species,
+and probably all the others of the genus, are descended from an
+ancestral form which was coloured in nearly the same manner. In the
+tenth species the female still retains the same general colouring, but
+the male resembles her, so that he is coloured in a much less gaudy and
+contrasted manner than the males of the previous species. In the
+eleventh and twelfth species, the females depart from the type of
+colouring which is usual with their sex in this genus, for they are
+gaily decorated in nearly the same manner as the males, but in a
+somewhat less degree. Hence in these two species the bright colours of
+the males seem to have been transferred to the females; whilst the male
+of the tenth species has either retained or recovered the plain colours
+of the female as well as of the parent-form of the genus; the two sexes
+being thus rendered in both cases, though in an opposite manner, nearly
+alike. In the allied genus Eubagis, both sexes of some of the species
+are plain-coloured and nearly alike; whilst with the greater number the
+males are decorated with beautiful metallic tints, in a diversified
+manner, and differ much from their females. The females throughout the
+genus retain the same general style of colouring, so that they commonly
+resemble each other much more closely than they resemble their own
+proper males.
+
+In the genus Papilio, all the species of the AEneas group are remarkable
+for their conspicuous and strongly contrasted colours, and they
+illustrate the frequent tendency to gradation in the amount of
+difference between the sexes. In a few species, for instance in _P.
+ascanius_, the males and females are alike; in others the males are a
+little or very much more superbly coloured than the females. The genus
+Junonia allied to our Vanessae offers a nearly parallel case, for
+although the sexes of most of the species resemble each other and are
+destitute of rich colours, yet in certain species, as in _J. oenone_,
+the male is rather more brightly coloured than the female, and in a few
+(for instance _J. andremiaja_) the male is so different from the female
+that he might be mistaken for an entirely distinct species.
+
+Another striking case was pointed out to me in the British museum by Mr.
+A. Butler, namely one of the Tropical American Theclae, in which both
+sexes are nearly alike and wonderfully splendid; in another, the male
+is coloured in a similarly gorgeous manner, whilst the whole upper
+surface of the female is of a dull uniform brown. Our common little
+English blue butterflies of the genus Lycaena, illustrate the various
+differences in colour between the sexes, almost as well, though not in
+so striking a manner, as the above exotic genera. In _Lycaena agestis_
+both sexes have wings of a brown colour, bordered with small ocellated
+orange spots, and are consequently alike. In _L. oegon_ the wings of
+the male are of a fine blue, bordered with black; whilst the wings of
+the female are brown, with a similar border, and closely resemble those
+of _L. agestis_. Lastly, in _L. arion_ both sexes are of a blue colour
+and nearly alike, though in the female the edges of the wings are rather
+duskier, with the black spots plainer; and in a bright blue Indian
+species both sexes are still more closely alike.
+
+I have given the foregoing cases in some detail in order to shew, in the
+first place, that when the sexes of butterflies differ, the male as a
+general rule is the most beautiful, and departs most from the usual type
+of colouring of the group to which the species belongs. Hence in most
+groups the females of the several species resemble each other much more
+closely than do the males. In some exceptional cases, however, to which
+I shall hereafter allude, the females are coloured more splendidly than
+the males. In the second place these cases have been given to bring
+clearly before the mind that within the same genus, the two sexes
+frequently present every gradation from no difference in colour to so
+great a difference that it was long before the two were placed by
+entomologists in the same genus. In the third place, we have seen that
+when the sexes nearly resemble each other, this apparently may be due
+either to the male having transferred his colours to the female, or to
+the male having retained, or perhaps recovered, the primordial colours
+of the genus to which the species belongs. It also deserves notice that
+in those groups in which the sexes present any difference of colour, the
+females usually resemble the males to a certain extent, so that when the
+males are beautiful to an extraordinary degree, the females almost
+invariably exhibit some degree of beauty. From the numerous cases of
+gradation in the amount of difference between the sexes, and from the
+prevalence of the same general type of coloration throughout the whole
+of the same group, we may conclude that the causes, whatever they may
+be, which have determined the brilliant colouring of the males alone of
+some species, and of both sexes in a more or less equal degree of other
+species, have generally been the same.
+
+As so many gorgeous butterflies inhabit the tropics, it has often been
+supposed that they owe their colours to the great heat and moisture of
+these zones; but Mr. Bates[505] has shewn by the comparison of various
+closely-allied groups of insects from the temperate and tropical
+regions, that this view cannot be maintained; and the evidence becomes
+conclusive when brilliantly-coloured males and plain-coloured females of
+the same species inhabit the same district, feed on the same food, and
+follow exactly the same habits of life. Even when the sexes resemble
+each other, we can hardly believe that their brilliant and
+beautifully-arranged colours are the purposeless result of the nature of
+the tissues, and the action of the surrounding conditions.
+
+With animals of all kinds, whenever colour has been modified for some
+special purpose, this has been, as far as we can judge, either for
+protection or as an attraction between the sexes. With many species of
+butterflies the upper surfaces of the wings are obscurely coloured, and
+this in all probability leads to their escaping observation and danger.
+But butterflies when at rest would be particularly liable to be attacked
+by their enemies; and almost all the kinds when resting raise their
+wings vertically over their backs, so that the lower sides alone are
+exposed to view. Hence it is this side which in many cases is obviously
+coloured so as to imitate the surfaces on which these insects commonly
+rest. Dr. Roessler, I believe, first noticed the similarity of the closed
+wings of certain Vanessae and other butterflies to the bark of trees.
+Many analogous and striking facts could be given. The most interesting
+one is that recorded by Mr. Wallace[506] of a common Indian and Sumatran
+butterfly (Kallima), which disappears like magic when it settles in a
+bush; for it hides its head and antennae between its closed wings, and
+these in form, colour, and veining cannot be distinguished from a
+withered leaf together with the footstalk. In some other cases the lower
+surfaces of the wings are brilliantly coloured, and yet are protective;
+thus in _Thecla rubi_ the wings when closed are of an emerald green and
+resemble the young leaves of the bramble, on which this butterfly in the
+spring may often be seen seated.
+
+Although the obscure tints of the upper or under surface of many
+butterflies no doubt serve to conceal them, yet we cannot possibly
+extend this view to the brilliant and conspicuous colours of many kinds,
+such as our admiral and peacock Vanessae, our white cabbage-butterflies
+(Pieris), or the great swallow-tail Papilio which haunts the open
+fens--for these butterflies are thus rendered visible to every living
+creature. With these species both sexes are alike; but in the common
+brimstone butterfly (_Gonepteryx rhamni_), the male is of an intense
+yellow, whilst the female is much paler; and in the orange-tip
+(_Anthocharis cardamines_) the males alone have the bright orange tips
+to their wings. In these cases the males and females are equally
+conspicuous, and it is not credible that their difference in colour
+stands in any relation to ordinary protection. Nevertheless it is
+possible that the conspicuous colours of many species may be in an
+indirect manner beneficial, as will hereafter be explained, by leading
+their enemies at once to recognise them as unpalatable. Even in this
+case it does not certainly follow that their bright colours and
+beautiful patterns were acquired for this special purpose. In some other
+remarkable cases, beauty has been gained for the sake of protection,
+through the imitation of other beautiful species, which inhabit the same
+district and enjoy an immunity from attack by being in some way
+offensive to their enemies.
+
+The female of our orange-tip butterfly, above referred to, and of an
+American species (_Anth. genutia_) probably shew us, as Mr. Walsh has
+remarked to me, the primordial colours of the parent-species of the
+genus; for both sexes of four or five widely-distributed species are
+coloured in nearly the same manner. We may infer here, as in several
+previous cases, that it is the males of _Anth. cardamines_ and _genutia_
+which have departed from the usual type of colouring of their genus. In
+the _Anth. sara_ from California, the orange-tips have become partially
+developed in the female; for her wings are tipped with reddish-orange,
+but paler than in the male, and slightly different in some other
+respects. In an allied Indian form, the _Iphias glaucippe_, the
+orange-tips are fully developed in both sexes. In this Iphias the under
+surface of the wings marvellously resembles, as pointed out to me by Mr.
+A. Butler, a pale-coloured leaf; and in our English orange-tip, the
+under surface resembles the flower-head of the wild parsley, on which it
+may be seen going to rest at night.[507] The same reasoning power which
+compels us to believe that the lower surfaces have here been coloured
+for the sake of protection, leads us to deny that the wings have been
+tipped, especially when this character is confined to the males, with
+bright orange for the same purpose.
+
+
+Turning now to Moths: most of these rest motionless with their wings
+depressed during the whole or greater part of the day; and the upper
+surfaces of their wings are often shaded and coloured in an admirable
+manner, as Mr. Wallace has remarked, for escaping detection. With most
+of the Bombycidae and Noctuidae,[508] when at rest, the front-wings
+overlap and conceal the hind-wings; so that the latter might be brightly
+coloured without much risk; and they are thus coloured in many species
+of both families. During the act of flight, moths would often be able to
+escape from their enemies; nevertheless, as the hind-wings are then
+fully exposed to view, their bright colours must generally have been
+acquired at the cost of some little risk. But the following fact shews
+us how cautious we ought to be in drawing conclusions on this head. The
+common yellow under-wings (Triphaena) often fly about during the day or
+early evening, and are then conspicuous from the colour of their
+hind-wings. It would naturally be thought that this would be a source of
+danger; but Mr. J. Jenner Weir believes that it actually serves them as
+a means of escape, for birds strike at these brightly coloured and
+fragile surfaces, instead of at the body. For instance, Mr. Weir turned
+into his aviary a vigorous specimen of _Triphaena pronuba_, which was
+instantly pursued by a robin; but the bird's attention being caught by
+the coloured wings, the moth was not captured until after about fifty
+attempts, and small portions of the wings were repeatedly broken off. He
+tried the same experiment, in the open air, with a _T. fimbria_ and
+swallow; but the large size of this moth probably interfered with its
+capture.[509] We are thus reminded of a statement made by Mr.
+Wallace,[510] namely, that in the Brazilian forests and Malayan islands,
+many common and highly-decorated butterflies are weak flyers, though
+furnished with a broad expanse of wings; and they "are often captured
+with pierced and broken wings, as if they had been seized by birds, from
+which they had escaped: if the wings had been much smaller in proportion
+to the body, it seems probable that the insect would more frequently
+have been struck or pierced in a vital part, and thus the increased
+expanse of the wings may have been indirectly beneficial."
+
+
+_Display._--The bright colours of butterflies and of some moths are
+specially arranged for display, whether or not they serve in addition as
+a protection. Bright colours would not be visible during the night; and
+there can be no doubt that moths, taken as a body, are much less gaily
+decorated than butterflies, all of which are diurnal in their habits.
+But the moths in certain families, such as the Zygaenidae, various
+Sphingidae, Uraniidae, some Arctiidae and Saturniidae, fly about during the
+day or early evening, and many of these are extremely beautiful, being
+far more brightly coloured than the strictly nocturnal kinds. A few
+exceptional cases, however, of brightly-coloured nocturnal species have
+been recorded.[511]
+
+There is evidence of another kind in regard to display. Butterflies, as
+before remarked, elevate their wings when at rest, and whilst basking in
+the sunshine often alternately raise and depress them, thus exposing to
+full view both surfaces; and although the lower surface is often
+coloured in an obscure manner as a protection, yet in many species it is
+as highly coloured as the upper surface, and sometimes in a very
+different manner. In some tropical species the lower surface is even
+more brilliantly coloured than the upper.[512] In one English
+fritillary, the _Argynnis aglaia_, the lower surface alone is ornamented
+with shining silver discs. Nevertheless, as a general rule, the upper
+surface, which is probably the most fully exposed, is coloured more
+brightly and in a more diversified manner than the lower. Hence the
+lower surface generally affords to entomologists the most useful
+character for detecting the affinities of the various species.
+
+Now if we turn to the enormous group of moths, which do not habitually
+expose to full view the under surface of their wings, this side is very
+rarely, as I hear from Mr. Stainton, coloured more brightly than the
+upper side, or even with equal brightness. Some exceptions to the rule,
+either real or apparent, must be noticed, as that of Hypopyra, specified
+by Mr. Wormald.[513] Mr. R. Trimen informs me that in Guenee's great
+work, three moths are figured, in which the under surface is much the
+most brilliant. For instance, in the Australian Gastrophora the upper
+surface of the fore-wing is pale greyish-ochreous, while the lower
+surface is magnificently ornamented by an ocellus of cobalt-blue, placed
+in the midst of a black mark, surrounded by orange-yellow, and this by
+bluish-white. But the habits of these three moths are unknown; so that
+no explanation can be given of their unusual style of colouring. Mr.
+Trimen also informs me that the lower surface of the wings in certain
+other Geometrae[514] and quadrifid Noctuae are either more variegated or
+more brightly-coloured than the upper surface; but some of these species
+have the habit of "holding their wings quite erect over their backs,
+retaining them in this position for a considerable time," and thus
+exposing to view the under surface. Other species when settled on the
+ground or herbage have the habit of now and then suddenly and slightly
+lifting up their wings. Hence the lower surface of the wings being more
+brightly-coloured than the upper surface in certain moths is not so
+anomalous a circumstance as it at first appears. The Saturniidae include
+some of the most beautiful of all moths, their wings being decorated, as
+in our British Emperor moth, with fine ocelli; and Mr. T. W. Wood[515]
+observes that they resemble butterflies in some of their movements; "for
+instance, in the gentle waving up and down of the wings, as if for
+display, which is more characteristic of diurnal than of nocturnal
+Lepidoptera."
+
+It is a singular fact that no British moths, nor as far as I can
+discover hardly any foreign species, which are brilliantly coloured,
+differ much in colour according to sex; though this is the case with
+many brilliant butterflies. The male, however, of one American moth, the
+_Saturnia Io_, is described as having its fore-wings deep yellow,
+curiously marked with purplish-red spots; whilst the wings of the female
+are purple-brown, marked with grey lines.[516] The British moths which
+differ sexually in colour are all brown, or various tints of dull
+yellow, or nearly white. In several species the males are much darker
+than the females,[517] and these belong to groups which generally fly
+about during the afternoon. On the other hand, in many genera, as Mr.
+Stainton informs me, the males have the hind-wings whiter than those of
+the female--of which, fact _Agrotis exclamationis_ offers a good
+instance. The males are thus rendered more conspicuous than the females,
+whilst flying about in the dusk. In the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_)
+the difference is more strongly marked; the males being white and the
+females yellow with darker markings. It is difficult to conjecture what
+the meaning can be of these differences between the sexes in the shades
+of darkness or lightness; but we can hardly suppose that they are the
+result of mere variability with sexually-limited inheritance,
+independently of any benefit thus derived.
+
+From the foregoing statements it is impossible to admit that the
+brilliant colours of butterflies and of some few moths, have commonly
+been acquired for the sake of protection. We have seen that their
+colours and elegant patterns are arranged and exhibited as if for
+display. Hence I am led to suppose that the females generally prefer, or
+are most excited by the more brilliant males; for on any other
+supposition the males would be ornamented, as far as we can see, for no
+purpose. We know that ants and certain lamellicorn beetles are capable
+of feeling an attachment for each other, and that ants recognise their
+fellows after an interval of several months. Hence there is no abstract
+improbability in the Lepidoptera, which probably stand nearly or quite
+as high in the scale as these insects, having sufficient mental capacity
+to admire bright colours. They certainly discover flowers by colour,
+and, as I have elsewhere shewn, the plants which are fertilised
+exclusively by the wind never have a conspicuously-coloured corolla. The
+Humming-bird Sphinx may often be seen to swoop down from a distance on a
+bunch of flowers in the midst of green foliage; and I have been assured
+by a friend, that these moths repeatedly visited flowers painted on the
+walls of a room in the South of France. The common white butterfly, as I
+hear from Mr. Doubleday, often flies down to a bit of paper on the
+ground, no doubt mistaking it for one of its own species. Mr.
+Collingwood[518] in speaking of the difficulty of collecting certain
+butterflies in the Malay Archipelago, states that "a dead specimen
+pinned upon a conspicuous twig will often arrest an insect of the same
+species in its headlong flight, and bring it down within easy reach of
+the net, especially if it be of the opposite sex."
+
+The courtship of butterflies is a prolonged affair. The males sometimes
+fight together in rivalry; and many may be seen pursuing or crowding
+round the same female. If, then, the females do not prefer one male to
+another, the pairing must be left to mere chance, and this does not
+appear to me a probable event. If, on the other hand, the females
+habitually, or even occasionally, prefer the more beautiful males, the
+colours of the latter will have been rendered brighter by degrees, and
+will have been transmitted to both sexes or to one sex, according to
+which law of inheritance prevailed. The process of sexual selection will
+have been much facilitated, if the conclusions arrived at from various
+kinds of evidence in the supplement to the ninth chapter can be trusted;
+namely that the males of many Lepidoptera, at least in the imago state,
+greatly exceed in number the females.
+
+Some facts, however, are opposed to the belief that female butterflies
+prefer the more beautiful males; thus, as I have been assured by several
+observers, fresh females may frequently be seen paired with battered,
+faded or dingy males; but this is a circumstance which could hardly
+fail often to follow from the males emerging from their cocoons earlier
+than the females. With moths of the family of the Bombycidae, the sexes
+pair immediately after assuming the imago state; for they cannot feed,
+owing to the rudimentary condition of their mouths. The females, as
+several entomologists have remarked to me, lie in an almost torpid
+state, and appear not to evince the least choice in regard to their
+partners, This is the case with the common silk-moth (_B. mori_), as I
+have been told by some continental and English breeders. Dr. Wallace,
+who has had such immense experience in breeding _Bombyx cynthia_, is
+convinced that the females evince no choice or preference. He has kept
+above 300 of these moths living together, and has often found the most
+vigorous females mated with stunted males. The reverse apparently seldom
+occurs; for, as he believes, the more vigorous males pass over the
+weakly females, being attracted by those endowed with most vitality.
+Although we have been indirectly induced to believe that the females of
+many species prefer the more beautiful males, I have no reason to
+suspect, either with moths or butterflies, that the males are attracted
+by the beauty of the females. If the more beautiful females had been
+continually preferred, it is almost certain, from the colours of
+butterflies being so frequently transmitted to one sex alone, that the
+females would often have been rendered more beautiful than their male
+partners. But this does not occur except in a few instances; and these
+can be explained, as we shall presently see, on the principle of
+mimickry and protection.
+
+
+As sexual selection primarily depends on variability, a few words must
+be added on this subject. In respect to colour there is no difficulty,
+as any number of highly variable Lepidoptera could be named. One good
+instance will suffice. Mr. Bates shewed me a whole series of specimens
+of _Papilio sesostris_ and _childrenae_; in the latter the males varied
+much in the extent of the beautifully enamelled green patch on the
+fore-wings, and in the size of the white mark, as well as of the
+splendid crimson stripe on the hind-wings; so that there was a great
+contrast between the most and least gaudy males. The male of _Papilio
+sesostris_, though a beautiful insect, is much less so than _P.
+childrenae_. It likewise varies a little in the size of the green patch
+on the fore-wings, and in the occasional appearance of a small crimson
+stripe on the hind-wings, borrowed, as it would seem, from its own
+female; for the females of this and of many other species in the AEneas
+group possess this crimson stripe. Hence between the brightest specimens
+of _P. sesostris_ and the least bright of _P. childrenae_, there was but
+a small interval; and it was evident that as far as mere variability is
+concerned, there would be no difficulty in permanently increasing by
+means of selection the beauty of either species. The variability is here
+almost confined to the male sex; but Mr. Wallace and Mr. Bates have
+shewn[519] that the females of some other species are extremely
+variable, the males being nearly constant. As I have before mentioned
+the Ghost Moth (_Hepialus humuli_) as one of the best instances in
+Britain of a difference in colour between the sexes of moths, it may be
+worth adding[520] that in the Shetland Islands, males are frequently
+found which closely resemble the females. In a future chapter I shall
+have occasion to shew that the beautiful eye-like spots or ocelli, so
+common on the wings of many Lepidoptera, are eminently variable.
+
+
+On the whole, although many serious objections may be urged, it seems
+probable that most of the species of Lepidoptera which are brilliantly
+coloured, owe their colours to sexual selection, excepting in certain
+cases, presently to be mentioned, in which conspicuous colours are
+beneficial as a protection. From the ardour of the male throughout the
+animal kingdom, he is generally willing to accept any female; and it is
+the female which usually exerts a choice. Hence if sexual selection has
+here acted, the male, when the sexes differ, ought to be the most
+brilliantly coloured; and this undoubtedly is the ordinary rule. When
+the sexes are brilliantly coloured and resemble each other, the
+characters acquired by the males appear to have been transmitted to both
+sexes. But will this explanation of the similarity and dissimilarity in
+colour between the sexes suffice?
+
+The males and females of the same species of butterfly are known[521] in
+several cases to inhabit different stations, the former commonly basking
+in the sunshine, the latter haunting gloomy forests. It is therefore
+possible that different conditions of life may have acted directly on
+the two sexes; but this is not probable,[522] as in the adult state they
+are exposed during a very short period to different conditions; and the
+larvae of both are exposed to the same conditions. Mr. Wallace believes
+that the less brilliant colours of the female have been specially
+gained in all or almost all cases for the sake of protection. On the
+contrary it seems to me more probable that the males alone, in the large
+majority of cases, have acquired their bright colours through sexual
+selection, the females having been but little modified. Consequently the
+females of distinct but allied species ought to resemble each other much
+more closely than do the males of the same species; and this is the
+general rule. The females thus approximately show us the primordial
+colouring of the parent-species of the group to which they belong. They
+have, however, almost always been modified to a certain extent by some
+of the successive steps of variation, through the accumulation of which
+the males were rendered beautiful, having been transferred to them. The
+males and females of allied though distinct species will also generally
+have been exposed during their prolonged larval state to different
+conditions, and may have been thus indirectly affected; though with the
+males any slight change of colour thus caused will often have been
+completely masked by the brilliant tints gained through sexual
+selection. When we treat of Birds, I shall have to discuss the whole
+question whether the differences in colour between the males and females
+have been in part specially gained by the latter as a protection; so
+that I will here only give unavoidable details.
+
+In all cases when the more common form of equal inheritance by both
+sexes has prevailed, the selection of bright-coloured males would tend
+to make the females bright-coloured; and the selection of dull-coloured
+females would tend to make the males dull. If both processes were
+carried on simultaneously, they would tend to neutralise each other. As
+far as I can see, it would be extremely difficult to change through
+selection the one form of inheritance into the other. But by the
+selection of successive variations, which were from the first sexually
+limited in their transmission, there would not be the slightest
+difficulty in giving bright colours to the males alone, and at the same
+time or subsequently, dull colours to the females alone. In this latter
+manner female butterflies and moths may, as I fully admit, have been
+rendered inconspicuous for the sake of protection, and widely different
+from their males.
+
+Mr. Wallace[523] has argued with much force in favour of his view that
+when the sexes differ, the female has been specially modified for the
+sake of protection; and that this has been effected by one form of
+inheritance, namely, the transmission of characters to both sexes,
+having been changed through the agency of natural selection into the
+other form, namely, transmission to one sex. I was at first strongly
+inclined to accept this view; but the more I have studied the various
+classes throughout the animal kingdom, the less probable it has
+appeared. Mr. Wallace urges that both sexes of the _Heliconidae_,
+_Danaidae_, _Acroeidae_ are equally brilliant because both are protected
+from the attacks of birds and other enemies, by their offensive odour;
+but that in other groups, which do not possess this immunity, the
+females have been rendered inconspicuous, from having more need of
+protection than the males. This supposed difference in the "need of
+protection by the two sexes" is rather deceptive, and requires some
+discussion. It is obvious that brightly-coloured individuals, whether
+males or females, would equally attract, and obscurely-coloured
+individuals equally escape, the attention of their enemies. But we are
+concerned with the effects of the destruction or preservation of certain
+individuals of either sex, on the character of the race. With insects,
+after the male has fertilised the female, and after the latter has laid
+her eggs, the greater or less immunity from danger of either sex could
+not possibly have any effect on the offspring. Before the sexes have
+performed their proper functions, if they existed in equal numbers and
+if they strictly paired (all other circumstances being the same), the
+preservation of the males and females would be equally important for the
+existence of the species and for the character of the offspring. But
+with most animals, as is known to be the case with the domestic
+silk-moth, the male can fertilise two or three females; so that the
+destruction of the males would not be so injurious to the species as
+that of the females. On the other hand, Dr. Wallace believes that with
+moths the progeny from a second or third fertilisation is apt to be
+weakly, and therefore would not have so good chance of surviving. When
+the males exist in much greater numbers than the females, no doubt many
+males might be destroyed with impunity to the species; but I cannot see
+that the results of ordinary selection for the sake of protection would
+be influenced by the sexes existing in unequal numbers; for the same
+proportion of the more conspicuous individuals, whether males or
+females, would probably be destroyed. If indeed the males presented a
+greater range of variation in colour, the result would be different; but
+we need not here follow out such complex details. On the whole I cannot
+perceive that an inequality in the numbers of the two sexes would
+influence in any marked manner the effects of ordinary selection on the
+character of the offspring.
+
+Female Lepidoptera require, as Mr. Wallace insists, some days to
+deposit their fertilised ova and to search for a proper place; during
+this period (whilst the life of the male was of no importance) the
+brighter-coloured females would be exposed to danger and would be liable
+to be destroyed. The duller-coloured females on the other hand would
+survive, and thus would influence, it might be thought, in a marked
+manner the character of the species,--either of both sexes or of one
+sex, according to which form of inheritance prevailed. But it must not
+be forgotten that the males emerge from the cocoon-state some days
+before the females, and during this period, whilst the unborn females
+were safe, the brighter-coloured males would be exposed to danger; so
+that ultimately both sexes would probably be exposed during a nearly
+equal length of time to danger, and the elimination of conspicuous
+colours would not be much more effective in the one than the other sex.
+
+It is a more important consideration that female Lepidoptera, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, and as is known to every collector, are generally
+slower flyers than the males. Consequently the latter, if exposed to
+greater danger from being conspicuously coloured, might be able to
+escape from their enemies, whilst the similarly-coloured females would
+be destroyed; and thus the females would have the most influence in
+modifying the colour of their progeny.
+
+There is one other consideration: bright colours, as far as sexual
+selection is concerned, are commonly of no service to the females; so
+that if the latter varied in brightness, and the variations were
+sexually limited in their transmission, it would depend on mere chance
+whether the females had their bright colours increased; and this would
+tend throughout the Order to diminish the number of species with
+brightly-coloured females in comparison with the species having
+brightly-coloured males. On the other hand, as bright colours are
+supposed to be highly serviceable to the males in their love-struggles,
+the brighter males (as we shall see in the chapter on Birds) although
+exposed to rather greater danger, would on an average procreate a
+greater number of offspring than the duller males. In this case, if the
+variations were limited in their transmission to the male sex, the males
+alone would be rendered more brilliantly coloured; but if the variations
+were not thus limited, the preservation and augmentation of such
+variations would depend on whether more evil was caused to the species
+by the females being rendered conspicuous, than good to the males by
+certain individuals being successful over their rivals.
+
+As there can hardly be a doubt that both sexes of many butterflies and
+moths have been rendered dull-coloured for the sake of protection, so
+it may have been with the females alone of some species in which
+successive variations towards dullness first appeared in the female sex
+and were from the first limited in their transmission to the same sex.
+If not thus limited, both sexes would become dull-coloured. We shall
+immediately see, when we treat of mimickry, that the females alone of
+certain butterflies have been rendered extremely beautiful for the sake
+of protection, without any of the successive protective variations
+having been transferred to the male, to whom they could not possibly
+have been in the least degree injurious, and therefore could not have
+been eliminated through natural selection. Whether in each particular
+species, in which the sexes differ in colour, it is the female which has
+been specially modified for the sake of protection; or whether it is the
+male which has been specially modified for the sake of sexual
+attraction, the female having retained her primordial colouring only
+slightly changed through the agencies before alluded to; or whether
+again both sexes have been modified, the female for protection and the
+male for sexual attraction, can only be definitely decided when we know
+the life-history of each species.
+
+Without distinct evidence, I am unwilling to admit that a double process
+of selection has long been going on with a multitude of species,--the
+males having been rendered more brilliant by beating their rivals; and
+the females more dull-coloured by having escaped from their enemies. We
+may take as an instance the common brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx),
+which appears early in the spring before any other kind. The male of
+this species is of a far more intense yellow than the female, though she
+is almost equally conspicuous; and in this case it does not seem
+probable that she specially acquired her pale tints as a protection,
+though it is probable that the male acquired his bright colours as a
+sexual attraction. The female of _Anthocharis cardamines_ does not
+possess the beautiful orange tips to her wings with which the male is
+ornamented; consequently she closely resembles the white butterflies
+(Pieris) so common in our gardens; but we have no evidence that this
+resemblance is beneficial. On the contrary, as she resembles both sexes
+of several species of the same genus inhabiting various quarters of the
+world, it is more probable that she has simply retained to a large
+extent her primordial colours.
+
+Various facts support the conclusion that with the greater number of
+brilliantly-coloured Lepidoptera, it is the male which has been
+modified; the two sexes having come to differ from each other, or to
+resemble each other, according to which form of inheritance has
+prevailed. Inheritance is governed by so many unknown laws or
+conditions, that they seem to us to be most capricious in their
+action;[524] and we can so far understand how it is that with
+closely-allied species the sexes of some differ to an astonishing
+degree, whilst the sexes of others are identical in colour. As the
+successive steps in the process of variation are necessarily all
+transmitted through the female, a greater or less number of such steps
+might readily become developed in her; and thus we can understand the
+frequent gradations from an extreme difference to no difference at all
+between the sexes of the species within the same group. These cases of
+gradation are much too common to favour the supposition that we here see
+females actually undergoing the process of transition and losing their
+brightness for the sake of protection; for we have every reason to
+conclude that at any one time the greater number of species are in a
+fixed condition. With respect to the differences between the females of
+the species in the same genus or family, we can perceive that they
+depend, at least in part, on the females partaking of the colours of
+their respective males. This is well illustrated in those groups in
+which the males are ornamented to an extraordinary degree; for the
+females in these groups generally partake to a certain extent of the
+splendour of their male partners. Lastly, we continually find, as
+already remarked, that the females of almost all the species in the same
+genus, or even family, resemble each other much more closely in colour
+than do the males; and this indicates that the males have undergone a
+greater amount of modification than the females.
+
+
+_Mimickry._--This principle was first made clear in an admirable paper
+by Mr. Bates,[525] who thus threw a flood of light on many obscure
+problems. It had previously been observed that certain butterflies in S.
+America belonging to quite distinct families, resembled the Heliconidae
+so closely in every stripe and shade of colour that they could not be
+distinguished except by an experienced entomologist. As the Heliconidae
+are coloured in their usual manner, whilst the others depart from the
+usual colouring of the groups to which they belong, it is clear that the
+latter are the imitators, and the Heliconidae the imitated. Mr. Bates
+further observed that the imitating species are comparatively rare,
+whilst the imitated swarm in large numbers; the two sets living mingled
+together. From the fact of the Heliconidae being conspicuous and
+beautiful insects, yet so numerous in individuals and species, he
+concluded that they must be protected from the attacks of birds by some
+secretion or odour; and this hypothesis has now been confirmed by a
+considerable body of curious evidence.[526] From these considerations
+Mr. Bates inferred that the butterflies which imitate the protected
+species had acquired their present marvellously deceptive appearance,
+through variation and natural selection, in order to be mistaken for the
+protected kinds and thus to escape being devoured. No explanation is
+here attempted of the brilliant colours of the imitated, but only of the
+imitating butterflies. We must account for the colours of the former in
+the same general manner, as in the cases previously discussed in this
+chapter. Since the publication of Mr. Bates' paper, similar and equally
+striking facts have been observed by Mr. Wallace[527] in the Malayan
+region, and by Mr. Trimen in South Africa.
+
+As some writers[528] have felt much difficulty in understanding how the
+first steps in the process of mimickry could have been effected through
+natural selection, it may be well to remark that the process probably
+has never commenced with forms widely dissimilar in colour. But with two
+species moderately like each other, the closest resemblance if
+beneficial to either form could readily be thus gained; and if the
+imitated form was subsequently and gradually modified through sexual
+selection or any other means, the imitating form would be led along the
+same track, and thus be modified to almost any extent, so that it might
+ultimately assume an appearance or colouring wholly unlike that of the
+other members of the group to which it belonged. As extremely slight
+variations in colour would not in many cases suffice to render a species
+so like another protected species as to lead to its preservation, it
+should be remembered that many species of Lepidoptera are liable to
+considerable and abrupt variations in colour. A few instances have been
+given in this chapter; but under this point of view Mr. Bates' original
+paper on mimickry, as well as Mr. Wallace's papers, should be consulted.
+
+In the foregoing cases both sexes of the imitating species
+resemble the imitated; but occasionally the female alone mocks a
+brilliantly-coloured and protected species inhabiting the same district.
+Consequently the female differs in colour from her own male, and, which
+is a rare and anomalous circumstance, is the more brightly-coloured of
+the two. In all the few species of Pieridae, in which the female is more
+conspicuously coloured than the male, she imitates, as I am informed by
+Mr. Wallace, some protected species inhabiting the same region. The
+female of _Diadema anomala_ is rich purple-brown with almost the whole
+surface glossed with satiny blue, and she closely imitates the
+_Euploea midamus_, "one of the commonest butterflies of the East;"
+whilst the male is bronzy or olive-brown, with only a slight blue gloss
+on the outer parts of the wings.[529] Both sexes of this Diadema and of
+_D. bolina_ follow the same habits of life, so that the differences in
+colour between the sexes cannot be accounted for by exposure to
+different conditions;[530] even if this explanation were admissible in
+other instances.[531]
+
+The above cases of female butterflies which are more brightly-coloured
+than the males, shew us, firstly, that variations have arisen in a state
+of nature in the female sex, and have been transmitted exclusively, or
+almost exclusively, to the same sex; and, secondly, that this form of
+inheritance has not been determined through natural selection. For if we
+assume that the females, before they became brightly coloured in
+imitation of some protected kind, were exposed during each season for a
+longer period to danger than the males; or if we assume that they could
+not escape so swiftly from their enemies, we can understand how they
+alone might originally have acquired through natural selection and
+sexually-limited inheritance their present protective colours. But
+except on the principle of these variations having been transmitted
+exclusively to the female offspring, we cannot understand why the males
+should have remained dull-coloured; for it would surely not have been in
+any way injurious to each individual male to have partaken by
+inheritance of the protective colours of the female, and thus to have
+had a better chance of escaping destruction. In a group in which
+brilliant colours are so common as with butterflies, it cannot be
+supposed that the males have been kept dull-coloured through sexual
+selection by the females rejecting the individuals which were rendered
+as beautiful as themselves. We may, therefore, conclude that in these
+cases inheritance by one sex is not due to the modification through
+natural selection of a tendency to equal inheritance by both sexes.
+
+It may be well here to give an analogous case in another Order, of
+characters acquired only by the female, though not in the least
+injurious, as far as we can judge, to the male. Amongst the Phasmidae, or
+spectre-insects, Mr. Wallace states that "it is often the females alone
+that so strikingly resemble leaves, while the males show only a rude
+approximation." Now, whatever may be the habits of these insects, it is
+highly improbable that it could be disadvantageous to the males to
+escape detection by resembling leaves.[532] Hence we may conclude that
+the females alone in this latter as in the previous cases originally
+varied in certain characters; these characters having been preserved and
+augmented through ordinary selection for the sake of protection and from
+the first transmitted to the female offspring alone.
+
+
+_Bright Colours of Caterpillars._--Whilst reflecting on the beauty of
+many butterflies, it occurred to me that some caterpillars were
+splendidly coloured, and as sexual selection could not possibly have
+here acted, it appeared rash to attribute the beauty of the mature
+insect to this agency, unless the bright colours of their larvae could
+be in some manner explained. In the first place it may be observed that
+the colours of caterpillars do not stand in any close correlation with
+those of the mature insect. Secondly, their bright colours do not serve
+in any ordinary manner as a protection. As an instance of this, Mr.
+Bates informs me that the most conspicuous caterpillar which he ever
+beheld (that of a Sphinx) lived on the large green leaves of a tree on
+the open llanos of South America; it was about four inches in length,
+transversely banded with black and yellow, and with its head, legs, and
+tail of a bright red. Hence it caught the eye of any man who passed by
+at the distance of many yards, and no doubt of every passing bird.
+
+I then applied to Mr. Wallace, who has an innate genius for solving
+difficulties. After some consideration he replied: "Most caterpillars
+require protection, as may be inferred from some kinds being furnished
+with spines or irritating hairs, and from many being coloured green like
+the leaves on which they feed, or curiously like the twigs of the trees
+on which they live." I may add as another instance of protection, that
+there is a caterpillar of a moth, as I am informed by Mr. J. Mansel
+Weale, which lives on the mimosas in South Africa, and fabricates for
+itself a case, quite undistinguishable from the surrounding thorns. From
+such considerations Mr. Wallace thought it probable that
+conspicuously-coloured caterpillars were protected by having a nauseous
+taste; but as their skin is extremely tender, and as their intestines
+readily protrude from a wound, a slight peck from the beak of a bird
+would be as fatal to them as if they had been devoured. Hence, as Mr.
+Wallace remarks, "distastefulness alone would be insufficient to protect
+a caterpillar unless some outward sign indicated to its would-be
+destroyer that its prey was a disgusting morsel." Under these
+circumstances it would be highly advantageous to a caterpillar to be
+instantaneously and certainly recognised as unpalatable by all birds and
+other animals. Thus the most gaudy colours would be serviceable, and
+might have been gained by variation and the survival of the most
+easily-recognised individuals.
+
+This hypothesis appears at first sight very bold; but when it was
+brought before the Entomological Society[533] it was supported by
+various statements; and Mr. J. Jenner Weir, who keeps a large number of
+birds in an aviary, has made, as he informs me, numerous trials, and
+finds no exception to the rule, that all caterpillars of nocturnal and
+retiring habits with smooth skins, all of a green colour, and all which
+imitate twigs, are greedily devoured by his birds. The hairy and spinose
+kinds are invariably rejected, as were four conspicuously-coloured
+species. When the birds rejected a caterpillar, they plainly shewed, by
+shaking their heads and cleansing their beaks, that they were disgusted
+by the taste.[534] Three conspicuous kinds of caterpillars and moths
+were also given by Mr. A. Butler to some lizards and frogs, and were
+rejected; though other kinds were eagerly eaten. Thus the probable truth
+of Mr. Wallace's view is confirmed, namely, that certain caterpillars
+have been made conspicuous for their own good, so as to be easily
+recognised by their enemies, on nearly the same principle that certain
+poisons are coloured by druggists for the good of man. This view will,
+it is probable, be hereafter extended to many animals, which are
+coloured in a conspicuous manner.
+
+
+_Summary and Concluding Remarks on Insects._--Looking back to the
+several Orders, we have seen that the sexes often differ in various
+characters, the meaning of which is not understood. The sexes, also,
+often differ in their organs of sense or locomotion, so that the males
+may quickly discover or reach the females, and still oftener in the
+males possessing diversified contrivances for retaining the females when
+found. But we are not here much concerned with sexual differences of
+these kinds.
+
+In almost all the Orders, the males of some species, even of weak and
+delicate kinds, are known to be highly pugnacious; and some few are
+furnished with special weapons for fighting with their rivals. But the
+law of battle does not prevail nearly so widely with insects as with the
+higher animals. Hence probably it is that the males have not often been
+rendered larger and stronger than the females. On the contrary they are
+usually smaller, in order that they may be developed within a shorter
+time, so as to be ready in large numbers for the emergence of the
+females.
+
+In two families of the Homoptera the males alone possess, in an
+efficient state, organs which may be called vocal; and in three families
+of the Orthoptera the males alone possess stridulating organs. In both
+cases these organs are incessantly used during the breeding-season, not
+only for calling the females, but for charming or exciting them in
+rivalry with other males. No one who admits the agency of natural
+selection, will dispute that these musical instruments have been
+acquired through sexual selection. In four other Orders the members of
+one sex, or more commonly of both sexes, are provided with organs for
+producing various sounds, which apparently serve merely as call-notes.
+Even when both sexes are thus provided, the individuals which were able
+to make the loudest or most continuous noise would gain partners before
+those which were less noisy, so that their organs have probably been
+gained through sexual selection. It is instructive to reflect on the
+wonderful diversity of the means for producing sound, possessed by the
+males alone or by both sexes in no less than six Orders, and which were
+possessed by at least one insect at an extremely remote geological
+epoch. We thus learn how effectual sexual selection has been in leading
+to modifications of structure, which sometimes, as with the Homoptera,
+are of an important nature.
+
+From the reasons assigned in the last chapter, it is probable that the
+great horns of the males of many lamellicorn, and some other beetles,
+have been acquired as ornaments. So perhaps it may be with certain other
+peculiarities confined to the male sex. From the small size of insects,
+we are apt to undervalue their appearance. If we could imagine a male
+Chalcosoma (fig. 15) with its polished, bronzed coat of mail, and vast
+complex horns, magnified to the size of a horse or even of a dog, it
+would be one of the most imposing animals in the world.
+
+The colouring of insects is a complex and obscure subject. When the male
+differs slightly from the female, and neither are brilliantly coloured,
+it is probable that the two sexes have varied in a slightly different
+manner, with the variations transmitted to the same sex, without any
+benefit having been thus derived or evil suffered. When the male is
+brilliantly coloured and differs conspicuously from the female, as with
+some dragon-flies and many butterflies, it is probable that he alone has
+been modified, and that he owes his colours to sexual selection; whilst
+the female has retained a primordial or very ancient type of colouring,
+slightly modified by the agencies before explained, and has therefore
+not been rendered obscure, at least in most cases, for the sake of
+protection. But the female alone has sometimes been coloured
+brilliantly so as to imitate other protected species inhabiting the same
+district. When the sexes resemble each other and both are obscurely
+coloured, there is no doubt that they have been in a multitude of cases
+coloured for the sake of protection. So it is in some instances when
+both are brightly coloured, causing them to resemble surrounding objects
+such as flowers, or other protected species, or indirectly by giving
+notice to their enemies that they are of an unpalatable nature. In many
+other cases in which the sexes resemble each other and are brilliantly
+coloured, especially when the colours are arranged for display, we may
+conclude that they have been gained by the male sex as an attraction,
+and have been transferred to both sexes. We are more especially led to
+this conclusion whenever the same type of coloration prevails throughout
+a group, and we find that the males of some species differ widely in
+colour from the females, whilst both sexes of other species are quite
+alike, with intermediate gradations connecting these extreme states.
+
+In the same manner as bright colours have often been partially
+transferred from the males to the females, so it has been with the
+extraordinary horns of many lamellicorn and some other beetles. So,
+again, the vocal or instrumental organs proper to the males of the
+Homoptera and Orthoptera have generally been transferred in a
+rudimentary, or even in a nearly perfect condition to the females; yet
+not sufficiently perfect to be used for producing sound. It is also an
+interesting fact, as bearing on sexual selection, that the stridulating
+organs of certain male Orthoptera are not fully developed until the last
+moult; and that the colours of certain male dragon-flies are not fully
+developed until some little time after their emergence from the pupal
+state, and when they are ready to breed.
+
+Sexual selection implies that the more attractive individuals are
+preferred by the opposite sex; and as with insects, when the sexes
+differ, it is the male which, with rare exceptions, is the most
+ornamented and departs most from the type to which the species
+belongs;--and as it is the male which searches eagerly for the female,
+we must suppose that the females habitually or occasionally prefer the
+more beautiful males, and that these have thus acquired their beauty.
+That in most or all the orders the females have the power of rejecting
+any particular male, we may safely infer from the many singular
+contrivances possessed by the males, such as great jaws, adhesive
+cushions, spines, elongated legs, &c., for seizing the female; for these
+contrivances shew that there is some difficulty in the act. In the case
+of unions between distinct species, of which many instances have been
+recorded, the female must have been a consenting party. Judging from
+what we know of the perceptive powers and affections of various insects,
+there is no antecedent improbability in sexual selection having come
+largely into action; but we have as yet no direct evidence on this head,
+and some facts are opposed to the belief. Nevertheless, when we see many
+males pursuing the same female, we can hardly believe that the pairing
+is left to blind chance--that the female exerts no choice, and is not
+influenced by the gorgeous colours or other ornaments, with which the
+male alone is decorated.
+
+If we admit that the females of the Homoptera and Orthoptera appreciate
+the musical tones emitted by their male partners, and that the various
+instruments for this purpose have been perfected through sexual
+selection, there is little improbability in the females of other insects
+appreciating beauty in form or colour, and consequently in such
+characters having been thus gained by the males. But from the
+circumstance of colour being so variable, and from its having been so
+often modified for the sake of protection, it is extremely difficult to
+decide in how large a proportion of cases sexual selection has come into
+play. This is more especially difficult in those Orders, such as the
+Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera, in which the two sexes rarely
+differ much in colour; for we are thus cut off from our best evidence of
+some relation between the reproduction of the species and colour. With
+the Coleoptera, however, as before remarked, it is in the great
+lamellicorn group, placed by some authors at the head of the Order, and
+in which we sometimes see a mutual attachment between the sexes, that we
+find the males of some species possessing weapons for sexual strife,
+others furnished with wonderful horns, many with stridulating organs,
+and others ornamented with splendid metallic tints. Hence it seems
+probable that all these characters have been gained through the same
+means, namely sexual selection.
+
+When we treat of Birds, we shall see that they present in their
+secondary sexual characters the closest analogy with insects. Thus, many
+male birds are highly pugnacious, and some are furnished with special
+weapons for fighting with their rivals. They possess organs which are
+used during the breeding-season for producing vocal and instrumental
+music. They are frequently ornamented with combs, horns, wattles and
+plumes of the most diversified kinds, and are decorated with beautiful
+colours, all evidently for the sake of display. We shall find that, as
+with insects, both sexes, in certain groups, are equally beautiful, and
+are equally provided with ornaments which are usually confined to the
+male sex. In other groups both sexes are equally plain-coloured and
+unornamented. Lastly, in some few anomalous cases, the females are more
+beautiful than the males. We shall often find, in the same group of
+birds, every gradation from no difference between the sexes, to an
+extreme difference. In the latter case we shall see that the females,
+like female insects, often possess more or less plain traces of the
+characters which properly belong to the males. The analogy, indeed, in
+all these respects between birds and insects, is curiously close.
+Whatever explanation applies to the one class probably applies to the
+other; and this explanation, as we shall hereafter attempt to shew, is
+almost certainly sexual selection.
+
+
+  FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] As the works of the first-named authors are so well known,
+  I need not give the titles; but as those of the latter are less
+  well known in England, I will give them:--'Sechs Vorlesungen
+  ueber die Darwin'sche Theorie:' zweite Auflage, 1868, von Dr. L.
+  Buechner; translated into French under the title 'Conferences
+  sur la Theorie Darwinienne,' 1869. 'Der Mensch, im Lichte der
+  Darwin'sche Lehre,' 1865, von Dr. F. Rolle. I will not attempt
+  to give references to all the authors who have taken the same
+  side of the question. Thus G. Canestrini has published
+  ('Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,' Modena, 1867, p. 81) a very
+  curious paper on rudimentary characters, as bearing on the
+  origin of man. Another work has (1869) been published by Dr.
+  Barrago Francesco, bearing in Italian the title of "Man, made
+  in the image of God, was also made in the image of the ape."
+
+  [2] Prof. Haeckel is the sole author who, since the publication
+  of the 'Origin,' has discussed, in his various works, in a very
+  able manner, the subject of sexual selection, and has seen its
+  full importance.
+
+  [3] 'Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 96.
+
+  [4] 'Lec. sur la Phys.' 1866, p. 890, as quoted by M. Dally,
+  'L'Ordre des Primates et le Transformisme,' 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [5] 'Naturgeschichte der Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s.
+  50.
+
+  [6] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 75, 86. On the Ateles,
+  s. 105. For other analogous statements, see s. 25, 107.
+
+  [7] With respect to insects see Dr. Laycock 'On a General Law
+  of Vital Periodicity,' British Association, 1842. Dr.
+  Macculloch, 'Silliman's North American Journal of Science,'
+  vol. xvii. p. 305, has seen a dog suffering from tertian ague.
+
+  [8] I have given the evidence on this head in my 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 15.
+
+  [9] "Mares e diversis generibus Quadrumanorum sine dubio
+  dignoscunt feminas humanas a maribus. Primum, credo, odoratu,
+  postea aspectu. Mr. Youatt, qui diu in Hortis Zoologicis
+  (Bestiariis) medicus animalium erat, vir in rebus observandis
+  cautus et sagax, hoc mihi certissime probavit, et curatores
+  ejusdem loci et alii e ministris confirmaverunt. Sir Andrew
+  Smith et Brehm notabant idem in Cynocephalo. Illustrissimus
+  Cuvier etiam narrat multa de hac re qua ut opinor nihil turpius
+  potest indicari inter omnia hominibus et Quadrumanis communia.
+  Narrat enim Cynocephalum quendam in furorem incidere aspectu
+  feminarum aliquarum, sed nequaquam accendi tanto furore ab
+  omnibus. Semper eligebat juniores, et dignoscebat in turba, et
+  advocabat voce gestuque."
+
+  [10] This remark is made with respect to Cynocephalus and the
+  anthropomorphous apes by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and F. Cuvier,
+  'Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes,' tom. i. 1824.
+
+  [11] Huxley, 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 34.
+
+  [12] 'Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 67.
+
+  [13] The human embryo (upper fig.) is from Ecker, 'Icones
+  Phys.,' 1851-1859, tab. xxx. fig. 2. This embryo was ten lines
+  in length, so that the drawing is much magnified. The embryo of
+  the dog is from Bischoff, 'Entwicklungsgeschichte des
+  Hunde-Eies,' 1845, tab. xi. fig. 42 B. This drawing is five
+  times magnified, the embryo being 25 days old. The internal
+  viscera have been omitted, and the uterine appendages in both
+  drawings removed. I was directed to these figures by Prof.
+  Huxley, from whose work, 'Man's Place in Nature.' the idea of
+  giving them was taken. Haeckel has also given analogous drawings
+  in his 'Schoepfungsgeschichte.'
+
+  [14] Prof. Wyman in 'Proc. of American Acad. of Sciences,' vol.
+  iv. 1860, p. 17.
+
+  [15] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. i. p. 533.
+
+  [16] 'Die Grosshirnwindungen des Menschen,' 1868, s. 95.
+
+  [17] 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 553.
+
+  [18] 'Proc. Soc. Nat. Hist.' Boston, 1863, vol. ix. p. 185.
+
+  [19] 'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 65.
+
+  [20] I had written a rough copy of this chapter before reading
+  a valuable paper, "Caratteri rudimentali in ordine all'origine
+  del uomo" ('Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.,' Modena, 1867, p. 81),
+  by G. Canestrini, to which paper I am considerably indebted.
+  Haeckel has given admirable discussions on this whole subject,
+  under the title of Dysteleology, in his 'Generelle Morphologie'
+  and 'Schoepfungsgeschichte.'
+
+  [21] Some good criticisms on this subject have been given by
+  Messrs. Murie and Mivart, in 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869,
+  vol. vii. p. 92.
+
+  [22] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. pp. 317 and 397. See also 'Origin of Species,' 5th
+  edit. p. 535.
+
+  [23] For instance M. Richard ('Annales des Sciences Nat.' 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. 1852, tom. xviii. p. 13) describes and figures
+  rudiments of what he calls the "muscle pedieux de la main,"
+  which he says is sometimes "infiniment petit." Another muscle,
+  called "le tibial posterieur," is generally quite absent in the
+  hand, but appears from time to time in a more or less
+  rudimentary condition.
+
+  [24] Prof. W. Turner, 'Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburgh,' 1866-67, p.
+  65.
+
+  [25] Canestrini quotes Hyrt. ('Annuario della Soc. dei
+  Naturalisti,' Modena, 1867, p. 97) to the same effect.
+
+  [26] 'The Diseases of the Ear,' by J. Toynbee, F.R.S., 1860, p.
+  12.
+
+  [27] See also some remarks, and the drawings of the ears of the
+  Lemuroidea, in Messrs. Murie and Mivart's excellent paper in
+  'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, pp. 6 and 90.
+
+  [28] Mueller's 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat., 1842,
+  vol. ii. p. 1117. Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p.
+  260; ibid. on the Walrus, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' November 8th,
+  1854. See also R. Knox, 'Great Artists and Anatomists,' p. 106.
+  This rudiment apparently is somewhat larger in Negroes and
+  Australians than in Europeans, see Carl Vogt, 'Lectures on
+  Man,' Eng. translat. p. 129.
+
+  [29] 'The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p.
+  134.
+
+  [30] Eschricht, Ueber die Richtung der Haare am menschlichen
+  Koerper 'Muellers Archiv fuer Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 47. I
+  shall often have to refer to this very curious paper.
+
+  [31] Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p.
+  71.
+
+  [32] Eschricht, ibid. s. 40, 47.
+
+  [33] Dr. Webb, 'Teeth in Man and the Anthropoid Apes,' as
+  quoted by Dr. C. Carter Blake in 'Anthropological Review,'
+  July, 1867, p. 299.
+
+  [34] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 320, 321,
+  and 325.
+
+  [35] 'On the Primitive Form of the Skull,' Eng. translat. in
+  'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [36] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. pp. 416, 434,
+  441.
+
+  [37] 'Annuario della Soc. d. Nat.' Modena, 1867, p. 94.
+
+  [38] M. C. Martins ("De l'Unite Organique," in 'Revue des Deux
+  Mondes,' June 15, 1862, p. 16), and Haeckel ('Generelle
+  Morphologie,' B. ii. s. 278), have both remarked on the
+  singular fact of this rudiment sometimes causing death.
+
+  [39] 'The Lancet,' Jan. 24, 1863, p. 83. Dr. Knox, 'Great
+  Artists and Anatomists,' p. 63. See also an important memoir on
+  this process by Dr. Grube, in the 'Bulletin de l'Acad. Imp. de
+  St. Petersbourg,' tom. xii. 1867, p. 448.
+
+  [40] "On the Caves of Gibraltar," 'Transact. Internat. Congress
+  of Prehist. Arch.' Third Session, 1869, p. 54.
+
+  [41] Quatrefages has lately collected the evidence on this
+  subject. 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1867-1868, p. 625.
+
+  [42] Owen, 'On the Nature of Limbs,' 1849, p. 114.
+
+  [43] Leuckart, in Todd's 'Cyclop. of Anat.' 1849-52, vol. iv.
+  p. 1415. In man this organ is only from three to six lines in
+  length, but, like so many other rudimentary parts, it is
+  variable in development as well as in other characters.
+
+  [44] See, on this subject, Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol.
+  iii. pp. 675, 676, 706.
+
+  [45] See the evidence on these points, as given by Lubbock,
+  'Prehistoric Times,' p. 354, &c.
+
+  [46] 'L'Instinct chez les Insectes.' 'Revue des Deux Mondes,'
+  Feb. 1870, p. 690.
+
+  [47] 'The American Beaver and his Works,' 1868.
+
+  [48] 'The Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. 1870, pp.
+  418-443.
+
+  [49] 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870,
+  p. 212
+
+  [50] 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 173.
+
+  [51] All the following statements, given on the authority of
+  these two naturalists, are taken from Rengger's 'Naturges. der
+  Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 41-57, and from Brehm's
+  'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 10-87.
+
+  [52] 'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 263.
+
+  [53] W. C. L. Martin, 'Nat. Hist. of Mammalia,' 1841, p. 405.
+
+  [54] Quoted by Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p.
+  168.
+
+  [55] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [56] 'Les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810, p. 150.
+
+  [57] Quoted in Dr. Maudsley's 'Physiology and Pathology of
+  Mind,' 1868, pp. 19, 220.
+
+  [58] Dr. Jerdon, 'Birds of India,' vol. i. 1862, p. xxi.
+
+  [59] Mr. L. H. Morgan's work on 'The American Beaver,' 1868,
+  offers a good illustration of this remark. I cannot, however,
+  avoid thinking that he goes too far in underrating the power of
+  Instinct.
+
+  [60] 'The Moor and the Loch,' p. 45. Col. Hutchinson on 'Dog
+  Breaking,' 1850, p. 46.
+
+  [61] 'Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat., vol. iii. p. 106.
+
+  [62] Quoted by Sir C. Lyell, 'Antiquity of Man,' p. 497.
+
+  [63] 'Journal of Researches during the Voyage of the "Beagle,"'
+  1845, p. 398. 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 260.
+
+  [64] 'Lettres Phil. sur l'Intelligence des Animaux,' nouvelle
+  edit. 1802, p. 86.
+
+  [65] See the evidence on this head in chap. i. vol. i. 'On the
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication.'
+
+  [66] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1864, p. 186.
+
+  [67] Savage and Wyman in 'Boston Journal of Nat. Hist.' vol.
+  iv. 1843-44, p. 383.
+
+  [68] 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 51-56.
+
+  [69] 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 79, 82.
+
+  [70] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. i. 1869, p. 87.
+
+  [71] 'Primeval Man,' 1869, pp. 145, 147.
+
+  [72] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 473, &c.
+
+  [73] Quoted in 'Anthropological Review,' 1864, p. 158.
+
+  [74] Rengger, ibid. s. 45.
+
+  [75] See my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. i. p. 27.
+
+  [76] See a discussion on this subject in Mr. E. B. Tylor's very
+  interesting work, 'Researches into the Early History of
+  Mankind,' 1865, chaps. ii. to iv.
+
+  [77] Hon. Daines Barrington in 'Philosoph. Transactions,' 1773,
+  p. 262. See also Dureau de la Malle, in 'Ann. des Sc. Nat.' 3rd
+  series, Zoolog. tom. x. p. 119.
+
+  [78] 'On the Origin of Language,' by H. Wedgwood, 1866.
+  'Chapters on Language,' by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, 1865. These
+  works are most interesting. See also 'De la Phys. et de
+  Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 190. The work on this
+  subject, by the late Prof. Aug. Schleicher, has been translated
+  by Dr. Bikkers into English, under the title of 'Darwinism
+  tested by the Science of Language,' 1869.
+
+  [79] Vogt, 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 169. With
+  respect to savages, I have given some facts in my 'Journal of
+  Researches,' &c., 1845, p. 206.
+
+  [80] See clear evidence on this head in the two works so often
+  quoted, by Brehm and Rengger.
+
+  [81] See remarks on this head by Dr. Maudsley, 'The Physiology
+  and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p. 199.
+
+  [82] Many curious cases have been recorded. See, for instance,
+  'Inquiries Concerning the Intellectual Powers,' by Dr.
+  Abercrombie, 1838, p. 150.
+
+  [83] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. p. 6.
+
+  [84] See some good remarks to this effect by Dr. Maudsley, 'The
+  Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 1808, p. 199.
+
+  [85] Macgillivray, 'Hist. of British Birds,' vol. ii. 1839, p.
+  29. An excellent observer, Mr. Blackwall, remarks that the
+  magpie learns to pronounce single words, and even short
+  sentences, more readily than almost any other British bird;
+  yet, as he adds, after long and closely investigating its
+  habits, he has never known it, in a state of nature, display
+  any unusual capacity for imitation. 'Researches in Zoology,'
+  1834, p. 158.
+
+  [86] See the very interesting parallelism between the
+  development of species and languages, given by Sir C. Lyell in
+  'The Geolog. Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,' 1863, chap.
+  xxiii.
+
+  [87] See remarks to this effect by the Rev. F. W. Farrar, in an
+  interesting article, entitled "Philology and Darwinism" in
+  'Nature,' March 24th, 1870, p. 528.
+
+  [88] 'Nature,' Jan. 6th, 1870, p. 257.
+
+  [89] Quoted by C. S. Wake, 'Chapters on Man,' 1868, p. 101.
+
+  [90] Buckland, 'Bridgewater Treatise,' p. 411.
+
+  [91] See some good remarks on the simplification of languages,
+  by Sir J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 278.
+
+  [92] 'Conferences sur la Theorie Darwinienne,' French
+  translat., 1869, p. 132.
+
+  [93] The Rev. Dr. J. M'Cann, 'Anti-Darwinism,' 1869, p. 13.
+
+  [94] 'The Spectator,' Dec. 4th, 1869, p. 1430.
+
+  [95] See an excellent article on this subject by the Rev. F. W.
+  Farrar, in the 'Anthropological Review,' Aug. 1864, p. ccxvii.
+  For further facts see Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd
+  edit. 1869. p. 564; and especially the chapters on Religion in
+  his 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.
+
+  [96] The Worship of Animals and Plants, in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' Oct. 1, 1869, p. 422.
+
+  [97] Tylor, 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865, p. 6. See also
+  the three striking chapters on the Development of Religion, in
+  Lubbock's 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870. In a like manner Mr.
+  Herbert Spencer, in his ingenious essay in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review' (May 1st, 1870, p. 535), accounts for the earliest
+  forms of religious belief throughout the world, by man being
+  led through dreams, shadows, and other causes, to look at
+  himself as a double essence, corporeal and spiritual. As the
+  spiritual being is supposed to exist after death and to be
+  powerful, it is propitiated by various gifts and ceremonies,
+  and its aid invoked. He then further shews that names or
+  nicknames given from some animal or other object to the early
+  progenitors or founders of a tribe, are supposed after a long
+  interval to represent the real progenitor of the tribe; and
+  such animal or object is then naturally believed still to exist
+  as a spirit, is held sacred, and worshipped as a god.
+  Nevertheless I cannot but suspect that there is a still earlier
+  and ruder stage, when anything which manifests power or
+  movement is thought to be endowed with some form of life, and
+  with mental faculties analogous to our own.
+
+  [98] See an able article on the Psychical Elements of Religion,
+  by Mr. L. Owen Pike, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' April, 1870, p.
+  lxiii.
+
+  [99] 'Religion, Moral, &c., der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre,' 1869,
+  s. 53.
+
+  [100] 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. p. 571. In this work (at
+  p. 553) there will be found an excellent account of the many
+  strange and capricious customs of savages.
+
+  [101] See, for instance, on this subject, Quatrefages, 'Unite
+  de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 21, &c.
+
+  [102] 'Dissertation on Ethical Philosophy,' 1837, p. 231, &c.
+
+  [103] 'Metaphysics of Ethics,' translated by J. W. Semple,
+  Edinburgh, 1836, p. 136.
+
+  [104] Mr. Bain gives a list ('Mental and Moral Science,' 1868,
+  p. 543-725) of twenty-six British authors who have written on
+  this subject, and whose names are familiar to every reader; to
+  these, Mr. Bain's own name, and those of Mr. Lecky, Mr.
+  Shadworth Hodgson, and Sir J. Lubbock, as well as of others,
+  may be added.
+
+  [105] Sir B. Brodie, after observing that man is a social
+  animal ('Psychological Enquiries,' 1854, p. 192), asks the
+  pregnant question, "ought not this to settle the disputed
+  question as to the existence of a moral sense?" Similar ideas
+  have probably occurred to many persons, as they did long ago to
+  Marcus Aurelius. Mr. J. S. Mill speaks, in his celebrated work,
+  'Utilitarianism,' (1864, p. 46), of the social feelings as a
+  "powerful natural sentiment," and as "the natural basis of
+  sentiment for utilitarian morality;" but on the previous page
+  he says, "if, as is my own belief, the moral feelings are not
+  innate, but acquired, they are not for that reason less
+  natural." It is with hesitation that I venture to differ from
+  so profound a thinker, but it can hardly be disputed that the
+  social feelings are instinctive or innate in the lower animals;
+  and why should they not be so in man? Mr. Bain (see, for
+  instance, 'The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 481) and others
+  believe that the moral sense is acquired by each individual
+  during his lifetime. On the general theory of evolution this is
+  at least extremely improbable.
+
+  [106] 'Die Darwin'sche Theorie,' s. 101.
+
+  [107] Mr. R. Brown in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 409.
+
+  [108] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 52, 79. For the case
+  of the monkeys extracting thorns from each other, see s. 54.
+  With respect to the Hamadryas turning over stones, the fact is
+  given (s. 76) on the evidence of Alvarez, whose observations
+  Brehm thinks quite trustworthy. For the cases of the old male
+  baboons attacking the dogs, see s. 79; and with respect to the
+  eagle, s. 56.
+
+  [109] 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' November, 1868, p. 382.
+
+  [110] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. p. 446.
+
+  [111] As quoted by Mr. L. H. Morgan, 'The American Beaver,'
+  1868, p. 272. Capt. Stansbury also gives an interesting account
+  of the manner in which a very young pelican, carried away by a
+  strong stream, was guided and encouraged in its attempts to
+  reach the shore by half a dozen old birds.
+
+  [112] As Mr. Bain states, "effective aid to a sufferer springs
+  from sympathy proper:" 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p.
+  245.
+
+  [113] 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 85.
+
+  [114] 'De l'Espece et de la Class.' 1869, p. 97.
+
+  [115] 'Der Darwin'schen Art-Lehre,' 1869, s. 54.
+
+  [116] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 76.
+
+  [117] See the first and striking chapter in Adam Smith's
+  'Theory of Moral Sentiments.' Also Mr. Bain's 'Mental and Moral
+  Science,' 1868, p. 244, and 275-282. Mr. Bain states, that
+  "sympathy is, indirectly, a source of pleasure to the
+  sympathiser;" and he accounts for this through reciprocity. He
+  remarks that "the person benefited, or others in his stead, may
+  make up, by sympathy and good offices returned, for all the
+  sacrifice." But if, as appears to be the case, sympathy is
+  strictly an instinct, its exercise would give direct pleasure,
+  in the same manner as the exercise, as before remarked, of
+  almost every other instinct.
+
+  [118] This fact, the Rev. L. Jenyns states (see his edition of
+  'White's Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' 1853, p. 204) was first
+  recorded by the illustrious Jenner, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1824,
+  and has since been confirmed by several observers, especially
+  by Mr. Blackwall. This latter careful observer examined, late
+  in the autumn, during two years, thirty-six nests; he found
+  that twelve contained young dead birds, five contained eggs on
+  the point of being hatched, and three eggs not nearly hatched.
+  Many birds not yet old enough for a prolonged flight are
+  likewise deserted and left behind. See Blackwall, 'Researches
+  in Zoology,' 1834, pp. 108, 118. For some additional evidence,
+  although this is not wanted, see Leroy, 'Lettres Phil.' 1802,
+  p. 217.
+
+  [119] Hume remarks ('An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of
+  Morals,' edit. of 1751, p. 132), "there seems a necessity for
+  confessing that the happiness and misery of others are not
+  spectacles altogether indifferent to us, but that the view of
+  the former ... communicates a secret joy; the appearance of the
+  latter ... throws a melancholy damp over the imagination."
+
+  [120] 'Mental and Moral Science,' 1868, p. 254.
+
+  [121] I have given one such case, namely of three Patagonian
+  Indians who preferred being shot, one after the other, to
+  betraying the plans of their companions in war ('Journal of
+  Researches,' 1845, p. 103).
+
+  [122] Dr. Prosper Despine, in his 'Psychologie Naturelle,' 1868
+  (tom. i. p. 243; tom ii. p. 169) gives many curious cases of
+  the worst criminals, who apparently have been entirely
+  destitute of conscience.
+
+  [123] See an able article in the 'North British Review,' 1867,
+  p. 395. See also Mr. W. Bagehot's articles on the Importance of
+  Obedience and Coherence to Primitive Man, in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' 1867, p. 529, and 1868, p. 457, &c.
+
+  [124] The fullest account which I have met with is by Dr.
+  Gerland, in his 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvoelker,' 1868;
+  but I shall have to recur to the subject of infanticide in a
+  future chapter.
+
+  [125] See the very interesting discussion on Suicide in Lecky's
+  'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p. 223.
+
+  [126] See, for instance, Mr. Hamilton's account of the Kaffirs,
+  'Anthropological Review,' 1870, p. xv.
+
+  [127] Mr. M'Lennan has given 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865, p.
+  176, a good collection of facts on this head.
+
+  [128] Lecky, 'History of European Morals,' vol. i. 1869, p.
+  109.
+
+  [129] 'Embassy to China,' vol. ii. p. 348.
+
+  [130] See on this subject copious evidence in Chap. vii. of Sir
+  J. Lubbock, 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870.
+
+  [131] For instance Lecky, 'Hist. European Morals,' vol. i. p.
+  124.
+
+  [132] This term is used in an able article in the 'Westminster
+  Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 498. For the Greatest Happiness
+  principle, see J. S. Mill, 'Utilitarianism,' p. 17.
+
+  [133] Good instances are given by Mr. Wallace in 'Scientific
+  Opinion,' Sept. 15, 1869; and more fully in his 'Contributions
+  to the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 353.
+
+  [134] Tennyson, 'Idylls of the King,' p. 244.
+
+  [135] 'The Thoughts of the Emperor M. Aurelius Antoninus,' Eng.
+  translat., 2nd edit., 1869, p. 112. Marcus Aurelius was born
+  A.D. 121.
+
+  [136] Letter to Mr. Mill in Bain's 'Mental and Moral Science,'
+  1868, p. 722.
+
+  [137] A writer in the 'North British Review' (July, 1869, p.
+  531), well capable of forming a sound judgment, expresses
+  himself strongly to this effect. Mr. Lecky ('Hist. of Morals,'
+  vol. i. p. 143) seems to a certain extent to coincide.
+
+  [138] See his remarkable work on 'Hereditary Genius,' 1869, p.
+  349. The Duke of Argyll ('Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 188) has some
+  good remarks on the contest in man's nature between right and
+  wrong.
+
+  [139] 'The Thoughts of Marcus Aurelius,' &c., p. 139.
+
+  [140] 'Investigations in Military and Anthropolog. Statistics
+  of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 256.
+
+  [141] With respect to the "Cranial forms of the American
+  aborigines," see Dr. Aitken Meigs in 'Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.'
+  Philadelphia, May, 1866. On the Australians, see Huxley, in
+  Lyell's 'Antiquity of Man,' 1863, p. 87. On the Sandwich
+  Islanders, Prof. J. Wyman, 'Observations on Crania,' Boston,
+  1868, p. 18.
+
+  [142] 'Anatomy of the Arteries,' by R. Quain.
+
+  [143] 'Transact. Royal Soc.' Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 175, 189.
+
+  [144] 'Proc. Royal Soc.' 1867, p. 544; also 1868, p. 483, 524.
+  There is a previous paper, 1866, p. 229.
+
+  [145] 'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 141.
+
+  [146] 'Act. Acad.,' St. Petersburg, 1778, part ii. p. 217.
+
+  [147] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 58, 87. Rengger,
+  'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 57.
+
+  [148] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. chap. xii.
+
+  [149] 'Hereditary Genius: an Inquiry into its Laws and
+  Consequences,' 1869.
+
+  [150] Mr. Bates remarks ('The Naturalist on the Amazons,' 1863,
+  vol. ii. p. 159), with respect to the Indians of the same S.
+  American tribe, "no two of them were at all similar in the
+  shape of the head; one man had an oval visage with fine
+  features, and another was quite Mongolian in breadth and
+  prominence of cheek, spread of nostrils, and obliquity of
+  eyes."
+
+  [151] Blumenbach, 'Treatises on Anthropolog.' Eng. translat.,
+  1865, p. 205.
+
+  [152] Godron, 'De l'Espece,' 1859, tom. ii. livre 3.
+  Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861. Also Lectures
+  on Anthropology, given in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,'
+  1866-1868.
+
+  [153] 'Hist. Gen. et Part. des Anomalies de l'Organisation,' in
+  three volumes, tom. i. 1832.
+
+  [154] I have fully discussed these laws in my 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xxii.
+  and xxiii. M. J. P. Durand has lately 1868; published a
+  valuable essay 'De l'Influence des Milieux, &c.' He lays much
+  stress on the nature of the soil.
+
+  [155] 'Investigations in Military and Anthrop. Statistics,' &c.
+  1869, by B. A. Gould, p. 93, 107, 126, 131, 134.
+
+  [156] For the Polynesians, see Prichard's 'Physical Hist. of
+  Mankind,' vol. v. 1847, p. 145, 283. Also Godron, 'De
+  l'Espece,' tom. ii. p. 289. There is also a remarkable
+  difference in appearance between the closely-allied Hindoos
+  inhabiting the Upper Ganges and Bengal; see Elphinstone's
+  'History of India,' vol. i. p. 324.
+
+  [157] 'Memoirs, Anthropolog. Soc.' vol. iii. 1867-69, p. 561,
+  565, 567.
+
+  [158] Dr. Brakenridge, 'Theory of Diathesis,' 'Medical Times,'
+  June 19 and July 17, 1869.
+
+  [159] I have given authorities for these several statements in
+  my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p.
+  297-300. Dr. Jaeger, "Ueber das Laengenwachsthum der Knochen,"
+  'Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft i.
+
+  [160] 'Investigations,' &c. By B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 288.
+
+  [161] 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 4.
+
+  [162] 'History of Greenland,' Eng. translat. 1767, vol. i. p.
+  230.
+
+  [163] 'Intermarriage.' By Alex. Walker, 1838. p. 377.
+
+  [164] 'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. i.
+  p. 173.
+
+  [165] 'Principles of Biology,' vol. i. p. 455.
+
+  [166] Paget, 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' vol. i. 1853, p.
+  209.
+
+  [167] 'The Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  p. 8.
+
+  [168] 'Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' s. 8, 10. I have had good
+  opportunities for observing the extraordinary power of eyesight
+  in the Fuegians.' See also Lawrence ('Lectures on Physiology,'
+  &c., 1822, p. 404) on this same subject. M. Giraud-Teulon has
+  recently collected ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' 1870, p.
+  625) a large and valuable body of evidence proving that the
+  cause of short-sight, "_C'est le travail assidu, de pres._"
+
+  [169] Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' on the authority of
+  Blumenbach, vol. i. 1851, p. 311; for the statement by Pallas,
+  vol. iv. 1844, p. 407.
+
+  [170] Quoted by Prichard, 'Researches into the Phys. Hist. of
+  Mankind,' vol. v. p. 463.
+
+  [171] Mr. Forbes' valuable paper is now published in the
+  'Journal of the Ethnological Soc. of London,' new series, vol.
+  ii. 1870, p. 193.
+
+  [172] Dr. Wilckens ('Landwirthschaft. Wochenblatt,' No. 10,
+  1869) has lately published an interesting essay shewing how
+  domestic animals, which live in mountainous regions, have their
+  frames modified.
+
+  [173] 'Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 50, 125, 169,
+  171, 184-198.
+
+  [174] See Dr. A. Farre's well-known article in the 'Cyclop. of
+  Anat. and Phys.' vol. v. 1859, p. 642. Owen 'Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 687. Prof. Turner in
+  'Edinburgh Medical Journal,' Feb. 1865.
+
+  [175] 'Annuario della Soc. dei Naturalisti in Modena,' 1867, p.
+  83. Prof. Canestrini gives extracts on this subject from
+  various authorities. Laurillard remarks, that as he has found a
+  complete similarity in the form, proportions, and connexion of
+  the two malar bones in several human subjects and in certain
+  apes, he cannot consider this disposition of the parts as
+  simply accidental.
+
+  [176] A whole series of cases is given by Isid. Geoffroy
+  St.-Hilaire, 'Hist. des Anomalies,' tom. iii. p. 437.
+
+  [177] In my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication' (vol.
+  ii. p. 57) I attributed the not very rare cases of
+  supernumerary mammae in women to reversion. I was led to this as
+  a _probable_ conclusion, by the additional mammae being
+  generally placed symmetrically on the breast, and more
+  especially from one case, in which a single efficient mamma
+  occurred in the inguinal region of a woman, the daughter of
+  another woman with supernumerary mammae. But Prof. Preyer ('Der
+  Kampf um das Dasein,' 1869, s. 45) states that _mammae erraticae_
+  have been known to occur in other situations, even on the back;
+  so that the force of my argument is greatly weakened or perhaps
+  quite destroyed.
+
+  With much hesitation I, in the same work (vol. ii. p. 12),
+  attributed the frequent cases of polydactylism in men to
+  reversion. I was partly led to this through Prof. Owen's
+  statement, that some of the Ichthyopterygia possess more than
+  five digits, and therefore, as I supposed, had retained a
+  primordial condition; but after reading Prof. Gegenbaur's paper
+  ('Jenaischen Zeitschrift,' B. v. Heft 3, s. 341), who is the
+  highest authority in Europe on such a point, and who disputes
+  Owen's conclusion, I see that it is extremely doubtful whether
+  supernumerary digits can thus be accounted for. It was the fact
+  that such digits not only frequently occur and are strongly
+  inherited, but have the power of regrowth after amputation,
+  like the normal digits of the lower vertebrata, that chiefly
+  led me to the above conclusion. This extraordinary fact of
+  their regrowth remains inexplicable, if the belief in reversion
+  to some extremely remote progenitor must be rejected. I cannot,
+  however, follow Prof. Gegenbaur in supposing that additional
+  digits could not reappear through reversion, without at the
+  same time other parts of the skeleton being simultaneously and
+  similarly modified; for single characters often reappear
+  through reversion.
+
+  [178] 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. 1868, p. 323.
+
+  [179] 'Generelle Morphologie,' 1866, B. ii. s. clv.
+
+  [180] Carl Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p.
+  151.
+
+  [181] C. Carter Blake, on a jaw from La Naulette, 'Anthropolog.
+  Review,' 1867, p. 295. Schaaffhausen, ibid. 1868, p. 426.
+
+  [182] 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 110, 131.
+
+  [183] Quoted by Prof. Canestrini in the 'Annuario,' &c., 1867,
+  p. 90.
+
+  [184] These papers deserve careful study by any one who desires
+  to learn how frequently our muscles vary, and in varying come
+  to resemble those of the Quadrumana. The following references
+  relate to the few points touched on in my text: Proc. Royal
+  Soc. vol. xiv. 1865, p. 379-384; vol. xv. 1866, p. 241, 242;
+  vol. xv. 1867, p. 544; vol. xvi. 1868, p. 524. I may here add
+  that Dr. Murie and Mr. St. George Mivart have shewn in their
+  Memoir on the Lemuroidea ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii.
+  1869, p. 96), how extraordinarily variable some of the muscles
+  are in these animals, the lowest members of the Primates.
+  Gradations, also, in the muscles leading to structures found in
+  animals still lower in the scale, are numerous in the
+  Lemuroidea.
+
+  [185] Prof. Macalister in 'Proc. R. Irish Academy,' vol. x.
+  1868, p. 124.
+
+  [186] Prof. Macalister (ibid. p. 121) has tabulated his
+  observations, and finds that muscular abnormalities are most
+  frequent in the fore-arms, secondly in the face, thirdly in the
+  foot, &c.
+
+  [187] The Rev. Dr. Haughton, after giving ('Proc. R. Irish
+  Academy,' June 27, 1864, p. 715) a remarkable case of variation
+  in the human _flexor pollicis longus_, adds, "This remarkable
+  example shews that man may sometimes possess the arrangement of
+  tendons of thumb and fingers characteristic of the macaque; but
+  whether such a case should be regarded as a macaque passing
+  upwards into a man, or a man passing downwards into a macaque,
+  or as a congenital freak of nature, I cannot undertake to say."
+  It is satisfactory to hear so capable an anatomist, and so
+  embittered an opponent of evolutionism, admitting even the
+  possibility of either of his first propositions. Prof.
+  Macalister has also described ('Proc. R. Irish Acad.' vol. x.
+  1864, p. 138) variations in the _flexor pollicis longus_,
+  remarkable from their relations to the same muscle in the
+  Quadrumana.
+
+  [188] The authorities for these several statements are given in
+  my 'Variation of Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p.
+  320-335.
+
+  [189] This whole subject has been discussed in chap. xxiii.
+  vol. ii. of my 'Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication.'
+
+  [190] See the ever memorable 'Essay on the Principle of
+  Population,' by the Rev. T. Malthus, vol. i. 1826, p. 6, 517.
+
+  [191] 'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,'
+  vol. ii. p. 111-113, 163.
+
+  [192] Mr. Sedgwick, 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg.
+  Review,' July, 1863, p. 170.
+
+  [193] 'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' by W. W. Hunter, 1868, p.
+  259.
+
+  [194] 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865.
+
+  [195] See some good remarks to this effect by W. Stanley
+  Jevons, "A Deduction from Darwin's Theory," 'Nature,' 1869, p.
+  231.
+
+  [196] Latham, 'Man and his Migrations,' 1851, p. 135.
+
+  [197] Messrs. Murie and Mivart in their "Anatomy of the
+  Lemuroidea" ('Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 96-98)
+  say, "some muscles are so irregular in their distribution that
+  they cannot be well classed in any of the above groups." These
+  muscles differ even on the opposite sides of the same
+  individual.
+
+  [198] 'Quarterly Review,' April, 1869, p. 392. This subject is
+  more fully discussed in Mr. Wallace's 'Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, in which all the essays
+  referred to in this work are republished. The 'Essay on Man'
+  has been ably criticised by Prof. Claparede, one of the most
+  distinguished zoologists in Europe, in an article published in
+  the 'Bibliotheque Universelle,' June, 1870. The remark quoted
+  in my text will surprise every one who has read Mr. Wallace's
+  celebrated paper on 'The Origin of Human Races deduced from the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' originally published in the
+  'Anthropological Review,' May, 1864, p. clviii. I cannot here
+  resist quoting a most just remark by Sir J. Lubbock
+  ('Prehistoric Times,' 1865, p. 479) in reference to this paper,
+  namely, that Mr. Wallace, "with characteristic unselfishness,
+  ascribes it (_i.e._ the idea of natural selection) unreservedly
+  to Mr. Darwin, although, as is well known, he struck out the
+  idea independently, and published it, though not with the same
+  elaboration, at the same time."
+
+  [199] Quoted by Mr. Lawson Tait in his "Law of Natural
+  Selection,"--'Dublin Quarterly Journal of Medical Science,'
+  Feb. 1869. Dr. Keller is likewise quoted to the same effect.
+
+  [200] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 71.
+
+  [201] 'Quarterly Review,' April, 1869, p. 392.
+
+  [202] In _Hylobates syndactylus_, as the name expresses, two of
+  the digits regularly cohere; and this, as Mr. Blyth informs me,
+  is occasionally the case with the digits of _H. agilis_, _lar_,
+  and _leuciscus_.
+
+  [203] Brehm, 'Thierleben,' B. i. s. 80.
+
+  [204] "The Hand, its mechanism," &c. 'Bridgewater Treatise,'
+  1833, p. 38.
+
+  [205] Haeckel has an excellent discussion on the steps by which
+  man became a biped: 'Natuerliche Schoepfungsgeschichte,' 1868, s.
+  507. Dr. Buechner ('Conferences sur la Theorie Darwinienne,'
+  1869, p. 135) has given good cases of the use of the foot as a
+  prehensile organ by man; also on the manner of progression of
+  the higher apes to which I allude in the following paragraph:
+  see also Owen ('Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 71) on
+  this latter subject.
+
+  [206] "On the Primitive Form of the Skull," translated in
+  'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 428. Owen ('Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates,' vol. ii. 1866, p. 551) on the mastoid processes
+  in the higher apes.
+
+  [207] 'Die Grenzen der Thierwelt, eine Betrachtung zu Darwin's
+  Lehre,' 1868, s. 51.
+
+  [208] Dujardin, 'Annales des Sc. Nat.' 3rd series, Zoolog. tom.
+  xiv. 1850, p. 203. See also Mr. Lowne, 'Anatomy and Phys. of
+  the _Musca vomitoria_,' 1870, p. 14. My son, Mr. F. Darwin,
+  dissected for me the cerebral ganglia of the _Formica rufa_.
+
+  [209] 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1869, p. 513.
+
+  [210] Quoted in C. Vogt's 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat.
+  1864, p. 88, 90. Prichard, 'Phys. Hist. of Mankind,' vol. i.
+  1838, p. 305.
+
+  [211] 'Comptes Rendus des Seances,' &c. June 1, 1868.
+
+  [212] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 124-129.
+
+  [213] Schaaffhausen gives from Blumenbach and Busch, the cases
+  of the spasms and cicatrix, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' Oct.
+  1868, p. 420. Dr. Jarrold ('Anthropologia,' 1808, p. 115, 116)
+  adduces from Camper and from his own observations, cases of the
+  modification of the skull from the head being fixed in an
+  unnatural position. He believes that certain trades, such as
+  that of a shoemaker, by causing the head to be habitually held
+  forward, makes the forehead more rounded and prominent.
+
+  [214] 'Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. i. p. 117 on the
+  elongation of the skull; p. 119, on the effect of the lopping
+  of one ear.
+
+  [215] Quoted by Schaaffhausen, in 'Anthropolog. Review,' Oct.
+  1868, p. 419.
+
+  [216] Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619.
+
+  [217] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire remarks ('Hist. Nat.
+  Generale,' tom. ii. 1859, p. 215-217) on the head of man being
+  covered with long hair; also on the upper surfaces of monkeys
+  and of other mammals being more thickly clothed than the lower
+  surfaces. This has likewise been observed by various authors.
+  Prof. P. Gervais ('Hist. Nat. des Mammiferes,' tom. i. 1854, p.
+  28), however, states that in the Gorilla the hair is thinner on
+  the back, where it is partly rubbed off, than on the lower
+  surface.
+
+  [218] Mr. St. George Mivart, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1865, p. 562,
+  583. Dr. J. E. Gray, 'Cat. Brit. Mus.: Skeletons.' Owen,
+  'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. ii. p. 517. Isidore Geoffroy,
+  'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. p. 244.
+
+  [219] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 280, 282.
+
+  [220] 'Primeval Man,' 1869, p. 66.
+
+  [221] 'Anthropological Review,' May, 1864, p. clviii.
+
+  [222] After a time the members or tribes which are absorbed
+  into another tribe assume, as Mr. Maine remarks ('Ancient Law,'
+  1861, p. 131), that they are the co-descendants of the same
+  ancestors.
+
+  [223] Morlot, 'Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat.' 1860, p. 294.
+
+  [224] I have given instances in my 'Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 196.
+
+  [225] See a remarkable series of articles on Physics and
+  Politics in the 'Fortnightly Review,' Nov. 1867; April 1, 1868;
+  July 1, 1869.
+
+  [226] 'Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 265.
+
+  [227] Mr. Wallace gives cases in his 'Contributions to the
+  Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870, p. 354.
+
+  [228] 'Ancient Law,' 1861, p. 22. For Mr. Bagehot's remarks,
+  'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1868, p. 452.
+
+  [229] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. i. p. 309.
+
+  [230] 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 353. This article
+  seems to have struck many persons, and has given rise to two
+  remarkable essays and a rejoinder in the 'Spectator,' Oct. 3rd
+  and 17th 1868. It has also been discussed in the 'Q. Journal of
+  Science,' 1869, p. 152, and by Mr. Lawson Tait in the 'Dublin
+  Q. Journal of Medical Science,' Feb. 1869, and by Mr. E. Ray
+  Lankester in his 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 128. Similar
+  views appeared previously in the 'Australasian,' July 13, 1867.
+  I have borrowed ideas from several of these writers.
+
+  [231] For Mr. Wallace, see 'Anthropolog. Review,' as before
+  cited. Mr. Galton in 'Macmillan's Magazine,' Aug. 1865, p. 318;
+  also his great work, 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870.
+
+  [232] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 132-140.
+
+  [233] See the fifth and sixth columns, compiled from good
+  authorities, in the table given in Mr. E. R. Lankester's
+  'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115.
+
+  [234] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 330.
+
+  [235] 'Origin of Species' (fifth edition, 1869), p. 104.
+
+  [236] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 347.
+
+  [237] E. Ray Lankester, 'Comparative Longevity,' 1870, p. 115.
+  The table of the intemperate is from Nelson's 'Vital
+  Statistics.' In regard to profligacy, see Dr. Farr, "Influence
+  of Marriage on Mortality," 'Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of
+  Social Science,' 1858.
+
+  [238] 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 353. 'Macmillan's
+  Magazine,' Aug. 1865, p. 318. The Rev. F. W. Farrar ('Fraser's
+  Mag.,' Aug. 1870, p. 264) takes a different view.
+
+  [239] "On the Laws of the Fertility of Women," in 'Transact.
+  Royal Soc.' Edinburgh, vol. xxiv. p. 287. See, also, Mr.
+  Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' p. 352-357, for observations to
+  the above effect.
+
+  [240] 'Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in
+  Scotland,' 1867, p. xxix.
+
+  [241] These quotations are taken from our highest authority on
+  such questions, namely, Dr. Farr, in his paper "On the
+  Influence of Marriage on the Mortality of the French People,"
+  read before the Nat. Assoc. for the Promotion of Social
+  Science, 1858.
+
+  [242] Dr. Farr, ibid. The quotations given below are extracted
+  from the same striking paper.
+
+  [243] I have taken the mean of the quinquennial means, given in
+  'The Tenth Annual Report of Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,'
+  1867. The quotation from Dr. Stark is copied from an article in
+  the 'Daily News,' Oct. 17th, 1868, which Dr. Farr considers
+  very carefully written.
+
+  [244] See the ingenious and original argument on this subject
+  by Mr. Galton, 'Hereditary Genius,' p. 340-342.
+
+  [245] Mr. Greg, 'Fraser's Magazine,' Sept. 1868, p. 357.
+
+  [246] 'Hereditary Genius,' 1870, p. 357-359. The Rev. F. H.
+  Farrar ('Fraser's Mag.' , Aug. 1870, p. 257) advances arguments
+  on the other side. Sir C. Lyell had already ('Principles of
+  Geology,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 489) called attention, in a
+  striking passage, to the evil influence of the Holy Inquisition
+  in having lowered, through selection, the general standard of
+  intelligence in Europe.
+
+  [247] Mr. Galton, 'Macmillan's Magazine,' August, 1865, p. 325.
+  See, also, 'Nature,' "On Darwinism and National Life," Dec.
+  1869, p. 184.
+
+  [248] 'Last Winter in the United States,' 1868, p. 29.
+
+  [249] 'On the Origin of Civilisation,' 'Proc. Ethnological
+  Soc.' Nov. 26, 1867.
+
+  [250] 'Primeval Man,' 1869.
+
+  [251] 'Royal Institution of Great Britain,' March 15, 1867.
+  Also, 'Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 1865.
+
+  [252] 'Primitive Marriage,' 1865. See, likewise, an excellent
+  article, evidently by the same author, in the 'North British
+  Review,' July, 1869. Also, Mr. L. H. Morgan, "A Conjectural
+  Solution of the Origin of the Class. System of Relationship,"
+  in 'Proc. American Acad. of Sciences,' vol. vii. Feb. 1868.
+  Prof. Schaaffhausen ('Anthropolog. Review,' Oct. 1869, p. 373)
+  remarks on "the vestiges of human sacrifices found both in
+  Homer and the Old Testament."
+
+  [253] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869,
+  chap. xv. and xvi. _et passim_.
+
+  [254] Dr. F. Mueller has made some good remarks to this effect
+  in the 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' Abtheil. iii.
+  1868, s. 127.
+
+  [255] Isidore Geoffroy St.-Hilaire gives a detailed account of
+  the position assigned to man by various naturalists in their
+  classifications: 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 170-189.
+
+  [256] See the very interesting article, "L'Instinct chez les
+  Insectes," by M. George Pouchet, 'Revue des Deux Mondes,' Feb.
+  1870, p. 682.
+
+  [257] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  87.
+
+  [258] 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 4.
+
+  [259] 'Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature,' 1863, p. 70, _et
+  passim_.
+
+  [260] Isid. Geoffroy, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' tom. ii. 1859, p. 217.
+
+  [261] "Ueber die Richtung der Haare," &c., Mueller's 'Archiv fuer
+  Anat. und Phys.' 1837, s. 51.
+
+  [262] On the hair in Hylobates, see 'Nat. Hist. of Mammals,' by
+  C. L. Martin, 1841, p. 415. Also, Isid. Geoffroy on the
+  American monkeys and other kinds, 'Hist. Nat. Gen.' vol. ii.
+  1859, p. 216, 243. Eschricht, ibid., s. 46, 55, 61. Owen, 'Anat.
+  of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 619. Wallace, 'Contributions to
+  the Theory of Natural Selection,' 1870. p. 344.
+
+  [263] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. 1869, p. 194. 'The
+  Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 348.
+
+  [264] 'An Introduction to the Classification of Animals,' 1869,
+  p. 99.
+
+  [265] This is nearly the same classification as that
+  provisionally adopted by Mr. St. George Mivart ('Transact.
+  Philosoph. Soc.' 1867, p. 300), who, after separating the
+  Lemuridae, divides the remainder of the Primates into the
+  Hominidae, the Simiadae answering to the Catarhines, the Cebidae,
+  and the Hapalidae,--these two latter groups answering to the
+  Platyrhines.
+
+  [266] 'Transact. Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vi. 1867, p. 214.
+
+  [267] Mr. St. G. Mivart, 'Transact. Phil. Soc.' 1867, p. 410.
+
+  [268] Messrs. Murie and Mivart on the Lemuroidea. 'Transact.
+  Zoolog. Soc.' vol. vii. 1869, p. 5.
+
+  [269] Haeckel has come to this same conclusion. See 'Ueber die
+  Entstehung des Menschengeschlechts,' in Virchow's 'Sammlung.
+  gemein. wissen. Vortraege,' 1868, s. 61. Also his 'Natuerliche
+  Schoepfungsgeschichte,' 1868, in which he gives in detail his
+  views on the genealogy of man.
+
+  [270] 'Anthropological Review,' April, 1867, p. 236.
+
+  [271] 'Elements of Geology,' 1865, p. 583-585. 'Antiquity of
+  Man', 1863; p. 145.
+
+  [272] 'Man's Place in Nature,' p. 105.
+
+  [273] Elaborate tables are given in his 'Generelle Morphologie'
+  (B. ii. s. cliii. and s. 425); and with more especial reference
+  to man in his 'Natuerliche Schoepfungsgeschichte,' 1868. Prof.
+  Huxley, in reviewing this latter work ('The Academy,' 1869, p.
+  42) says, that he considers the phylum or lines of descent of
+  the Vertebrata to be admirably discussed by Haeckel, although he
+  differs on some points. He expresses, also, his high estimate
+  of the value of the general tenor and spirit of the whole work.
+
+  [274] 'Palaeontology,' 1860, p. 199.
+
+  [275] I had the satisfaction of seeing, at the Falkland
+  Islands, in April, 1833, and therefore some years before any
+  other naturalist, the locomotive larvae of a compound Ascidian,
+  closely allied to, but apparently generically distinct from,
+  Synoicum. The tail was about five times as long as the oblong
+  head, and terminated in a very fine filament. It was plainly
+  divided, as sketched by me under a simple microscope, by
+  transverse opaque partitions, which I presume represent the
+  great cells figured by Kowalevsky. At an early stage of
+  development the tail was closely coiled round the head of the
+  larva.
+
+  [276] 'Memoires de l'Acad. des Sciences de St. Petersbourg,'
+  tom. x. No. 15, 1866.
+
+  [277] This is the conclusion of one of the highest authorities
+  in comparative anatomy, namely, Prof. Gegenbaur: 'Grundzuege der
+  vergleich. Anat.' 1870, s. 876. The result has been arrived at
+  chiefly from the study of the Amphibia; but it appears from the
+  researches of Waldeyer (as quoted in Humphry's 'Journal of
+  Anat. and Phys.' 1869, p. 161), that the sexual organs of even
+  "the higher vertebrata are, in their early condition,
+  hermaphrodite." Similar views have long been held by some
+  authors, though until recently not well based.
+
+  [278] The male Thylacinus offers the best instance. Owen,
+  'Anatomy of Vertebrates,' vol. iii. p. 771.
+
+  [279] Serranus is well known often to be in an hermaphrodite
+  condition; but Dr. Guenther informs me that he is convinced that
+  this is not its normal state. Descent from an ancient
+  androgynous prototype would, however, naturally favour and
+  explain, to a certain extent, the recurrence of this condition
+  in these fishes.
+
+  [280] Mr. Lockwood believes (as quoted in 'Quart. Journal of
+  Science,' April, 1868, p. 269), from what he has observed of
+  the development of Hippocampus, that the walls of the abdominal
+  pouch of the male in some way afford nourishment. On male
+  fishes hatching the ova in their mouths, see a very interesting
+  paper by Prof. Wyman, in 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.'
+  Sept. 15, 1857; also Prof. Turner, in 'Journal of Anat. and
+  Phys.' Nov. 1, 1866, p. 78. Dr. Guenther has likewise described
+  similar cases.
+
+  [281] All vital functions tend to run their course in fixed and
+  recurrent periods, and with tidal animals the periods would
+  probably be lunar; for such animals must have been left dry or
+  covered deep with water,--supplied with copious food or
+  stinted,--during endless generations, at regular lunar
+  intervals. If then the Vertebrata are descended from an animal
+  allied to the existing tidal Ascidians, the mysterious fact,
+  that with the higher and now terrestrial Vertebrata, not to
+  mention other classes, many normal and abnormal vital processes
+  run their course according to lunar periods, is rendered
+  intelligible. A recurrent period, if approximately of the right
+  duration, when once gained, would not, as far as we can judge,
+  be liable to be changed; consequently it might be thus
+  transmitted during almost any number of generations. This
+  conclusion, if it could be proved sound, would be curious; for
+  we should then see that the period of gestation in each mammal,
+  and the hatching of each bird's eggs, and many other vital
+  processes, still betrayed the primordial birthplace of these
+  animals.
+
+  [282] 'History of India,' 1841, vol. i. p. 323. Father Ripa
+  makes exactly the same remark with respect to the Chinese.
+
+  [283] A vast number of measurements of Whites, Blacks, and
+  Indians, are given in the 'Investigations in the Military and
+  Anthropolog. Statistics of American Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould,
+  1869, p. 298-358; on the capacity of the lungs, p. 471. See
+  also the numerous and valuable tables, by Dr. Weisbach, from
+  the observations of Dr. Scherzer and Dr. Schwarz, in the 'Reise
+  der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867.
+
+  [284] See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of the brain of
+  a Bush-woman, in 'Phil. Transact.' 1864, p. 519.
+
+  [285] Wallace, 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 178.
+
+  [286] With respect to the figures in the famous Egyptian caves
+  of Abou-Simbel, M. Pouchet says ('The Plurality of the Human
+  Races,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 50), that he was far from
+  finding recognisable representations of the dozen or more
+  nations which some authors believe that they can recognise.
+  Even some of the most strongly-marked races cannot be
+  identified with that degree of unanimity which might have been
+  expected from what has been written on the subject. Thus
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon ('Types of Mankind,' p. 148) state
+  that Rameses II., or the Great, has features superbly European;
+  whereas Knox, another firm believer in the specific distinction
+  of the races of man ('Races of Man,' 1850, p. 201), speaking of
+  young Memnon (the same person with Rameses II., as I am
+  informed by Mr. Birch) insists in the strongest manner that he
+  is identical in character with the Jews of Antwerp. Again,
+  whilst looking in the British Museum with two competent judges,
+  officers of the establishment, at the statue of Amunoph III.,
+  we agreed that he had a strongly negro cast of features; but
+  Messrs. Nott and Gliddon (ibid. p. 146, fig. 53) describe him
+  as "a hybrid, but not of negro intermixture."
+
+  [287] As quoted by Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,' 1854,
+  p. 439. They give also corroborative evidence; but C. Vogt
+  thinks that the subject requires further investigation.
+
+  [288] "Diversity of Origin of the Human Races," in the
+  'Christian Examiner,' July, 1850.
+
+  [289] 'Transact. B. Soc. of Edinburgh,' vol. xxii. 1861, p.
+  567.
+
+  [290] 'On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo,' Eng.
+  translat. 1864.
+
+  [291] See the interesting letter by Mr. T. A. Murray, in the
+  'Anthropolog. Review,' April, 1868, p. liii. In this letter
+  Count Strzelecki's statement, that Australian women who have
+  borne children to a white man are afterwards sterile with their
+  own race, is disproved. M. A. de Quatrefages has also collected
+  ('Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' March, 1869, p. 239) much
+  evidence that Australians and Europeans are not sterile when
+  crossed.
+
+  [292] 'An Examination of Prof. Agassiz's Sketch of the Nat.
+  Provinces of the Animal World,' Charleston, 1855, p. 44.
+
+  [293] 'Military and Anthropolog. Statistics of American
+  Soldiers,' by B. A. Gould, 1869, p. 319.
+
+  [294] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 109. I may here remind the reader
+  that the sterility of species when crossed is not a
+  specially-acquired quality; but, like the incapacity of certain
+  trees to be grafted together, is incidental on other acquired
+  differences. The nature of these differences is unknown, but
+  they relate more especially to the reproductive system, and
+  much less to external structure or to ordinary differences in
+  constitution. One important element in the sterility of crossed
+  species apparently lies in one or both having been long
+  habituated to fixed conditions; for we know that changed
+  conditions have a special influence on the reproductive system,
+  and we have good reason to believe (as before remarked) that
+  the fluctuating conditions of domestication tend to eliminate
+  that sterility which is so general with species in a natural
+  state when crossed. It has elsewhere been shewn by me (ibid.
+  vol. ii. p. 185, and 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 317)
+  that the sterility of crossed species has not been acquired
+  through natural selection: we can see that when two forms have
+  already been rendered very sterile, it is scarcely possible
+  that their sterility should be augmented by the preservation or
+  survival of the more and more sterile individuals; for as the
+  sterility increases fewer and fewer offspring will be produced
+  from which to breed, and at last only single individuals will
+  be produced, at the rarest intervals. But there is even a
+  higher grade of sterility than this. Both Gaertner and Koelreuter
+  have proved that in genera of plants including numerous
+  species, a series can be formed from species which when crossed
+  yield fewer and fewer seeds, to species which never produce a
+  single seed, but yet are affected by the pollen of the other
+  species, for the germen swells. It is here manifestly
+  impossible to select the more sterile individuals, which have
+  already ceased to yield seeds; so that the acme of sterility,
+  when the germen alone is affected, cannot be gained through
+  selection. This acme, and no doubt the other grades of
+  sterility, are the incidental results of certain unknown
+  differences in the constitution of the reproductive system of
+  the species which are crossed.
+
+  [295] 'The Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. ii. p. 92.
+
+  [296] M. de Quatrefages has given ('Anthropolog. Review,' Jan.
+  1869, p. 22) an interesting account of the success and energy
+  of the Paulistas in Brazil, who are a much crossed race of
+  Portuguese and Indians, with a mixture of the blood of other
+  races.
+
+  [297] For instance with the aborigines of America and
+  Australia. Prof. Huxley says ('Transact. Internat. Congress of
+  Prehist. Arch.' 1868. p. 105) that the skulls of many South
+  Germans and Swiss are "as short and as broad as those of the
+  Tartars," &c.
+
+  [298] See a good discussion on this subject in Waitz,
+  'Introduct. to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, p. 198-208,
+  227. I have taken some of the above statements from H. Tuttle's
+  'Origin and Antiquity of Physical Man,' Boston, 1866, p. 35.
+
+  [299] Prof. Naegeli has carefully described several striking
+  cases in his 'Botanische Mittheilungen,' B. ii. 1866, s.
+  294-369. Prof. Asa Gray has made analogous remarks on some
+  intermediate forms in the Compositae of N. America.
+
+  [300] 'Origin of Species,' 5th edit. p. 68.
+
+  [301] See Prof. Huxley to this effect in the 'Fortnightly
+  Review,' 1865, p. 275.
+
+  [302] 'Lectures on Man,' Eng. translat. 1864, p. 468.
+
+  [303] 'Die Racen des Schweines,' 1860, s. 46. 'Vorstudien fuer
+  Geschichte, &c., Schweineschaedel,' 1864, s. 104. With respect
+  to cattle, see M. de Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,'
+  1861, p. 119.
+
+  [304] Tylor's 'Early History of Mankind,' 1865; for the
+  evidence with respect to gesture-language, see p. 54. Lubbock's
+  'Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869.
+
+  [305] 'The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia,' Eng.
+  translat. edited by Sir J. Lubbock, 1868, p. 104.
+
+  [306] Hodder M. Westropp, on Cromlechs, &c., 'Journal of
+  Ethnological Soc.' as given in 'Scientific Opinion,' June 2nd.
+  1869, p. 3.
+
+  [307] 'Journal of Researches: Voyage of the "Beagle,"' p. 46.
+
+  [308] 'Prehistoric Times,' 1869, p. 574.
+
+  [309] Translation in 'Anthropological Review,' Oct. 1868, p.
+  431.
+
+  [310] 'Transact. Internat. Congress of Prehistoric Arch.' 1868,
+  p. 172-175. See also Broca (translation) in 'Anthropological
+  Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 410.
+
+  [311] Dr. Gerland, 'Ueber das Aussterben der Naturvoelker,'
+  1868, s. 82.
+
+  [312] Gerland (ibid. s. 12) gives facts in support of this
+  statement.
+
+  [313] See remarks to this effect in Sir H. Holland's 'Medical
+  Notes and Reflections,' 1839, p. 390.
+
+  [314] I have collected ('Journal of Researches, Voyage of the
+  "Beagle,"' p. 435) a good many cases bearing on this subject:
+  see also Gerland, ibid. s. 8. Poeppig speaks of the "breath of
+  civilisation as poisonous to savages."
+
+  [315] Sproat, 'Scenes and Studies of Savage Life,' 1868, p.
+  284.
+
+  [316] Bagehot, "Physics and Politics," 'Fortnightly Review,'
+  April 1, 1868, p. 455.
+
+  [317] "On Anthropology," translation, 'Anthropolog. Review,'
+  Jan. 1868, p. 38.
+
+  [318] 'The Annals of Rural Bengal,' 1868, p. 134.
+
+  [319] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 95.
+
+  [320] Pallas, 'Act. Acad. St. Petersburgh,' 1780, part ii. p.
+  69. He was followed by Rudolphi, in his 'Beytraege zur
+  Anthropologie,' 1812. An excellent summary of the evidence is
+  given by Godron, 'De l'Espece,' 1859, vol. ii. p. 246, &c.
+
+  [321] Sir Andrew Smith, as quoted by Knox, 'Races of Man,'
+  1850, p. 473.
+
+  [322] See De Quatrefages on this head, 'Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,' Oct. 17, 1868, p. 731.
+
+  [323] Livingstone's 'Travels and Researches in S. Africa,'
+  1857, p. 338, 329. D'Orbigny, as quoted by Godron, 'De
+  l'Espece,' vol. ii. p. 266.
+
+  [324] See a paper read before the Royal Soc. in 1813, and
+  published in his Essays in 1818. I have given an account of Dr.
+  Wells' views in the Historical Sketch (p. xvi) to my 'Origin of
+  Species.' Various cases of colour correlated with
+  constitutional peculiarities are given in my 'Variation of
+  Animals under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 227, 335.
+
+  [325] See, for instance, Nott and Gliddon, 'Types of Mankind,'
+  p. 68.
+
+  [326] Major Tulloch, in a paper read before the Statistical
+  Society, April 20th, 1840, and given in the 'Athenaeum,' 1840,
+  p. 353.
+
+  [327] 'The Plurality of the Human Race' (translat.), 1864, p.
+  60.
+
+  [328] Quatrefages, 'Unite de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 205.
+  Waitz, 'Introduct. to Anthropology,' translat. vol. i. 1863, p.
+  124. Livingstone gives analogous cases in his 'Travels.'
+
+  [329] In the spring of 1862 I obtained permission from the
+  Director-General of the Medical department of the Army, to
+  transmit to the surgeons of the various regiments on foreign
+  service a blank table, with the following appended remarks, but
+  I have received no returns. "As several well-marked cases have
+  been recorded with our domestic animals of a relation between
+  the colour of the dermal appendages and the constitution; and
+  it being notorious that there is some limited degree of
+  relation between the colour of the races of man and the climate
+  inhabited by them; the following investigation seems worth
+  consideration. Namely, whether there is any relation in
+  Europeans between the colour of their hair, and their liability
+  to the diseases of tropical countries. If the surgeons of the
+  several regiments, when stationed in unhealthy tropical
+  districts, would be so good as first to count, as a standard of
+  comparison, how many men, in the force whence the sick are
+  drawn, have dark and light-coloured hair, and hair of
+  intermediate or doubtful tints; and if a similar account were
+  kept by the same medical gentlemen, of all the men who suffered
+  from malarious and yellow fevers, or from dysentery, it would
+  soon be apparent, after some thousand cases had been tabulated,
+  whether there exists any relation between the colour of the
+  hair and constitutional liability to tropical diseases. Perhaps
+  no such relation would be discovered, but the investigation is
+  well worth making. In case any positive result were obtained,
+  it might be of some practical use in selecting men for any
+  particular service. Theoretically the result would be of high
+  interest, as indicating one means by which a race of men
+  inhabiting from a remote period an unhealthy tropical climate,
+  might have become dark-coloured by the better preservation of
+  dark-haired or dark-complexioned individuals during a long
+  succession of generations."
+
+  [330] 'Anthropological Review,' Jan. 1866, p. xxi.
+
+  [331] See, for instance, Quatrefages ('Revue des Cours
+  Scientifiques,' Oct. 10, 1868, p. 724) on the effects of
+  residence in Abyssinia and Arabia, and other analogous cases.
+  Dr. Rolle ('Der Mensch, seine Abstammung,' &c., 1865, s. 99)
+  states, on the authority of Khanikof, that the greater number
+  of German families settled in Georgia, have acquired in the
+  course of two generations dark hair and eyes. Mr. D. Forbes
+  informs me that the Quichuas in the Andes vary greatly in
+  colour, according to the position of the valleys inhabited by
+  them.
+
+  [332] Harlan, 'Medical Researches,' p. 532. Quatrefages ('Unite
+  de l'Espece Humaine,' 1861, p. 128) has collected much evidence
+  on this head.
+
+  [333] See Prof. Schaaffhausen, translat. in 'Anthropological
+  Review,' Oct. 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [334] Mr. Catlin states ('N. American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842,
+  vol. i. p. 49) that in the whole tribe of the Mandans, about
+  one in ten or twelve of the members of all ages and both sexes
+  have bright silvery grey hair, which is hereditary. Now this
+  hair is as coarse and harsh as that of a horse's mane, whilst
+  the hair of other colours is fine and soft.
+
+  [335] On the odour of the skin, Godron, 'Sur l'Espece,' tom.
+  ii. p. 217. On the pores in the skin, Dr. Wilckens, 'Die
+  Aufgaben der landwirth. Zootechnik,' 1869, s. 7.
+
+  [336] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1810, p.
+  541. In regard to the statement about Tanais, mentioned below,
+  I am indebted to Fritz Mueller.
+
+  [337] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 309.
+
+  [338] Even with those of plants in which the sexes are
+  separate, the male flowers are generally mature before the
+  female. Many hermaphrodite plants are, as first shewn by C. K.
+  Sprengel, dichogamous; that is, their male and female organs
+  are not ready at the same time, so that they cannot be
+  self-fertilised. Now with such plants the pollen is generally
+  mature in the same flower before the stigma, though there are
+  some exceptional species in which the female organs are mature
+  before the male.
+
+  [339] I have received information, hereafter to be given, to
+  this effect with respect to poultry. Even with birds, such as
+  pigeons, which pair for life, the female, as I hear from Mr.
+  Jenner Weir, will desert her mate if he is injured or grows
+  weak.
+
+  [340] On the Gorilla, Savage and Wyman, 'Boston Journal of Nat.
+  Hist.' vol. v. 1845-47, p. 423. On Cynocephalus, Brehm,
+  'Illust. Thierleben,' B. i. 1864, s. 77. On Mycetes, Rengger,
+  'Naturgesch.: Saeugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, s. 14, 20. On
+  Cebus, Brehm, ibid. s. 108.
+
+  [341] Pallas, 'Spicilegia Zoolog.' Fasc. xii. 1777, p. 29. Sir
+  Andrew Smith, 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,'
+  1849, pl. 29, on the Kobus. Owen, in his 'Anatomy of
+  Vertebrates' (vol. iii. 1868, p. 633) gives a table
+  incidentally showing which species of Antelopes pair and which
+  are gregarious.
+
+  [342] Dr. Campbell, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 138. See
+  also an interesting paper, by Lieut. Johnstone, in 'Proc.
+  Asiatic Soc. of Bengal,' May, 1868.
+
+  [343] 'The Ibis,' vol. iii. 1861, p. 133, on the Progne
+  Widow-bird. See also on the Vidua axillaris, ibid. vol. ii.
+  1860, p. 211. On the polygamy of the Capercailzie and Great
+  Bustard, see L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,' 1867, p. 19, and
+  182. Montagu and Selby speak of the Black Grouse as polygamous
+  and of the Red Grouse as monogamous.
+
+  [344] The Rev. E. S. Dixon, however, speaks positively
+  ('Ornamental Poultry,' 1848, p. 76) about the eggs of the
+  guinea-fowl being infertile when more than one female is kept
+  with the same male.
+
+  [345] Noel Humphreys, 'River Gardens,' 1857.
+
+  [346] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  1826, p. 342.
+
+  [347] One parasitic Hymenopterous insect (Westwood, 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii, p. 160) forms an exception to the
+  rule, as the male has rudimentary wings, and never quits the
+  cell in which it is born, whilst the female has well-developed
+  wings. Audouin believes that the females are impregnated by the
+  males which are born in the same cells with them; but it is
+  much more probable that the females visit other cells, and thus
+  avoid close inter-breeding. We shall hereafter meet with a few
+  exceptional cases, in various classes, in which the female,
+  instead of the male, is the seeker and wooer.
+
+  [348] 'Essays and Observations,' edited by Owen, vol. i. 1861,
+  p. 194.
+
+  [349] Prof. Sachs ('Lehrbuch der Botanik,' 1870, s. 633) in
+  speaking of the male and female reproductive cells, remarks,
+  "verhaelt sich die eine bei der Vereinigung activ, ... die
+  andere erscheint bei der Vereinigung passiv."
+
+  [350] 'Reise der Novara: Anthropolog. Theil,' 1867, s. 216-269.
+  The results were calculated by Dr. Weisbach from measurements
+  made by Drs. K. Scherzer and Schwarz. On the greater
+  variability of the males of domesticated animals, see my
+  'Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii.
+  1868, p. 75.
+
+  [351] 'Proceedings Royal Soc.' vol. xvi. July, 1868, p. 519 and
+  524.
+
+  [352] 'Proc. Royal Irish Academy,' vol. x. 1868, p. 123.
+
+  [353] 'Massachusetts Medical Soc.' vol. ii. No. 3, 1808, p. 9.
+
+  [354] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, p. 75. In the last chapter but
+  one, the provisional hypothesis of pangenesis, above alluded
+  to, is fully explained.
+
+  [355] These facts are given on the high authority of a great
+  breeder, Mr. Teebay, in Tegetmeier's 'Poultry Book,' 1868, p.
+  158. On the characters of chickens of different breeds, and on
+  the breeds of the pigeon, alluded to in the above paragraph,
+  see 'Variation of Animals,' &c., vol. i. p. 160, 249; vol. ii.
+  p. 77.
+
+  [356] 'Novae species Quadrupedum e Glirium ordine,' 1778, p. 7.
+  On the transmission of colour by the horse, see 'Variation of
+  Animals, &c. under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 21. Also vol. ii.
+  p. 71, for a general discussion on Inheritance as limited by
+  Sex.
+
+  [357] Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon Voyageur Belge,' 1865, p. 87.
+  Boitard et Corbie, 'Les Pigeons de Voliere,' &c., 1824, p. 173.
+
+  [358] References are given in my 'Variation of Animals under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 72.
+
+  [359] I am much obliged to Mr. Cupples for having made
+  enquiries for me in regard to the Roebuck and Red Deer of
+  Scotland from Mr. Robertson, the experienced head-forester to
+  the Marquis of Breadalbane. In regard to Fallow-deer, I am
+  obliged to Mr. Eyton and others for information. For the
+  _Cervus alces_ of N. America, see 'Land and Water,' 1868, p.
+  221 and 254; and for the _C. Virginianus_ and _strongyloceros_
+  of the same continent, see J. D. Caton, in 'Ottawa Acad. of
+  Nat. Sc.' 1868, p. 13. For _Cervus Eldi_ of Pegu, see Lieut.
+  Beavan, 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1867, p. 762.
+
+  [360] _Antilocapra Americana._ Owen, 'Anatomy of Vertebrates,'
+  vol. iii. p. 627.
+
+  [361] I have been assured that the horns of the sheep in North
+  Wales can always be felt, and are sometimes even an inch in
+  length, at birth. With cattle Youatt says ('Cattle,' 1834, p.
+  277) that the prominence of the frontal bone penetrates the
+  cutis at birth, and that the horny matter is soon formed over
+  it.
+
+  [362] I am greatly indebted to Prof. Victor Carus for having
+  made inquiries for me, from the highest authorities, with
+  respect to the merino sheep of Saxony. On the Guinea coast of
+  Africa there is a breed of sheep in which, as with merinos, the
+  rams alone bear horns; and Mr. Winwood Reade informs me that in
+  the one case observed, a young ram born on Feb. 10th first
+  showed horns on March 6th, so that in this instance the
+  development of the horns occurred at a later period of life,
+  conformably with our rule, than in the Welsh sheep, in which
+  both sexes are horned.
+
+  [363] In the common peacock (_Pavo cristatus_) the male alone
+  possesses spurs, whilst both sexes of the Java peacock (_P.
+  muticus_) offer the unusual case of being furnished with spurs.
+  Hence I fully expected that in the latter species they would
+  have been developed earlier in life than in the common peacock;
+  but M. Hegt of Amsterdam informs me, that with young birds of
+  the previous year, belonging to both species, compared on April
+  23rd, 1869, there was no difference in the development of the
+  spurs. The spurs, however, were as yet represented merely by
+  slight knobs or elevations. I presume that I should have been
+  informed if any difference in the rate of development had
+  subsequently been observed.
+
+  [364] In some other species of the Duck Family the speculum in
+  the two sexes differs in a greater degree; but I have not been
+  able to discover whether its full development occurs later in
+  life in the males of such species, than in the male of the
+  common duck, as ought to be the case according to our rule.
+  With the allied _Mergus cucullatus_ we have, however, a case of
+  this kind: the two sexes differ conspicuously in general
+  plumage, and to a considerable degree in the speculum, which is
+  pure white in the male and greyish-white in the female. Now the
+  young males at first resemble, in all respects, the female, and
+  have a greyish-white speculum, but this becomes pure white at
+  an earlier age than that at which the adult male acquires his
+  other more strongly-marked sexual differences in plumage: see
+  Audubon, 'Ornithological Biography,' vol. iii. 1835, p.
+  249-250.
+
+  [365] 'Das Ganze der Taubenzucht,' 1837, s. 21, 24. For the
+  case of the streaked pigeons, see Dr. Chapuis, 'Le Pigeon
+  Voyageur Belge.' 1865, p. 87.
+
+  [366] For full particulars and references on all these points
+  respecting the several breeds of the Fowl, see 'Variation of
+  Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. i. p. 250, 256.
+  In regard to the higher animals, the sexual differences which
+  have arisen under domestication are described in the same work
+  under the head of each species.
+
+  [367] 'Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Registrar-General for
+  1866.' In this report (p. xii) a special decennial table is
+  given.
+
+  [368] For Norway and Russia, see abstract of Prof. Faye's
+  researches, in 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,'
+  April, 1867, p. 343, 345. For France, the 'Annuaire pour l'An
+  1867.' p. 213.
+
+  [369] In regard to the Jews, see M. Thury, 'La Loi de
+  Production des Sexes,' 1863, p. 25.
+
+  [370] Babbage, 'Edinburgh Journal of Science,' 1829, vol. i. p.
+  88; also p. 90, on still-born children. On illegitimate
+  children in England, see 'Report of Registrar-General for
+  1866,' p. xv.
+
+  [371] 'British and Foreign Medico-Chirurg. Review,' April,
+  1867, p. 343. Dr. Stark also remarks ('Tenth Annual Report of
+  Births, Deaths, &c., in Scotland,' 1867, p. xxviii) that "These
+  examples may suffice to shew that, at almost every stage of
+  life, the males in Scotland have a greater liability to death
+  and a higher death-rate than the females. The fact, however, of
+  this peculiarity being most strongly developed at that
+  infantile period of life when the dress, food, and general
+  treatment of both sexes are alike, seems to prove that the
+  higher male death-rate is an impressed, natural, and
+  constitutional peculiarity due to sex alone."
+
+  [372] With the savage Guaranys of Paraguay, according to the
+  accurate Azara ('Voyages dans l'Amerique merid.' tom. ii. 1809,
+  p. 60, 179), the women in proportion to the men are as 14 to
+  13.
+
+  [373] Leuckart in Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der Phys.' B. iv.
+  1853, s. 774.
+
+  [374] Anthropological Review, April, 1870, p. cviii.
+
+  [375] During the last eleven years a record has been kept of
+  the number of mares which have proved barren or prematurely
+  slipped their foals; and it deserves notice, as shewing how
+  infertile these highly-nurtured and rather closely-interbred
+  animals have become, that not far from one-third of the mares
+  failed to produce living foals. Thus during 1866, 809 male
+  colts and 816 female colts were born, and 743 mares failed to
+  produce offspring. During 1867, 836 males and 902 females were
+  born, and 794 mares failed.
+
+  [376] I am much indebted to Mr. Cupples for having procured for
+  me the above returns from Scotland, as well as some of the
+  following returns on cattle. Mr. R. Elliot, of Laighwood, first
+  called my attention to the premature deaths of the males,--a
+  statement subsequently confirmed by Mr. Aitchison and others.
+  To this latter gentleman, and to Mr. Payan, I owe my thanks for
+  the larger returns on sheep.
+
+  [377] Bell, 'History of British Quadrupeds,' p. 100.
+
+  [378] 'Illustrations of the Zoology of S. Africa,' 1849, pl.
+  29.
+
+  [379] Brehm ('Illust. Thierleben,' B. iv. s. 990) comes to the
+  same conclusion.
+
+  [380] On the authority of L. Lloyd, 'Game Birds of Sweden,'
+  1867, p. 12, 132.
+
+  [381] 'Nat. Hist. of Selbourne,' letter xxix. edit. of 1825,
+  vol. i. p. 139.
+
+  [382] Mr. Jenner Weir received similar information, on making
+  enquiries during the following year. To shew the number of
+  chaffinches caught, I may mention that in 1869 there was a
+  match between two experts; and one man caught in a day 62, and
+  another 40, male chaffinches. The greatest number ever caught
+  by one man in a single day was 70.
+
+  [383] 'Ibis,' vol. ii. p. 260, as quoted in Gould's
+  'Trochilidae,' 1861, p. 52. For the foregoing proportions, I am
+  indebted to Mr. Salvin for a table of his results.
+
+  [384] 'Ibis,' 1860, p. 137; and 1867, p. 369.
+
+  [385] 'Ibis,' 1862, p. 137.
+
+  [386] Leuckart quotes Bloch (Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der Phys.'
+  B. iv. 1853, s. 775), that with fish there are twice as many
+  males as females.
+
+  [387] Quoted in the 'Farmer,' March 18, 1869, p. 369.
+
+  [388] 'The Stormontfield Piscicultural Experiments,' 1866, p.
+  23. The 'Field' newspaper, June 29th, 1867.
+
+  [389] 'Land and Water,' 1868, p. 41.
+
+  [390] Yarrell, 'Hist. British Fishes,' vol. i. 1836, p. 307; on
+  the _Cyprinus carpio_, p. 331; on the _Tinca vulgaris_, p. 331;
+  on the _Abramis brama_, p. 336. See, for the minnow (_Leuciscus
+  phoxinus_), 'Loudon's Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. v. 1832, p. 682.
+
+  [391] Leuckart quotes Meinecke (Wagner, 'Handwoerterbuch der
+  Phys.' B. iv. 1853, s. 775) that with Butterflies the males are
+  three or four times as numerous as the females.
+
+  [392] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii. 1863, p. 228,
+  347.
+
+  [393] Four of these cases are given by Mr. Trimen in his
+  'Rhopalocera Africae Australis.'
+
+  [394] Quoted by Trimen, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. v. part iv.
+  1866, p. 330.
+
+  [395] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. p. 37.
+
+  [396] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Feb. 17th, 1868.
+
+  [397] Quoted by Dr. Wallace in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series,
+  vol. v. 1867, p. 487.
+
+  [398] Blanchard, 'Metamorphoses, Moeurs des Insectes,' 1868, p.
+  225-226.
+
+  [399] 'Lepidopteren-Doubblettren Liste,' Berlin, No. x. 1866.
+
+  [400] This naturalist has been so kind as to send me some
+  results from former years, in which the females seemed to
+  preponderate; but so many of the figures were estimates, that I
+  found it impossible to tabulate them.
+
+  [401] Guenther's 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p.
+  260. On the excess of female Lucanus, ibid. p. 250. On the
+  males of Lucanus in England, Westwood, 'Modern Class. of
+  Insects,' vol. i. p. 187. On the Siagonium, ibid. p. 172.
+
+  [402] Walsh, in 'The American Entomologist,' vol. i. 1869, p.
+  103. F. Smith, 'Record of Zoological Literature,' 1867, p. 328.
+
+  [403] 'Farm Insects,' p. 45-46.
+
+  [404] 'Observations on N. American Neuroptera,' by H. Hagen and
+  B. D. Walsh, 'Proc. Ent. Soc. Philadelphia,' Oct. 1863, p. 168,
+  223, 239.
+
+  [405] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. London,' Feb. 17, 1868.
+
+  [406] Another great authority in this class, Prof. Thorell of
+  Upsala ('On European Spiders,' 1869-70, part i. p. 205) speaks
+  as if female spiders were generally commoner than the males.
+
+  [407] See, on this subject, Mr. Pickard-Cambridge, as quoted in
+  'Quarterly Journal of Science,' 1868, p. 429.
+
+  [408] I have often been struck with the fact, that in several
+  species of Primula the seeds in the capsules which contained
+  only a few were very much larger than the numerous seeds in the
+  more productive capsules.
+
+  [409] 'Principles of Biology,' vol. ii. 1867, chaps. ii.-xi.
+
+  [410] 'De l'Espece et de la Class.' &c., 1869, p. 106.
+
+  [411] See, for instance, the account which I have given in my
+  'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 7.
+
+  [412] I have given ('Geolog. Observations on Volcanic Islands,'
+  1844, p. 53) a curious instance of the influence of light on
+  the colours of a frondescent incrustation, deposited by the
+  surf on the coast-rocks of Ascension, and formed by the
+  solution of triturated sea-shells.
+
+  [413] 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' English translat. 1869,
+  p. 20. See the previous discussion on the olfactory threads.
+  Sars has described a somewhat analogous case (as quoted in
+  'Nature,' 1870, p. 455) in a Norwegian crustacean, the
+  _Pontoporeia affinis_.
+
+  [414] See Sir J. Lubbock in 'Annals. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'
+  vol. xi. 1853, pl. i. and x.; and vol. xii. (1853) pl. vii. See
+  also Lubbock in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. new series,
+  1856-1858, p. 8. With respect to the zigzagged antennae
+  mentioned below, see Fritz Mueller, 'Facts and Arguments for
+  Darwin' 1869, p. 40, foot-note.
+
+  [415] See a paper by Mr. C. Spence Bate, with figures, in
+  'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1868, p. 363; and on the nomenclature of
+  the genus, ibid. p. 585. I am greatly indebted to Mr. Spence
+  Bate for nearly all the above statements with respect to the
+  chelae of the higher crustaceans.
+
+  [416] 'Hist. Nat. des Crust.' tom. ii. 1837, p. 50.
+
+  [417] Fritz Mueller, 'Facts and Arguments for Darwin,' 1869, p.
+  25-28.
+
+  [418] 'Travels in the Interior of Brazil,' 1846, p. 111. I have
+  given, in my 'Journal of Researches,' p. 463, an account of the
+  habits of the Birgos.
+
+  [419] Mr. Ch. Fraser, in 'Proc. Zoolog. Soc.' 1869, p. 3. I am
+  indebted to Mr. Bate for the statement from Dr. Power.
+
+  [420] Claus, 'Die freilebenden Copepoden,' 1863, s. 35.
+
+  [421] 'Facts and Arguments,' &c., p. 79.
+
+  [422] 'A History of the Spiders of Great Britain,' 1861-64. For
+  the following facts, see p. 102, 77, 88.
+
+  [423] Aug. Vinson ('Araneides des Iles de la Reunion,' pl. vi.
+  figs. 1 and 2) gives a good instance of the small size of the
+  male in _Epeira nigra_. In this species, as I may add, the male
+  is testaceous and the female black with legs banded with red.
+  Other even more striking cases of inequality in size between
+  the sexes have been recorded ('Quarterly Journal of Science,'
+  1868, July, p. 429); but I have not seen the original accounts.
+
+  [424] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. i.
+  1818, p. 280.
+
+  [425] Theridion (Asagena, Sund.) serratipes, 4-punctatum et
+  guttatum; see Westring, in Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,' vol.
+  iv. 1842-1843, p. 349; and vol. ii. 1846-1849, p. 342. See,
+  also, for other species, 'Araneae Svecicae,' p. 184.
+
+  [426] Walckenaer et P. Gervais, 'Hist. Nat. des Insectes:
+  Apteres,' tom. iv. 1847, p. 17, 19, 68.
+
+  [427] Sir J. Lubbock, 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxv. 1866,
+  p. 484. With respect to the Mutillidae see Westwood, 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 213.
+
+  [428] These organs in the male often differ in closely-allied
+  species, and afford excellent specific characters. But their
+  importance, under a functional point of view, as Mr. E.
+  MacLachlan has remarked to me, has probably been overrated. It
+  has been suggested, that slight differences in these organs
+  would suffice to prevent the intercrossing of well-marked
+  varieties or incipient species, and would thus aid in their
+  development. That this can hardly be the case, we may infer
+  from the many recorded cases (see for instance, Bronn,
+  'Geschichte der Natur,' B. ii. 1843, s. 164; and Westwood,
+  'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iii. 1842, p. 195) of distinct
+  species having been observed in union. Mr. MacLachlan informs
+  me (vide 'Stett. Ent. Zeitung,' 1867, s. 155) that when several
+  species of Phryganidae, which present strongly-pronounced
+  differences of this kind, were confined together by Dr. Aug.
+  Meyer, _they coupled_, and one pair produced fertile ova.
+
+  [429] 'The Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia, vol. ii. May,
+  1867, p. 88.
+
+  [430] Mr. Walsh, ibid. p. 107.
+
+  [431] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  206, 205. Mr. Walsh, who called my attention to this double use
+  of the jaws, says that he has repeatedly observed this fact.
+
+  [432] We have here a curious and inexplicable case of
+  dimorphism, for some of the females of four European species of
+  Dytiscus, and of certain species of Hydroporus, have their
+  elytra smooth; and no intermediate gradations between sulcated
+  or punctured and quite smooth elytra have been observed. See
+  Dr. H. Schaum, as quoted in the 'Zoologist,' vol. v.-vi.
+  1847-48, p. 1896. Also Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to
+  Entomology,' vol. iii. 1826, p. 305.
+
+  [433] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 193. The following
+  statement about Penthe, and others in inverted commas, are
+  taken from Mr. Walsh, 'Practical Entomologist,' Philadelphia,
+  vol. ii. p. 88.
+
+  [434] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' &c., vol. iii. p. 332-336.
+
+  [435] 'Insecta Maderensia,' 1854, p. 20.
+
+  [436] E. Doubleday, 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. i.
+  1848, p. 379. I may add that the wings in certain Hymenoptera
+  (see Shuckard, 'Fossorial Hymenop.' 1837, p. 39-43) differ in
+  neuration according to sex.
+
+  [437] H. W. Bates, in 'Journal of Proc. Linn. Soc.' vol. vi.
+  1862, p. 74. Mr. Wonfor's observations are quoted in 'Popular
+  Science Review,' 1868, p. 343.
+
+  [438] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduction to Entomology,' vol. iii.
+  p. 299.
+
+  [439] Robinet, 'Vers a Soie,' 1848, p. 207.
+
+  [440] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. v. p. 486.
+
+  [441] 'Journal of Proc. Ent. Soc.' Feb. 4th, 1867, p. lxxi.
+
+  [442] For this and other statements on the size of the sexes,
+  see Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 300; on the duration
+  of life in insects, see p. 344.
+
+  [443] 'Transact. Linnean Soc.' vol. xxvi. 1868, p. 296.
+
+  [444] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 313.
+
+  [445] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p.
+  526.
+
+  [446] See Mr. B. T. Lowne's very interesting work, 'On the
+  Anatomy of the Blow-Fly, Musca vomitoria,' 1870, p. 14.
+
+  [447] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 473.
+
+  [448] These particulars are taken from Westwood's 'Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. 1840, p. 422. See, also, on the
+  Fulgoridae, Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 401.
+
+  [449] 'Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  152-158.
+
+  [450] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh for having sent me this
+  extract from a 'Journal of the Doings of Cicada septemdecim,'
+  by Dr. Hartman.
+
+  [451] L. Guilding, 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xv. p. 154.
+
+  [452] Koeppen, as quoted in the 'Zoological Record,' for 1867,
+  p. 460.
+
+  [453] Gilbert White, 'Nat. Hist. of Selborne,' vol. ii. 1825,
+  p. 262.
+
+  [454] Harris, 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 128.
+
+  [455] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 252.
+  Mr. Bates gives a very interesting discussion on the gradations
+  in the musical apparatus of the three families. See also
+  Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 445 and 453.
+
+  [456] 'Proc. Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.' vol. xi. April, 1868.
+
+  [457] 'Nouveau Manuel d'Anat. Comp.' (French translat.), tom.
+  i. 1850 p. 567.
+
+  [458] 'Zeitschrift fuer wissenschaft. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s.
+  117.
+
+  [459] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 440.
+
+  [460] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [461] Landois, ibid. s. 121, 122.
+
+  [462] Mr. Walsh also informs me that he has noticed that the
+  female of the _Platyphyllum concavum_, "when captured makes a
+  feeble grating noise by shuffling her wing-covers together."
+
+  [463] Landois, ibid. s. 113.
+
+  [464] 'Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 133.
+
+  [465] Westwood, 'Modern Classification,' vol. i. p. 462.
+
+  [466] Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 453.
+
+  [467] Landois, ibid. s. 115, 116, 120, 122.
+
+  [468] 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 3rd series, vol. ii. ('Journal of
+  Proceedings, p. 117.)
+
+  [469] Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. i. p. 427; for
+  crickets, p. 445.
+
+  [470] Mr. Ch. Horne, in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' May 3, 1869, p. xii.
+
+  [471] The _Oecanthus nivalis_, Harris, 'Insects of New
+  England,' 1842, p. 124.
+
+  [472] Platyblemnus: Westwood, 'Modern. Class.' vol. i. p. 447.
+
+  [473] B. D. Walsh, the Pseudo-neuroptera of Illinois, in 'Proc.
+  Ent. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1862, p. 361.
+
+  [474] 'Modern Class.' vol. ii. p. 37.
+
+  [475] Walsh, ibid. p. 381. I am indebted to this naturalist for
+  the following facts on Hetaerina, Anax, and Gomphus.
+
+  [476] 'Transact. Ent. Soc' vol. i. 1836, p. lxxxi.
+
+  [477] See abstract in the 'Zoological Record' for 1867, p. 450.
+
+  [478] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. to Entomology,' vol. ii.
+  1818, p. 35.
+
+  [479] See an interesting article, "The Writings of Fabre," in
+  'Nat. Hist. Review,' April, 1862, p. 122.
+
+  [480] 'Journal of Proc. of Entomolog. Soc.' Sept. 7th, 1863,
+  p. 169.
+
+  [481] P. Huber, 'Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis,' 1810,
+  p. 150, 165.
+
+  [482] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1866, p.
+  238-239.
+
+  [483] Quoted by Westwood, 'Modern Class. of Insects,' vol. ii.
+  p. 214.
+
+  [484] Pyrodes pulcherrimus, in which the sexes differ
+  conspicuously, has been described by Mr. Bates in 'Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 50. I will specify the few other cases in
+  which I have heard of a difference in colour between the sexes
+  of beetles. Kirby and Spence ('Introduct. to Entomology,' vol.
+  iii. p. 301) mention a Cantharis, Meloe, Rhagium, and the
+  _Leptura testacea_; the male of the latter being testaceous,
+  with a black thorax, and the female of a dull red all over.
+  These two latter beetles belong to the Order of Longicorns.
+  Messrs. R. Trimen and Waterhouse, junr., inform me of two
+  Lamellicorns, viz., a Peritrichia and Trichius, the male of the
+  latter being more obscurely coloured than the female. In
+  _Tillus elongatus_ the male is black, and the female always, as
+  it is believed, of a dark blue colour with a red thorax. The
+  male, also, of _Orsodacna atra_, as I hear from Mr. Walsh, is
+  black, the female (the so-called _O. ruficollis_) having a
+  rufous thorax.
+
+  [485] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc. of Philadelphia,' 1864, p. 228.
+
+  [486] Kirby and Spence, 'Introduct. Entomolog.' vol. iii. p.
+  300.
+
+  [487] Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol. iii. p. 329.
+
+  [488] 'Modern Classification of Insects,' vol. i. p. 172. On
+  the same page there is an account of Siagonium. In the British
+  Museum I noticed one male specimen of Siagonium in an
+  intermediate condition, so that the dimorphism is not strict.
+
+  [489] 'The Malay Archipelago,' vol. ii. 1869, p. 276.
+
+  [490] 'Entomological Magazine,' vol. i. 1833, p. 82. See also
+  on the conflicts of this species, Kirby and Spence, ibid. vol.
+  iii. p. 314; and Westwood, ibid. vol. i. p. 187.
+
+  [491] Quoted from Fischer, in 'Dict. Class. d'Hist. Nat.' tom.
+  x. p. 324.
+
+  [492] 'Ann. Soc. Entomolog. France,' 1866, as quoted in
+  'Journal of Travel,' by A. Murray, 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [493] Westwood, 'Modern Class.' vol. i. p. 184.
+
+  [494] Wollaston, On certain musical Curculionidae, 'Annals and
+  Mag. of Nat. Hist.' vol. vi. 1860, p. 14.
+
+  [495] 'Zeitschrift fuer wiss. Zoolog.' B. xvii. 1867, s. 127.
+
+  [496] I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. R. Crotch for having sent
+  me numerous prepared specimens of various beetles belonging to
+  these three families and others, as well as for valuable
+  information of all kinds. He believes that the power of
+  stridulation in the Clythra has not been previously observed. I
+  am also much indebted to Mr. E. W. Janson, for information and
+  specimens. I may add that my son, Mr. F. Darwin, finds that
+  _Dermestes murinus_ stridulates, but he searched in vain for
+  the apparatus. Scolytus has lately been described by Mr. Algen
+  as a stridulator, in the 'Edinburgh Monthly Magazine,' 1869,
+  Nov., p. 130.
+
+  [497] Schioedte, translated in 'Annals and Mag. of Nat. Hist.'
+  vol. xx. 1867, p. 37.
+
+  [498] Westring has described (Kroyer, 'Naturhist. Tidskrift,'
+  B. ii. 1848-49, p. 334) the stridulating organs in these two,
+  as well as in other families. In the Carabidae I have examined
+  _Elaphrus uliginosus_ and _Blethisa multipunctata_, sent to me
+  by Mr. Crotch. In Blethisa the transverse ridges on the
+  furrowed border of the abdominal segment do not come into play,
+  as far as I could judge, in scraping the rasps on the elytra.
+
+  [499] I am indebted to Mr. Walsh, of Illinois, for having sent
+  me extracts from Leconte's 'Introduction to Entomology,' p.
+  101, 143.
+
+  [500] M. P. de la Brulerie, as quoted in 'Journal of Travel,'
+  A. Murray, vol. i. 1868, p. 135.
+
+  [501] Mr. Doubleday informs me that "the noise is produced by
+  the insect raising itself on its legs as high as it can, and
+  then sinking its thorax five or six times, in rapid succession,
+  against the substance upon which it is sitting." For references
+  on this subject see Landois, 'Zeitschrift fuer wissen. Zoolog.'
+  B. xvii. s. 131. Olivier says (as quoted by Kirby and Spence,
+  'Introduct.' vol. ii. p. 395) that the female of _Pimelia
+  striata_ produces a rather loud sound by striking her abdomen
+  against any hard substance, "and that the male, obedient to
+  this call, soon attends her and they pair."
+
+  [502] Apatura Iris: 'The Entomologist's Weekly Intelligencer,'
+  1859, p. 139. For the Bornean Butterflies see C. Collingwood,
+  'Rambles of a Naturalist,' 1868, p. 183.
+
+  [503] See my 'Journal of Researches,' 1845, p. 33. Mr.
+  Doubleday has detected ('Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 3rd, 1845, p.
+  123) a peculiar membranous sac at the base of the front wings,
+  which is probably connected with the production of the sound.
+
+  [504] See also Mr. Bates' paper in 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of
+  Philadelphia,' 1865, p. 206. Also Mr. Wallace on the same
+  subject, in regard to Diadema, in 'Transact. Entomolog. Soc. of
+  London,' 1869, p. 278.
+
+  [505] 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. i. 1863, p. 19.
+
+  [506] See the interesting article in the 'Westminster Review,'
+  July, 1867, p. 10. A woodcut of the Kallima is given by Mr.
+  Wallace in Hardwicke's 'Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867, p. 196.
+
+  [507] See the interesting observations by Mr. T. W. Wood, 'The
+  Student,' Sept. 1868, p. 81.
+
+  [508] Mr. Wallace in 'Hardwicke's Science Gossip,' Sept. 1867,
+  p. 193.
+
+  [509] See also, on this subject, Mr. Weir's paper in 'Transact.
+  Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 23.
+
+  [510] 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 16.
+
+  [511] For instance, Lithosia; but Prof. Westwood ('Modern
+  Class. of Insects,' vol. ii. p. 390) seems surprised at this
+  case. On the relative colours of diurnal and nocturnal
+  Lepidoptera, see ibid. p. 333 and 392; also Harris, 'Treatise
+  on the Insects of New England,' 1842, p. 315.
+
+  [512] Such differences between the upper and lower surfaces of
+  the wings of several species of Papilio, may be seen in the
+  beautiful plates to Mr. Wallace's Memoir on the Papilionidae of
+  the Malayan Region, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. part i.
+  1865.
+
+  [513] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' March 2nd, 1868.
+
+  [514] See also an account of the S. American genus Erateina
+  (one of the Geometrae) in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' new series, vol.
+  v. pl. xv. and xvi.
+
+  [515] 'Proc. Ent. Soc. of London,' July 6, 1868, p. xxvii.
+
+  [516] Harris, 'Treatise,' &c., edited by Flint, 1862, p. 395.
+
+  [517] For instance, I observe in my son's cabinet that the
+  males are darker than the females in the _Lasiocampa quercus_,
+  _Odonestis potatoria_, _Hypogymna dispar_, _Dasychira
+  pudibunda_, and _Cycnia mendica_. In this latter species the
+  difference in colour between the two sexes is strongly marked;
+  and Mr. Wallace informs me that we here have, as he believes,
+  an instance of protective mimickry confined to one sex, as will
+  hereafter be more fully explained. The white female of the
+  Cycnia resembles the very common _Spilosoma menthrasti_, both
+  sexes of which are white; and Mr. Stainton observed that this
+  latter moth was rejected with utter disgust by a whole brood of
+  young turkeys, which were fond of eating other moths; so that
+  if the Cycnia was commonly mistaken by British birds for the
+  Spilosoma, it would escape being devoured, and its white
+  deceptive colour would thus be highly beneficial.
+
+  [518] 'Rambles of a Naturalist in the Chinese Seas,' 1868, p.
+  182.
+
+  [519] Wallace on the Papilionidae of the Malayan Region, in
+  'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 8, 36. A striking case
+  of a rare variety, strictly intermediate between two other
+  well-marked female varieties, is given by Mr. Wallace. See also
+  Mr. Bates, in 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866, p. xl.
+
+  [520] Mr. R. MacLachlan, 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. ii. part
+  6th, 3rd series, 1866, p. 459.
+
+  [521] H. W. Bates, 'The Naturalist on the Amazons,' vol. ii.
+  1863, p. 228. A. R. Wallace, in 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv.
+  1865, p. 10.
+
+  [522] On this whole subject see 'The Variation of Animals and
+  Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. 1868, chap. xxiii.
+
+  [523] A. R. Wallace, in 'The Journal of Travel,' vol. i. 1868,
+  p. 88. 'Westminster Review,' July, 1857, p. 37. See also
+  Messrs. Wallace and Bates in 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Nov. 19th, 1866,
+  p. xxxix.
+
+  [524] 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under
+  Domestication,' vol. ii. chap. xii. p. 17.
+
+  [525] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxiii. 1862, p. 495.
+
+  [526] 'Proc. Ent. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv.
+
+  [527] 'Transact. Linn. Soc.' vol. xxv. 1865, p. 1; also
+  'Transact. Ent. Soc.' vol. iv. (3rd series), 1867, p. 301.
+
+  [528] See an ingenious article entitled, "Difficulties of the
+  Theory of Natural Selection," in the 'Month,' 1869. The writer
+  strangely supposes that I attribute the variations in colour of
+  the Lepidoptera, by which certain species belonging to distinct
+  families have come to resemble others, to reversion to a common
+  progenitor; but there is no more reason to attribute these
+  variations to reversion than in the case of any ordinary
+  variation.
+
+  [529] Wallace, "Notes on Eastern Butterflies," 'Transact. Ent.
+  Soc.' 1869, p. 287.
+
+  [530] Wallace, in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p. 37; and
+  in 'Journal of Travel and Nat. Hist.' vol. i. 1868, p. 88.
+
+  [531] See remarks by Messrs. Bates and Wallace, in 'Proc. Ent.
+  Soc.' Nov. 19, 1866, p. xxxix.
+
+  [532] See Mr. Wallace in 'Westminster Review,' July, 1867, p.
+  11 and 37. The male of no butterfly, as Mr. Wallace informs me,
+  is known to differ in colour, as a protection, from the female;
+  and he asks me how I can explain this fact on the principle
+  that one sex alone has varied and has transmitted its
+  variations exclusively to the same sex, without the aid of
+  selection to check the variations being inherited by the other
+  sex. No doubt if it could be shewn that the females of very
+  many species had been rendered beautiful through protective
+  mimickry, but that this has never occurred with the males, it
+  would be a serious difficulty. But the number of cases as yet
+  known hardly suffices for a fair judgment. We can see that the
+  males, from having the power of flying more swiftly, and thus
+  escaping danger, would not be so likely as the females to have
+  had their colours modified for the sake of protection; but this
+  would not in the least have interfered with their receiving
+  protective colours through inheritance from the females. In the
+  second place, it is probable that sexual selection would
+  actually tend to prevent a beautiful male from becoming
+  obscure, for the less brilliant individuals would be less
+  attractive to the females. Supposing that the beauty of the
+  male of any species had been mainly acquired through sexual
+  selection, yet if this beauty likewise served as a protection,
+  the acquisition would have been aided by natural selection. But
+  it would be quite beyond our power to distinguish between the
+  two processes of sexual and ordinary selection. Hence it is not
+  likely that we should be able to adduce cases of the males
+  having been rendered brilliant exclusively through protective
+  mimickry, though this is comparatively easy with the females,
+  which have rarely or never been rendered beautiful, as far as
+  we can judge, for the sake of sexual attraction, although they
+  have often received beauty through inheritance from their male
+  parents.
+
+  [533] 'Proc. Entomolog. Soc.' Dec. 3rd, 1866, p. xlv., and
+  March 4th, 1867, p. lxxx.
+
+  [534] See Mr. J. Jenner Weir's paper on insects and
+  insectivorous birds, in 'Transact. Ent. Soc.' 1869, p. 21; also
+  Mr. Butler's paper, ibid. p. 27.
+
+
+END OF VOL. I.
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+ADVENTURES IN THE LIBYAN DESERT AND THE OASIS OF JUPITER AMMON. By BAYLE
+ST. JOHN.
+
+LIFE OF SIR FOWELL BUXTON. By his Son, CHARLES BUXTON. With an Inquiry
+into the Results of Emancipation.
+
+
+_Two Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE CONTINUITY OF SCRIPTURE, as declared by the Testimony of our Lord
+and of the Evangelists and Apostles. By LORD HATHERLEY.
+
+LIFE OF LORD BACON. By LORD CAMPBELL.
+
+CHILDE HAROLD'S PILGRIMAGE. A Romaunt. By LORD BYRON.
+
+TALES AND POEMS. By LORD BYRON.
+
+LITTLE ARTHUR'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By LADY CALLCOTT. With 28 Woodcuts.
+
+THE EMIGRANT. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD.
+
+THE FABLES OF AESOP; A NEW VERSION, chiefly from ORIGINAL SOURCES. By
+REV. THOMAS JAMES. With 100 Woodcuts.
+
+STORIES FOR CHILDREN SELECTED FROM THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By RT. HON.
+J. W. CROKER. With 24 Woodcuts.
+
+THE COMPLETE POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON.
+
+THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MORAL FEELINGS. By JOHN ABERCROMBIE.
+
+POEMS AND SONGS. By ALLAN CUNNINGHAM. With Biographical Notice.
+
+THE FRANCHISE; a Privilege and not a Right. Proved by the Political
+Experience of the Ancients. By H. S. TREMENHEERE.
+
+
+_Three Shillings._
+
+"THE FORTY-FIVE;" A NARRATIVE OF THE INSURRECTION OF 1745 IN SCOTLAND.
+To which are added Letters of PRINCE CHARLES STUART. By LORD MAHON.
+
+
+_Three Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE BIBLE IN SPAIN; or, The Adventures and Imprisonment of an Englishman
+in attempting to Circulate the Scriptures in the Peninsula. By GEORGE
+BORROW.
+
+THE GYPSIES OF SPAIN; their Manners, Customs, Religion, and Language. By
+GEORGE BORROW.
+
+THE BEAUTIES OF LORD BYRON'S WRITINGS; POETRY AND PROSE. With Portrait.
+
+LIFE OF LOUIS PRINCE OF CONDE, SURNAMED THE GREAT. By LORD MAHON.
+
+SKETCHES OF GERMAN LIFE AND SCENES FROM THE WAR OF LIBERATION IN
+GERMANY. By VARNHAGEN VON ERESE. Translated by SIR ALEXANDER DUFF
+GORDON.
+
+THE TRUE STORY OF THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+DEEDS OF NAVAL DARING; or, ANECDOTES OF THE BRITISH NAVY. By EDWARD
+GIFFARD.
+
+TYPEE; or, The Marquesas Islanders. By HERMAN MELVILLE.
+
+OMOO: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas; a Sequel to 'Typee.'
+By HERMAN MELVILLE.
+
+THE BIBLE IN THE HOLY LAND; being Extracts from Dean Stanley's 'Sinai
+and Palestine.' With Woodcuts.
+
+AN ESSAY ON ENGLISH POETRY. With Short Notices of the British Poets. By
+THOMAS CAMPBELL.
+
+HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL ESSAYS. By LORD MAHON.
+
+LIFE OF LORD CLIVE. By REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+LIFE OF SIR THOMAS MUNRO. With Selections from his Correspondence. By
+REV. G. R. GLEIG.
+
+THE RISE OF OUR INDIAN EMPIRE: being a History of British India from its
+Origin till the Peace of 1783. By LORD MAHON.
+
+A NARRATIVE OF THE SIEGE OF KARS, and of the Six Months' Resistance by
+the Turkish Garrison under General Williams. With Travels and Adventures
+in Armenia, &c. By HUMPHREY SANDWITH, M.D.
+
+SKETCHES OF PERSIA. By SIR JOHN MALCOLM.
+
+THE WILD SPORTS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HIGHLANDS. By CHARLES ST.
+JOHN.
+
+GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN. By RICHARD FORD.
+
+TRAVELS IN MEXICO AND THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. By G. F. RUXTON.
+
+PORTUGAL AND GALLICIA; WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE
+OF THE BASQUE PROVINCES. By LORD CARNARVON.
+
+A RESIDENCE AT SIERRA LEONE. Described from a Journal kept on the Spot,
+and Letters written to Friends at Home. By A LADY.
+
+THE REMAINS IN VERSE AND PROSE OF ARTHUR HENRY HALLAM. With Preface,
+Memoir, and Portrait.
+
+THE POETICAL WORKS OF BISHOP HEBER; containing Palestine, Europe, the
+Red Sea, Hymns, &c. With Portrait.
+
+GLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. By EDWARD JESSE. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE REJECTED ADDRESSES: or, The New Theatrum Poetarum. By HORACE and
+JAMES SMITH. With Portrait and Woodcuts.
+
+CONSOLATIONS IN TRAVEL; or, The Last Days of a Philosopher. By SIR
+HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+SALMONIA; or, Days of Fly-fishing. By SIR HUMPHRY DAVY. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS AND THE INVESTIGATION OF TRUTH. By JOHN
+ABERCROMBIE.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE TABLE-TALK OF THE LATE SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. With
+Portrait.
+
+PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING, for every Month in the Year. By
+MRS. LOUDON. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF GREECE. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ROME. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY. With Translations from the Ancient Poets.
+Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER ANCIENT HISTORY, from the Earliest Times to the Conquest of
+Alexander the Great. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER HISTORY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE, from the earliest period to the
+Georgian Era. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+SPECIMENS OF THE CHIEF WRITERS IN ENGLISH LITERATURE. Chronologically
+arranged. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER SCRIPTURE HISTORY.--I. Old Testament History; II. Connection
+of Old and New Testaments; III. New Testament History to A.D. 70. Edited
+by DR. WM. SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Four Shillings._
+
+HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the FIRST INVASION by the ROMANS, continued
+down to 1865. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS.
+MARKHAM. With 100 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF FRANCE, from the CONQUEST by the GAULS, continued down to
+1867. With CONVERSATIONS at the end of each CHAPTER. By MRS. MARKHAM.
+With 70 Woodcuts.
+
+HISTORY OF GERMANY, from the INVASION of the KINGDOM by the ROMANS under
+MARIUS, continued down to 1867. On the Plan of MRS. MARKHAM. With 50
+Woodcuts.
+
+SHALL AND WILL; or, the Future Auxiliary Verb. By SIR EDMUND HEAD.
+
+
+_Four Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+CHILDREN OF THE LAKE. A Poem. By EDWARD SALLESBURY.
+
+A LADY'S DIARY OF THE SIEGE OF LUCKNOW.
+
+HOUSEHOLD SURGERY; or, Hints on Emergencies. By JOHN F. SOUTH. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+_Five Shillings._
+
+ANCIENT SPANISH BALLADS; HISTORICAL AND ROMANTIC. Translated with Notes
+by J. G. LOCKHART. With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+MISCELLANIES. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+INTRODUCTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE GREEK CLASSIC POETS. By HENRY NELSON
+COLERIDGE.
+
+HYMNS IN PROSE FOR CHILDREN. By MRS. BARBAULD. With 112 Illustrations.
+
+RECOLLECTIONS OF THE DRUSES, AND SOME NOTES ON THEIR RELIGION. By LORD
+CARNARVON.
+
+THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. BASED ON MODERN RESEARCHES. By REV. F. W.
+FARRAR.
+
+MODERN DOMESTIC COOKERY. Founded on Principles of Economy and Practical
+Knowledge, and adapted for Private Families. With Woodcuts.
+
+DRAMAS AND PLAYS. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+THE HORSE AND HIS RIDER. By SIR FRANCIS HEAD. With Woodcuts.
+
+HANDBOOK OF FAMILIAR QUOTATIONS, chiefly from English Authors.
+
+THE CHACE--THE TURF--AND THE ROAD. A Series of Popular Essays. By C. J.
+APPERLEY (NIMROD). With Portrait and Illustrations.
+
+AUNT IDA'S WALKS AND TALKS. A Story Book for Children. By A LADY.
+
+STORIES FOR DARLINGS. A Book for Boys and Girls. With Illustrations.
+
+THE CHARMED ROE. A Story Book for Young People. Illustrated by OTTO
+SPECKTER.
+
+DON JUAN AND BEPPO. By LORD BYRON. 2 vols.
+
+LIFE IN THE LIGHT OF GOD'S WORD. By ARCHBISHOP THOMSON, D.D.
+
+ATHENS AND ATTICA; Notes of a Tour. By BISHOP WORDSWORTH, D.D. With
+Illustrations.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS--XVIIITH CENTURY, 1700-1799. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST, D.C.L. With Maps. 5 vols. Post
+8vo. 5s. each.
+
+ANNALS OF THE WARS--XIXTH CENTURY, 1800-15. Compiled from the most
+Authentic Sources. By SIR EDWARD CUST. 4 vols. Fcap. 8vo. 5s. each.
+
+
+_Six Shillings._
+
+BENEDICITE; or, THE SONG OF THE THREE CHILDREN. Being ILLUSTRATIONS of
+the POWER, BENEFICENCE, and DESIGN manifested by the CREATOR in HIS
+WORKS. By DR. CHAPLIN CHILD.
+
+OLD DECCAN DAYS; or, HINDOO FAIRY LEGENDS current in Southern India. By
+M. FRERE. With Introduction by SIR BARTLE FRERE. With Illustrations.
+
+THE WILD GARDEN; or, OUR GROVES AND SHRUBBERIES MADE BEAUTIFUL BY THE
+NATURALIZATION OF HARDY EXOTIC PLANTS. By WILLIAM ROBINSON. With
+Frontispiece.
+
+MISSIONARY TRAVELS AND RESEARCHES IN SOUTH AFRICA. By DAVID LIVINGSTONE,
+M.D. With Map and Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS OF A HUNTER'S LIFE IN SOUTH AFRICA; By GORDON CUMMING. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THOUGHTS ON ANIMALCULES; or, The Invisible World, as revealed by the
+Microscope. By GIDEON A. MANTELL. With Plates.
+
+LIVES OF BRINDLEY AND THE EARLY ENGINEERS. By SAMUEL SMILES. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+LIFE OF TELFORD. With a History of Roads and Travelling in England. By
+SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+LIVES OF GEORGE AND ROBERT STEPHENSON. By SAMUEL SMILES. With Woodcuts.
+
+SELF-HELP. With Illustrations of Character and Conduct. By SAMUEL
+SMILES.
+
+INDUSTRIAL BIOGRAPHY: Iron-workers and Toolmakers. A Sequel to
+'Self-help.' By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+THE HUGUENOTS IN ENGLAND AND IRELAND: their Settlements, Churches, and
+Industries. By SAMUEL SMILES.
+
+WILD WALES; its People, Language, and Scenery. With Introductory
+Remarks. By GEORGE BORROW.
+
+A MANUAL OF ETHNOLOGY; or, A POPULAR HISTORY of the RACES of the OLD
+WORLD. By CHARLES L. BRACE.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings._
+
+JOURNALS OF A TOUR IN INDIA. By BISHOP HEBER. 2 vols.
+
+ADVENTURES AMONG THE MARQUESAS AND SOUTH SEA ISLANDERS. By HERMAN
+MELVILLE. 2 vols.
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL PROGRESS. By MONTAGU BURROWS, M.A.
+
+LIFE AND POETICAL WORKS OF REV. GEORGE CRABBE. Edited by HIS SON. With
+Notes, Portrait, and Illustrations.
+
+
+_Seven Shillings and Sixpence._
+
+THE ART OF TRAVEL; or, Hints on the Shifts and Contrivances available in
+Wild Countries. By FRANCIS GALTON. With Woodcuts.
+
+VISITS TO THE MONASTERIES OF THE LEVANT. By HON. R. CURZON. With
+Illustrations.
+
+LETTERS FROM HIGH LATITUDES; an Account of a Yacht Voyage to Iceland,
+Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen, &c. By LORD DUFFERIN. With Illustrations.
+
+BUBBLES FROM THE BRUNNEN OF NASSAU. By an Old Man (SIR FRANCIS HEAD).
+With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS; a Narrative of an Expedition to Assyria in
+1845-47. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+NINEVEH AND BABYLON; a Narrative of a Second Expedition to Assyria in
+1849-51. By A. H. LAYARD. With Illustrations.
+
+THREE YEARS' RESIDENCE IN ABYSSINIA, with Travels in that Country. By
+MANSFIELD PARKYNS. With Illustrations.
+
+FIVE YEARS IN DAMASCUS, with TRAVELS in PALMYRA, LEBANON, and among the
+GIANT CITIES OF BASHAN and THE HAURAN. By REV. J. L. PORTER. With
+Illustrations.
+
+THE VOYAGE OF THE 'FOX' IN THE ARCTIC SEAS, and the Discovery of the
+Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions. By SIR LEOPOLD McCLINTOCK.
+With Illustrations.
+
+REMINISCENCES OF ATHENS AND THE MOREA, during Travels in Greece. By LORD
+CARNARVON. With Map.
+
+PEN AND PENCIL SKETCHES IN INDIA. By GENERAL MUNDY. With Illustrations.
+
+PHILOSOPHY IN SPORT, MADE SCIENCE IN EARNEST: or, The First Principles
+of Natural Philosophy explained by the Toys and Sports of Youth. By DR.
+PARIS. With Woodcuts.
+
+BLIND PEOPLE; their Works and Ways. With Lives of some famous Blind Men.
+By REV. B. G. JOHNS. With Illustrations.
+
+HORACE: A New Edition of the Text. Edited by DEAN MILMAN. With 100
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE BOOK OF THE CHURCH. By ROBERT SOUTHEY.
+
+A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG PAINTERS. By C. R. LESLIE, R.A. With 24
+Illustrations.
+
+A GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF FERNS, with Tables to show their
+Distribution. By K. M. LYELL. With a Frontispiece.
+
+THE STORY OF THE LIFE OF LORD BACON. By W. HEPWORTH DIXON.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE; Its Antiquities, Geography,
+Biography, and Natural History. By DR. WM. SMITH. With Maps and
+Illustrations.
+
+A SMALLER CLASSICAL DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY, BIOGRAPHY, AND GEOGRAPHY.
+By DR. WM. SMITH. With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER DICTIONARY OF GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. By DR. WM. SMITH.
+With 200 Woodcuts.
+
+A SMALLER LATIN-ENGLISH DICTIONARY. With a Dictionary of Proper Names,
+and Tables of the Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights, and Moneys. By DR.
+WM. SMITH.
+
+A SMALLER ENGLISH-LATIN DICTIONARY, By DR. WM. SMITH.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HUME; AN EPITOME of the HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By DAVID HUME.
+Corrected and continued to 1868. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND. By HENRY HALLAM. With
+the Author's latest Additions. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the Press._
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES OF EUROPE. By HENRY HALLAM.
+With the Author's Supplemental Notes. Edited by DR. WM. SMITH. [_In the
+Press._
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF FRANCE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND EMPIRE, 1852. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ROME. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE
+ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIRE. With Chapters on the History of Literature
+and Art. By DEAN LIDDELL. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S GIBBON; AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL
+OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By EDWARD GIBBON. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF GREECE. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN
+CONQUEST. With Chapters on the History of Literature and Art. By DR. WM.
+SMITH. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S ANCIENT HISTORY OF THE EAST. From the Earliest Times to
+the Conquests of Alexander the Great, including Egypt, Assyria,
+Babylonia, Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phoenicia. By PHILIP SMITH,
+B.A. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY. FROM THE CREATION TO THE RETURN OF
+THE JEWS FROM CAPTIVITY. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S NEW TESTAMENT HISTORY. With an Introduction, containing
+the connection of the Old and New Testaments. With Maps and Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. By GEORGE P. MARSH.
+Edited, with additional Chapters and Notes.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. By T. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited,
+with Notes and Illustrations.
+
+THE STUDENT'S SPECIMENS OF ENGLISH LITERATURE. Selected from the BEST
+WRITERS. By THOS. B. SHAW, M.A. Edited, with Additions.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY. Mathematical, Physical, and
+Descriptive. By REV. W. L. BEVAN. With Woodcuts.
+
+THE STUDENT'S MANUAL OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. With Quotations and
+References. By WILLIAM FLEMING, D.D.
+
+THE STUDENT'S BLACKSTONE. A SYSTEMATIC ABRIDGMENT OF THE ENTIRE
+COMMENTARIES. By R. MALCOLM KERR, LL.D.
+
+A PRACTICAL HEBREW GRAMMAR. With the Hebrew text of Genesis i.-vi. and
+Psalms i.-vi., Grammatical Analysis and Vocabulary. By REV. STANLEY
+LEATHES.
+
+
+_Nine Shillings._
+
+THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES. By MARY SOMERVILLE. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By MARY SOMERVILLE. Revised by H. W. BATES. With
+Portrait.
+
+THE STUDENT'S ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By SIR CHARLES LYELL. With 600
+Woodcuts.
+
+A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. By VARIOUS WRITERS. Edited by SIR J. F.
+HERSCHEL and REV. ROBERT MAIN.
+
+POETICAL WORKS OF LORD BYRON. With Notes, Illustrations, and Portrait.
+
+LIFE OF LORD BYRON; with his Letters and Journals. By THOMAS MOORE. With
+Portraits.
+
+ARCHBISHOP BECKET; A BIOGRAPHY. By CANON ROBERTSON, M.A. With
+Illustrations.
+
+PICTURES OF THE CHINESE, DRAWN BY THEMSELVES. Described by REV. R. H.
+COBBOLD. With 34 Illustrations.
+
+THE ENGLISH BATTLES AND SIEGES OF THE PENINSULAR WAR. By SIR WILLIAM
+NAPIER. With Portrait.
+
+THE YOUNG OFFICER'S COMPANION; or, ESSAYS on MILITARY DUTIES and
+QUALITIES: with ILLUSTRATIONS from HISTORY. By LORD DE ROS.
+
+DOG-BREAKING; the most Expeditious, Certain, and Easy Method, whether
+great Excellence or only Mediocrity be required. With a Few Hints for
+those who Love the Dog and the Gun. By GENERAL HUTCHINSON. With
+Woodcuts.
+
+
+LIST OF SCHOOL CLASSICS.
+
+By DR. WILLIAM SMITH.
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART I. A FIRST LATIN COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and
+Exercise Book with Vocabularies. _13th Edition._ _3s. 6d._
+
+*** This Edition contains the Accidence arranged for the 'Public School
+Latin Primer.'
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART II. LATIN READING BOOK. An Introduction to
+Ancient Mythology, Geography, Roman Antiquities, and History. With Notes
+and a Dictionary. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART III. LATIN POETRY. 1. Easy Hexameters and
+Pentameters. 2. Eclogae Ovidianae. 3. Prosody and Metre. 4. First Latin
+Verse Book. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART IV. LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION. Rules of Syntax,
+with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises on the Syntax.
+_3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA LATINA, PART V. SHORT TALES AND ANECDOTES FROM ANCIENT
+HISTORY, FOR TRANSLATION INTO LATIN PROSE. _3s._
+
+A LATIN-ENGLISH VOCABULARY, with a Latin-English Dictionary to Phaedrus,
+Cornelius Nepos, and Caesar's 'Gallic War.' _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT'S LATIN GRAMMAR. By WM. SMITH, D.C.L., and THEOPHILUS D.
+HALL. _6s._
+
+A SMALLER LATIN GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GRAECA, PART I. A FIRST GREEK COURSE, containing Grammar,
+Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies. By DR. WM. SMITH. _3s. 6d._
+
+INITIA GRAECA, PART II. A READING BOOK; containing short Tales,
+Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. With a Lexicon. _3s.
+6d._
+
+INITIA GRAECA, PART III. GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION; containing the Rules of
+Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. _3s. 6d._
+
+THE STUDENT'S GREEK GRAMMAR. By PROFESSOR CURTIUS, and WM. SMITH, D.C.L.
+_6s._
+
+A SMALLER GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged from the above Work. _3s. 6d._
+
+PRINCIPIA GRAECA. A FIRST GREEK COURSE. A Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise
+Book, with Vocabularies. By H. E. BUTTON, M.A. _3s. 6d._
+
+MATTHIAE'S GREEK GRAMMAR. Abridged by BLOMFIELD. Revised and enlarged, by
+E. S. CROOKE, B.A. _4s._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.' S FIRST LATIN BOOK; including a Short Syntax and Prosody
+with an English Translation. _2s. 6d._
+
+KING EDWARD VI.' S LATIN GRAMMAR. _3s. 6d._
+
+ENGLISH NOTES FOR LATIN ELEGIACS; designed for Early Proficients in the
+Art of Latin Versification. By REV. W. OXENHAM. _3s. 6d._
+
+
+LIST OF HANDBOOKS FOR TRAVELLERS.
+
+THE CONTINENT, &c.
+
+HANDBOOK--TRAVEL TALK,--ENGLISH, FRENCH, GERMAN, AND ITALIAN. _3s. 6d._
+
+HANDBOOK--NORTH GERMANY, HOLLAND, BELGIUM, PRUSSIA, AND THE RHINE TO
+SWITZERLAND. With Map and Plans.
+
+HANDBOOK--SOUTH GERMANY, THE TYROL, BAVARIA, AUSTRIA, SALZBURG, STYRIA,
+HUNGARY, AND THE DANUBE, FROM ULM TO THE BLACK SEA. With Map and Plans.
+_10s._
+
+HANDBOOK--SWITZERLAND, THE ALPS OF SAVOY AND PIEDMONT. With Maps and
+Plans. _10s._
+
+HANDBOOK--FRANCE, NORMANDY, BRITTANY, THE FRENCH ALPS, DAUPHINE,
+PROVENCE, AND THE PYRENEES. With Maps. _12s._
+
+HANDBOOK--PARIS AND ITS ENVIRONS. With Map and Plans. _3s. 6d._
+
+*** MURRAY'S PLAN OF PARIS. _3s. 6d._
+
+HANDBOOK--CORSICA AND SARDINIA. With Map. _4s._
+
+HANDBOOK--SPAIN, MADRID, THE CASTILES, THE BASQUE PROVINCES, LEON, THE
+ASTURIAS, GALICIA, ESTREMADURA, ANDALUSIA, RONDA, GRANADA, MURCIA,
+VALENCIA, CATALONIA, ARAGON, NAVARRE, THE BALEARIC ISLANDS, &c., &c.
+With Maps. 2 vols. _24s._
+
+HANDBOOK--PORTUGAL, LISBON, PORTO, CINTRA, MAFRA, &c. With Map. _9s._
+
+HANDBOOK--NORTH ITALY, PIEDMONT, NICE, LOMBARDY, VENICE, PARMA, MODENA,
+AND ROMAGNA. With Map and Plans. _12s._
+
+HANDBOOK--CENTRAL ITALY, TUSCANY, FLORENCE, LUCCA, UMBRIA, THE MARCHES,
+AND THE PATRIMONY OF ST. PETER. With Map. _10s._
+
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+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE
+
+Footnote 292 spells the city Charleston but the text has it as
+Charlestown. This is as in the original book.
+
+Inconsistent spelling of St. Petersburg/Petersburgh as in the original
+text.
+
+
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+
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+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Descent of Man and Selection in
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