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+Project Gutenberg's Dutch and English on the Hudson, by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dutch and English on the Hudson
+       A Chronicle of Colonial New York
+
+Author: Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+Illustrator: C. W. Jefferys
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34977]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+ROOSEVELT EDITION
+
+
+VOLUME 7
+
+THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES
+
+  ALLEN JOHNSON
+  EDITOR
+
+
+  GERHARD H. LOMER
+  CHARLES W. JEFFERYS
+  ASSISTANT EDITORS
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+[Frontispiece: LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650.  From the painting by C. W.
+Jefferys]
+
+
+
+
+
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+
+
+A CHRONICLE OF COLONIAL NEW YORK
+
+
+BY MAUD WILDER GOODWIN
+
+
+
+
+NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO.
+
+LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
+
+OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+1921
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1919, by Yale University Press_
+
+
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    I.  UP THE GREAT RIVER                                   Page   1
+   II.  TRADERS AND SETTLERS                                   "   17
+  III.  PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR                        "   32
+   IV.  THE DIRECTORS                                          "   51
+    V.  DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS                            "   83
+   VI.  THE BURGHERS                                           "  102
+  VII.  THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND                        "  123
+ VIII.  THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS                            "  137
+   IX.  LEISLER                                                "  150
+    X.  PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES                                 "  165
+   XI.  COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY          "  180
+  XII.  THE ZENGER TRIAL                                       "  193
+ XIII.  THE NEGRO PLOTS                                        "  206
+  XIV.  SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON                                    "  218
+        BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE                                   "  231
+        INDEX                                                  "  235
+
+
+
+
+{ix}
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650
+  From the painting by C. W. Jefferys.      _Frontispiece_
+
+THE HUDSON RIVER REGION, 1609-1770
+  Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American
+  Geographical Society.                     _Facing page 12_
+
+
+
+
+{1}
+
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+UP THE GREAT RIVER
+
+Geography is the maker of history.  The course of Dutch settlement in
+America was predetermined by a river which runs its length of a hundred
+and fifty miles from the mountains to the sea through the heart of a
+fertile country and which offers a natural highway for transportation
+of merchandise and for communication between colonies.  No man,
+however, could foresee the development of the Empire State when, on
+that memorable September day in 1609, a small Dutch yacht named the
+_Halve Maene_ or _Half Moon_, under the command of Captain Henry
+Hudson, slipped in past the low hook of sand in front of the Navesink
+Heights, and sounded her way to an {2} anchorage in what is now the
+outer harbor of New York.
+
+Robert Juet of Limehouse, one of the adventurers sailing with Hudson,
+writes in his journal:
+
+
+At three of the clock in the afternoone we came to three great rivers,
+so we stood along to the northermost, thinking to have gone into it;
+but we found it to have a very shoald barre before it, for we had but
+ten foot water; then wee cast about to the southward and found two
+fathoms, three fathoms, and three and a quarter, till we came to the
+souther side of them; then we had five and sixe fathoms and anchored.
+So wee sent in our boate to sound and they found no lesse water than
+foure, five, six, and seven fathoms and returned in an hour and a half.
+So wee weighed and went in and rode in five fathoms, oozie ground, and
+saw many salmons, mullets and rayes very great.
+
+
+So quietly is chronicled one of the epoch-making events of history, an
+event which opened a rich territory and gave to the United Netherlands
+their foothold in the New World, where Spain, France, and England had
+already established their claims.  Let us try to call to our minds the
+picture of the _Half Moon_ as she lies there in harbor, a quaint,
+clumsily built boat of forty lasts, or eighty tons, burden.  From her
+bow projects a beakhead, a sort of gallery, painted and carved, and
+used as a {3} place of rest or of punishment for the sailors.  At the
+tip of the beakhead is the figurehead, a red lion with a golden mane.
+The ship's bow is green, with ornaments of sailors' heads painted red
+and yellow.  Both forecastle and poop are high, the latter painted a
+blue mottled with white clouds.  The stern below is rich in color and
+carving.  Its upper panels show a blue ground picked out with stars and
+set in it a crescent holding a profile of the traditional Man in the
+Moon.  The panel below bears the arms of the City of Amsterdam and the
+letters V.O.C. forming the monogram of the Dutch East India
+Company--Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie.
+
+Five carved heads uphold the stern, above which hangs one of those
+ornate lanterns which the Dutch love so well.  To add to all this
+wealth of color, flags are flying from every masthead.  At the foretop
+flutters the tricolor of red, white, and black, with the arms of
+Amsterdam in a field of white.  At the maintop flames the flag of the
+seven provinces of the Netherlands, emblazoned with a red lion rampant,
+bearing in his paws a sword and seven arrows.  The bowsprit bears a
+small flag of orange, white, and blue, while from the stern flies the
+Dutch East India Company's {4} special banner.  It is no wonder that
+such an apparition causes the simple natives ashore to believe first
+that some marvelous bird has swept in from the sea, and then that a
+mysterious messenger from the Great Spirit has appeared in all his
+celestial robes.
+
+If Hudson's object had been stage-setting for the benefit of the
+natives, he could not have arranged his effects better.  The next day,
+when the ship had moved to a good harbor, the people of the country
+were allowed to come aboard to barter "greene Tabacco" for knives and
+beads.  Hudson probably thought that the savages might learn a lesson
+in regard to the power of the newcomers by an inspection of the
+interior of the ship.  The cannon which protruded their black noses
+amidships held their threat of destruction even when they were not
+belching thunder and lightning.  The forecastle with its neatly
+arranged berths must have seemed a strange contrast to the bare ground
+on which the savages were accustomed to sleep, and the brightness of
+polished and engraved brass tablets caught the untutored eyes which
+could not decipher the inscriptions.  There were three of these
+tablets, the mottoes of which, being translated, read: _Honor thy
+father and thy mother_!  _Do {5} not fight without cause_!  _Good
+advice makes the wheels run smoothly_!
+
+Perhaps the thing which interested the Indians most was the great
+wooden block fastened to the deck behind the mainmast.  This strange
+object was fashioned in the shape of a man's head, and through it
+passed the ropes used to hoist the yards.  It was called sometimes "the
+silent servant," sometimes "the knighthead."  To the Indians it must
+have seemed the final touch of necromancy, and they were prepared to
+bow down in awe before a race of beings who could thus make blocks of
+wood serve them.
+
+Trusting, no doubt, to the impression which he had made on the minds of
+the natives, Hudson decided to go ashore.  The Indians crowded around
+him and "sang in their fashion"--a motley horde, as strange to the
+ship's crew as the _Half Moon_ and its company seemed marvelous to the
+aborigines.  Men, women, and children, dressed in fur or tricked out
+with feathers, stood about or floated in their boats hewn from solid
+logs, the men carrying pipes of red copper in which they smoked that
+precious product, tobacco--the consolation prize offered by the New
+World to the Old in lieu of the hoped-for passage to Cathay.
+
+{6}
+
+Everything seemed to breathe assurance of peaceful relations between
+the red man and the white; but if the newcomers did not at the moment
+realize the nature of the Indians, their eyes were opened to
+possibilities of treachery by the happenings of the next day.  John
+Colman and a boat's crew were sent out to take further soundings before
+the _Half Moon_ should proceed on her journey.  As the boat was
+returning to report a safe course ahead, the crew, only five in number,
+were set upon by two war-canoes filled with Indians, whose volley of
+arrows struck terror to their hearts.  Colman was mortally wounded in
+the throat by an arrow, and two of his companions were seriously,
+though not fatally, hurt.  Keeping up a running fight, the survivors
+escaped under cover of darkness.  During the night, as they crouched
+with their dead comrade in the boat, the sailors must have thought the
+minutes hours and the hours days.  To add to their discomfort rain was
+falling, and they drifted forlornly at the mercy of the current.  When
+at last dawn came, they could make out the ship at a great distance;
+but it was ten o'clock in the morning before they reached her safe
+shelter.  So ended the brief dream of ideal friendship and confidence
+between the red men and the whites.
+
+{7}
+
+After Colman had been buried in a grave by the side of the beautiful
+sheet of water which he had known for so short a time, the _Half Moon_
+worked her way cautiously from the Lower Bay through the Narrows to the
+inner harbor and reached the tip of the island which stands at its
+head.  What is now a bewildering mass of towers and palaces of
+industry, looking down upon a far-extended fleet of steam and sailing
+vessels, was then a point, wooded to the water's edge, with a scattered
+Indian village nestling among the trees.
+
+A Moravian missionary, writing at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, set down an account from the red man's point of view of the
+arrival of the _Half Moon_.  This account he claimed to have received
+from old Indians who held it as part of their tribal traditions.  As
+such it is worth noting and quoting, although as history it is of more
+than doubtful authenticity.  The tradition runs that the chiefs of the
+different tribes on sighting the _Half Moon_ supposed it to be a
+supernatural visitor and assembled on "York Island" to deliberate on
+the manner in which they should receive this Manito on his arrival.
+Plenty of meat was provided for a sacrifice, a grand dance was
+arranged, and the medicine-men were set to work to determine the {8}
+meaning of this phenomenon.  The runners sent out to observe and report
+declared it certain that it was the Great Manito, "but other runners
+soon after arriving, declare it a large house of various colors, full
+of people yet of quite a different color than they [the Indians] are
+of.  That they were also dressed in a different manner from them and
+that one in particular appeared altogether red, which must be the
+Mannitto himself."
+
+The strange craft stopped and a smaller boat drew near.  While some
+stayed behind to guard the boat, the red-clothed man with two others
+advanced into a large circle formed by the Indian chiefs and wise men.
+He saluted them and they returned the salute.
+
+
+A large hock-hack [Indian for gourd or bottle] is brought forward by
+the supposed Mannitto's servants and from this a substance is poured
+out into a small cup or glass and handed to the Mannitto.  The expected
+Mannitto drinks, has the glass filled again and hands it to the chief
+next him to drink.  The chief receives the glass but only smelleth at
+it and passes it on to the next chief who does the same.  The glass
+then passes through the circle without the contents being tasted by
+anyone, and is upon the point of being returned again to the
+red-clothed man when one of their number, a spirited man and a great
+warrior jumps up and harangues the assembly on the impropriety of
+returning the glass with {9} the contents in it--that the same was
+handed them by the Mannitto in order that they should drink it as he
+himself had done before them--that this would please him; but that to
+return it might provoke him and be the cause of their being destroyed
+by him.  He then took the glass and bidding the assembly a farewell,
+drank it up.  Every eye was fixed on their resolute companion to see
+what an effect this would have upon him and he soon beginning to
+stagger about and at last dropping to the ground they bemoan him.  He
+falls into a sleep and they saw him as expiring.  He awakes again,
+jumps up and declares that he never felt himself before so happy as
+after he had drank the cup.  Wishes for more.  His wish is granted and
+the whole assembly soon join him and become intoxicated.
+
+
+The Delawares, as the missionary points out further, call New York
+Island "Mannahattanik," "the place where we were all drunk."  With this
+picturesque account let us contrast the curt statement of Robert Juet:
+"This morning at our first rode in the River there came eight and
+twenty canoes full of men, women and children to betray us; but we saw
+their intent and suffered none of them to come aboord of us.  At twelve
+of the clocke they departed.  They brought with them oysters and beanes
+whereof we bought some."  If there had been any such striking scene as
+the missionary's chronicle reports, Juet would probably {10} have
+recorded it; but in addition to his silence in the matter we must
+recall the fact that this love-feast is supposed to have occurred only
+a few days after the killing of Colman and the return of the
+terror-stricken crew.  This makes it seem extremely improbable that
+Hudson would have taken the risk of going ashore among hostile natives
+and proffering the hospitalities which had been so ill requited on his
+previous landing.  Let us therefore pass by the Reverend John
+Heckwelder's account as "well found, but not well founded," and
+continue to follow the cruise of the _Half Moon_ up the great river.
+
+The days now were fair and warm, and Hudson, looking around him when
+the autumn sun had swept away the haze from the face of the water,
+declared it as fair a land as could be trodden by the foot of man.  He
+left Manhattan Island behind, passed the site of Yonkers, and was
+carried by a southeasterly wind beyond the Highlands till he reached
+what is now West Point.  In this region of the Catskills the Dutch
+found the natives friendly, and, having apparently recovered from their
+first suspicious attitude, the explorers began to open barter and
+exchange with such as wished to come aboard.  On at least one occasion
+Hudson {11} himself went ashore.  The early Dutch writer, De Laet, who
+used Hudson's last journal, quotes at length Hudson's description of
+this landing, and the quotation, if genuine, is probably the longest
+description of his travels that we have from the pen of the great
+navigator.  He says that he sailed to the shore in one of their canoes,
+with an old man who was chief of a tribe.  There he found a house of
+oak bark, circular in shape, apparently well built, and with an arched
+roof.
+
+
+On our coming near the house, two mats were spread to sit upon and
+immediately some food was served in well-made red wooden bowls; two men
+were also dispatched at once with bows and arrows in quest of game, who
+soon after brought a pair of pigeons which they had shot.  They
+likewise killed at once a fat dog and skinned it in great haste, with
+shells which they get out of the water....  The natives are a very good
+people, for when they saw that I would not remain, they supposed that I
+was afraid of their bows, and taking the arrows they broke them in
+pieces and threw them into the fire.
+
+
+So the _Half Moon_ drifted along "_the River of the Steep Hills_,"
+through the golden autumnal weather, now under frowning cliffs, now
+skirting low sloping shores and fertile valleys, till at length the
+shoaling water warned Hudson that he could not penetrate much farther.
+He knew now that he had failed to {12} find the northwest passage to
+Cathay which had been the object of his expedition; but he had explored
+one of the world's noblest rivers from its mouth to the head of its
+navigable waters.
+
+It is a matter of regret to all students that so little is known of
+this great adventurer.  Sober history tells us that no authentic
+portrait of him is extant; but I like to figure him to myself as drawn
+by that mythical chronicler, Diedrich Knickerbocker, who was always
+ready to help out fact with fiction and both with humor.  He pictures
+Henry Hudson as "a short, brawny old gentleman with a double chin, a
+mastiff mouth and a broad copper nose which was supposed in those days
+to have acquired its fiery hue from the constant neighborhood of his
+tobacco pipe.  He wore a true Andrea Ferrara, tucked in a leathern
+belt, and a commodore's cocked hat on one side of his head.  He was
+remarkable for always jerking up his breeches when he gave his orders
+and his voice sounded not unlike the brattling of a tin trumpet, owing
+to the number of hard northwesters which he had swallowed in the course
+of his sea-faring."
+
+This account accords with our idea of this doughty navigator far better
+than the popular picture of the forlorn white-bearded old gentleman
+{13} amid the arctic ice-floes.  The cause of the fiery nose seems more
+likely to have been spirits than tobacco, for Hudson was well
+acquainted with the effects of strong waters.  At one stage of his
+journey he was responsible for an incident which may perhaps have given
+rise to the Indian legend of the mysterious potations attending the
+first landing of the white men.  Hudson invited certain native chiefs
+to the ship and so successfully plied them with brandy that they were
+completely intoxicated.  One fell asleep and was deserted by his
+comrades, who, however, returned next day and were rejoiced to find the
+victim professing great satisfaction over his experience.
+
+[Illustration: The Hudson River Region, 1609-1770]
+
+The ship had now reached the northernmost bounds of her exploration and
+anchored at a point not exactly determined but not far below Albany.
+Hudson sent an exploring boat a little farther, and on its return he
+put the helm of the _Half Moon_ about and headed the red lion with the
+golden mane southward.  On this homeward course, the adventurers met
+with even more exciting experiences than had marked their progress up
+the river.  At a place near the mouth of Haverstraw Bay at Stony Point
+the _Half Moon_ was becalmed and a party of Mountain Indians came off
+in canoes to {14} visit the ship.  Here they showed the cunning and the
+thieving propensities of which Hudson accused them, for while some
+engaged the attention of the crew on deck, one of their number ran his
+canoe under the stern and contrived to climb by the aid of the
+rudder-post into the cabin.
+
+To understand how this theft was carried out it is necessary to
+remember the build of the seventeenth century Dutch sailing-vessels in
+which the forecastle and poop rose high above the waist of the ship.
+In the poop were situated the cabins of the captain and the mate.  Of
+Hudson's cabin we have a detailed description.  Its height was five
+feet three inches.  It was provided with lockers, a berth, a table, and
+a bench with four divisions, a most desirable addition when the vessel
+lurched suddenly.  Under the berth were a box of books and a
+medicine-chest, besides such other equipment as a globe, a compass, a
+silver sun-dial, a cross staff, a brass tinder-box, pewter plates,
+spoons, a mortar and pestle, and the half-hour glass which marked the
+different watches on deck.
+
+Doubtless the savage intruder would have been glad to capture some of
+this rich booty; but it must have been the mate's cabin into which he
+stumbled, for he obtained only a pillow and a couple of shirts, {15}
+for which he sold his life.  The window in the stern projecting over
+the water was evidently standing open in order to admit the soft
+September air, and the Indian saw his chance.  Into this window he
+crept and from it started to make off with the stolen goods; but the
+mate saw the thief, shot, and killed him.  Then all was a scene of wild
+confusion.  The savages scattered from the ship, some taking to their
+canoes, some plunging into the river.  The small boat was sent in
+pursuit of the stolen goods, which were soon recovered; but, as the
+boat returned, a red hand reached up from the water to upset it,
+whereupon the ship's cook, seizing a sword, cut off the hand as it
+gripped the gunwale, and the wretched owner sank never to reappear.
+
+On the following day Hudson and his men came into conflict with more
+than a hundred savages, who let loose a flight of arrows.  But one of
+the ship's cannon was trained upon them, and one shot followed by a
+discharge of musketry quickly ended the battle.  The mariners thereupon
+made their way without molestation to the mouth of the river, whence
+they put to sea on a day in early October, only a month after their
+entrance into the bay.
+
+Hudson was destined never again to see the {16} country from which he
+set out on this quest, never again to enter the river which he had
+explored.  But he had achieved immortal fame for himself and had
+secured a new empire for the Netherlands.  The Cabots possibly, and
+Verrazano almost certainly, had visited the locality of "the Great
+River" before him; but Hudson was in the truest sense its discoverer,
+and history has accorded him his rights.  Today the replica of the
+_Half Moon_ lies in a quiet backwater of the Hudson River at the foot
+of Bear Mountain--stripped of her gilding, her sails, and her gay
+pennants.  She still makes a unique appeal to our imagination as we
+fancy the tiny original buffeting the ocean waves and feeling her way
+along uncharted waters to the head of navigation.  To see even the copy
+is to feel the thrill of adventure and to realize the boldness of those
+early mariners whom savages could not affright nor any form of danger
+daunt.[1]
+
+
+
+[1] For further details of the appearance of the _Half Moon_, see E. H.
+Hall's paper on _Henry Hudson and the Discovery of the Hudson River_,
+published by the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society
+(1910).
+
+
+
+
+{17}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TRADERS AND SETTLERS
+
+As he was returning to Holland from his voyage to America, Hudson was
+held with his ship at the port of Dartmouth, on the ground that, being
+an Englishman by birth, he owed his services to his country.  He did
+not again reach the Netherlands, but he forwarded to the Dutch East
+India Company a report of his discoveries.  Immediately the enthusiasm
+of the Dutch was aroused by the prospect of a lucrative fur trade, as
+Spain had been set aflame by the first rumors of gold in Mexico and
+Peru; and the United Provinces, whose independence had just been
+acknowledged, thereupon laid claim to the new country.
+
+To a seafaring people like the Dutch, the ocean which lay between them
+and their American possessions had no terrors, and the twelve-year
+truce just concluded with Spain set free a vast energy to be applied to
+commerce and oversea {18} trading.  Within a year after the return of
+the _Half Moon_, Dutch merchants sent out a second ship, the crew of
+which included several sailors who had served under Hudson and of which
+the command was given, in all probability, to Hudson's former mate.
+The vessel was soon followed by the _Fortune_, the _Tiger_, the _Little
+Fox_, and the _Nightingale_.  By this time the procession of vessels
+plying between the Netherlands Old and New was fairly set in motion.
+But the aim of all these voyages was commerce rather than colonization.
+Shiploads of tobacco and furs were demanded by the promoters, and to
+obtain these traders and not farmers were needed.
+
+The chronicle of these years is melancholy reading for lovers of
+animals, for never before in the history of the continent was there
+such a wholesale, organized slaughter of the unoffending creatures of
+the forest.  Beavers were the greatest sufferers.  Their skins became a
+medium of currency, and some of the salaries in the early days of the
+colony were paid in so many "beavers."  The manifest of one cargo
+mentions 7246 beavers, 675 otters, 48 minks, and 36 wildcats.
+
+In establishing this fur trade with the savages, the newcomers
+primarily required trading-posts {19} guarded by forts.  Late in 1614
+or early in 1615, therefore, Fort Nassau was planted on a small island
+a little below the site of Albany.  Here the natives brought their
+peltries and the traders unpacked their stores of glittering trinkets,
+knives, and various implements of which the Indians had not yet learned
+the use.  In 1617 Fort Nassau was so badly damaged by a freshet that it
+was allowed to fall into ruin, and later a new stronghold and
+trading-post known as Fort Orange was set up where the city of Albany
+now stands.
+
+Meanwhile in 1614 the States-General of the United Netherlands had
+granted a charter to a company of merchants of the city of Amsterdam,
+authorizing their vessels "exclusively to visit and navigate" the newly
+discovered region lying in America between New France and Virginia, now
+first called New Netherland.  This monopoly was limited to four
+voyages, commencing on the first of January, 1615, or sooner.  If any
+one else traded in this territory, his ship and cargo were liable to
+confiscation and the owners were subject to a heavy fine to be paid to
+the New Netherland Company.  The Company was chartered for only three
+years, and at the expiration of the time a renewal of the charter was
+refused, although the {20} Company was licensed to trade in the
+territory from year to year.
+
+In 1621 this haphazard system was changed by the granting of a charter
+which superseded all private agreements and smaller enterprises by the
+incorporation of "that great armed commercial association," the Dutch
+West India Company.  By the terms of the charter the States-General
+engaged to secure to the Company freedom of traffic and navigation
+within prescribed limits, which included not only the coast and
+countries of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope
+but also the coasts of America.  Within these vague and very extended
+bounds the Company was empowered to make contracts and alliances, to
+build forts, to establish government, to advance the peopling of
+fruitful and unsettled parts, and to "do all that the service of those
+countries and the profit and increase of trade shall require."
+
+For these services the States-General agreed to grant a subsidy of a
+million guilders, or about half a million dollars, "provided that we
+with half the aforesaid million of guilders, shall receive and bear
+profit and risk in the same manner as the other members of this
+Company."  In case of war, which {21} was far from improbable at this
+time, when the twelve years' truce with Spain was at an end, the
+Company was to be assisted, if the situation of the country would in
+any wise admit of it, "with sixteen warships and four yachts, fully
+armed and equipped, properly mounted, and provided in all respects both
+with brass and other cannon and a proper quantity of ammunition,
+together with double suits of running and standing rigging, sails,
+cables, anchors, and other things thereto belonging, such as are proper
+to be used in all great expeditions."  These ships were to be manned,
+victualed, and maintained at the expense of the Company, which in its
+turn was to contribute and maintain sixteen like ships of war and four
+yachts.
+
+The object of forming this great company with almost unlimited power
+was twofold, at once political and commercial.  Its creators planned
+the summoning of additional military resources to confront the hostile
+power of Spain and also the more thorough colonization and development
+of New Netherland.  In these purposes they were giving expression to
+the motto of the House of Nassau: "I will maintain."
+
+Two years elapsed between the promulgation of the charter and the first
+active operations of the {22} West India Company; but throughout this
+period the air was electric with plans for occupying and settling the
+new land beyond the sea.  Finally in March, 1623, the ship _Nieu
+Nederlandt_ sailed for the colony whose name it bore, under the command
+of Cornelis Jacobsen May, of Hoorn, the first Director-General.  With
+him embarked some thirty families of Walloons, who were descendants of
+Protestant refugees from the southern provinces of the Netherlands,
+which, being in general attached to the Roman Catholic Church, had
+declined to join the confederation of northern provinces in 1579.
+Sturdy and industrious artisans of vigorous Protestant stock, the
+Walloons were a valuable element in the colonization of New Nether
+land.  After a two months' voyage the ship _Nieu Nederlandt_ reached
+the mouth of the Hudson, then called the Mauritius in honor of the
+Stadholder, Prince Maurice, and the leaders began at once to distribute
+settlers with a view to covering as much country as was defensible.
+Some were left in Manhattan, several families were sent to the South
+River, now the Delaware, others to Fresh River, later called the
+Connecticut, and others to the western shore of Long Island.  The
+remaining colonists, led by Adriaen Joris, voyaged up the {23} length
+of the Mauritius, landed at Fort Orange, and made their home there.
+Thus the era of settlement as distinguished from trade had begun.
+
+The description of the first settlers at Wiltwyck, on the western shore
+of the great river, may be applied to all the pioneer Dutch colonists.
+"Most of them could neither read nor write.  They were a wild, uncouth,
+rough, and most of the time a drunken crowd.  They lived in small log
+huts, thatched with straw.  They wore rough clothes, and in the winter
+were dressed in skins.  They subsisted on a little corn, game, and
+fish.  They were afraid of neither man, God, nor the Devil.  They were
+laying deep the foundation of the Empire State."[1]
+
+The costume of the wife of a typical settler usually consisted of a
+single garment, reaching from neck to ankles.  In the summer time she
+went bareheaded and barefooted.  She was rough, coarse, ignorant,
+uncultivated.  She helped her husband to build their log hut, to plant
+his grain, and to gather his crops.  If Indians appeared in her
+husband's absence, she grasped the rifle, gathered her children about
+her, and with a {24} dauntless courage defended them even unto death.
+This may not be a romantic presentation of the forefathers and
+foremothers of the State, but it bears the marks of truth and shows us
+a stalwart race strong to hold their own in the struggle for existence
+and in the establishment of a permanent community.
+
+From the time of the founding of settlements, outward-bound ships from
+the Netherlands brought supplies for the colonists and carried back
+cargoes of furs, tobacco, and maize.  In April, 1625, there was shipped
+to the new settlements a valuable load made up of one hundred and three
+head of live stock--stallions, mares, bulls, and cows--besides hogs and
+sheep, all distributed in two ships with a third vessel as convoy.  The
+chronicler, Nicholaes Janszoon Van Wassenaer, gives a detailed account
+of their disposal which illustrates the traditional Dutch orderliness
+and cleanliness.  He tells us that each animal had its own stall, and
+that the floor of each stall was covered with three feet of sand, which
+served as ballast for the ship.  Each animal also had its respective
+servant, who knew what his reward was to be if he delivered his charge
+alive.  Beneath the cattle-deck were stowed three hundred tuns of {25}
+fresh water, which was pumped up for the live stock.  In addition to
+the load of cattle, the ship carried agricultural implements and "all
+furniture proper for the dairy," as well as a number of settlers.
+
+The year 1625 marked an important event, the birth of a little daughter
+in the household of Jan Joris Rapaelje, the "first-born Christian
+daughter in New Netherland."  Her advent was followed by the appearance
+of a steadily increasing group of native citizens, and Dutch cradles
+multiplied in the cabins of the various settlements from Fort Orange to
+New Amsterdam.  The latter place was established as a fortified post
+and the seat of government for the colony in 1626 by Peter Minuit, the
+third Director-General, who in this year purchased Manhattan Island
+from the Indians.
+
+The colony was now thriving, with the whole settlement "bravely
+advanced" and grain growing as high as a man.  But across this bright
+picture fell the dark shadow of negro slavery, which, it is said, the
+Dutch were the first to introduce upon the mainland of North America in
+1625 or 1626.  Among the first slaves were Simon Congo, Anthony
+Portuguese, John Francisco, Paul d'Angola--names {26} evidently drawn
+from their native countries--and seven others.  Two years later came
+three slave women.  In a letter dated August 11, 1628, and addressed to
+his "Kind Friend and Well Beloved Brother in Christ the Reverend,
+learned and pious Mr. Adrianus Smoutius," we learn with regret that
+Domine Michaelius, having two small motherless daughters, finds himself
+much hindered and distressed because he can find no competent maid
+servants "and the Angola slave women are thievish, lazy, and useless
+trash."  Let us leave it to those who have the heart and the nerves to
+dwell upon the horrors of the middle passage and the sufferings of the
+poor negroes as set down in the log-books of the slavers, the _St.
+John_ and the _Arms of Amsterdam_.  It is comforting to the more
+soft-hearted of us to feel that after reaching the shores of New
+Netherland, the blacks were treated in the main with humanity.  The
+negro slave was of course a chattel, but his fate was not without hope.
+Several negroes with their wives were manumitted on the ground of long
+and faithful service.  They received a grant of land; but they were
+obliged to pay for it annually twenty-two and a half bushels of corn,
+wheat, pease, or beans, and a hog worth eight dollars in {27} modern
+currency.  If they failed in this payment they lost their recently
+acquired liberty and returned to the status of slaves.  Meanwhile,
+their children, already born or yet to be born, remained under
+obligation to serve the Company.
+
+Apparently the Dutch were conscious of no sense of wrong-doing in the
+importation of the blacks.  A chief justice of the King's Bench in
+England expressed the opinion that it was right that pagans should be
+slaves to Christians, because the former were bondsmen of Satan while
+the latter were servants of God.  Even this casuist, however, found
+difficulty in explaining why it was just that one born of free and
+Christian parents should remain enslaved.  But granting that the
+problems which the settlers were creating in these early days were
+bound to cause much trouble later both to themselves and to the whole
+country, there is no doubt that slave labor contributed to the
+advancement of agriculture and the other enterprises of the colony.
+Free labor was scarce and expensive, owing both to the cost of
+importing it from Europe and to the allurements of the fur trade, which
+drew off the _boer-knecht_ from farming.  Slave labor was therefore of
+the highest value in exploiting the resources of the new country.
+
+{28}
+
+These resources were indeed abundant.  The climate was temperate, with
+a long season of crops and harvests.  Grape-vines produced an abundant
+supply of wines.  The forests contained a vast variety of animals.
+Innumerable birds made the wilderness vocal.  Turkeys and wild fowl
+offered a variety of food.  The rivers produced fish of every kind and
+oysters which the letters of the colonists describe as a foot long,
+though this is somewhat staggering to the credulity of a later age.  De
+Vries, one of the patroons, or proprietors, whose imagination was
+certainly of a lively type, tells us that he had seen a New
+Netherlander kill eighty-four thrushes or maize-birds at one shot.  He
+adds that he has noticed crabs of excellent flavor on the flat shores
+of the bay.  "Their claws," he says naïvely, "are of the color of our
+Prince's flag, orange, white and blue, so that the crabs show clearly
+enough that we ought to people the country and that it belongs to us."
+When the very crabs thus beckoned to empire, how could the Netherlander
+fail to respond to their invitation?
+
+The newly discovered river soon began to be alive with sail,
+high-pooped vessels from over sea, and smaller _vlie booten_
+(Anglicized into "flyboats"), {29} which plied between New Amsterdam
+and Fort Orange, loaded with supplies and household goods.  Tying the
+prow of his boat to a tree at the water's edge, the enterprising
+skipper turned pedler and opened his packs of beguiling wares for the
+housewife at the farm beside the river.  Together with the goods in his
+pack, he doubtless also opened his budget of news from the other
+settlements and told the farmer's wife how the houses about the fort at
+Manhattan had increased to thirty, how the new Director was
+strengthening the fort, and how all promised well for the future of New
+Netherland.
+
+For the understanding of these folk, who, with their descendants, have
+left an indelible impression on New York as we know it today, we must
+leave the thread of narrative in America, abandon the sequence of
+dates, and turn back to the Holland of some years earlier.  Remembering
+that those who cross the sea change their skies but not their hearts,
+we may be sure that the same qualities which marked the inhabitants of
+the Netherlands showed themselves in the emigrants to the colony on the
+banks of the Mauritius.
+
+When the truce with Spain was announced, a few months before Hudson set
+sail for America, {30} it was celebrated throughout Holland by the
+ringing of bells, the discharge of artillery, the illumination of the
+houses, and the singing of hymns of thanksgiving in all the churches.
+The devout people knelt in every cathedral and village _Kerk_ to thank
+their God that the period of butchery and persecution was over.  But no
+sooner had the joy-bells ceased ringing and the illuminations faded
+than the King of Spain began plotting to regain by diplomacy what he
+had been unable to hold by force.  The Dutch, however, showed
+themselves as keenly alive as the Spanish to the value of treaties and
+alliances.  They met cunning with caution, as they had met tyranny with
+defiance, and at last, as the end of the truce drew near, they flung
+into the impending conflict the weight of the Dutch West India Company.
+They were shrewd and sincere people, ready to try all things by the
+test of practical experience.  One of their great statesmen at this
+period described his fellow-countrymen as having neither the wish nor
+the skill to deceive others, but on the other hand as not being easy to
+be deceived themselves.
+
+Motley says of the Dutch Republic that "it had courage, enterprise,
+intelligence, faith in itself, the instinct of self-government and
+self-help, {31} hatred of tyranny, the disposition to _domine_er,
+aggressiveness, greediness, inquisitiveness, insolence, the love of
+science, of liberty, and of money."  As the state is only a sum of
+component parts, its qualities must be those of its citizens, and of
+these citizens our colonists were undoubtedly typical.  We may
+therefore accept this description as picturing their mental and
+spiritual qualities in the pioneer days of their venture in the New
+World.
+
+
+
+[1] See the monograph by Augustus H. Van Buren in the _Proceedings of
+the New York Historical Society_, vol. xi, p. 133.
+
+
+
+
+{32}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR
+
+Their High Mightinesses, the States-General of the United Netherlands,
+as we have seen, granted to the Dutch West India Company a charter
+conveying powers nearly equaling and often overlapping those of the
+States themselves.  The West India Company in turn, with a view to
+stimulating colonization, granted to certain members known as patroons
+manorial rights frequently in conflict with the authority of the
+Company.  And for a time it seemed as though the patroonship would be
+the prevailing form of grant in New Netherland.
+
+The system of patroonships seems to have been suggested by Kiliaen Van
+Rensselaer, one of the directors of the West India Company and a
+lapidary of Amsterdam, who later became the most successful of the
+patroons.  A shrewd, keen, far-seeing man, he was one of the first of
+the West India Company to perceive that the building up of {33} New
+Netherland could not be carried on without labor, and that labor could
+not be procured without permanent settlers.  "Open up the country with
+agriculture: that must be our first step," was his urgent advice; but
+the dwellers in the Netherlands, finding themselves prosperous in their
+old homes, saw no reason for emigrating, and few offered themselves for
+the overseas settlements.  The West India Company was not inclined to
+involve itself in further expense for colonization, and matters
+threatened to come to a halt, when someone, very likely the shrewd
+Kiliaen himself, evolved the plan of granting large estates to men
+willing to pay the cost of settling and operating them.  From this
+suggestion the scheme of patroonship was developed.
+
+The list of "Privileges and Exemptions" published by the West India
+Company in 1629 declared that all should be acknowledged patroons of
+New Netherland who should, within the space of four years, plant there
+a colony of fifty souls upwards of fifteen years old.  "The island of
+the Manhattes" was reserved for the Company.  The patroons, it was
+stipulated, must make known the situation of their proposed
+settlements, but they were allowed to change should their first
+location prove {34} unsatisfactory.  The lands were to extend sixteen
+miles along the shore on one side of a navigable river, or eight miles
+on both sides of a river, and so far into the country as the situation
+of the colonies and their settlers permitted.  The patroons were
+entitled to dispose of their grants by will, and they were free to
+traffic along the coast of New Netherland for all goods except furs,
+which were to be the special perquisite of the West India Company.
+They were forbidden to allow the weaving of linen, woolen, or cotton
+cloth on their estates, the looms in Holland being hungry for raw
+material.
+
+The Company agreed that it would not take any one from the service of
+the patroon during the years for which the servant was bound, and any
+colonist who should without written permission enter the service of
+another patroon or "betake himself to freedom" was to be proceeded
+against with all the available force of the law.  The escaped servant
+would fare ill if his case came before the courts, since it was one of
+the prerogatives of a patroon to administer high, middle, and low
+justice--that is, to appoint magistrates and erect courts which should
+deal with all grades of crimes committed within the limits of the manor
+and also with breaches of the civil law.  In civil cases, {35} disputes
+over contracts, titles, and such matters, where the amount in
+litigation exceeded twenty dollars, as well as in criminal cases
+affecting life and limb, it was possible to appeal to the Director and
+Council at Fort Amsterdam; but the local authorities craftily evaded
+this provision by compelling their colonists to promise not to appeal
+from the tribunal of the manor.
+
+The _scherprechter_, or hangman, was included with the superintendent,
+the _schout fiscaal_, or sheriff, and the magistrates as part of the
+manorial court system.  One such _scherprechter_ named Jan de Neger,
+perhaps a freed negro, is named among the dwellers at Rensselaerswyck
+and we find him presenting a claim for thirty-eight florins ($15.00)
+for executing Wolf Nysen.
+
+No man in the manorial colony was to be deprived of life or property
+except by sentence of a court composed of five people, and all accused
+persons were entitled to a speedy and impartial trial.  As we find
+little complaint of the administration of justice in all the records of
+disputes, reproaches, and recriminations which mark the records of
+those old manors, we must assume that the processes of law were carried
+on in harmony with the spirit of fairness prevailing in the home
+country.
+
+{36}
+
+Even before the West India Company had promulgated its charter, a
+number of rich merchants had availed themselves of the opportunity to
+secure lands under the offered privileges and exemptions.  Godyn and
+Blommaert, in association with Captain David de Vries and others, took
+up a large territory on Delaware Bay, and here they established a
+colony called "Swannendael," which was destroyed by the Indians in
+1632.  Myndert Myndertsen established his settlement on the mainland
+behind Staten Island, and his manor extended from Achter Kul, or Newark
+Bay, to the Tappan Zee.
+
+One of the first patents recorded was granted to Michiel Pauw in 1630.
+In the documentary record the Director and Council of New Netherland,
+under the authority of their High Mightinesses, the Lords
+States-General and the West India Company Department of Amsterdam,
+testify to the bargain made with the natives, who are treated
+throughout with legal ceremony as if they were high contracting parties
+and fully capable of understanding the transaction in which they were
+engaged.  These original owners of the soil appeared before the Council
+and declared that in consideration of {37} certain merchandise, they
+agreed to "transfer, cede, convey and deliver for the benefit of the
+Honorable Mr. Michiel Paauw" as true and lawful freehold, the land at
+Hobocan Hackingh, opposite Manhattan, so that "he or his heirs may take
+possession of the aforesaid land, live on it in peace, inhabit, own and
+use it ... without that they, the conveying party shall have or retain
+the least pretension, right, power or authority either concerning
+ownership or sovereignty; but herewith they desist, abandon, withdraw
+and renounce in behalf of aforesaid now and forever totally and
+finally."
+
+It must have been a pathetic and yet a diverting spectacle when the
+simple red men thus swore away their title to the broad acres of their
+fathers for a consideration of beads, shells, blankets, and trinkets;
+but, when they listened to the subtleties of Dutch law as expounded by
+the Dogberrys at Fort Amsterdam, they may have been persuaded that
+their simple minds could never contend with such masters of language
+and that they were on the whole fortunate to secure something in
+exchange for their land, which they were bound to lose in any event.
+
+It has been the custom to ascribe to the Dutch and Quakers the system
+of paying for lands taken {38} from the Indians.  But Fiske points out
+that this conception is a mistake and he goes on to state that it was a
+general custom among the English and that not a rood of ground in New
+England was taken from the savages without recompense, except when the
+Pequots began a war and were exterminated.  The "payment" in all cases,
+however, was a mere farce and of value only in creating good feeling
+between savages and settlers.  As to the ethics of the transaction,
+much might be said on both sides.  The red men would be justified in
+feeling that they had been kept in ignorance of the relative importance
+of what they gave and what they received, while the whites might
+maintain that they created the values which ensued upon their purchase
+and that, if they had not come, lands along the Great River would have
+remained of little account.  In any case the recorded transaction did
+not prove a financial triumph for the purchaser, as the enterprise cost
+much in trouble and outlay and did not meet expenses.  The property was
+resold to the Company seven years later--at a price, however, of
+twenty-six thousand guilders, which represented a fair margin of profit
+over the "certain merchandise" paid to the original owners eight years
+earlier.
+
+{39}
+
+Very soon after the purchase of the land on the west shore of the North
+River, Pauw bought, under the same elaborate legal forms, the whole of
+Staten Island, so called in honor of the Staaten or States-General.  To
+the estate he gave the title of Pavonia, a Latinized form of his own
+name.  Staten Island was subsequently purchased from Pauw by the
+Company and transferred (with the exception of the _bouwerie_ of
+Captain De Vries) to Cornelis Melyn, who was thus added to the list of
+patroons.  Other regions also were erected into patroonships; but
+almost all were either unsuccessful from the beginning or short-lived.
+
+The patroonship most successful, most permanent, and most typical was
+Rensselaerswyck, which offers the best opportunity for a study of the
+Dutch colonial system.  Van Rensselaer, though he did not apparently
+intend to make a home for himself in New Netherland, was one of the
+first to ask for a grant of land.  He received, subject to payment to
+the Indians, a tract of country to the north and south of Fort Orange,
+but not including that trading-post, which like the island of Manhattan
+remained under the control of the West India Company.  By virtue of
+this grant and later purchases Van Rensselaer acquired a {40} tract
+comprising what are now the counties of Albany and Rensselaer with part
+of Columbia.  Of this tract, called Rensselaerswyck, Van Rensselaer was
+named patroon, and five other men, Godyn, Blommaert, De Laet, Bissels,
+and Moussart, whom he had been forced to conciliate by taking into
+partnership, were named codirectors.  Later the claims of these five
+associates were bought out by the Van Rensselaer family.
+
+In 1630 the first group of emigrants for this new colony sailed on the
+ship _Eendragt_ and reached Fort Orange at the beginning of June.  How
+crude was the settlement which they established we may judge from the
+report made some years later by Father Jogues, a Jesuit missionary, who
+visited Rensselaerswyck in 1643.  He speaks of a miserable little fort
+built of logs and having four or five pieces of Breteuil cannon.  He
+describes also the colony as composed of about a hundred persons, "who
+reside in some twenty-five or thirty houses built along the river as
+each found most convenient."  The patroon's agent was established in
+the principal house, while in another, which served also as a church,
+was domiciled the _domine_, the Reverend Johannes Megapolensis, Jr. The
+houses he describes as built of boards and roofed with {41} thatch,
+having no mason-work except in the chimneys.  The settlers had found
+some ground already cleared by the natives and had planted it with
+wheat and oats in order to provide beer and horse-fodder; but being
+hemmed in by somewhat barren hills, they had been obliged to separate
+in order to obtain arable land.  The settlements, therefore, spread
+over two or three leagues.
+
+The fear of raids from the savages prompted the patroon to advise that,
+with the exception of the brewers and tobacco planters who were obliged
+to live on their plantations, no other settlers should establish
+themselves at any distance from the church, which was the village
+center; for, says the prudent Van Rensselaer, "every one residing where
+he thinks fit, separated far from others, would be unfortunately in
+danger of their lives in the same manner as sorrowful experience has
+taught around the Manhattans."  Our sympathy goes out to those early
+settlers who lived almost as serfs under their patroon, the women
+forbidden to spin or weave, the men prohibited from trading in the furs
+which they saw building up fortunes around them.  They sat by their
+lonely hearths in a little clearing of the forest, listening to the
+howl of wolves and fearing to see a savage face at the {42} window.
+This existence was a tragic change indeed from the lively social
+existence along the canals of Amsterdam or on the stoops of Rotterdam.
+
+Nor can we feel that these tenants were likely to be greatly cheered by
+the library established at Rensselaerswyck, unless there were hidden
+away a list of more interesting books than those described in the
+patroon's invoice as sent in an _oosterse_, or oriental, box.  These
+volumes include a Scripture concordance, the works of Calvin, of Livy,
+and of Ursinus, the friend of Melanchthon, _A Treatise on Arithmetic_
+by Adrian Metius, _The History of the Holy Land_, and a work on natural
+theology.  As all the titles are in Latin, it is to be presumed that
+the body of the text was written in the same language, and we may
+imagine the light and cheerful mood which they inspired in their
+readers after a day of manual toil.
+
+I suspect, however, that the evening hours of these tenants at
+Rensselaerswyck were spent in anxious keeping of accounts with a
+wholesome fear of the patroon before the eyes of the accountants.  Life
+on the _bouweries_ was by no means inexpensive, even according to
+modern standards.  Bearing in mind that a stiver was equivalent to two
+cents of {43} our currency and a florin to forty cents, it is easy to
+calculate the cost of living in the decade between 1630 and 1640 as set
+down in the accounts of Rensselaerswyck.  A blanket cost eight florins,
+a hat ten florins, an iron anvil one hundred florins, a musket and
+cartouche box nineteen florins, a copper sheep's bell one florin and
+six stivers.  On the other hand all domestic produce was cheap, because
+the tenant and patroon preferred to dispose of it in the settlements
+rather than by transporting it to New Amsterdam.  We learn with envy
+that butter was only eight stivers or sixteen cents per pound, a pair
+of fowl two florins, a beaver twenty-five florins.
+
+How hard were the terms on which the tenants held their leases is
+apparent from a report written by the guardians and tutors of Jan Van
+Rensselaer, a later patroon of Rensselaerswyck.  The patroon reserved
+to himself the tenth of all grains, fruits, and other products raised
+on the _bouwerie_.  The tenant was bound, in addition to his rent of
+five hundred guilders or two hundred dollars, to keep up the roads,
+repair the buildings, cut ten pieces of oak or fir wood, and bring the
+same to the shore; he must also every year give to the patroon three
+days' service with his horses and wagon; {44} each year he was to cut,
+split, and bring to the waterside two fathoms of firewood; and he was
+further to deliver yearly to the Director as quit-rent two bushels of
+wheat, twenty-five pounds of butter, and two pairs of fowls.
+
+It was the difficult task of the agent of the colony to harmonize the
+constant hostilities between the patroon and his "people."  Van
+Curler's letter to Kiliaen Van Rensselaer begins: "Laus Deo!  At the
+Manhattans this 16th June, 1643, Most honorable, wise, powerful, and
+right discreet Lord, my Lord Patroon--."  After which propitiatory
+beginning it embarks at once on a reply to the reproaches which the
+honorable, wise, and powerful Lord has heaped upon his obedient
+servant.  Van Curler admits that the accounts and books have not been
+forwarded to Holland as they should have been; but he pleads the
+difficulty of securing returns from the tenants, whom he finds slippery
+in their accounting.  "Everything they have laid out on account of the
+Lord Patroon they well know how to specify for what was expended.  But
+what has been laid out for their private use, that they know nothing
+about."
+
+If the patroon's relations with his tenants were thorny, he had no less
+trouble in his dealings with {45} the Director-General at New
+Amsterdam.  It is true, Peter Minuit, the first important Director, was
+removed in 1632 by the Company for unduly favoring the patroons, and
+Van Twiller, another Director and a nephew of Van Rensselaer by
+marriage, was not disposed to antagonize his relative; but when Van
+Twiller was replaced by Kieft, and he in turn by Stuyvesant, the
+horizon at Rensselaerswyck grew stormy.  In 1643 the patroon ordered
+Nicholas Coorn to fortify Beeren or Bears Island, and to demand a toll
+of each ship, except those of the West India Company, that passed up
+and down the river.  He also required that the colors on every ship be
+lowered in passing Rensselaer's Stein or Castle Rensselaer, as the fort
+on the steep little island was named.
+
+Govert Loockermans, sailing down the river one day on the ship _Good
+Hope_, failed to salute the flag, whereupon a lively dialogue ensued to
+the following effect, and not, we may be assured, carried on in low or
+amicable tones:
+
+_Coorn_: "Lower your colors!"
+
+_Loockermans_: "For whom should I?"
+
+_Coorn_: "For the staple-right of Rensselaerswyck."
+
+_Loockermans_: "I lower my colors for no one {46} except the Prince of
+Orange and the Lords my masters."
+
+The practical result of this interchange of amenities was a shot which
+tore the mainsail of the _Good Hope_, "perforated the princely flag,"
+and so enraged the skipper that on his arrival at New Amsterdam he
+hastened to lay his grievance before the Council, who thereupon ordered
+Coorn to behave with more civility.
+
+
+The patroon system was from the beginning doomed to failure.  As we
+study the old documents we find a sullen tenantry, an obsequious and
+careworn agent, a dissatisfied patroon, an impatient company, a
+bewildered government--and all this in a new and promising country
+where the natives were friendly, the transportation easy, the land
+fertile, the conditions favorable to that conservation of human
+happiness which is and should be the aim of civilization.  The reason
+for the discontent which prevailed is not far to seek, and all classes
+were responsible for it, for they combined in planting an anachronistic
+feudalism in a new country, which was dedicated by its very physical
+conditions to liberty and democracy.  The settlers came from a nation
+which had battled {47} through long years in the cause of freedom.
+They found themselves in a colony adjoining those of Englishmen who had
+braved the perils of the wilderness to establish the same principles of
+liberty and democracy.  No sane mind could have expected the Dutch
+colonists to return without protest to a medieval system of government.
+
+When the English took possession of New Netherland in 1664, the old
+patroonships were confirmed as manorial grants from England.  As time
+went on, many new manors were erected until, when the province was
+finally added to England in 1674, "The Lords of the Manor" along the
+Hudson had taken on the proportions of a landed aristocracy.  On the
+lower reaches of the river lay the Van Cortlandt and Philipse Manors,
+the first containing 85,000 acres and a house so firmly built that it
+is still standing with its walls of freestone, three feet thick.  The
+Philipse Manor, at Tarrytown, represented the remarkable achievement of
+a self-made man, born in the Old World and a carpenter by trade, who
+rose in the New World to fortune and eminence.  By dint of business
+acumen and by marrying two heiresses in succession he achieved wealth,
+and built "Castle Philipse" and the picturesque little church at Sleepy
+Hollow, {48} still in use.  Farther up the river lay the Livingston
+Manor.  In 1685 Robert Livingston was granted by Governor Dongan a
+patent of a tract half way between New York and Rensselaerswyck, across
+the river from the Catskills and covering many thousand acres.
+
+But the estate of which we know most, thanks to the records left by
+Mrs. Grant of Laggan in her _Memoirs of an American Lady_, written in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is that belonging to the
+Schuylers at "the Flats" near Albany, which runs along the western bank
+of the Hudson for two miles and is bordered with sweeping elm trees.
+The mansion consisted of two stories and an attic.  Through the middle
+of the house ran a wide passage from the front to the back door.  At
+the front door was a large _stoep_, open at the sides and with seats
+around it.  One room was open for company.  The other apartments were
+bedrooms, a drawing-room being an unheard-of luxury.  "The house
+fronted the river, on the brink of which, under shades of elm and
+sycamore, ran the great road toward Saratoga, Stillwater, and the
+northern lakes."  Adjoining the orchard was a huge barn raised from the
+ground by beams which rested on stone and held up a massive oak {49}
+floor.  On one side ran a manger.  Cattle and horses stood in rows with
+their heads toward the threshing-floor.  "There was a prodigious large
+box or open chest in one side built up, for holding the corn after it
+was threshed, and the roof which was very lofty and spacious was
+supported by large cross beams.  From one to the other of these was
+stretched a great number of long poles so as to form a sort of open
+loft, on which the whole rich crop was laid up."
+
+Altogether it is an attractive picture of peace and plenty, of
+hospitality and simple luxury, that is drawn by this visitor to the
+Schuyler homestead.  We see through her eyes its carpeted winter rooms,
+its hall covered with tiled oilcloth and hung with family portraits,
+its vine-covered _stoeps_, provided with ledges for the birds, and
+affording "pleasant views of the winding river and the distant hills."
+Such a picture relieves pleasantly the arid waste of historical
+statistics.
+
+But the reader who dwells too long on the picturesque aspects of manors
+and patroonships is likely to forget that New Netherland was peopled
+for the most part by colonists who were neither patroons nor lords of
+manors.  It was the small proprietors who eventually predominated on
+western {50} Long Island, on Staten Island, and along the Hudson.  "In
+the end," it has been well said, "this form of grant played a more
+important part in the development of the province than did the larger
+fiefs for which such detailed provision was made."
+
+
+
+
+{51}
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DIRECTORS
+
+The first Director-General of the colony, Captain Cornelis May, was
+removed by only a generation from those "Beggars of the Sea" whom the
+Spaniard held in such contempt; but this mendicant had begged to such
+advantage that the sea granted him a noble river to explore and a cape
+at its mouth to preserve his name to posterity.  It is upon his
+discoveries along the South River, later called the Delaware, and not
+upon his record as Director of New Netherland, that his title to fame
+must rest.  Associated with him was Tienpont, who appears to have been
+assigned to the North River while May assumed personal supervision of
+the South.  May acted as the agent of the West India Company for one
+year only (1624-1625), and was followed in office by Verhulst
+(1625-1626), who bequeathed his name to Verhulsten Island, in the
+Delaware River, and then quietly passed out of history.
+
+{52}
+
+Neither of these officials left any permanent impress on the history of
+the colony.  It was therefore a day of vast importance to the dwellers
+on the North River, and especially to the little group of settlers on
+Manhattan Island, when the _Meeuwken_ dropped her anchor in the harbor
+in May, 1626, and her small boat landed Peter Minuit, Director-General
+of New Netherland, a Governor who had come to govern.  Minuit, though
+registered as "of Wesel," Germany, was of Huguenot ancestry, and is
+reported to have spoken French, Dutch, German, and English.  He proved
+a tactful and efficient ruler, and the new system of government took
+form under the Director and Council, the _koopman_, who was commercial
+agent and secretary, and a _schout_ who performed the duties of sheriff
+and public prosecutor.
+
+Van Wassenaer, the son of a _domine_ in Amsterdam, gives us a report of
+the colony as it existed under Minuit.  He writes of a counting-house
+built of stone and thatched with reeds, of thirty ordinary houses on
+the east side of the river, and a horse-mill yet unfinished over which
+is to be constructed a spacious room to serve as a temporary church and
+to be decorated with bells captured at the sack of San Juan de Porto
+Rico in 1625 by the Dutch fleet.  {53} According to this chronicler,
+every one in New Netherland who fills no public office is busy with his
+own affairs.  One trades, one builds houses, another plants farms.
+Each farmer pastures the cows under his charge on the _bouwerie_ of the
+Company, which also owns the cattle; but the milk is the property of
+the farmer, who sells it to the settlers.  "The houses of settlers," he
+says, "are now outside the fort; but when that is finished they will
+all remove within, in order to garrison it and be safe from sudden
+attack."
+
+One of Minuit's first acts as Director was the purchase of Manhattan
+Island, covering some twenty-two thousand acres, for merchandise valued
+at sixty guilders or twenty-four dollars.  He thus secured the land at
+the rate of approximately ten acres for one cent.  A good bargain,
+Peter Minuit!  The transaction was doubly effective in placating the
+savages, or the _wilden_, as the settlers called them, and in
+establishing the Dutch claim as against the English by urging rights
+both of discovery and of purchase.
+
+In spite of the goodwill manifested by the natives, the settlers were
+constantly anxious lest some conspiracy might suddenly break out.  Van
+Wassenaer, reporting the news from the colony as {54} it reached him in
+Amsterdam, wrote in 1626 that Pieter Barentsen was to be sent to
+command Fort Orange, and that the families were to be brought down the
+river, sixteen men without women being left to garrison the fort.  Two
+years later he wrote that there were no families at Fort Orange, all
+having been brought down the river.  Only twenty-five or twenty-six
+traders remained and Krol, who had been vice-director there since 1626.
+
+Minuit showed true statesmanship by following conciliation with a show
+of strength against hostile powers on every hand.  He had brought with
+him a competent engineer, Kryn Frederycke, or Fredericksen, who had
+been an officer in the army of Prince Maurice.  With his help Minuit
+laid out Fort Amsterdam on what was then the tip of Manhattan Island,
+the green park which forms the end of the island today being then under
+water.  Fredericksen found material and labor so scarce that he could
+plan at first only a blockhouse surrounded by palisades of red cedar
+strengthened with earthworks.  The fort was completed in 1626, and at
+the close of the year a settlement called New Amsterdam had grown up
+around it and had been made the capital of New Netherland.
+
+During the building of the fort there occurred {55} an episode fraught
+with serious consequences.  A friendly Indian of the Weckquaesgeeck
+tribe came with his nephew to traffic at Fort Amsterdam.  Three
+servants of Minuit fell upon the Indian, robbed him, and murdered him.
+The nephew, then but a boy, escaped to his tribe and vowed a vengeance
+which he wreaked in blood nearly a score of years later.
+
+Minuit's preparations for war were not confined to land fortification.
+In 1627 the hearts of the colonists were gladdened by a great victory
+of the Dutch over the Spanish, when, in a battle off San Salvador,
+Peter Heyn demolished twenty-six Spanish warships.  On the 5th of
+September the same bold sailor captured the whole of the Spanish
+silver-fleet with spoils amounting to twelve million guilders.  In the
+following year the gallant commander, then a lieutenant-admiral, died
+in battle on the deck of his ship.  The States-General sent to his old
+peasant mother a message of condolence, to which she replied: "Ay, I
+thought that would be the end of him.  He was always a vagabond; but I
+did my best to correct him.  He got no more than he deserved."
+
+It was perhaps the echo of naval victories like these which prompted
+Minuit to embark upon a {56} shipbuilding project of great magnitude
+for that time.  Two Belgian shipbuilders arrived in New Amsterdam and
+asked the help of the Director in constructing a large vessel.  Minuit,
+seeing the opportunity to advertise the resources of the colony, agreed
+to give his assistance and the result was that the _New Netherland_, a
+ship of eight hundred tons carrying thirty guns, was built and launched.
+
+This enterprise cost more than had been expected and the bills were
+severely criticized by the West India Company, already dissatisfied
+with Minuit on the ground that he had favored the interests of the
+patroons, who claimed the right of unrestricted trade within their
+estates, as against the interests of the Company.  Urged by many
+complaints, the States-General set on foot an investigation of the
+Director, the patroons, and the West India Company itself, with the
+result that in 1632 Minuit was recalled and the power of the patroons
+was limited.  New Netherland had not yet seen the last of Peter Minuit,
+however.  Angry and embittered, he entered the service of Sweden and
+returned later to vex the Dutch colony.
+
+In the interval between Minuit's departure and the arrival of Van
+Twiller, the reins of authority {57} were held by Sebastian Krol, whose
+name is memorable chiefly for the fact that he had been influential in
+purchasing the domain of Rensselaerswyck for its patroon (1630) and the
+tradition that the cruller, _crolyer_ or _krolyer_, was so called in
+his honor.  The Company's selection of a permanent successor to Minuit
+was not happy.  Wouter Van Twiller, nephew of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer,
+must have owed his appointment as Director to family influence, since
+neither his career nor his reputation justified the choice.
+
+David de Vries, writing on April 16, 1633, notes that on arriving about
+noon before Fort Amsterdam he found there a ship called the _Soutbergh_
+which had brought over the new Governor, Wouter Van Twiller, a former
+clerk in the West India House at Amsterdam.  De Vries gives his opinion
+of Van Twiller in no uncertain terms.  He expressed his own surprise
+that the West India Company should send fools into this country who
+knew nothing except how to drink, and quotes an Englishman as saying
+that he could not understand the unruliness among the officers of the
+Company and that a governor should have no more control over them.
+
+For the personal appearance of this "Walter {58} the Doubter," we must
+turn again to the testimony of Knickerbocker, whose mocking
+descriptions have obtained a quasi-historical authority:
+
+
+This renowned old gentleman arrived at New Amsterdam in the merry month
+of June....  He was exactly five feet six inches in height and six feet
+five inches in circumference.  His head was a perfect sphere and of
+such stupendous dimensions that Dame Nature, with all her sex's
+ingenuity would have been puzzled to construct a neck capable of
+supporting it: Wherefore she wisely declined the attempt and settled it
+firmly on the top of his backbone just between the shoulders....  His
+legs were short but sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to
+sustain so that when erect he had not a little the appearance of a beer
+barrel on skids.  His face, that infallible index of the mind,
+presented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of those lines which
+disfigure the human countenance with what is termed expression....  His
+habits were regular.  He daily took his four stated meals,
+appropriating exactly an hour to each; he smoked and doubted eight
+hours, and he slept the remaining twelve of the four-and-twenty.
+
+
+A later historian, taking up the cudgels in behalf of the Director,
+resents Knickerbocker's impeachment and protests that "so far from
+being the aged, fat and overgrown person represented in caricature Van
+Twiller was youthful and inexperienced, and his faults were those of a
+young {59} man unused to authority and hampered by his instructions."[1]
+
+In his new office Van Twiller was confronted with questions dealing
+with the encroachment of the patroons from within and of the English
+from without, the unwelcome visit of Eelkens, of whom we shall hear
+later, and massacres by the Indians on the South River.  Such problems
+might well have puzzled a wiser head and a more determined character
+than Van Twiller's.  We cannot hold him wholly blameworthy if he dealt
+with them in a spirit of doubt and hesitation.  What we find harder to
+excuse is his shrewd advancement of his own interests and his lavish
+expenditure of the Company's money.  The cost of building the fort {60}
+was more than justifiable.  To have neglected the defenses would have
+been culpable; and the barracks built for the hundred and four soldiers
+whom he had brought over from the Fatherland may also be set down as
+necessary.  But when the Company was groaning under the expenses of the
+colony, it was, to say the least, lacking in tact to build for himself
+the most elaborate house in New Netherland, besides erecting on one of
+the Company's _bouweries_ a house, a barn, a boathouse, and a brewery,
+to say nothing of planting another farm with tobacco, working it with
+slave labor at the Company's expense, and appropriating the profits.
+In the year 1688, after he had been five years in office, the outcry
+against Van Twiller for misfeasance, malfeasance, and especially
+nonfeasance, grew too loud to be ignored, and he was recalled; but
+before he left New Netherland he bought Nooten or Nut Island, since
+called Governor's Island, and also two other islands in the East River.
+At the time of his marriage in 1643, Van Twiller was in command of a
+competence attained at the expense of the West India Company, and there
+is much excuse for the feeling of his employers that he had been more
+active in his own affairs than in theirs.
+
+{61}
+
+The principal service which he had rendered to the Company in his term
+of office was the establishment of "staple right" at New Amsterdam,
+compelling all ships trading on the coast or the North River to pay
+tolls or unload their cargoes on the Company's property.  But on the
+reverse side of the account we must remember that he allowed the fort
+to fall into such decay that when Kieft arrived in 1638 he found the
+defenses, which had been finished only three years before, already in a
+shamefully neglected condition, the guns dismounted, the public
+buildings inside the walls in ruins, and the walls of the fort itself
+so beaten down that any one might enter at will, "save at the stone
+point."
+
+The hopes of the colonists rose again with the coming of a new
+governor; but the appointment of Kieft reflected as little credit as
+that of Van Twiller upon the sagacity of the West India Company.  The
+man now chosen to rule New Netherland was a narrow-minded busybody,
+eager to interfere in small matters and without the statesmanship
+required to conduct large affairs.  Some of his activities, it is true,
+had practical value.  He fixed the hours at which the colonists should
+go to bed and ordered the curfew to be rung at nine o'clock; {62} he
+established two annual fairs to be held on the present Bowling Green,
+one in October for cattle and one in November for hogs; and he built a
+new stone church within the fort, operated a brewery, founded a
+hostelry, and planted orchards and gardens.  But on the other side of
+the account he was responsible for a bloody war with the Indians which
+came near to wrecking the colony.
+
+His previous record held scant promise for his success as a governor.
+He had failed as a merchant in Rochelle, for which offense his portrait
+had been affixed to a gallows.  Such a man was a poor person to be put
+in control of the complicated finances of New Netherland and of the
+delicate relations between the colonists and the Indians--relations
+calling for infinite tact, wisdom, firmness, and forbearance.
+
+The natives in the region of New Amsterdam were increasingly irritated
+by the encroachments of the whites.  They complained that stray cows
+spoiled their unfenced cornfields and that various other depredations
+endangered their crops.  To add to this irritation Kieft proposed to
+tax the natives for the protection afforded them by the Fort, which was
+now being repaired at large expense.  The situation, already bad
+enough, was {63} further complicated by Kieft's clumsy handling of an
+altercation on Staten Island.  Some pigs were stolen, by servants of
+the Company as appeared later; but the offense was charged to the
+Raritan Indians.  Without waiting to make investigations Kieft sent out
+a punitive expedition of seventy men, who attacked the innocent
+natives, killed a number of them, and laid waste their crops.  This
+stupid and wicked attack still further exasperated the Indians, who in
+the high tide of mid-summer saw their lands laid bare and their homes
+desolated by the wanton hand of the intruders.
+
+Some months later the trouble between the whites and the red men was
+brought to a head by an unforeseen tragedy.  A savage came to Claes
+Smits, _radenmaker_ or wheelwright, to trade beaver for duffel cloth.
+As Claes stooped down to take out the duffel from a chest, the Indian
+seized an axe which chanced to stand near by and struck the wheelwright
+on the neck, killing him instantly.  The murderer then stole the goods
+from the chest and fled to the forest.
+
+When Kieft sent to the tribe of the Weckquaesgeecks to inquire the
+cause of this murder and to demand the slayer, the Indian told the
+chief that he had seen his uncle robbed and killed at the fort {64}
+while it was being built; that he himself had escaped and had vowed
+revenge; and that the unlucky Claes was the first white man upon whom
+he had a chance to wreak vengeance.  The chief then replied to the
+Director that he was sorry that twenty Christians had not been killed
+and that the Indian had done only a pious duty in avenging his uncle.
+
+In this emergency Kieft called a meeting at which the prominent
+burghers chose a committee of twelve to advise the Director.  This took
+place in 1641.  The Council was headed by Captain David de Vries, whose
+portrait with its pointed chin, high forehead, and keen eyes, justifies
+his reputation as the ablest man in New Netherland.  He insisted that
+it was inadvisable to attack the Indians--not to say hazardous.
+Besides, the Company had warned them to keep peace.  It is interesting
+to speculate on what would have been the effect on the colony if the
+Company's choice had fallen upon De Vries instead of on Kieft as
+Director.
+
+Although restrained for the time, Kieft never relinquished his purpose.
+On February 24, 1643, he again announced his intention of making a raid
+upon the Indians, and in spite of further {65} remonstrance from De
+Vries he sent out his soldiers, who returned after a massacre which
+disgraced the Director, enraged the natives, and endangered the colony.
+Kieft was at first proud of his treachery; but as soon as it was known
+every Algonquin tribe around New Amsterdam started on the warpath.
+From New Jersey to the Connecticut every farm was in peril.  The famous
+and much-persecuted Anne Hutchinson perished with her family; towns
+were burned; and men, women, and children fled in panic.
+
+On the approach of spring, when the Indians had to plant their corn or
+face famine, sachems of the Long Island Indians sought a parley with
+the Dutch.  De Vries and Olfertsen volunteered to meet the savages.  In
+the woods near Rockaway they found nearly three hundred Indians
+assembled.  The chiefs placed the envoys in the center of the circle,
+and one among them, who had a bundle of sticks, laid down one stick at
+a time as he recounted the wrongs of his tribe.  This orator told how
+the red men had given food to the settlers and were rewarded by the
+murder of their people, how they had protected and cherished the
+traders, and how they had been abused in return.  At length De Vries,
+like the practical man that he was, {66} suggested that they all
+adjourn to the Fort, promising them presents from the Director.
+
+The chiefs consented to meet the Director and eventually were persuaded
+to make a treaty of peace; but Kieft's gifts were so niggardly that the
+savages went away with rancor still in their hearts, and the war of the
+races continued its bloody course.  It is no wonder that when De Vries
+left the Governor on this occasion, he told Kieft in plain terms of his
+guilt and predicted that the shedding of so much innocent blood would
+yet be avenged upon his own head.  This prophecy proved a strangely
+true one.  When recalled by the States-General in 1647, Kieft set out
+for Holland on the ship _Princess_, carrying with him the sum of four
+hundred thousand guilders.  The ship was wrecked in the Bristol channel
+and Kieft was drowned.
+
+The evil that Kieft did lived after him and the good, if interred with
+his bones, would not have occupied much space in the tomb.  The only
+positive advance during his rule--and that was carried through against
+his will--was the appointment of an advisory committee of the twelve
+men, representing the householders of the colony, who were called
+together in the emergency following {67} the murder of Claes Smits, and
+in 1643 of a similar board of eight men, who protested against his
+arbitrary measures and later procured his recall.
+
+After the departure of Kieft the most picturesque figure of the period
+of Dutch rule in America appeared at New Amsterdam, Petrus or Pieter
+Stuyvesant.  We have an authentic portrait in which the whole
+personality of the man is writ large.  The dominant nose, the small,
+obstinate eyes, the close-set, autocratic mouth, tell the character of
+the man who was come to be the new and the last Director-General of New
+Netherland.  As Director of the West India Company's colony at Curaçao,
+Stuyvesant had undertaken the task of reducing the Portuguese island of
+St. Martin and had lost a leg in the fight.  This loss he repaired with
+a wooden leg, of which he professed himself prouder than of all his
+other limbs together and which he had decorated with silver bands and
+nails, thus earning for him the sobriquet of "Old Silver Nails."
+Still, so the legend runs, Peter Stuyvesant's ghost at night "stumps to
+and fro with a shadowy wooden leg through the aisles of St. Mark's
+Church near the spot where his bones lie buried."  But many events were
+to happen {68} before those bones were laid in the family vault of the
+chapel on his _bouwerie_.
+
+When Stuyvesant reached the country over which he was to rule, it was
+noted by the colonists that his bearing was that of a prince.  "I shall
+be as a father over his children," he told the burghers of New
+Amsterdam, and in this patriarchal capacity he kept the people standing
+with their heads uncovered for more than an hour, while he wore his
+hat.  How he bore out this first impression we may gather from _The
+Representation of New Netherland_, an arraignment of the Director,
+drawn up and solemnly attested in 1650 by eleven responsible burghers
+headed by Adrian Van der Donck, and supplemented by much detailed
+evidence.  The witnesses express the earnest wish that Stuyvesant's
+administration were at an end, for they have suffered from it and know
+themselves powerless.  Whoever opposes the Director "hath as much as
+the sun and moon against him."  In the council he writes an opinion
+covering several pages and then adds orally: "This is my opinion.  If
+any one have aught to object to it, let him express it!"  If any one
+ventures to make any objection, his Honor flies into a passion and
+rails in language better fitted to the fish-market than to the
+council-hall.
+
+{69}
+
+When two burghers, Kuyter and Melyn, who had been leaders of the
+opposition to Kieft, petitioned Stuyvesant to investigate his conduct,
+Stuyvesant supported his predecessor on the ground that one Director
+should uphold another.  At Kieft's instigation he even prosecuted and
+convicted Kuyter and Melyn for seditious attack on the government.
+When Melyn asked for grace till his case could be presented in the
+Fatherland, he was threatened, according to his own testimony, in
+language like this: "If I knew, Melyn, that you would divulge our
+sentence [that of fine and banishment] or bring it before Their High
+Mightinesses, I would cause you to be hanged at once on the highest
+tree in New Netherland."  In another case the Director said: "It may
+during my administration be contemplated to appeal; but if anyone
+should do it, I will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to
+Holland and let him appeal in that way."
+
+An answer to this arraignment by the burghers of New Netherland was
+written by Van Tienhoven, who was sent over to the Netherlands to
+defend Stuyvesant; but its value is impaired by the fact that he was
+_schout fiscaal_ and interested in the acquittal of Stuyvesant, whose
+tool he was, {70} and also by the fact that he was the subject of
+bitter attack in the _Representation_ by Adrian Van der Donck, who
+accused Van Tienhoven of continually shifting from one side to another
+and asserted that he was notoriously profligate and untrustworthy.  One
+passage in his reply amounted to a confession.  Who, he asks, are they
+who have complained about the haughtiness of the Director, and he
+answers that they are "such as seek to live without law or rule."  "No
+one," he goes on to say, "can prove that Director Stuyvesant has used
+foul language to or railed at as clowns any respectable persons who
+have treated him decently.  It may be that some profligate person has
+given the Director, _if he has used any bad words to him_, cause to do
+so."
+
+It has been the fashion in popular histories to allude to Stuyvesant as
+a doughty knight of somewhat choleric temper, "a valiant, weather
+beaten, leathern-sided, lion-hearted, generous-spirited, old governor";
+but I do not so read his history.  I find him a brutal tyrant, as we
+have seen in the affair of Kieft _versus_ Melyn; a narrow-minded bigot,
+as we shall see later in his dealing with the Quakers at Flushing; a
+bully when his victims were completely in his power; and a loser {71}
+in any quarrel when he was met with blustering comparable to his own.
+
+In support of the last indictment let us take his conduct in a conflict
+with the authorities at Rensselaerswyck.  In 1646 Stuyvesant had
+ordered that no building should be erected within cannon-shot of Fort
+Orange.  The superintendent of the settlement denied Stuyvesant's right
+to give such an order and pointed to the fact that his trading-house
+had been for a long time on the border of the fort.  To the claim that
+a clear space was necessary to the fort's efficiency, Van
+Slichtenhorst, Van Rensselaer's agent, replied that he had spent more
+than six months in the colony and had never seen a single person
+carrying a sword, musket, or pike, nor had he heard a drum-beat except
+on the occasion of a visit from the Director and his soldiers in the
+summer.  Stuyvesant rejoined by sending soldiers and sailors to tear
+down the house which Van Slichtenhorst was building near Fort Orange,
+and the commissary was ordered to arrest the builder if he resisted;
+but the commissary wrote that it would be impossible to carry out the
+order, as the settlers at Rensselaerswyck, reënforced by the Indians,
+outnumbered his troops.  Stuyvesant then recalled his soldiers and
+ordered Van {72} Slichtenhorst to appear before him, which the agent
+refused to do.
+
+In 1652 Stuyvesant ordered Dyckman, then in command at Fort Orange, not
+to allow any one to build a house near the fort or to remain in any
+house already built.  In spite of proclamations and other bluster this
+order proved fruitless and on April 1, 1653, Stuyvesant came in person
+to Fort Orange and sent a sergeant to lower the patroon's flag.  The
+agent refusing to strike the patroon's colors, the soldiers entered,
+lowered the flag, and discharged their guns.  Stuyvesant declared that
+the region staked out by posts should be known as Beverwyck and
+instituted a court there.  Van Slichtenhorst tore down the
+proclamation, whereupon Stuyvesant ordered him to be imprisoned in the
+fort.  Later the Director transported the agent under guard to New
+Amsterdam.
+
+Stuyvesant's arbitrary character also appears in his overriding of the
+measure of local self-government decreed by the States-General in 1653.
+Van der Donck and his fellows had asked three things of their High
+Mightinesses, the States-General: first, that they take over the
+government of New Netherland; second, that they establish a better city
+government in New Amsterdam; and third, {73} that they clearly define
+the boundaries of New Netherland.  The first of these requests, owing
+to the deeply intrenched interest of the West India Company, could not
+be granted, the last still less.  But the States-General urged that
+municipal rights should be given to New Amsterdam, and in 1652 the
+Company yielded.  The charter limited the number of _schepens_ or
+aldermen to five and the number of burgomasters to two, and also
+ordained that they as well as the _schout_ should be elected by the
+citizens; but Stuyvesant ignored this provision and proceeded to
+appoint men of his own choosing.  The Stone Tavern built by Kieft at
+the head of Coenties Slip was set apart as a _Stadt-Huys_, or City
+Hall, and here Stuyvesant's appointees, supposed to represent the
+popular will, held their meetings.  It was something that they did hold
+meetings and nominally at least in the interest of the people.  Another
+concession followed.  In 1658 Stuyvesant yielded so far to the
+principles of popular government as to concede to the _schepens_ and
+burgomasters of New Amsterdam the right to nominate double the number
+of candidates for office, from whom the Director was to make a choice.
+
+In 1655, during the absence of Stuyvesant on the South River, the
+Indians around Manhattan {74} appeared with a fleet of sixty-four war
+canoes, attacked and looted New Amsterdam, then crossed to Hoboken and
+continued their bloody work in Pavonia and on Staten Island.  In three
+days a hundred men, women, and children were slain, and a hundred and
+fifty-two were taken captive, and the damage to property was estimated
+at two hundred thousand guilders--approximately eighty thousand
+dollars.  As usual the Dutch had been the aggressors, for Van Dyck,
+formerly _schout fiscaal_, had shot and killed an old Indian woman who
+was picking peaches in his orchard.
+
+It must be set down to Stuyvesant's credit that on his return he acted
+toward the Indians in a manner that was kind and conciliating, and at
+the same time provided against a repetition of the recent disaster by
+erecting blockhouses at various points and by concentrating the
+settlers for mutual defense.  By this policy of mingled diplomacy and
+preparation against attack Stuyvesant preserved peace for a period of
+three years.  But trouble with the Indians continued to disturb the
+colonies on the river and centered at Esopus, where slaughters of both
+white and red men occurred.  Eight white men were burned at the stake
+in revenge for shots fired by Dutch soldiers, and an Indian chief was
+{75} killed with his own tomahawk.  In 1660 a treaty of peace was
+framed; but three years later we find the two races again embroiled.
+Thus Indian wars continued down to the close of Dutch rule.
+
+In spite of these troubles in the more outlying districts, New
+Amsterdam continued to grow and thrive.  In Stuyvesant's time the
+thoroughfares of New Amsterdam were laid out as streets and were named.
+The line of houses facing the fort on the eastern side was called the
+Marckveldt, or Marketfield, taking its name from the green opposite,
+which had been the site of the city market.  De Heere Straat, the
+principal street, ran north from the fort through the gate at the city
+wall.  De Hoogh Straat ran parallel with the East River from the city
+bridge to the water gate and on its line stood the _Stadt-Huys_.  'T
+Water ran in a semi-circular line from the point of the island and was
+bordered by the East River.  De Brouwer Straat took its name from the
+breweries situated on it and was probably the first street in the town
+to be regulated and paved.  De Brugh Straat, as the name implies, led
+to the bridge crossing.  De Heere Graft, the principal canal, was a
+creek running deep into the island from the East River and protected
+{76} by a siding of boards.  An official was appointed for the care of
+this canal with orders to see "that the newly made _graft_ was kept in
+order, that no filth was cast into it, and that the boats, canoes, and
+other vessels were laid in order."
+
+The new city was by this time thoroughly cosmopolitan.  One traveler
+speaks of the use of eighteen different languages, and the forms of
+faith were as varied as the tongues spoken.  Seven or eight large ships
+came every year from Amsterdam.  The Director occupied a fine house on
+the point of the island.  On the east side of the town stood the
+_Stadt-Huys_ protected by a half-moon of stone mounted with three small
+brass cannon.  In the fort stood the Governor's house, the church, the
+barracks, the house for munitions, and the long-armed windmills.
+Everything was prospering except the foundation on which all depended.
+There was no adequate defense for all this property.  Here we must
+acquit Stuyvesant from responsibility, since again and again he had
+warned the Company against the weakness of the colony; but they would
+not heed the warnings, and the consequences which might have been
+averted suddenly overtook the Dutch possessions.
+
+The war which broke out in 1652 between {77} England and the
+Netherlands, once leagued against Catholic Spain but now parted by
+commercial rivalries, found an immediate echo on the shores of the
+Hudson.  With feverish haste the inhabitants of New Amsterdam began to
+fortify.  Across the island at the northern limit of the town, on the
+line of what is now Wall Street, they built a wall with stout palisades
+backed by earthworks.  They hastily repaired the fort, organized the
+citizens as far as possible to resist attack, and also strengthened
+Fort Orange.  The New England Colonies likewise began warlike
+preparations; but, perhaps owing to the prudence of Stuyvesant in
+accepting the Treaty of Hartford, peace between the Dutch and English
+in the New World continued for the present, though on precarious terms;
+and, the immediate threat of danger being removed by the treaty between
+England and Holland in 1654, the New Netherlander relaxed their
+vigilance and curtailed the expense of fortifications.
+
+Meanwhile Stuyvesant had alienated popular sympathy and lessened united
+support by his treatment of a convention of delegates from New
+Amsterdam, Flushing, Breuckelen, Hempstead, Amersfort, Middleburgh,
+Flatbush, and Gravesend who had gathered to consider the defense and
+{78} welfare of the colonies.  The English of the Long Island towns
+were the prime movers in this significant gathering.  There is an
+unmistakable English flavor in the contention of _The Humble
+Remonstrance_ adopted by the Convention, that "'tis contrary to the
+first intentions and genuine principles of every well regulated
+government, that one or more men should arrogate to themselves the
+exclusive power to dispose, at will, of the life and property of any
+individual."  As a people "not conquered or subjugated, but settled
+here on a mutual covenant and contract entered into with the Lord
+Patroons, with the consent of the Natives," they protested against the
+enactment of laws and the appointment of magistrates without their
+consent or that of their representatives.
+
+Stuyvesant replied with his usual bigotry and in a rage at being
+contradicted.  He asserted that there was little wisdom to be expected
+from popular election when naturally "each would vote for one of his
+own stamp, the thief for a thief, the rogue, the tippler and the
+smuggler for his brother in iniquity, so that he may enjoy more
+latitude in vice and fraud."  Finally Stuyvesant ordered the delegates
+to disperse, declaring: "We derive our authority from God and the
+Company, not from a {79} few ignorant subjects, and we alone can call
+the inhabitants together."
+
+With popular support thus alienated and with appeals for financial and
+military aid from the States-General and the West India Company denied
+or ignored, the end of New Netherland was clearly in sight.  In 1663
+Stuyvesant wrote to the Company begging them to send him
+reënforcements.  "Otherwise," he said, "it is wholly out of our power
+to keep the sinking ship afloat any longer."
+
+This year was full of omens.  The valley of the Hudson was shaken by an
+earthquake followed by an overflow of the river, which ruined the
+crops.  Smallpox visited the colony, and on top of all these calamities
+came the appalling Indian massacre at Esopus.  The following year,
+1664, brought the arrival of the English fleet, the declaration of war,
+and the surrender of the Dutch Province.  For many years the English
+had protested against the Dutch claims to the territory on the North
+and South rivers.  Their navigators had tried to contest the trade in
+furs, and their Government at home had interfered with vessels sailing
+to and from New Amsterdam.  Now at length Charles II was ready to
+appropriate the Dutch possessions.  He did not {80} trouble himself
+with questions of international law, still less with international
+ethics; but, armed with the flimsy pretense that Cabot's visit
+established England's claim to the territory, he stealthily made
+preparations to seize the defenseless colony on the river which had
+begun to be known as the Hudson.  Five hundred veteran troops were
+embarked on four ships, under command of Colonel Richard Nicolls, and
+sailed on their expedition of conquest.  Stuyvesant's suspicions,
+aroused by rumors of invasion, were so far lulled by dispatches from
+Holland that he allowed several ships at New Amsterdam to sail for
+Curaçao ladened with provisions, while he himself journeyed to
+Rensselaerswyck to quell an Indian outbreak.  While he was occupied in
+this task, a messenger arrived to inform him that the English fleet was
+hourly expected in the harbor of New Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant made haste
+down the river; but on the day after he arrived at Manhattan Island, he
+saw ships flying the flag of England in the lower harbor, where they
+anchored below the Narrows.  Colonel Nicolls demanded the surrender of
+the "towns situate on the island commonly known by the name of
+Manhattoes, with all the forts thereunto belonging."
+
+{81}
+
+Although the case of New Amsterdam was now hopeless, Stuyvesant yet
+strove for delay.  He sent a deputation to Nicolls to carry on a
+parley; but Nicolls was firm.  "When may we visit you again?" the
+deputation asked.  Nicolls replied with grim humor that he would speak
+with them at Manhattan.  "Friends are welcome there," answered
+Stuyvesant's representative diplomatically; but Nicolls told them
+bluntly that he was coming with ships and soldiers.  "Hoist a white
+flag at the fort," he said, "and I may consider your proposals."
+
+Colonel Nicolls was as good as his word and, to the consternation of
+the dwellers in New Amsterdam, the fleet of English frigates, under
+full sail and with all guns loaded, appeared before the walls of the
+useless old Fort Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant stood on one of the angles of
+the fort and the gunners with lighted matches awaited his command to
+fire.  The people entreated him to yield.  "Resistance is not
+soldiership," said one of them.  "It is sheer madness."  Stuyvesant,
+who with all his faults was a brave soldier, felt to the quick the
+humiliation; but he saw also that resistance meant only useless
+bloodshed.  At last he submitted, and the English vessels sailed on
+their way unmolested, {82} while Stuyvesant groaned, "I would much
+rather be carried to my grave."
+
+Without firing a shot the English thus took possession of the rich
+country which the States-General had not thought worth defending, and
+New Netherland became New York.
+
+
+
+[1] Van Twiller's advocate, W. E. Griffis, quotes the Nijkerk records
+in proof that Van Twiller was born on May 22, 1606, which would fix his
+age at twenty-seven when he was sent out to the colony.  The editor of
+the Van Rensselaer-Bowier manuscript states that Kiliaen Van Rensselaer
+was born in 1580, that his sister, Maria, married Richard, or Ryckaert,
+Van Twiller and that the Wouter of our chronicles was their son and
+therefore Van Rensselaer's nephew.  We are the more inclined to accept
+the year 1606 as the true date of Van Twiller's birth because the year
+1580, previously accepted by historians, would have been the same as
+that of the birth of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer himself, and because,
+according to the author of the _Story of New Netherland_, Maria Van
+Rensselaer was betrothed in 1605.  Otherwise we should find it almost
+beyond credence that a youth of twenty-seven should have been so
+suddenly promoted from the counting-house at Amsterdam to the
+responsible post of Director of New Netherland.
+
+
+
+
+{83}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS
+
+Because the Netherlander were not, like the New Englanders, fugitives
+from persecution at the hands of their fellow-countrymen, the Dutch
+colonization in America is often spoken of as a purely commercial
+venture; but in reality the founding of New Netherland marked a
+momentous epoch in the struggle for the freedom of conscience.
+Established between the long contest with the Inquisition in Spain and
+the Thirty Years' War for religious liberty in Germany, this plantation
+along the Hudson offered protection in America to those rights of free
+conscience for which so much blood had been shed and so much treasure
+spent in Europe.
+
+The Dutch colonists were deeply religious, with no more bigotry than
+was inseparable from the ideas of the seventeenth century.  They were
+determined to uphold the right to worship God in {84} their own way;
+and to say that their own way of worship was as dear to them as their
+beliefs is not strikingly to differentiate them from the rest of
+mankind.  They brought with them from the home country a tenacious
+reverence for their fathers' method of worship and for the Calvinistic
+polity of the Dutch Reformed Church.  They looked with awe upon the
+_synod_, the final tribunal in Holland for ecclesiastical disputes.
+They regarded with respect the _classis_, composed of ministers and
+elders in a certain district; but their hearts went out in a special
+affection to the _consistory_, which was made up of the ministers and
+elders of the single local _kerk_.  This at least they could reproduce
+in the crude conditions under which they labored, and it seemed a link
+with the home which they had left so far behind them.
+
+They had no intention, however, of forcing this church discipline on
+those who could not conscientiously accept it.  The devout wish of
+William the Silent that all his countrymen might dwell together in
+amity regardless of religious differences was fulfilled among the early
+settlers in New Netherland.  Their reputation for tolerance was spread
+abroad early in the history of the colony, and Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Presbyterians, {85} Moravians, and Anabaptists lived unmolested in New
+Netherland till the coming of Director Peter Stuyvesant in 1647.
+
+The religious tyranny which marked Stuyvesant's rule must be set down
+to his personal discredit, for almost every instance of persecution was
+met by protest from the settlers themselves, including his
+coreligionists.  He deported to Holland a Lutheran preacher; he revived
+and enforced a dormant rule of the West India Company which forbade the
+establishment of any church other than the Dutch Reformed; and he
+imprisoned parents who refused to have their children baptized in that
+faith.  But it was in his dealings with the Quakers that his bigotry
+showed itself in its most despotic form.  Robert Hodgson, a young
+Quaker, was arrested in Hempstead, Long Island, and was brought to New
+Amsterdam.  After he had been kept in prison for several days, the
+magistrate condemned him either to pay a fine of a hundred guilders or
+to work with a wheelbarrow for two years in company with negroes.  He
+declined to do either.  After two or three days he was whipped on his
+bare back and warned that the punishment would be repeated if he
+persisted in his obstinacy.  This treatment is recorded by the {86}
+Domines Megapolensis and Drisius in a letter to the _classis_ of
+Amsterdam, not only without protest but with every sign of approbation.
+Yet in the end public opinion made itself felt and Mrs. Bayard,
+Stuyvesant's sister (or sister-in-law, as some authorities say)
+procured the release of his victim.
+
+In another case, a resident of Flushing ventured to hold Quaker
+meetings at his home.  He was sentenced to pay a fine or submit to be
+flogged and banished; but the town officers refused to carry out the
+decree.  A letter, signed by a number of prominent townsfolk of
+Flushing, declared that the law of love, peace, and liberty was the
+true glory of Holland, that they desired not to offend one of Christ's
+little ones under whatever name he appeared, whether Presbyterian,
+Independent, Baptist, or Quaker.  "Should any of these people come in
+love among us therefore," said they, "we cannot in conscience lay
+violent hands upon them."  This letter immediately brought down upon
+the writers the despotic rage of Stuyvesant.  The sheriff of Flushing
+was cashiered and fined; the town clerk was imprisoned; and penalties
+of varying degree were imposed on all the signers.
+
+When accounts of Stuyvesant's proceedings {87} reached Amsterdam,
+however, he received from the Chamber a letter of stinging rebuke,
+informing him that "the consciences of men ought to be free and
+unshackled, so long as they continue moderate, inoffensive, and not
+hostile to government."  The Chamber, after reminding the Director that
+toleration in old Amsterdam had brought the oppressed and persecuted of
+all countries to that city as to an asylum, recommended Stuyvesant to
+follow in the same course.  Herewith ended the brief period of
+religious persecution in New Netherland.
+
+The amiable Domine Megapolensis who acquiesced in these persecutions
+came over to the colony of Rensselaerswyck in 1642 in the service of
+Kiliaen Van Rensselaer.  He was to have a salary of forty guilders per
+month and a fit dwelling that was to be provided for him.  So the
+"Reverend, Pious, and learned Dr. Johannes Megapolensis, junior," set
+sail for America "to proclaim Christ to Christians and heathens in such
+distant lands."  His name, by the way, like that of Erasmus,
+Melanchthon, Æcolampadius, Dryander, and other worthies of the
+Reformation, was a classical form of the homely Dutch patronymic to
+which he had been born.
+
+Apparently the Reverend Johannes was more {88} successful in his
+mission to the heathen than in that to the Christians, for he learned
+the Mohawk language, wrote a valuable account of the tribe, and
+understood them better than he understood the Lutherans and Quakers of
+New Amsterdam and Long Island.  In 1664 when Stuyvesant was in the mood
+to fire on the British fleet and take the consequences, Megapolensis,
+so tradition runs, dissuaded him with the argument: "Of what avail are
+our poor guns against that broadside of more than sixty?  It is wrong
+to shed innocent blood."  One wonders if the _domine_ had any room in
+his mind for thoughts of the useless sufferings which had been
+inflicted on Hodgson and Townsend and the Lutheran preachers while he
+stood by consenting.
+
+When Megapolensis arrived at New Netherland he found the Reverend
+Everardus Bogardus already installed as minister of the Gospel at Fort
+Amsterdam, his predecessor Michaelius having returned to Holland.  From
+the beginning Bogardus proved a thorn in the side of the Government.
+He came to blows with Van Twiller and wrote a letter to the Director in
+which he called him a child of the Devil, a villain whose bucks were
+better than he, to whom he should give such a {89} shake from the
+pulpit the following Sabbath as would make him shudder.
+
+The difficulties which Bogardus had with Van Twiller, however, were as
+the breath of May zephyrs compared to his stormy quarrels with Kieft.
+This Director had taken Bogardus to task for having gone into the
+pulpit intoxicated, and had also accused him of defending the greatest
+criminals in the country and of writing in their defense.  The fighting
+parson promptly countered on this attack.  "What," he asked from the
+pulpit, "are the great men of the country but receptacles of wrath,
+fountains of woe and trouble?  Nothing is thought of but to plunder
+other people's property--to dismiss--to banish--to transport to
+Holland."  Kieft, realizing that he had raised up a fighter more
+unsparing than himself and, unable to endure these harangues from the
+pulpit, ceased to attend the _kerk_; but the warlike _domine_ continued
+to belabor him till Kieft prepared an indictment, beginning: "Whereas
+your conduct stirs the people to mutiny and rebellion when they are
+already too much divided, causes schisms and abuses in the church, and
+makes us a scorn and a laughing stock to our neighbors, all which
+cannot be tolerated in a country where justice is {90} maintained,
+therefore our sacred duty imperatively requires us to prosecute you in
+a court of justice."  The quarrel was never fought to a finish but was
+allowed to die out, and the episode ended without credit to either
+party.
+
+Like everything else in the colony of New Netherland, the original
+meeting-places for worship were of the simplest type.  Domine
+Megapolensis held services in his own house, and Bogardus conducted
+worship in the upper part of the horse-mill at Fort Amsterdam, where
+before his arrival Sebastian Jansen Krol and Jan Huyck had read from
+the Scriptures on Sunday.  These men had been appointed
+_ziekentroosters_ or _krankenbesoeckers_ (_i.e._, consolers of the
+sick), whose business it was, in addition to their consolatory
+functions, to hold Sunday services in the absence of a regularly
+ordained clergyman.  In time these rude gathering-places gave way to
+buildings of wood or stone, modeled, as one would expect, on similar
+buildings in the old country, with a pulpit built high above the
+congregation, perhaps with intent to emphasize the authority of the
+church.
+
+The clerk, or _voorleser_, standing in the baptistery below the pulpit,
+opened the services by reading from the Bible and leading in the
+singing of {91} a psalm.  The _domine_, who had stood in silent prayer
+during the psalm, afterward entered the pulpit, and then laid out his
+text and its connection with the sermon to follow--a part of the
+service known as the _exordium remotum_.  During this address the
+deacons stood facing the pulpit, alms-bag in hand.  The deacons
+collected the contribution by thrusting in front of each row of seats
+the _kerk sacjes_ of cloth or velvet suspended from the end of a long
+pole.  Sometimes a bell hung at the bottom of the bag to call the
+attention of the slothful or the niggardly to the contribution, and
+while the bags were passed the _domine_ was wont to dwell upon the
+necessities of the poor and to invoke blessings upon those who gave
+liberally to their support.  When the sermon commenced, the
+_voorsinger_ turned the hour-glass which marked the length of the
+discourse.  The sermon ended, the _voorleser_ rose and, with the aid of
+a long rod cleft in the end, handed to the _domine_ in the pulpit the
+requests for prayers or thanksgiving offered by members of the
+congregation.  When these had been read aloud, another psalm was sung
+and the people then filed out in an orderly procession.
+
+The principle of competitive giving for the church was evidently well
+understood in New {92} Amsterdam.  De Vries has left us an account of a
+conversation held in 1642 between himself and Kieft in which he told
+the Director that there was great need of a church, that it was a
+scandal when the English came that they should see only a mean barn for
+public worship, that the first thing built in New England after the
+dwellings was a church, and that there was the less excuse for the
+Dutch as they had fine wood, good stone, and lime made from oyster
+shells, close at hand.  The Director admitted the justice of the plea
+but asked who would undertake the work.  "Those who love the Reformed
+Religion," De Vries answered.  Kieft replied adroitly that De Vries
+must be one of them, as he had proposed the plan, and that he should
+give a hundred guilders.  De Vries craftily observed that Kieft as
+commander must be the first giver.  Kieft bethought himself that he
+could use several thousand guilders from the Company's funds.  Not only
+was he as good as his word, but later he contrived to extort private
+subscriptions on the occasion of the marriage of Bogardus's
+step-daughter.  As usual when the _domine_ was present, the wine flowed
+freely.  "The Director thought this a good time for his purpose, and
+set to work after the fourth or fifth drink; and he himself {93}
+setting a liberal example, let the wedding-guests sign whatever they
+were disposed to give towards the church.  Each, then, with a light
+head, subscribed away at a handsome rate, one competing with the other;
+and although some heartily repented it when their senses came back,
+they were obliged nevertheless to pay."
+
+In view of this story it was perhaps a fine irony which inspired the
+inscription placed on the church when it was finished: "Ao. Do.
+MDCXLII.  W. Kieft Dr. Gr. _Heeft de Gemeente desen Tempel doen
+Bouwen_," _i.e._, "William Kieft, the Director-General, has caused the
+congregation to build this church."  The correct interpretation,
+however, probably read: "William Kieft being Director-General, the
+congregation has caused this church to be built."[1]
+
+Evidently religion prospered better than education in the colony, for
+the same lively witness who reports the Bogardus affair and the
+generosity stimulated by the flowing wine says also: "The bowl has been
+passed around a long time for a common school which has been built with
+words, for as yet the first stone is not laid; some materials only have
+been provided.  However the money {94} given for the purpose has all
+disappeared and is mostly spent, so that it falls somewhat short; and
+nothing permanent has as yet been effected for this purpose."
+
+The first schoolmaster sent to New Netherland arrived in 1633 at the
+same time as Bogardus, and represented the cause of education even less
+creditably than did the bibulous _domine_ that of religion.  Adam
+Roelantsen was twenty-seven years old when he took up his duties as
+instructor of youth in the colony, and he was as precious a scoundrel
+as ever was set to teach the young.  He eked out his slender income in
+the early days by taking in washing or by establishing a bleachery,
+which must be noted as one of the most creditable items in his
+scandalous career.  He was constantly before the local courts of New
+Amsterdam, sometimes as plaintiff, sometimes as defendant, and finally
+he appeared as a malefactor charged with so grave an offense that the
+court declared that, as such deeds could not be tolerated, "therefore
+we condemn the said Roelantsen to be brought to the place of execution
+and there flogged and banished forever out of this country."
+Apparently, on the plea of having four motherless children, he escaped
+the infliction of punishment and continued alternately {95} to amuse
+and to outrage the respectable burghers of New Amsterdam.  He was
+succeeded in order by Jan Stevensen, Jan Cornelissen, William Verstius,
+sometimes written Vestens, Johannes Morice de la Montagne, Harmanus Van
+Hoboocken, and Evert Pietersen.  In addition to these there were two
+teachers of a Latin school and several unofficial instructors.
+
+The duties of these early teachers were by no means light, especially
+in proportion to their scanty wage.  We learn in one case that school
+began at eight in the morning and lasted until eleven, when there was a
+two-hour recess, after which it began again at one and closed at four
+o'clock.  It was the duty of the teacher to instruct the children in
+the catechism and common prayer.  The teacher was ordered to appear at
+the church on Wednesdays with the children entrusted to his care, to
+examine his scholars "in the presence of the Reverend Ministers and
+Elders who may be present, what they in the course of the week, do
+remember of the Christian commands and catechism, and what progress
+they have made; after which the children shall be allowed a decent
+recreation."
+
+Besides his duties as instructor, the official schoolmaster was pledged
+"to promote religious {96} worship, to read a portion of the word of
+God to the people, to endeavor, as much as possible to bring them up in
+the ways of the Lord, to console them in their sickness, and to conduct
+himself with all diligence and fidelity in his calling, so as to give
+others a good example as becometh a devout, pious and worthy consoler
+of the sick, church-clerk, Precenter and School master."
+
+Throughout the history of New Netherland we find the church and school
+closely knit together.  Frequently the same building served for secular
+instruction on week-days and for religious service on Sundays.  In a
+letter written by Van Curler to his patroon, he says: "As for the
+Church it is not yet contracted for, nor even begun....  That which I
+intend to build this summer in the pine grove (or green wood) will be
+thirty-four feet long by nineteen wide.  It will be large enough for
+the first three or four years to preach in and can afterwards always
+serve for the residence of the sexton or for a school."
+
+How small were the assemblies of the faithful in the early days we may
+gather from a letter of Michaelius, the first _domine_ of the colony,
+incidentally also one of the most lovable and spiritually minded of
+these men.  In his account of the {97} condition of the church at
+Manhattan he observes that at the first communion fifty were present.
+The number of Walloons and French-speaking settlers was so small that
+the _domine_ did not think it worth while to hold a special service for
+them, but once in four months he contented himself with administering
+the communion and preaching a sermon in French.  This discourse he
+found it necessary to commit to writing, as he could not trust himself
+to speak extemporaneously in that language.  There is something
+beautiful and pathetic in the picture of this little group of half a
+hundred settlers in the wilderness, gathered in the upper room of the
+grist-mill, surrounded by the sacks of grain, and drinking from the
+_avondmaalsbeker_, or communion cup, while the rafters echoed to the
+solemn sounds of the liturgy which had been familiar in their old homes
+across the sea.
+
+There is the true ring of a devout and simple piety in all the
+utterances of the settlers on the subject of their church.  The
+pioneers were ready to spend and be spent in its service and they gave
+freely out of their scanty resources for its support.  In the matter of
+education their enthusiasm, as we have seen, was far less glowing, and
+the reasons for this coolness are a subject for curious {98}
+consideration.  The Dutch in Europe were a highly cultivated people,
+devoted to learning and reverencing the printed book.  Why then were
+their countrymen in the New World willing to leave the education of
+their children in the hands of inferior teachers and to delay so long
+the building of suitable schoolhouses?
+
+We must remember that the colonists in the early days were drawn from a
+very simple class.  Their church was important to them as a social
+center as well as a spiritual guide.  For this church they were willing
+to make any sacrifice; but that done, they must pause and consider the
+needs of their daily life.  Children old enough to attend school were
+old enough to lend a helping hand on the _bouwerie_, in the dairy, or
+by the side of the cradle.  Money if plentiful might well be spent on
+salaries and schoolhouses; but if scarce, it must be saved for bread
+and butter, clothing, warmth, and shelter.  In short, reading, writing,
+and figuring could wait; but souls must be saved first; and after that
+eating and drinking were matters of pressing urgency.  Fortunately,
+however, not all education is bound up in books, and, in the making of
+sturdy and efficient colonists, the rude training of hardships and
+privation when combined with a {99} first-hand knowledge of nature and
+of the essential industries provided a fair substitute for learning.
+
+On the other side of the picture we must consider what type of men
+would naturally be drawn to cross the sea and settle in the new colony
+as schoolmasters.  Many of the clergymen came urged by the same zeal
+for the conversion of the savages which fired John Eliot in New England
+and the Jesuit Fathers in the Canadian missions.  For the schoolmasters
+there was not this incentive, and they naturally looked upon the
+question of emigration as a business enterprise or a chance of
+professional advancement.  As a first consideration they must have
+realized that they were leaving a country where education and educators
+were held in high respect.  "There was hardly a Netherlander," says
+Motley, "man, woman or child, that could not read and write.  The
+school was the common property of the people, paid for among the
+municipal expenses in the cities as well as in the rural districts.
+There were not only common schools but classical schools.  In the
+burgher families it was rare to find boys who had not been taught Latin
+or girls unacquainted with French."  From this atmosphere of scholastic
+enthusiasm, from the opportunities of the libraries {100} and contact
+with the universities, the pedagogue was invited to turn to a rude
+settlement in the primeval forest, where the Bible, the catechism, and
+the concordance formed the greater part of the literary wealth at his
+disposal, and to take up the multiple duties of sexton, bell-ringer,
+precentor, schoolmaster, consoler of the sick, and general understudy
+for the _domine_.  In return for this he was to receive scanty wages in
+either cash or public esteem.
+
+What hardships were experienced by these early schoolmasters in New
+Netherland we may understand by reading the _Reverential Request_
+written by Harmanus Van Hoboocken to the burgomasters and _schepens_
+that he may be allowed the use of the hall and side-chamber of the
+_Stadt-Huys_ to accommodate his school and as a residence for his
+family, as he has no place to keep school in or to live in during the
+winter, for it is necessary that the rooms should be made warm, and
+that cannot be done in his own house.  The burgomasters and _schepens_
+replied that "whereas the room which petitioner asks for his use as a
+dwelling and schoolroom is out of repair and moreover is wanted for
+other uses it cannot be allowed to him.  But as the town youth are
+doing so uncommon well now, it is thought {101} proper to find a
+convenient place for their accommodation and for that purpose
+petitioner is granted one hundred guilders yearly."
+
+Can we wonder that New Netherland did not secure a particularly learned
+and distinguished type of pedagogue in the early days?  In 1658 the
+burgomasters and _schepens_ of New Amsterdam with a view to founding an
+academy petitioned the West India Company for a teacher of Latin, and
+Alexander Carolus Curtius was sent over to be the classical teacher in
+the new academy; but he was so disheartened by the smallness of his
+salary and by the roughness of the youthful burghers that he shortly
+returned to Holland, and his place was taken by Ægidius Luyck, who,
+though only twenty-two years old, established such discipline and
+taught so well that the reputation of the academy spread far and wide,
+and Dutch boys were no longer sent to New England to learn their
+classics.
+
+
+
+[1] Brodhead, _History of the State of New York_, vol. 1, p. 337 (note).
+
+
+
+
+{102}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BURGHERS
+
+In the earliest days of New Netherland there were no burgers because,
+as the name implies, burghers are town-dwellers, and for a number of
+years after the coming of the Dutch nothing worthy to be called a town
+existed in the colony.  In the middle of the seventeenth century a
+traveler wrote from New Netherland that there were only three towns on
+the Hudson--Fort Orange, Rondout, and New Amsterdam--and that the rest
+were mere villages or settlements.
+
+These centers were at first trading-posts, and it is as idle to judge
+of the manners, customs, and dress prevailing in them by those of
+Holland at the same epoch, as to judge San Francisco in the mining days
+of 1849 by Boston and New York at the same date.  These early traders
+and settlers brought with them the character and traditions of home;
+but their way of life was perforce modified by the {103} crude
+conditions into which they plunged.  The picturesque farmhouses of Long
+Island and the crow-gables of New Amsterdam were not built in a day.
+Savages must be subdued and land cleared and planted before the
+evolution of the dwelling could fairly begin.  Primitive community life
+lingered long even on Manhattan Island.  As late as 1649 the farmers
+petitioned for a free pasturage between their plantation of Schepmoes
+and the fence of the Great Bowerie Number One.  The City Hall Park
+region bounded by Broadway, Nassau, Ann, and Chambers Streets continued
+very late to be recognized as village commons where the cattle were
+pastured.  The cowherd drove the cows afield and home again at
+milking-time, and it was his business to sound his horn at every gate
+announcing the safe return of the cows.  Correspondingly in the morning
+the harsh summons called the cattle from every yard to join the
+procession toward the meadows.
+
+When Tienhoven, Stuyvesant's secretary, sent out information for the
+benefit of those planning to take up land in New Netherland, he
+suggested that those who had not means to build at first might shelter
+themselves by digging a pit six or seven feet deep as large as needed,
+covering the {104} floor and walls with timber and placing over it a
+roof of spars covered with bark or green sods.  Even with this rude
+housing he suggests planting at once a garden with all sorts of
+pot-herbs and maize, or Indian corn, which might serve as food for man
+and beast alike.  Naturally these pioneer conditions of living lasted
+longer in the farming region than at New Amsterdam, where as early as
+1640 we see simple but comfortable little houses clustered in the
+shelter of the fort, and gathered close about the stone tavern, the
+West India Company's stores, and the Church of St. Nicholas.  The
+gallows and pillory, in full view, seemed to serve notice that law and
+order had asserted themselves and that settlers might safely solidify
+their houses and holdings.
+
+In 1648 the building of wooden chimneys was forbidden, and roofs of
+reed were replaced with more solid and less inflammable material.  The
+constant threat of fire led to drastic regulations for the cleaning of
+chimneys.  It was ordered that "if anyone prove negligent he shall,
+whenever the Firewardens find the chimneys foul, forthwith without any
+contradiction, pay them a fine of three guilders for every flue found
+on examination to be dirty, to be expended for fire ladders, hooks and
+{105} buckets, which shall be procured and provided at the earliest and
+most convenient opportunity."
+
+The early settlers found much difficulty in enforcing public
+sanitation, for, in spite of the world-wide reputation of the Dutch for
+indoor cleanliness, we find the burghers in 1658 bitterly reproached
+for throwing their rubbish, filth, dead animals, and the like into the
+streets "to the great inconvenience of the community and dangers
+arising from it."  The burgomasters and _schepens_ ordained that all
+such refuse be brought to dumping-grounds near the City Hall and the
+gallows or to other designated places.  Failure to observe this rule
+was punishable by fines or severer penalties.
+
+As prosperity increased, all conditions of living improved.  Many ships
+from Holland brought loads of brick and tiles as ballast, and the
+houses began to assume the typical Dutch aspect.  They were still built
+chiefly of wood, but with a gable end of brick facing the street.  The
+steep roofs seldom had eave-troughs, at least in the early days, and
+mention is made in deeds of "free-drip."
+
+The house was supplied, as the chronicler tells us, with "an abundance
+of large doors and small windows on every floor, the date of its
+erection was curiously designated by iron figures on the front, {106}
+and on the top of the roof was perched a fierce little weather-cock to
+let the family into the important secret which way the wind blew."  The
+front doors were usually divided, as in the old houses in Holland, into
+an upper and lower half hung on heavy hinges.  The door opened with a
+latch, and bore a brass knocker wrought frequently in the device of an
+animal's head.
+
+Only on formal occasions was this door thrown open or the fore-room to
+which it gave access used, for the life of the family, as in all
+primitive communities, was centered in the kitchen.  Here in winter
+roared the great fires up the wide-throated chimneys.  Here children
+and negro servants gathered in groups and told stories of the old home
+and the new.  Here the women knit their stockings and here the burghers
+smoked when the day's work was done.  But the fore-room, or _voorhuis_,
+though seldom occupied, was dear to the soul of the vrouw of New
+Netherland.  Here stood all the treasures too valuable or too fragile
+for daily use: the least, or chest, stored with household linen, the
+cabinet filled with Delft plates from Holland, and generally the carved
+four-poster covered with feather beds of prime goose-feathers and hung
+with gay chintz.
+
+{107}
+
+A shrewd observer has said that luxury implies waste while comfort
+lives in thrift.  We are safe in assuming that comfort rather than
+luxury prevailed in New Netherland and that the highly colored pictures
+of elegant life on the shores of the Hudson represent a very late
+phase, when the Dutch influence still prevailed under English
+protection.  The earlier settlers were a far simpler people, whose
+floors were scrubbed and sanded instead of carpeted, who used
+hour-glasses instead of clocks, and who set their four-poster beds in
+the rooms where visitors were formally received.
+
+It was of course the "great burghers" who set the social as well as the
+official tone in New Amsterdam.[1]  It was they who owned the finest
+houses, {108} who imported tables and chests of ebony inlaid with
+ivory.  It was they whose wives were bravely fitted out with
+petticoats, over which an upper garment was looped to display the
+velvet, cloth, silk, or satin which marked the social position and
+material wealth of the wearer.  The burgher himself went clad,
+according to his wealth, in cloaks of cloth or velvet, embroidered or
+silk-lined; but he always wore wide boots and wide breeches and a coat
+adorned with an abundance of buttons, the whole topped by a
+broad-brimmed hat adorned with buckles and feathers and seldom removed
+in the house.  The dress of the farmers was simpler than that of the
+town-dwellers or burghers.  It consisted generally of wide breeches, a
+_hemdrok_ or shirt-coat made of wool or cotton, an overfrock called a
+_paltsrok_, a low flat collar, the usual wide-brimmed hat, and shoes of
+leather on Sundays, and of wood on week-days for work on the
+_bouwerie_.  The children of burghers and farmers alike were clad in
+miniature copies of the garb of their elders, doubtless in many cases
+wearing the same garments {109} made over by removing the outworn
+portions.  It was a question of warmth rather than fashion which
+confronted the settlers and their children.
+
+To those of us who believe that the state exists for the protection of
+the home and the home for the protection of the child, it is neither
+futile nor frivolous to consider at some length what life had to offer
+to the small colonists.  Little Sarah Rapaelje, "the first-born
+Christian daughter in New Netherland," was soon surrounded by a circle
+of boys and girls.  Cornelis Maasen and his wife came over in 1631, and
+their first child was born on the voyage.  Following this little
+Hendrick came Martin, Maas, Steyntje, and Tobias.  We have already
+noted the two little motherless daughters of Domine Michaelius who were
+so hard put to it for a nurse.  A little later came Domine Megapolensis
+with his children Hellegond, Dirrick, Jan, and Samuel, running from
+eight to fourteen years in age.  The patroon had directed that they be
+furnished with clothing "in such small and compact parcels as can be
+properly stowed away on the ship."
+
+With the era of permanent settlers in New Netherland, cradles came to
+be in demand.  In the region of New Amsterdam the familiar hooded
+variety was brought from Holland, while farther {110} up the river and
+especially among the poorer folk birch bark was fashioned into a
+sleeping-place for the babies.  For the older children trundle-beds
+fitting under the big four-posters of the elders and rolled out at
+night were much in use, since the difficulty of heating made economy of
+bedroom-space a necessity.  This _treke-bed_ and its protecting
+four-poster, however, probably came later than the built-in
+_sloep-bank_, little more than a bunk in the side of the wall concealed
+by a curtain and softened by thick feather-beds.
+
+However rude the sleeping-place of the babies, the old home lullabies
+soothed them to slumber.  Dearest and most familiar was the following:
+
+  Trip a trop a tronjes,
+  De varken in de boonjes,
+  De koejes in de klaver,
+  De paaden in de haver,
+  De eenjes in de water plas,
+  De kalver in de lang gras,
+  So goed myn klein poppetje was.
+
+Thus to pictures of pigs in the bean patch and cows in the clover,
+ducks in the water and calves in the meadow, the little ones fell
+peacefully to sleep, oblivious of the wild beasts and wilder men
+lurking in the primeval forests around the little {111} clearing where
+the pioneers were making a home for themselves and their children.
+
+When the babies' eyelids unclosed in the morning they opened on a busy
+scene, for whatever anxious vigils the father and mother might have
+kept through the night, toil began with the dawn.  The boys were set to
+gathering firewood and drawing water, while the _goede vrouw_ was
+busily preparing a substantial morning meal of suppawn and sausage
+before her husband began the day's work of loading beaver-skins or
+tilling the ground or hewing timber.  A pioneer life means hard work
+for children as well as for their elders, and in the early years there
+was little time for play on the part of the youthful New Netherlander.
+As prosperity advanced and as negro servants were introduced, the
+privileges of childhood were extended and we find accounts of their
+sliding on their _slees_ or sleds down the hills of Fort Orange and
+skating at New Amsterdam on the Collect Pond, which took its name from
+the Dutch _kalk_, or lime, and was so called from the heaps of
+oyster-shells accumulated by the Indians.  The skates were of the type
+used in Holland, very long with curves at the front and rear, and, when
+metal could not be obtained, formed of ox-bone.
+
+{112}
+
+With an appetite bred of out-of-door work and play, and a breakfast
+hour at five or six in the morning, the children were hungry for the
+homely and substantial dinner when it eventually appeared at early
+noon.  Whatever social visits were planned took place at the supper,
+which occurred between three o'clock and six.  The tea-table, the
+chronicler tells us,
+
+
+was crowned with a huge earthen dish, well stored with slices of fat
+pork and fried trout, cut up into morsels and swimming in gravy.  The
+company, being seated round the genial board and each furnished with a
+fork, evinced their dexterity in launching at the fattest pieces in
+this mighty dish in much the same manner as sailors harpoon porpoises
+at sea, or our Indians spear salmon in the lakes.
+
+Sometimes the table was graced with immense apple pies, or saucers full
+of preserved peaches or pears; but it was always sure to boast an
+enormous dish of balls of sweetened dough, fried in hog's fat and
+called doughnuts or _olykoeks_....  The tea was served out of a
+majestic Delft tea-pot ornamented with paintings of fat little Dutch
+shepherds and shepherdesses tending pigs, with boats sailing in the air
+and houses built in the clouds....  To sweeten the beverage a lump of
+sugar was laid beside each cup and the company alternately nibbled and
+sipped with great decorum.
+
+
+In the houses of the richer colonists, as prosperity advanced,
+shell-shaped silver boxes for sugar, called {113} "bite and stir"
+boxes, were set on the table and, according to one authority, the lumps
+of sugar were of the nature of toffy with molasses added to the sugar.
+
+The feast ended, the young folk went their homeward way lighted by the
+moon, or, late in the century, on dark nights by a lantern hung on a
+pole from every seventh house.  When the curfew rang from the belfry
+"eight o'clock," lights were put out and all was made fast for the
+night, while the children's minds were set at rest by the tramp of the
+_klopperman_, who shook his rattle at each door as he passed from house
+to house through the dark hours, assuring the burghers that all was
+well and that no marauders were about.
+
+If winter offered sports and pastimes, spring, summer, and autumn had
+each its own pleasures, fishing and clam digging, shooting and
+trapping, games with ball and slings, berry picking, and the gathering
+of peaches which fell so thickly that the very hogs refused them.  The
+market days in New Amsterdam offered a long procession of delights to
+the young colonists.  But merriest of all were the holidays which were
+observed in New Netherland after much the same fashion as in the old
+home.
+
+{114}
+
+I do not know how to account for the fact that while the struggle of
+the Dutch people with the Papacy had been as bitter as that of England
+and the throwing off of the yoke by the Dutch fully as decided, they
+still retained the holidays which the Puritans eschewed as dangerous
+remnants of superstition.  Perhaps it was on the principle of robbing
+Satan of his hoofs and horns but keeping his cheerful scarlet costume,
+or perhaps they thought, as Rowland Hill remarked, that "it was poor
+policy to leave all the good times to the Devil."  In any case it was
+all grist to the children's mill.
+
+On the 1st of January all was arranged for the greeting of the New
+Year.  Mighty bowls of punch were brewed, cordials prepared from
+long-cherished family recipes were brought out, and the women, in their
+best apparel, seated themselves in the seldom-used _ontvangkamer_,
+where wine was handed to their callers to be received with the wish of
+a "Happy New Year!"  While these stately ceremonies were in progress
+the young people amused themselves with turkey-shooting, sleigh-riding,
+skating, and dancing.
+
+After New Year's Day the most characteristic national and local holiday
+was _Pinkster_, coming in the seventh week after _Paasch_, or Easter,
+and {115} falling generally in late May or early June.  The orchards
+were then white with blossoms and the grass thick with dandelions and
+spring flowers.  Children set out early to gather boughs from the green
+woods.  These boughs they sprinkled with water and left over the doors
+of late sleepers that the sluggards might be drenched on opening the
+door.  At first all was innocent merriment, gathering of Pinkster
+flowers, and picnicking; but for some unexplained reason this festival
+was gradually relegated to the negroes.  Apple-jack was freely
+consumed, barbaric dances began, and fun so far degenerated into
+license that the white people and their children shunned the festivity.
+
+The _Kermis_, an Old World festival, was one of those early introduced
+at New Amsterdam.  It originated centuries before and had taken its
+name from the _kerk mis_ or church mass.  In the olden days it was
+celebrated with pomp and solemnity, but it early developed a more
+festive character.  Booths and stalls were erected for a market, and
+dances and processions were organized.  The first stroke of the clock
+at noon opened at the same moment the market and the first dance.  The
+last stroke saw white crosses nailed on all the bridges across the
+canal and on the market place.  It was {116} indeed a festive
+appearance that the market presented, with its double stalls filled
+with eggs and gherkins, its booths hung with dried fish, its
+_poffertjeskraam_ dispensing the tempting batter-cakes, and its
+_wafelkraamen_ offering the more costly and aristocratic waffles.  The
+youths and maidens were given full license to parade arm in arm along
+the streets singing "Hossen, hossen, hossen!" and making the town ring
+with their mirth and laughter.  The first _Kermis_ held at New
+Amsterdam was in October, 1659.  Booths were arranged on the parade
+ground, and barter and sale and merrymaking went on gaily for six
+weeks, to the unspeakable joy of the little Hendricks and Jans and
+Annetjes who wandered from booth to booth.
+
+But keen as the delight of the Dutch children may have been, there was
+in their minds the hope of even better things to come a few weeks
+later, at their own especial, particular, undisputed feast of St.
+Nicholas, the beloved Santa Claus, patron saint of children in general
+and of young Netherlanders in particular.  The 6th of December was the
+day dedicated to this genial benefactor, and on the eventful night a
+white sheet was spread on the floor.  Around this stood the children
+singing {117} songs of welcome, of which the most popular was the
+familiar
+
+  Saint Nicholaes, goed heilig man,
+  Trekt uw'besten tabbard aan,
+  En reist daamee naar Amsterdam,
+  Von Amsterdam naar Spanje.
+
+
+If the Saint would ride forth thus accoutered and if he would do what
+they asked of him, the children explained that they would be his good
+friends, as for that matter they always had been, and would serve him
+as long as they lived.  At last the fateful moment arrived.  A shower
+of sweets was hurled through the open door and amid the general
+scramble appeared the Saint in full vestments attended by a servant
+known as _Knecht Ruprecht_, and, after the Dutch settlements in
+America, a black man, who added much to the fascination and excitement
+of the occasion.  He held in one hand an open sack into which to put
+particularly ill-behaved children, while in the other hand he carried a
+bunch of rods, which he shook vigorously from time to time.  The good
+Saint meanwhile smilingly distributed to the children the parcels that
+he had brought, and, after these had all been opened and the presents
+had been sufficiently {118} admired, the children dropped into their
+trundle-beds to dream of all the glories of the day.
+
+When the dust-sheet and litter of wrappings had been removed, the older
+people gathered around a table spread with a white cloth and set out
+with chocolate punch and a dish of steaming hot chestnuts, while the
+inevitable pipe, ornamented with a head of St. Nicholas, made its
+appearance and the evening ended with dancing and song in honor of the
+"goed heilig man."
+
+Besides these stated anniversaries, home life had its more intimate
+festivities such as those celebrating the birth of a child, whose
+christening was made quite a solemn event.  Every church owned its
+_doop-becken_ or dipping bowl from which the water was taken to be
+dropped on the baby's head.  One beautiful bowl of silver dating from
+the year 1695 is still in existence in a New York church.  About a week
+after the birth of the little New Netherlander, the neighbors were
+summoned to rejoice with the proud father and mother.  In the early
+days of the colony and in the farming region, these gatherings were as
+rude and simple as they were under similar conditions in Holland.  The
+men were invited at noon to partake of a long pipe and a bottle of gin
+and bitters.  The women arrived {119} later to find spread for their
+entertainment dishes of rusks spread with aniseed and known as muisjes
+or mice, accompanied by eggnog.  As society grew more sophisticated in
+the colony, these simple gatherings gave place to the elaborate caudle
+parties, where the caudle was served in silver bowls hung about with
+spoons that each guest might ladle out for himself into a china cup the
+rich compound of lemons, raisins, and spiced wine.  It is evident that
+there was no lack of material good cheer among the colonists of New
+Netherland, and we may be sure that the boys and girls secured their
+share of substantials and dainties.  I fear they were rather rough and
+rude, these young burghers, for all the reports which we have of them
+show them always in conflict with law and order.  The boys especially,
+owing to deficient schooling facilities, were quite out of hand.  They
+set dogs upon the night watchman at New Amsterdam and shouted
+"Indians!" to frighten him in his rounds.  They tore the clothes from
+each other's backs in the schoolroom where the unfortunate master was
+striving to keep order.  In Fort Orange sliding became so fast and
+furious that the legislators were obliged to threaten the confiscation
+of the _slees_, and it was no doubt with a keen realization of the
+{120} behavior of their offspring that the inhabitants of Flatbush
+inserted these words in the articles of agreement with the new
+schoolmaster: "He shall demean himself patient and friendly towards the
+children and be active and attentive to their improvement."
+
+However little learning from books entered into the lives of the young
+colonists, much that was stimulating to the imagination came to them by
+word of mouth from the _wilden_, from the negroes, and from their
+elders as they sat about the blazing fire in the twilight, or
+_schemerlicht_.  Then the tales were told of phantom ships, of ghosts
+walking on the cliffs of the Highlands, and of the unlucky wight who
+found his death in the river where he had sworn to plunge in spite of
+the Devil, a spot which still bears the name of Spuyten Duyvil in
+memory of the rash boast.
+
+We may find it hard to reconcile the reputation of the Dutch as a
+phlegmatic and unimaginative people with the fact that they and their
+children endowed the Hudson with more glamour, more of the supernatural
+and of elfin lore than haunts any other waterway in America.  Does the
+explanation perhaps lie in the fact that the Dutch colonists, coming
+from a small country situated on a level {121} plain where the
+landscape was open as far as the eye could see, and left no room for
+mystery, were suddenly transplanted to a region shut in between
+overhanging cliffs where lightning flashed and thunder rolled from
+mountain wall to mountain wall, where thick forests obscured the view,
+and strange aboriginal savages hid in the underbrush?  Was it not the
+sense of wonder springing from this change in their accustomed
+surroundings that peopled the dim depths of the _hinterland_ with
+shapes of elf and goblin, of demons and super-human presences?
+
+At any rate the spirit of mystery lurked on the outskirts of the Dutch
+settlements, and the youthful burghers along the Hudson were fed full
+on tales, mostly of a terrifying nature, drawn from the folklore of
+three races, the Dutch, the Indians, and the Africans, with some few
+strands interwoven from local legend and tradition that had already
+grown up along the banks of the Hudson.
+
+It was a simple but by no means a pitiable life that was led in those
+days by burghers and farmers alike on the shores of this great river.
+Never does the esteemed Diedrich Knickerbocker come nearer the truth
+than when he says: "Happy would it have been for New Amsterdam could it
+always {122} have existed in this state of blissful ignorance and lowly
+simplicity; but alas! the days of childhood are too sweet to last.
+Cities, like men, grow out of them in time and are doomed alike to grow
+into the bustle, the cares and the miseries of the world."
+
+
+
+[1] In 1657 the burgomasters and _schepens_ were authorized to create a
+great _burger-recht_ the members of which should be in a sense a
+privileged class.  It was set forth that "whereas in all beginnings
+some thing or person must be the first so that afterward a distinction
+may take place, in like manner it must be in establishing the great and
+small citizenship."  For which reason the line of great burghers was
+drawn as follows: first, those who had been members of the supreme
+government; second, the burgomasters and _schepens_ of the city past
+and present; third, ministers of the gospel; fourth, officers of the
+militia from the staff to the ensign included.  The privileges of this
+caste were open to the male descendants of each class; but as they
+could be secured by others outside the sacred circle on payment of
+fifty guilders it is difficult to understand wherein the exclusiveness
+lay.  The small burghers were decreed to be those who had lived in the
+city for a year and six weeks and had kept fire and light, those born
+within the town, and those who had married the daughters of citizens.
+A payment of twenty guilders was exacted of all such.  This effort to
+promote class distinctions was soon abandoned.  In 1668 the distinction
+was abolished and every burgher, on payment of fifty guilders, was
+declared entitled to all burgher privileges.
+
+
+
+
+{123}
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND
+
+Machiavelli observed that to the wise ruler only two courses were
+open--to conciliate or to crush.  The history of the Dutch in America
+illustrates by application the truth of this view.  The settlers at
+Fort Orange conciliated the Indians and by this means not only lived in
+peace with the native tribes but established a bulwark between
+themselves and the French.  Under Stuyvesant the settlers at Fort
+Amsterdam took a determined stand against the Swedes and crushed their
+power in America.  Toward the English, however, the Dutch adopted a
+course of feeble aggression unbacked by force.  Because they met
+English encroachments with that most fatal of all policies, protest
+without action, the Empire of the United Netherlands in America was
+blotted from the map.
+
+The neighbors of the Dutch in America were the Indians, the French, the
+Swedes, and the English.  {124} The earliest, most intimate, and most
+continuous relations of the Dutch settlers were with the Indians.
+These people were divided into a number of independent tribes or
+nations.  The valley of the North River was shared by the Mohawks, who
+inhabited the region along the west side of its upper waters, and the
+Mohegans, or Mahicans, as the Dutch called them, who lived on either
+side of the banks of its lower reaches, with various smaller tribes
+scattered between.  The warlike Manhattans occupied the island called
+by their name, while the Mohegans raised their wigwams also on the
+eastern shore of the upper river opposite the Mohawks, and ranged over
+the land reaching to the Connecticut River.
+
+The Mohawks, with the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the
+Senecas, formed the famous Five Nations, generally known as the
+Iroquois.  Their territory was bounded on the north by Lake Ontario and
+the St. Lawrence River, on the east by Lake Champlain and the North
+River, on the west by Lake Erie and the Niagara River, and on the south
+by the region occupied by the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware tribes.  But
+their power extended far beyond these limits over dependent tribes.
+They were in a constant state of warfare {125} with their Algonquin
+neighbors on the north and east, who had been enabled to offer a
+formidable resistance by the use of firearms furnished them by the
+French.
+
+When, therefore, the white men appeared among the Mohawks, bearing
+these strange weapons which had been used with such dire effect against
+the Iroquois by the Algonquins, the Mohawks eagerly sought the
+friendship of the newcomers, hoping to secure the same power which had
+made their enemies triumphant.  The Dutch were intelligent enough to
+make instant use of these friendly sentiments on the part of the
+natives and hastened to make a treaty with the Iroquois, the Mohegans,
+and the Lenni Lenapes.
+
+This treaty, which is said to have been signed on the banks of Norman's
+Kill in the neighborhood of Albany, was concluded with all formalities.
+Each tribe was represented by its chief.  The calumet was smoked, the
+hatchet was buried, and everlasting friendship was sworn between the
+old inhabitants and the new.  By this agreement the Dutch secured not
+only peace with the neighboring Indians--a peace never broken in the
+north, whatever broils disturbed the lower waters of the river--but at
+the same time a guard between {126} them and any encroachments of the
+French and Algonquins in Canada.
+
+On the other boundaries and outskirts of their possessions, the Dutch
+were less fortunate.  They had always claimed all the territory from
+the South or Delaware River to the Fresh or Connecticut River, but
+their pretensions were early challenged by the English on the ground of
+prior discovery and by the Swedes on the argument of non-occupation of
+the land.
+
+The reports of the wealth to be acquired from the fur trade had quickly
+spread from Holland to Sweden, and as early as 1624, Gustavus Adolphus,
+encouraged by William Usselinx, a Dutchman and promoter of the Dutch
+West India Company, was planning expeditions to the New World.  But the
+entrance of Sweden into the Thirty Years' War in 1630 put a stop to
+this plan, and the funds were applied to war purposes.  Gustavus
+Adolphus fell at Lützen in 1632, leaving the kingdom to his little
+daughter Christina.  Her Government was conducted by Oxenstiern, a
+statesman trained in the great traditions of Gustavus, who felt with
+him that an American colony would be "the jewel of his kingdom."  An
+instrument for his purpose presented itself in Peter Minuit, who had
+returned {127} to Holland in 1632, smarting under his dismissal as
+Director of New Netherland.  He offered his services to Sweden for the
+establishment of a new colony, and they were accepted.  In the opening
+of 1638, he arrived in what is now Delaware Bay with two ships, the
+_Griffin_ and the _Key of Kalmar_.  From the Indians he bought large
+tracts of land in what is now the State of Delaware, and on the site of
+the present city of Wilmington he planted a fort named Christina.
+
+When news was brought to Kieft that Minuit had sailed up the South
+River and planned to raise the Swedish flag on a fort upon its shores,
+the Director promptly dispatched the following letter:
+
+
+I, Willem Kieft, Director-General of New Netherland, residing in the
+island of Manhattan, in the Fort Amsterdam, under the government of the
+High and Mighty States-General of the United Netherlands and the West
+India Company, privileged by the Senate Chamber in Amsterdam, make
+known to thee, Peter Minuit, who stylest thyself commander in the
+service of Her Majesty, the Queen of Sweden, that the whole South River
+of New Netherland, both upper and lower, has been our property for many
+years, occupied with our forts, and sealed by our blood, which also was
+done when thou wast in the service of New Netherland, and is therefore
+well known to thee.  But as thou art come between our forts to erect a
+fort to our damage and injury, which we {128} will never permit, as we
+also believe Her Swedish Majesty hath not empowered thee to erect
+fortifications on our coasts and rivers, or to settle people on the
+lands adjoining or to undertake any other thing to our prejudice; now
+therefore we protest against all such encroachments and all the evil
+consequences from the same, as bloodshed, sedition and whatever injury
+our trading company may suffer, and declare that we shall protect our
+rights in every manner that may be advisable.
+
+
+This blustering protest Minuit treated with contempt and continued
+building his fort.  The Swedish colony soon grew so rapidly as to be a
+serious menace to the Dutch in spite of their stronger fortifications.
+
+In 1642 Johan Printz, a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, was sent over as
+Governor of New Sweden with instructions to maintain friendly relations
+with the Dutch, but to yield no foot of ground.  He established several
+other settlements on the South or Delaware River.  So tactlessly,
+however, did he perform his duties, that conflicts with the Dutch grew
+more and more frequent.  He built two forts on opposite sides of the
+river and ordered that every ship entering the waters should strike her
+colors and await permission to pass.  The first vessel on which the new
+orders were tried carried {129} as a passenger David de Vries.  The
+skipper asked his advice about lowering his colors.  "If it were my
+ship," De Vries asserts that he answered, "I would not lower to these
+intruders."  But peace at any price prevailed, the skipper lowered his
+colors, and the ship passed on to New Gottenburg, the capital of the
+colony.  Here De Vries was welcomed by Governor Printz, whom the
+traveler describes as "a brave man of brave size."  The evening was
+spent in talk over a jug of Rhenish wine.  Such friendly intercourse
+and the aggressions of the English against both Dutch and Swedes led to
+the temporary alliance of these latter in 1651.  Indians called in
+council confirmed the Dutch title to all lands except the site of the
+Swedish fort planted by Minuit, and a peace which lasted for three
+years was declared between the Dutch and the Swedes.
+
+In endeavoring to understand the relations between the settlements of
+the different nations in America in the seventeenth century we must
+realize that the colonies were only pawns in the great game being
+played in Europe between Spain and the Papacy on the one hand and the
+Protestant countries, England, Sweden, and the United Netherlands on
+the other.  Once apprehending {130} this, we can easily understand why
+the governor of each colony, though instructed to seize and hold every
+foot of land which could be occupied, was advised not to antagonize the
+other friendly nations and thus weaken the alliance against the common
+enemy.  As the power of Spain declined, however, and the estimate of
+the value of the American colonies increased, the friction in the New
+World became more acute and the instructions from the home governments
+grew imperative.
+
+Affairs then came to an open rupture between New Netherland and New
+Sweden.  In 1651 Governor Stuyvesant inaugurated a more aggressive
+policy against the Swedes by building Fort Casimir near what is now New
+Castle, Delaware, not far from the Swedish fort.  Three years later
+Fort Casimir fell into the hands of the Swedes.  The Dutch Government
+now commanded Stuyvesant to drive the Swedes from the river or compel
+their submission.  As a result the Director and his fleet sailed into
+the Delaware in September, 1655, and captured one fort after another,
+till Rysing, the last of the Swedish governors, was completely
+defeated.  Though the colonists were promised security in possession of
+their lands, the power of {131} New Sweden was ended, and the
+jurisdiction of the Dutch was for a time established.
+
+New Netherland had, however, other neighbors more powerful, more
+persistent, and with more at stake than the French, the Indians, and
+the Swedes.  These were the English colonists, pressing northward from
+the Virginias and southward from New England.  From the beginning of
+the Dutch colonization, England had looked askance at the wedge thus
+driven between her own settlements.  She had stubbornly refused to
+recognize the sovereignty of the States-General in the region of New
+Netherland while at the same time she vainly sought a pretext for the
+establishment of her own.  England put forward the apocryphal claim of
+discovery by Cabot; but here she was stopped by the doctrine announced
+in a previous century that in order to give title to a new country,
+discovery must be followed by occupation.  When England maintained
+that, since Hudson was an Englishman, the title to his discovery must
+pass to his native land, she was reminded that Cabot was a Genoese, and
+that Genoa might as well claim title to Virginia as England to New
+Netherland.
+
+The Plymouth Company particularly was concerned at the Dutch occupation
+of this middle {132} region to which the charter granted by King James
+gave it a claim.  It formally protested in 1621 against these "Dutch
+intruders."  Whereupon King James I directed Sir Dudley Carleton, his
+ambassador at The Hague, to protest against the Dutch settlements; but
+nothing was accomplished, both parties having their hands too full with
+European quarrels to carry these transatlantic matters to extremities.
+The tension, however, was constantly increased on both sides by a
+series of encroachments and provocations.
+
+In April, 1633, for example, the ship _William_ arrived at Fort
+Amsterdam under command of Captain Trevor, with Jacob Eelkens as
+supercargo.  Eelkens had been dismissed by the West India Company from
+the post of Commissary at Fort Orange, and was now in the service of
+some London merchants, in whose behalf he had come, as he told the
+Director, to buy furs on Henry Hudson's River.
+
+"Don't talk to me of Henry Hudson's River!" replied Van Twiller, "it is
+the River Mauritius."  He then called for the commission of Eelkens,
+who refused to show it, saying that he was within the dominions of the
+English King, and a servant of His Majesty, and asking the Dutch
+Council what {133} commission they themselves had to plant in the
+English dominion.  Whereupon Van Twiller replied that it was not
+fitting that Eelkens should proceed up the river, as the whole of that
+country belonged to the Prince of Orange and not to the King of England.
+
+After this exchange of amenities, Eelkens returned to his ship, which
+remained at anchor for several days.  At the end of the time, he
+presented himself again at the fort to ask if the Director would
+consent in a friendly way to his going up the river; otherwise, he
+would proceed if it cost his life.  In reply, Van Twiller ordered the
+Dutch flag to be run up at the fort and three pieces of ordnance fired
+in honor of the Prince of Orange.  Eelkens on his part ordered the
+English flag to be hoisted on the _William_ and a salute fired in honor
+of King Charles.  Van Twiller warned Eelkens that the course which he
+was pursuing might cost him his neck; but the supercargo weighed anchor
+and proceeded calmly on his way.
+
+Van Twiller then assembled all his forces before his door, brought out
+a cask of wine, filled a bumper, and cried out that those who loved the
+Prince of Orange and him should follow his example and protect him from
+the outrages of the Englishman; {134} Eelkens, by this time, was out of
+sight sailing up the river.  The people drank, but only laughed at
+their governor, and De Vries told him that he had been very foolish.
+"If it were my affair," he said, "I would have helped him away from the
+fort with beans from the eight-pounders."
+
+The _William_, meanwhile, journeyed up the river and Eelkens, who knew
+the country well, landed with his crew about a mile below Fort Orange
+and set up a tent where he displayed the wares which he hoped to
+exchange with the natives for beaver-skins.  Very soon reports of this
+exploit reached the ears of the commissary at Fort Orange, who at once
+embarked with a trumpeter on a shallop decorated with green boughs.
+The Dutch landed close beside the English and set up a rival tent; but
+the Indians preferred to deal with Eelkens, whom they had known years
+before and who spoke their language.
+
+In the high tide of success, however, Eelkens was rudely ordered to
+depart by a Dutch officer who had come up the river in charge of three
+vessels, a pinnace, a caravel, and a hoy.  To enforce the commands came
+soldiery from both Dutch forts, armed with muskets, half-pikes, swords,
+and other weapons, and ordered Eelkens {135} to strike his flag.  They
+pulled down the tent, sent the goods on board ship, and sounded their
+trumpets in the boat "in disgrace of the English."  The Dutch boarded
+the _William_, weighed her anchor, and convoyed her down the river with
+their fleet, and finally dismissed her at the mouth of the river.
+
+The troubles of the Dutch with their English neighbors, however, did
+not end with these aggressions on the Hudson and similar acts on the
+Delaware.  In the year 1614, Adriaen Block, a great navigator whose
+name deserves to rank with that of Hudson, had sailed through the East
+River, and putting boldly across Long Island Sound, had discovered the
+Housatonic and Connecticut rivers.  He also discovered and gave his own
+name to Block Island and explored Narragansett Bay, whence he took his
+course to Cape Cod.  These discoveries reported to the States-General
+of the United Netherlands caused their High Mightinesses at once to lay
+claim to the new lands; but before they could secure enough colonists
+to occupy the country, restless pioneers of English stock planted towns
+in the Connecticut valley, along the Sound, and on the shore of Long
+Island.  These were uncomfortable neighbors with aggressive {136}
+manners which quite upset the placid Dutch of New Amsterdam.
+Inevitable boundary disputes followed, which reached no adjustment
+until, in 1650, Stuyvesant went to Hartford to engage in a conference
+with commissioners of the United Colonies of New England.
+
+The Director began as usual with bravado; but presently he consented to
+leave the question of boundaries to a board of four arbitrators.  This
+board decided that the boundary between the Dutch and English
+possessions should run on Long Island from Oyster Bay south to the
+Atlantic, and that on the mainland it should run north from Greenwich
+Bay, but never approach within ten miles of the Hudson River.  The
+Dutch in New Netherland were amazed and disgusted at the decision; but
+though Stuyvesant is said to have exclaimed in dramatic fashion that he
+had been betrayed, he found it hopeless to struggle against the
+superior force arrayed against him.
+
+
+
+
+{137}
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS
+
+The English Government was fortunate in its first representative after
+the surrender of Stuyvesant.  Colonel Richard Nicolls, who had enforced
+the surrender with all the energy of a soldier, afterward displayed all
+the tact and wisdom of a statesman.  It is true that the towns and
+forts were rechristened, and New Amsterdam, Fort Amsterdam, and Fort
+Orange became respectively New York, Fort James, and Albany in honor of
+the King's brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, to whom as Lord
+Proprietor the new English province was now granted; but the Dutch were
+not interfered with in their homes, their holdings, or their religion,
+and for nearly a year the city government at New Amsterdam went on as
+of old under the control of burgomasters, _schepens_, and _schouts_.
+
+In the following year Nicolls, according to instructions from the Duke
+of York, abolished "the {138} form of government late in practice,"
+appointed a mayor, aldermen, and a sheriff to rule New York, and
+directed the new officials to swear allegiance to the Duke.  He
+continued the commercial rights of the freeman who represented the
+burghers of the Dutch period, and he also introduced trial by jury,
+which placated the dwellers at New York and along the Hudson.
+
+On Long Island and in Westchester where New Englanders had settled,
+Nicolls proceeded with greater vigor.  This section together with
+Staten Island was erected into the district of Yorkshire, where "the
+Duke's Laws" were proclaimed and the machinery of English county
+government was put in operation.  With its three ridings, its courts of
+sessions, and its court of assizes, Yorkshire soon had an unmistakable
+English character even though Dutch inhabitants were numerous in
+western Long Island and in Staten Island.  The Duke's Laws were
+compiled mainly from the laws of the New England colonies, though they
+departed in many particulars from New England traditions.  In the Dutch
+towns _schouts_ and _schepens_ gave place to overseers and constables.
+The characteristic form of town government in the province was that in
+which freeholders elected {139} a board of eight overseers and a
+constable for one year.  Little by little English law and English
+institutions were to crowd out Dutch law and Dutch political
+institutions in the conquered province.
+
+By his wise policy, his magnetic personality, his scholarly tastes, and
+his social geniality, Nicolls seems to have won all hearts.  Maverick,
+his colleague, wrote Lord Arlington that it was wonderful how this man
+could harmonize things in a world so full of strife.  Entrusted by the
+Duke of York with practically unlimited power, he used it with the
+utmost discretion and for the good of the province.  When he resigned
+his post after four years of service, New York was deeply regretful
+over his departure and Cornelis Steenwyck, the Dutch mayor of the city,
+gave a farewell banquet in his honor.
+
+His successor, Colonel Francis Lovelace, was a favorite at court and a
+gallant cavalier who had been loyal to the King throughout his
+adversity.  With far less ability than Nicolls, Lovelace was at one
+with him in desire to benefit and unify the colony.  He established a
+club where English, French, and Dutch were spoken, and he offered
+prizes to be run for on the Long Island race-course.  Under his rule
+shipping increased and trade {140} flourished.  Merchants began to hold
+weekly meetings, thus laying the foundations of The Merchants'
+Exchange.  But his most notable achievement was the establishment of
+the first mail service on the American continent.
+
+In spite of all the sea commerce and trading up and down the river by
+sloops, pinks, flyboats, ketches, and canoes, the colonies of New York
+and New England demanded swifter and more frequent means of
+communication, and Governor Lovelace began to consider how the bonds
+could be drawn closer.  In 1671 one John Archer bought part of Van der
+Donck's old estate and built a village "near unto the passage commonly
+called Spiting Devil" on "the road for passengers to go to and fro from
+the main as well as for mutual intercourse with the neighboring
+colony."  Lovelace consented to make the village an enfranchised town
+by the name of Fordham Manor, provided its inhabitants should forward
+to the next town all public packets and letters coming to or going from
+New York.  The scheme evidently proved a success, for Lovelace shortly
+decided on a wider extension of communication, and the year 1673 was
+celebrated by the setting out of the first post between New York and
+New England.  It was to have started on New {141} Year's Day, but was
+delayed by waiting for news from Albany.  On the arrival of
+communications from Albany the carrier was sworn into office,
+instructed "to behave civily," to inquire of the New England
+authorities as to the best post-road, and to mark it for the benefit of
+other travelers.  The message which Lovelace sent to Governor Winthrop
+of Massachusetts on this occasion ran as follows:
+
+
+I here present you with two rarities, a pacquett of the latest
+intelligence I could meet withal, and a Post.  By the first, you will
+see what has been acted on the stage of Europe; by the latter you will
+meet with a monthly fresh supply; so that if it receive but the same
+ardent inclinations from you as at first it hath from myself, by our
+monthly advises all publique occurrences may be transmitted between us,
+together with severall other great conveniencys of publique importance,
+consonant to the commands laid upon us by His sacred Majestie, who
+strictly injoins all his American subjects to enter into a close
+correspondency with each other.  This I look upon as the most
+compendious means to beget a mutual understanding; and that it may
+receive all the countenance from you for its future duration, I shall
+acquaint you with the model I have proposed; and if you please but to
+make an addition to it, or subtraction, or any other alteration, I
+shall be ready to comply with you.  This person that has undertaken the
+imployment I conceaved most proper, being both active, stout, and {142}
+indefatigable.  He is sworne as to his fidelity.  I have affixt an
+annuall sallery on him, which, together with the advantage of his
+letters and other small portable packes, may afford him a handsome
+livelyhood.  Hartford is the first stage I have designed him to change
+his horse, where constantly I expect he should have a fresh one lye.
+All the letters outward shall be delivered gratis with a signification
+of _Post Payd_ on the superscription; and reciprocally, we expect all
+to us free.  Each first Monday of the month he sets out from New York,
+and is to return within the month from Boston to us againe.  The maile
+has divers baggs, according to the townes the letters are designed to,
+which are all sealed up till their arrivement, with the scale of the
+Secretarie's Office, whose care it is on Saturday night to seale them
+up.  Only by-letters are in an open bag, to dispense by the wayes.
+Thus you see the scheme I have drawne to promote a happy
+correspondence.  I shall only beg of you your furtherance to so
+universall a good work.
+
+
+By trail, road, and waterway the colonists were thus drawing nearer to
+each other and steadily increasing their facilities for trade, when all
+was interrupted by the reassertion of Dutch sovereignty and the
+reconquest of the English colony by the Dutch under much the same
+circumstances as had marked the surrender of Stuyvesant in 1664.  The
+old habit of unpreparedness survived under the English as under the
+Dutch; and the third war between England and Holland, begun in 1672 and
+{143} ended in 1674, found the strategic points on the Hudson again
+unprotected.  One August day in 1673 a powerful Dutch fleet appeared
+off Staten Island.  On the next day it sailed up through the Narrows,
+and Manhattan saw a repetition, with a difference, of the scene of
+1664.  After a brief exchange of volleys between the strong fleet and
+the weak fortress, the garrison recognized that resistance was
+hopeless, New York surrendered to Admiral Evertsen, and the flag of the
+Dutch Republic floated once more over the fortress, which changed its
+name to Fort Willem Hendrick while New York became New Orange.
+Governor Lovelace was absent from the city at the moment, and the blame
+of the surrender fell upon Manning, a subordinate, who was tried for
+neglect of duty, cowardice, and treachery.  His sword was broken over
+his head and he was pronounced ineligible for any office of trust.  But
+no governor could have saved the situation, as nothing was ready for
+defense.  When the Dutch took possession, Captain Anthony Colve was
+appointed Governor.  He proceeded with energy to put the fort into
+condition for defense, and for a time it seemed as if the Dutch might
+at last hold their rich heritage along the Hudson.  At the close of
+hostilities, however, a {144} treaty which was signed at Westminster in
+February, 1674, and proclaimed at the City Hall of New Orange in July
+of the same year, stipulated that New Netherland should again become an
+English province.  Thus for the third time, a national flag was lowered
+at the fort on Manhattan Island without serious effort at opposition.
+
+The treaty did not restore New York to the Duke whose name it bore but
+handed it over directly to Charles II, who, however, again granted it
+to his brother James.  Edmund Andros, a major in Prince Rupert's
+regiment of dragoons, was sent out to take control of the province,
+which had now changed hands for the last time.  His character was
+probably neither so white nor so black as it has been painted; but it
+is certain that he lacked the tact of Nicolls, and he brought to his
+task the habits of a soldier rather than an administrator.  He never
+succeeded in winning the complete confidence of the people.
+
+From the beginning Andros showed himself hostile to popular liberty and
+loyal to the interests of his patron as he saw them.  But the
+difficulties of his position, it must be admitted, were very great.
+James, Duke of York, brother of Charles II, and, in the absence of
+legitimate children of {145} the King, the heir to the throne, had, as
+we have seen, been granted all rights in the conquered territory of New
+Netherland in 1664.  Part of this territory he promptly gave to two
+court favorites, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.  The sagacious
+Nicolls protested that this partition which surrendered to a divided
+ownership the rich lands of New Jersey--so called in honor of
+Carteret's gallant defense of the Island of Jersey during the Civil
+Wars--was a menace to the well-being of New York.  His warning, which
+might not have been heeded in any case, did not reach England until the
+transfer was completed.
+
+With the Dutch occupation all titles were canceled, but under the new
+treaty, James, although by this time thoroughly informed of the
+complications involved, with the usual fatuity of the Stuarts now made
+a grant of the eastern part of New Jersey to Carteret in severally,
+taking no notice of the western part, which Berkeley had already sold
+for the sum of a thousand pounds.  By this grant to Carteret many
+questions were at once raised.  Was Sir George Carteret a lord
+proprietor like the Duke himself, responsible only to the King, or was
+he only a lord of the manor responsible to his master the Duke?  Was
+East Jersey a {146} part of New York, or was it an independent
+province?  As usual the importance of the questions was based on
+commercial considerations.  If New Jersey were a separate entity then
+it might trade directly with England; if it were dependent on New York
+it could trade only by permission of the Duke's representative.
+
+Philip Carteret, a kinsman of Sir George, whom the latter had appointed
+Governor of his share of New Jersey, and who went to America in the
+same ship as Andros in 1674, determined to test the matter by declaring
+Elizabethtown a free port, while Andros demanded that all ships bound
+to or from any port in the original New Netherland must enter and clear
+at New York.  With equal pertinacity Andros asserted the Duke's
+authority in West Jersey, haling Fenwick, one of the claimants under
+the original grant of 1674, to court in New York.  Fenwick's land
+titles, however, were sustained, and Andros then released him upon his
+explicit promise that he would not meddle with the government of West
+Jersey.  Taking advantage of the death of Sir George Carteret in 1680,
+Andros next arrested and imprisoned Governor Philip Carteret on the
+ground that he now had no authority, and then himself assumed the {147}
+governorship of East Jersey.  But Carteret was acquitted, the Assembly
+of East Jersey sustained their Governor, and the towns refused to
+submit.  Meanwhile, charges of corruption had been brought against
+Andros in New York, where his imperious manner and arbitrary conduct
+had made enemies.  He was recalled to England in 1681 to answer these
+charges, and in consequence of the disaffection which he had stirred up
+he was removed from office.
+
+Colonel Thomas Dongan, the Governor chosen to succeed Andros, was a
+younger son of an Irish Baronet and a Roman Catholic.  The laws of
+England forbade a Catholic to hold office in that country; but there
+was not the same barrier in the province subject to a Lord Proprietor.
+James, being of the Catholic faith, was therefore glad to appoint
+people of that religion in the New World.  Realizing, however, that the
+feeling against Catholicism was strong in the colony, the Duke gilded
+the pill by granting more liberal laws and a more popular form of
+government than had previously been permitted.  At the time of his
+appointment Dongan received instructions from the Duke of York to call
+a representative Assembly of not more than eighteen members to be
+chosen by the {148} freeholders of the province.  This Assembly met in
+October, 1683, and passed some fifteen laws, the first and most
+memorable of which was the so-called _Charter of Liberties and
+Privileges_.  The most notable provisions of the charter were those
+establishing the principles of popular representation and religious
+liberty, and those reciting the guarantees of civil rights familiar to
+all Englishmen.
+
+Before this charter could be finally ratified by the Duke of York,
+Charles II died from a stroke of apoplexy, and James became King.
+After fifteen minutes in his closet, where he had retired to give "full
+scope to his tears," he emerged to work for three years his bigoted
+will on the affairs of the realm.  James the King took a different view
+of many things from James the Duke.  The status of New York was
+similarly changed from a ducal proprietorship to a royal province.  The
+new charter recognized a Lord Proprietor.  But that Lord Proprietor had
+now become King of England, and this King found some of the enactments
+of the charter so objectionable to His Majesty that he disallowed the
+charter.  Moreover, James did away with the Assembly which he had
+previously allowed to be summoned.  But the seed of popular government
+had been planted in the Western {149} Hemisphere and within the next
+century it was ripe for the harvesting.
+
+In 1688 New York and New Jersey were united with the Eastern colonies
+under title of "The Dominion of New England," and Sir Edmund Andros was
+appointed Governor-General of a territory of imperial dimensions.  But
+the year of his arrival in New York marked the departure of his royal
+master from England.  Bigotry and tyranny had overshot the mark and the
+English people had determined to dethrone James.
+
+On the invitation of the Protestant nobility, James's son-in-law,
+William of Orange, landed at Torbay in November, 1688, and rapidly won
+popular support.  After beginning negotiations with him, James became
+alarmed and took flight to France at the close of the year.  William of
+Orange and his wife, James's daughter Mary, then became King and Queen
+of England (February 13, 1689) and New York once more passed under the
+control of a Dutch sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+{150}
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LEISLER
+
+The story of the so-called Leisler Rebellion illustrates the difficulty
+of sifting conflicting historical testimony.  Among the earlier
+chroniclers of New Netherland there is the widest difference of opinion
+about the chief actor in the drama.  Leisler was "an illiterate
+German," says one authority.  Another says: "He was the son of a French
+clergyman driven into exile, and making his home in Frankfort where the
+little Jacob was born.  The boy was taught to write and speak Dutch,
+French, and German; but being unskilled in the English tongue he was
+unjustly charged with illiteracy."  By one party he was branded as a
+vulgar demagogue ready to ally himself with the mob against the
+conservative citizenry.  By another he was acclaimed as the champion of
+the people's rights and religion when they were threatened with
+invasion by the minions of the perfidious Stuarts.
+
+{151}
+
+In regard to the main events of this troubled time there is,
+fortunately, little dispute, although they are so complicated that they
+require close attention.  When James II fled from England at the end of
+the year 1688 and was succeeded by William and Mary, the affairs of the
+American provinces were thrown into a state of chaos.  The change of
+government was not known in Massachusetts until March, 1689.  The
+immediate result of the news was to fan the popular wrath against Sir
+Edmund Andros, then in Boston, into such a flame that the Governor was
+seized and thrown into prison before he was able to make his escape to
+New York.  His imprisonment left Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson,
+Andros's deputy at New York, in a difficult position.  Andros was still
+Governor and Nicholson was unable to communicate with him.  Some people
+held that Nicholson thus became acting Governor; others claimed that
+the whole existing machinery of government was swept away by the
+abdication of James and that the provinces were free to govern
+themselves till they could learn the will of the new sovereigns.
+
+Nicholson was a weak man, and his vacillation produced the impression
+that he might be engaged in a conspiracy to bring back the rule of
+James.  {152} Three years before, in the King's camp, he had knelt when
+Mass was celebrated.  Who knew what Catholic designs might lurk behind
+this significant act?  Rumor grew into suspicion, and suspicion turned
+to panic.  At length Nicholson fell into an altercation with an officer
+on guard at Fort James who asserted his authority.  In the course of
+the argument the Lieutenant-Governor remarked angrily: "I would rather
+see the city on fire than commanded by an impudent fellow like him."
+Next morning word had spread far and wide through the town that
+Nicholson had threatened to burn New York, and all was in an uproar.  A
+crowd of citizens appeared at the house of Leisler, who was an officer
+in the train-band, a citizen well known for honesty, a stanch, even
+bigoted Protestant, and withal a man of firm purpose, and they begged
+him to act as their leader in a determined effort to preserve their
+liberties and hold New York for William and Mary.  It is easy to see on
+looking back over two centuries that the dangers of conspiracy were
+greatly exaggerated; but we must remember that these men really
+believed that they themselves and all that they held sacred were in
+jeopardy.  The possibility of war with France was indeed not remote;
+and fear {153} of an invasion from Canada with all the horrors of an
+Indian war haunted the minds of every frontier family.
+
+Leisler invited the people of the towns and counties of New York to
+choose delegates to a convention to be held at Fort James on June 25,
+1689, to consider what was best to be done under existing conditions.
+Ulster, Albany, and most of the towns in Queens County refused to send
+delegates.  The others responded, however, and the delegates formed
+themselves into a committee of safety.  They appointed Leisler "Captain
+of the fort at New York until orders shall be received from their
+Majesties," and Leisler accepted the responsibilities of government.
+
+Massachusetts and Connecticut congratulated him on his conduct, and in
+the province of New York he was generally approved; but he had the
+misfortune to be opposed by the Roman Catholics and the landed gentry.
+The former were few in number and, after the establishment of the
+Protestant succession, a negligible danger, though in view of the
+assertion made by James to the Pope that "it was his full purpose to
+have set up Roman Catholic Religion in the English Plantations of
+America," we can scarcely call it bigotry on {154} Leisler's part to
+fear their influence.  Unfortunately for the Leislerians "the gentry"
+made common cause with the Catholics against the new Government.
+Albany, which was preëminently Dutch and held the Reformed Church in
+reverence, was also aristocratic in sympathy and resented the rule of
+Leisler as the representative of the common people.  Even so, had
+Leisler shown more tact and less obstinacy there might still have been
+a chance to placate the opposing factions; but by his fanatical attacks
+on all Catholics and his open defiance of such prominent citizens as
+Nicholas Bayard, Stephanus Van Cortlandt, Frederick Philipse, Peter
+Schuyler, and Robert Livingston, he fomented the strife until
+conciliation became impossible.
+
+In the beginning of January, 1689, Leisler committed a grievous
+strategical error in permitting Nicholson to leave for England to
+render an account of the state of affairs, while the Leislerians
+depended upon communications written in dubious English and carried by
+a bearer who was of inferior social standing.
+
+Meanwhile Leisler won a temporary victory over his opponents.  In
+December dispatches arrived from the Privy Council and the King and
+Queen of England, addressed to "Our Lieutenant-Governor {155} and
+Commander-in-Chief of our Province of New York, or in his absence to
+such as for the time being take care to keep the peace and administer
+the laws," and authorizing him to take the reins of government, calling
+to his assistance "in the administration thereof the principal
+freeholders and inhabitants of the same, or so many of them as you
+shall think fit."  Nicholson having departed for England, the messenger
+was in some doubt as to the proper recipient of the message.  Bayard
+and his faction strove to obtain possession of it; but it was finally
+delivered to Leisler.  He appointed a council of eight men, all
+reputable citizens and by no means representing the rabble, as his
+enemies charged.  In this procedure he was acting in strict conformity
+with the letter from the Privy Council.
+
+Leisler assumed the title of Lieutenant-Governor and, much to the
+chagrin of his foes, took his seat in the Governor's pew at church.  It
+was his moment of triumph; but troubles were already darkening the
+horizon.  In November Leisler sent to Albany his deputy, an Englishman
+named Milborne, to demand the recognition of his Government; but the
+mandate being opposed by Schuyler, Livingston, and Bayard, all well
+known and highly {156} esteemed in Albany and representing the
+aristocratic faction, that town refused entrance to Milborne and his
+escort and refused likewise to recognize Leisler as Governor.
+
+The Albany Records for November, 1689, describe the incident as
+follows: "Three sloops neared Albany bearing troops under Jacob
+Milborne and immediately Captain Wendell and Blucker, Johannes Cuyler
+and Reymier Barents go aboard to learn the object of his visit.  Jacob
+Milborne asks: 'Is the fort open to receive me and my men?'  The reply
+is: 'No, the Mayor is in command and will hold it.'"
+
+On the receipt of this inhospitable message, reënforced by military
+demonstrations, Milborne wisely withdrew his inadequate force and
+returned to New York to report the failure of his mission.  Three
+months after Milborne's rejection, in the bitter February weather of
+1690, the village of Schenectady, at that time a western frontier post,
+was burned and its inhabitants were massacred in a French and Indian
+raid.  Once more Leisler sent his deputy at the head of a body of
+troops to the assistance of the Albanians, and this time Milborne was
+not denied entrance to the town.  Having thus gained control of the
+province, Leisler summoned {157} a convention of delegates from
+Massachusetts and Connecticut to meet at New York on May 1, 1690, in
+order to discuss the defense of the colonies.
+
+Meanwhile the Leislerians and their opponents were bombarding the new
+King and Queen with their conflicting claims.  In 1690, Captain Blagge,
+congratulating their Majesties on "the late Happy Revolution in
+England" asked their Majesties' approbation for Leisler on the ground
+that "Nicholson, like Col. Dongan, had neglected to repair the
+fortifications of the city, which excited suspicions against his
+loyalty, and he was disaffected towards the late happy revolution in
+England."  Hence Jacob Leisler had been chosen, "with a committee, to
+make such repairs and to administer the government until William's
+pleasure could be known."  The memorial goes on to say:
+
+
+Shortly after, their Majesties' Proclamation arrived by which William
+and Mary were to be proclaimed King and Queen of England.  Notice was
+given to the late Council of Nicholson, and to the Mayor and Aldermen
+to assist, with proper ceremonies, in this Proclamation.  They desired
+an hour's time for considering it, and then refused.  Leisler and his
+Committee and most of the inhabitants did then celebrate the event with
+many demonstrations of joy and affection.
+
+The Mayor and Aldermen were then suspended from {158} office, and
+certain opponents of the Revolution and their Majesties' interests,
+were imprisoned.  Shortly after their Majesties' letters arrived,
+directed to Lieutenant Governor Nicholson, or, "in his absence to such
+as for the time being do take care for the preservation of their
+Majesties' Peace, and administering the Lawes in that their Majesties'
+Province; ordering such to take upon them the place of Lieutenant
+Governor and Commander in Chief of the said Province and to proclaim
+King William and Queen Mary, King and Queen of England, Scotland,
+France and Ireland, and supream Lord and Lady of the Province of New
+York, if not already done"; which was accordingly done.
+
+The Inhabitants generally were satisfied therewith, and Leisler's
+committee was dismissed, and a Council chosen to assist him in the
+government; but the members of the old government opposed all this and
+created a faction.  This excited fear lest the Province should yet be
+delivered up to the French in Canada, which fear greatly agitated the
+Protestant population.  The said faction also surrounded Captain
+Leisler and abused him with ill language and threats, and would have
+done violence to him, if they had not feared the people, who rescued
+him out of their hands, and imprisoned the ringleaders of the
+opposition.  Multitudes also flocked into the city from the country, to
+defend the existing government, and it was with great difficulty that
+their zeal could be restrained.  The prisoners were ultimately fined
+and discharged upon their own recognizance to keep the peace.
+
+The Fort and City were therefore, now in a good condition, excepting a
+lack of ammunition.  The Commission of all military men who had acted
+under Governors {159} Dongan and Andros, had been called in, and other
+Commissions issued in the name of their present Majesties, and only to
+those who were well affected thereto.  But our efforts thus to secure
+their Majesties interests have been greatly misrepresented, and we have
+been loaded with reproaches; our actions have been called a Dutch plot,
+although three quarters of the inhabitants are of Dutch descent, and
+speak Dutch; and our ruin is threatened, if the government ever falls
+into the hands of our opponents.
+
+
+To this lengthy defense Bayard and Nicolls made response as follows:
+
+
+Jacob Leisler a man of desperate fortune, ambitiously did assume unto
+himselfe the title of Lieutenant-Governor of this Province of New York,
+and chose a councel of ye meanest and most abject common people; made
+to himself a Broad Seale, which he called ye Seale of ye Province, with
+ye usuall armes of Kings of England; and affixed the same to some
+unlawful graunts of land within this Province; and commissionated under
+ye same Justices of ye Peace, in whose hartes were mischiefe.  He
+constituted Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and tryed severall subjects
+for pretended treason, murther and other crimes.  He taxed and levied
+monney upon their Majesties subjects to their grievous oppression and
+great impoverishment.  When he wanted more money for his occasions, he
+forcebly robbed and spoiled, broke open doors and locx were he guissed
+it was to be found, and carried away to ye vallue of some thousands of
+pounds in money or goods; and all this against the {160} best
+Protestant subjects in the Province.  He imprisoned whom he feared,
+without any other cause than that their integrity to ye Protestant
+interest, and fidelity to their Majesties, became a terroire to him;
+some of them after a tedious confignment, without collour of law, he
+whipt and branded; and some he kept in duresse so long as he held ye
+fort.
+
+
+Upon one point, both the followers and opponents of Leisler agreed:
+there was no Dutch plot behind this revolution.  "The notion of a Dutch
+plott cannot be applicable to Leisler and his adherents," said Bayard;
+"the much greater part of Albany which wholly consists of Dutch people,
+and all the men of best repute for religion, estatte, and integrity of
+the Dutch nacon, throughout the whole Province, having alwaies been
+manifestly against Leisler and his society, in all their illegall and
+irregular proceedings."  To these representations their Majesties'
+advisers made no reply, but the appointment of Governor of New York was
+given to Colonel Henry Sloughter, "a profligate, needy, and narrow
+minded adventurer," the selection of whom did little credit to the
+wisdom of William of Orange.  All the papers from both factions were
+committed to this inefficient officer with instructions to examine the
+allegations strictly and impartially and to make a true report.
+
+{161}
+
+In December, 1690, Sloughter set sail with several ships and a body of
+troops.  By some accident the vessels were separated, and the ship
+bearing Major Richard Ingoldesby, "a rash, hot-headed man" who had
+served in Holland and recently returned from service in Ireland,
+arrived in the _Beaver_ two months before Sloughter's ship reached New
+York.  His commission required him to obey the royal Governor, but did
+not give him authority to act as commander-in-chief in case of
+Sloughter's absence or death.  Nevertheless Ingoldesby at once
+announced the appointment of Sloughter and demanded the surrender of
+the fort.  Leisler replied by offering quarters for Ingoldesby's
+soldiers; but refused to surrender the fort till he saw the Major's
+commission.
+
+Ingoldesby had no credentials whatever, but he issued a proclamation
+calling on the people and magistrates to aid him in enforcing the royal
+commission.  Leisler issued a counter proclamation warning him at his
+peril not to attempt hostilities against the city or the fort; but on
+receiving assurances that Ingoldesby had no intention of using force
+against the people of New York, he permitted the troops to land.  The
+fort, however, he would not yield.  With rival forces in the town,
+{162} peace was difficult to maintain.  Neither commander trusted the
+other.  Recrimination followed protest.  Finally, on the 17th of March,
+Leisler fired on Ingoldesby's troops, killing two and wounding others.
+
+At length on March 19, 1691, Sloughter entered the harbor of New York.
+Representative anti-Leislerians hastened to board his ship and escorted
+him to the City Hall, where he took the oath of office at eleven
+o'clock at night.  He immediately dispatched Ingoldesby to demand the
+surrender of the fort.  Again Leisler's bigotry and obstinacy overcame
+his prudence.  Instead of surrendering at once he dispatched a
+messenger bearing letters and warning him to look well at Sloughter and
+be sure he was no counterfeit.  Sloughter informed Leisler's messenger
+that he intended to make himself known in New York as well as in
+England and ordered Ingoldesby for the second time to demand possession
+of the fort and to release from their prison Colonel Bayard and Mr.
+Nicolls, that they might attend the council to which they had been
+appointed members.
+
+Leisler refused either to surrender the fort or to release the
+prisoners but sent Milborne and De la Noy to endeavor to make terms.
+Sloughter {163} imprisoned both envoys and ordered his frigate to hold
+itself in readiness to fire on the fort.  Leisler, at length and too
+late realizing that resistance was useless, sent a letter to the
+Governor offering submission.  For the third time Ingoldesby was
+ordered to demand the possession of the fort.  This time the garrison
+yielded and Leisler was put under arrest.
+
+With Milborne, now his son-in-law, and eight others, Leisler was
+arraigned before a court having inveterate royalists as judges.  Two
+insurgents were acquitted.  Six made their defense, were convicted of
+high treason, and were reprieved.  Leisler and Milborne declined to
+plead and appealed to the King.  They were, however, condemned and
+sentenced to death.  Sloughter was reluctant to sign the
+death-warrants; but his associates, more particularly Bayard, who had
+been imprisoned by Leisler, were determined on the execution.  It is
+maintained that the Governor's signature was obtained at a banquet when
+he was under the influence of liquor, and that an officer stole with
+the warrant to the prison and ordered the victims led out for immediate
+execution.  Be this as it may, Sloughter's compunctions were overcome
+and the death-warrants signed.
+
+{164}
+
+The scaffold was erected at the lower end of the park and weeping
+people thronged about the victims.  Leisler's dying speech, which was
+marked by neither anger nor bitterness, affirmed that he had no other
+aim than "to maintain against Popery or any schism or heresy whatever
+the interest of our Sovereign Lord and Lady and the Reformed Protestant
+Churches" in these parts.  The drop fell, the populace rushed up to
+claim some relics of their leader, the bodies were taken down,
+beheaded, and buried, and so the worthless Sloughter thought to make an
+end of "a troublesome fellow."
+
+But the Leisler blood still flowed in the veins of the dead man's son,
+who never ceased fighting till in 1695 the attainder on the estate was
+removed.  This action of the English Parliament was tantamount to a
+confession that Leisler had been unjustly accused, tried, and hanged,
+and that these, the only people ever put to death for political reasons
+on the soil of New York, died as misguided martyrs, not as criminal
+conspirators.
+
+
+
+
+{165}
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES
+
+Sloughter did not live long to enjoy his triumph over Leisler, and his
+death came so suddenly that the anti-Leislerites raised their eyebrows
+and whispered "poison," while the Leislerites shrugged their shoulders
+and sneered "delirium tremens."  Neither faction seemed particularly
+reluctant to part with him.
+
+Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, who was sent over from England as the next
+Governor, arrived in New York in the summer of 1692.  His rule is
+chiefly memorable for the founding of Trinity Church and for the
+encouragement which he gave to piracy.  These strangely differing
+activities were both obnoxious to the Dutch burghers, who were almost
+as strongly opposed to the Church of England as to that of Rome, and
+who suspected the Governor of conniving at the practice of piracy or at
+least of closing his eyes to the source of the {166} doubloons of
+Spain, the louis d'or of France, and other strange coin which at this
+epoch had begun to circulate together with ivory and sandalwood in the
+little town at the tip of Manhattan Island.
+
+In one sense Fletcher cannot be held responsible for the existence of
+piracy in the colony or on the high seas.  The institution was as old
+as navigation.  Moreover the issuance of letters of marque in the war
+with Spain had legalized privateering, which was so near akin to piracy
+that it was often hard to distinguish between the two.  Even royalty
+was not above accepting a share in the questionable spoils of the sea,
+as in the well-known case of Queen Elizabeth and the booty which Drake
+brought home.
+
+It is easy, therefore, to guess the source of the Eastern rugs, the
+carved teakwood furniture, and stuffs from India looms which adorned
+the houses of the rich men of New York.  On the streets pirate captains
+were pointed out as celebrities.  One of them, Edward Coates, presented
+Madam Fletcher with jewels, silks, and cashmere shawls.  Thomas Tew,
+another "filibustier," is described by a contemporary as a slight, dark
+man about forty years of age, who wore a uniform consisting of a blue
+jacket bordered with gold lace and short {167} trousers of white linen
+covering his legs to the knee, below which came embroidered stockings.
+Around his neck he wore a chain of beaten gold and from his belt
+protruded a dagger's hilt set with sparkling jewels.
+
+These picturesque pirates and privateers swaggered about the taverns in
+the shadow of the _Stadt-Huys_ or lounged along the wharves at the
+harbor.  Everywhere they were the center of attention, and their tales
+of adventure were listened to with the most eager interest.  But these
+adventurers in the end pushed things so far that the Government in
+England found itself obliged to take vigorous action against them.
+James expressly instructed the provincial Governors Andros and Dongan
+to suppress "all pirates and sea rovers," for they had become so bold
+in their activities along the Spanish Main that lawful trading was
+languishing and merchants were in terror.
+
+Many of the adventurers in the West Indies having been originally
+engaged in the honest business of _boucanning_, or smoking fish and
+meat after the manner of the Carib savages, they and their piratical
+comrades were generally known in Europe as "buchaniers" or
+"buccaneers."  By the Hollanders they were named "_zee rovers_"; by the
+{168} French "_flibustiers_," which was only the Frenchman's way of
+pronouncing "freebooter."  In 1652 Samuel Sewall established in Boston
+a free mint, which attracted the pirates to that town, where they could
+bring their booty in gold and silver and have it safely dropped into
+the melting-pot beyond the reach of either discovery or recovery.  In
+1687 Sir Robert Holmes was sent with a squadron to the West Indies to
+put a stop to the nefarious trade of the freebooters, and in the next
+year Nicholson imprisoned at Boston several pirates whose leader was
+"one Petersen."  These activities on the part of the authorities had
+the effect of driving the "_zee rovers_" from the Caribbean to the East
+Indies for their enterprises and from Boston to New York for their
+market.
+
+Sea commerce at this time had so far outstripped a naval power adequate
+to protect it that piracy grew more and more profitable, and many a
+respected merchant held private stock in some more than dubious sea
+venture.  The coast of Madagascar was a meeting place for pirates and
+merchantmen, and there Oriental stuffs, gold, and jewels were exchanged
+for rum or firearms, and the merchant vessel returned to New York,
+where her {169} goods were sold cheaply and no questions were asked.
+One ship sailing from New York laden with Jamaica rum, Madeira wine,
+and gunpowder returned with a cargo of slaves and East India goods, and
+the voyage was reported to have cleared a net profit of thirty thousand
+pounds.
+
+The scandal of "adventuring" continued to grow, and in 1695 Peter De la
+Noy wrote thus to the home government:
+
+
+We have a parcell of pirates in these parts which (people) call the Red
+Sea men, who often get great booty of Arabian Gold.  His Excellency
+gives all due encouragement to these men, because they make all due
+acknowledgements to him; one Coats, a captain of this honorable order
+presented his Excellency with his ship, which his Excellency sold for
+eight hundred pounds and every one of the crew made him a suitable
+present of Arabian Gold for his protection; one Captain Twoo who is
+gone to the Red Sea upon the same errand was before his departure
+highly caressed by His Excellency in his coach and six horses, and
+presented with a gold watch to engage him to make New York his port at
+his return.  Twoo retaliated the kindnesse with a present of Jewells;
+but I can't learn how much further the bargain proceeded; time must
+shew that....  After this all you will perhaps wonder when I tell you
+that this man's bell rings twice a day for prayers and that he appears
+with a great affectation of piety; but this is true, and it is as true
+that it makes him only more ridiculous, not more respected.
+
+{170} Not only were the buccaneers terrorizing the West Indies, the Red
+Sea, and the Madagascar coast, but according to the Albany Records of
+1696 "pirates in great numbers infest the Hudson River at its mouth and
+waylay vessels on their way to Albany, speeding out from covers and
+from behind islands and again returning to the rocky shores, or
+ascending the mountains along the river to conceal their plunder."
+
+The Government in England now prepared to take vigorous measures.  It
+desired to fit out an armed force to suppress the buccaneers; but as
+all the regular navy was needed in the war with France it was decided
+to organize a stock company in which the King, the Duke of Shrewsbury,
+Lord Chancellor Somers, the Earls of Bellomont, Oxford, and Romney,
+Robert Livingston, and others took shares, for the purpose of fitting
+out a privateer vessel to fight the pirates and at the same time to win
+some profit for themselves.
+
+The _Adventure-Galley_, carrying thirty guns and manned by over one
+hundred sailors, was fitted out and entrusted to the command of William
+Kidd, a sea-captain of New York who chanced to be in London at the time
+and who was warmly recommended by Robert Livingston to Lord Bellomont,
+{171} who had been appointed to succeed Fletcher as Governor of New
+York.  He was well known as a bold and skillful sailor, and a man of
+wealth and repute in New York, and in his marriage certificate he was
+called "Captain William Kidd, Gentleman."
+
+The plan finally formed was that Kidd with a privateer furnished with a
+letter of marque and a special commission from the King should cruise
+about in search of the pirates and capture them.  In pursuance of the
+scheme Kidd set sail on the _Adventure-Galley_ and reached New York in
+the spring of 1696.  He set up placards all over the town asking for
+recruits, with the result that a motley crew of adventurers rushed to
+take ship in this strange new enterprise.  At this time Kidd was living
+in one of the handsomest houses in New York, on what is now Liberty
+Street.  Before this, in 1691, he had married the widow of a fellow
+sea-captain, a woman of great respectability, by whom he had one
+daughter, and he was known far and wide as a solid and trustworthy
+merchant.
+
+His venture seemed bulwarked by every guarantee; but even at that epoch
+there were not wanting those who predicted strange things for the
+_Adventure-Galley_.  Few, however, foresaw any events as strange as
+those which actually occurred.  After {172} cruising along the American
+coast without achieving the capture of any pirate ships Kidd set sail
+for the Red Sea and reached the coast of Madagascar in the fall of
+1697.  Here again he found no trace of the corsairs, who had probably
+been forewarned of his coming.
+
+Kidd then took on water and provisions and proceeded to the coast of
+Madagascar.  Still no pirates.  Water and provisions were running low,
+and the crew threatened mutiny unless they were allowed to take up the
+business of piracy on their own account.  Kidd thereupon decided to
+yield, and the _Adventure-Galley_ began by capturing several vessels
+owned by the Great Mogul, as well as some ships sailing under French
+colors.  In December, 1698, Kidd captured an East India ship named the
+_Quedagh Merchant_.  The _Adventure-Galley_ being in bad condition,
+Kidd set the crew of the _Quedagh Merchant_ on shore, took possession
+of the ship, burned his old one, and set sail in his new vessel for
+Madagascar.
+
+In spite of their rich spoils, the mutineers remained sullen, and many
+deserted.  The men's discontent led to an altercation with William
+Moore, a gunner, in the course of which Kidd hit him on the head with a
+bucket.  The resulting {173} injury proved fatal to Moore and
+ultimately resulted in disaster for Kidd.  After leaving Madagascar the
+pirate captain sailed for the West Indies, and it must have been with a
+sinking heart that he received the news which awaited him there.  The
+piracy of the _Adventure-Galley_ was already known in England, and a
+committee of Parliament had been appointed to inquire into the whole
+affair.  Free pardon for acts committed before May 1, 1699, was offered
+by royal proclamation to all pirates who would surrender.  But an
+ominous exception was made in this proclamation of mercy: Avery, a
+notorious buccaneer, and William Kidd were not included.
+
+The cause of this exclusion from grace is not far to seek.  It was not
+that Kidd was a sinner above all others; but that he had involved great
+personages from the King down, and that the Tories were making capital
+out of the connection between prominent Whig statesmen and the misdeeds
+of Captain Kidd.  The outlaw now determined on a course which in a
+righteous cause might well have been called bold but which under the
+circumstances could only be described as brazen.  He bought at the
+island of Hispaniola a small sloop which he loaded with gold coin, gold
+dust, gems, {174} and other booty and, with what remained of his crew,
+he set sail for New York.  Thus at San Domingo the _Quedagh Merchant_,
+with her fifty guns and her valuable cargo, was abandoned.  Her fate
+has continued a mystery to this day, and from time to time the search
+for the lost booty is still suggested and inaugurated by enthusiasts
+for adventure or seekers for gold.
+
+When Kidd drew near New York he found that the Earl of Bellomont had
+gone to Boston, and he resolved to follow the Governor to
+Massachusetts.  Much uncertainty surrounds his course at this time.  It
+is said that he sailed up Long Island Sound, stopped at Gardiner's
+Island, and buried a chest of treasure there, that he presented Mrs.
+Gardiner with brocades embroidered with gold threads and dropped jewels
+into his wine.  It is said that he succeeded in reaching his wife by a
+letter, asking her to meet him at Block Island.  Rumor has it that from
+Narragansett Bay he communicated with Bellomont and informed his
+lordship that he, William Kidd, was on board a sloop with ten thousand
+pounds' worth of goods and that he was entirely guiltless of the piracy
+with which he was charged.  It is said that Bellomont replied that, if
+Kidd could establish his {175} innocence, he might count on the
+Governor's protection.[1]
+
+Amid all these rumors there seems good evidence that Kidd landed in
+Boston in July and had the effrontery to offer the Governor a gift of
+jewels for Lady Bellomont.  With the approval of the Council Bellomont
+accepted the gift and handed the gems to a trustee as evidence in the
+case against Kidd.  The Earl of Bellomont, being a man of sterling
+integrity, was naturally sensitive as to his apparent complicity in the
+Kidd piracy, refused any further parley, and sent the buccaneer to
+England to stand his trial there.
+
+Kidd was held in London for several months pending the collection of
+evidence against him, and his trial for piracy and the murder of
+William Moore finally began at the Old Bailey in the spring of 1701.
+From this point we have the original documents of the state trials and
+a complete record of the evidence for and against Kidd.  Bellomont is
+eliminated as a factor, and it becomes a case of the Crown against
+Captain William Kidd and a number of others, for murder and piracy upon
+the high seas.
+
+{176}
+
+However we may feel as to Kidd's guilt in the matter of piracy, we can
+but realize that, according to the standards of modern times, he was
+not given a fighting chance for his life.  He was detained in Newgate
+Prison and denied all counsel until he had pleaded "guilty" or "not
+guilty."  In spite of all his protests he was brought to trial on the
+first indictment for murder, incidentally the least certain of his
+offenses.  The jury being sworn, the clerk proceeded with the first
+indictment for murder and declared that "the jurors of our sovereign
+Lord the King do upon their oath present that William Kidd, late of
+London, married, not having the fear of God before his eyes; but being
+moved and seduced by the Devil ... did make assault in and upon one
+William Moore ... and that the aforesaid William Kidd with a certain
+wooden bucket, bound with iron hoops, of the value of eight pence,
+which he the said William Kidd then and there held in his right hand,
+did violently, feloniously, voluntarily, and of his malice aforethought
+beat and strike the aforesaid William Moore in and upon the right part
+of the head of him, the said William Moore then and there upon the high
+sea in the ship aforesaid and within the jurisdiction of England."
+
+{177}
+
+Several sailors testified to the circumstances of the murder, that Kidd
+had called the gunner "a lousy dog" and Moore had replied: "If I am a
+lousy dog you have made me so.  You have brought me to ruin and many
+more."  At this, Kidd's temper being roused, he struck Moore with the
+bucket, and the gunner died the next day as a result of the blow.
+Considering the severity of treatment of mutinous sailors permitted to
+ships' officers at that time, there is little reason to think that
+under ordinary circumstances Kidd would have been adjudged guilty of
+murder for a blow struck in hot blood and under provocation; but the
+verdict was certain before the trial had begun.  The jury after an
+hour's consultation brought in a verdict of guilty, and Kidd was
+remanded to Newgate Prison to await trial for piracy.
+
+This second trial took place in May, 1701, and included, beside the
+Captain, nine other mariners charged with piracy, in that "they
+feloniously did steal, take and carry away the said merchant ship
+_Quedagh Merchant_ and the apparel and tackle of the same ship of the
+value of four hundred pounds of lawful money of England, seventy chests
+of opium, besides twenty bales of raw silk, a hundred bales of calico,
+two hundred bales of {178} muslins, two hundred and fifty bales of
+sugar and three bales of romels."
+
+Kidd's defense was that the ships captured were sailing under French
+passes and therefore lawful prizes according to the terms of his
+commission.  These passes, he said, had been delivered into Bellomont's
+hands.  But the Court made no effort to procure these passes or to
+inquire further into the matter.  The jury was out for a short time
+only and brought in their verdict against or for the mariners
+separately.  All but three were found guilty.  In addressing them the
+Court said: "You have been tried by the laws of the land and convicted
+and nothing now remains but that sentence be passed according to the
+law.  And the sentence of the law is this: You shall be taken from the
+place where you are and be carried to the place from whence you came
+and from thence to the place of execution and there be severally hanged
+by your necks until you be dead.  And may the Lord have mercy on your
+souls!"
+
+Captain Kidd was hanged at Execution Dock on May 23, 1701.  Thus ended
+the most famous pirate of the age.  His career so impressed the popular
+imagination that a host of legends sprang up concerning him and his
+treasure ship, while {179} innumerable doleful ballads were written
+setting forth his incredible depravity.  Yet it is curious to consider
+that, had he died a few years earlier, he would have passed away as an
+honored citizen of New York and would have been buried with pomp and
+circumstance and the usual laudatory funeral oration.
+
+
+
+[1] Bellomont was commissioned Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, as well as of New York.
+
+
+
+
+{180}
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+While Captain Kidd was still on the high seas and pirates were still
+infesting the lower Hudson, the Earl of Bellomont arrived in New York
+(in April, 1698), accompanied by his wife and his cousin, John Nanfan,
+who had been appointed Lieutenant-Governor.  The citizens greeted the
+new Governor with every demonstration of delight.  The corporation gave
+a public banquet and offered a eulogistic address.  Bellomont on his
+part entered into his task with enthusiasm.  In the new Assembly called
+in 1699, he spoke of the disorder prevailing in the province, left as
+it was with a divided people, an empty treasury, ruined fortifications,
+and a few half-naked soldiers.  He spoke of the ill repute of New York
+as a rendezvous for pirates and said: "It would be hard if I who come
+before you with an honest heart and a resolution {181} to be just to
+your interests, should meet with greater difficulties in the discharge
+of His Majesty's service than those who have gone before me."  He
+declared it his firm intention that there should be no more
+misapplication of the public money, a veiled attack upon Fletcher's
+grants of land and privileges which had become a public scandal.  He
+would, he said, pocket none of the money himself nor permit any
+embezzlement of it by others and promised exact accounts to be laid
+before the Assembly "when and as often as you require."  The Assembly
+passed a vote of thanks and voted a six years' revenue.  Apparently
+everything was auspicious; but the seed of discord was already sown by
+Bellomont's early espousal of the Leislerian cause, which was in effect
+the cause of the common people.
+
+In the Ecclesiastical Records of the State an account of the
+disinterment and reburial of the mutilated remains of Leisler and of
+his son-in-law Milborne shows the determination of Bellomont to make
+what reparation was possible, in addition to the removal of attainder,
+for the injustice done.  The document closes with these words:
+
+
+Yesterday, October 20, [1698] the remains of Commander Jacob Leisler
+and of Jacob Milborne [eight years and {182} five months after their
+execution and burial] were exhumed, and interred again with great pomp
+under our [new] Dutch Church [in Garden Street].  Their weapons and
+armorial ensigns of honor were there [in the Church] hung up, and thus,
+as far as it was possible, their honor was restored to them.  Special
+permission to do this had been received by his Honor's son, Jacob
+Leisler, from his Majesty.  This gave unutterable joy to their families
+and to those people who, under him, had taken up arms for our blessed
+King William.  With this circumstance we trust that the dissensions
+which have so long harassed us, will also be buried.  To this end our
+Right Honorable Governor, my lord the Earl of Bellomont, long wished
+for by us, is exerting his good offices.  He tries to deal impartially
+with all, acting with great fairness and moderation.  He has begun [his
+administration] by remembering the Lord God; for he has ordered a day
+of solemn fasting and prayer throughout the whole land.  In a
+proclamation of great seriousness, he has exhorted the inhabitants
+earnestly to pray for these things [peace among the people] to the
+Divine Majesty.  We hope the Lord will bestow his gracious blessings
+and grace, upon your Reverences, with all our hearts.
+
+
+This proceeding on the part of Bellomont, combined with the appointment
+to office of prominent Leislerians and the dismissal of some of their
+opponents, arrayed at once a formidable body of important citizens
+against him.  Their numbers were augmented by the people who had
+profited by {183} unlawful privileges won from Fletcher and now
+stripped from them by Bellomont; but the Governor pursued his course
+undaunted either by the threats or by the taunts cast against him as a
+partner of the pirate, Captain Kidd.  So beloved was Bellomont by the
+people and so strongly intrenched by influence in the Government at
+home that he could probably have carried through the reforms which he
+had at heart; but his untimely death in 1701, after a brief rule of
+three years, put an end to all his far-reaching schemes for the good of
+the colonies.
+
+His death was followed by a condition approaching civil war between the
+followers of Leisler and their foes.  In 1702 Queen Anne, who had
+recently ascended the throne, appointed as Governor her relative,
+Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury.  He suppressed the Leislerians and exalted
+the aristocratic party, thereby restoring order but at the same time
+bringing odium upon his cause by his personal vices.  Cornbury was a
+type of everything that a colonial governor should not be, a scamp, a
+spendthrift, and a drunkard.  Relying upon his relationship to Queen
+Anne, he felt himself superior to the ordinary restraints of
+civilization.  He took bribes under guise of gifts, was addicted to all
+{184} forms of debauchery, and incidentally proved as foolish as he was
+wicked, one of his amusements, it is said, being that of parading the
+streets of New York in the evening, clad in woman's attire.  His lady
+was as unpopular as he and it is said that when the wheels of her coach
+were heard approaching the house of any of the wealthy citizens of New
+York, the family was hastily set to work hiding the attractive
+ornaments to which her ladyship might take a fancy, as she had no
+compunction in asking for them as a gift.  In an expedition to Albany
+in 1702, Cornbury's vanity led him to decorate his barge with brilliant
+colors, to provide new uniforms for the crew, and generally to play the
+peacock at the expense of the colony.  Rumor placed the sum of his
+debts at £7000.  Moreover he was charged with the embezzlement of £1500
+of government money.
+
+A long-suffering community finally demanded the recall of Lord Cornbury
+and demanded it with the same insistence which was to make itself felt
+in revolution in the last half of the century.  As is usual with
+sovereigns when any right is demanded with sufficient firmness, Queen
+Anne was graciously pleased to withdraw Lord Cornbury in 1708.  On the
+arrival of his successor, Cornbury was placed {185} by indignant
+creditors in the charge of the sheriff, and was held in custody until
+the news of his succession to the earldom of Clarendon reached the
+colony.  The library, furniture, and pictures of the Queen's cousin
+were sold at auction, while the ex-Governor skulked back to England to
+make the best possible showing as to his appropriation of public moneys
+to private uses.  We can picture him wiping his eyes in pathetic
+deprecation, as he exclaimed: "If the Queen is not pleased to pay me,
+the having the Government of New Jersey, which I am persuaded the Queen
+intended for my benefit, will prove my ruin!"
+
+Lord Lovelace, Cornbury's successor, demanded a permanent revenue.  But
+recent experience had taught the colonists to hold the financial power
+in their own hands and they consented only to an annual appropriation,
+thus making the salary of the Governor dependent on his good conduct.
+What would have been the result of this clash of interests will never
+be known, since Lord Lovelace died on May 5, 1709, the same day on
+which the act was passed.
+
+Major Richard Ingoldesby, Leisler's old enemy, now came into power and
+held the reins for a few months, until mismanagement of an expedition
+{186} against Canada caused such indignation that he was withdrawn and
+Robert Hunter became Governor in 1710.  Although of humble Scotch
+parentage he had risen to prominence in English society, numbering
+Swift and Addison among his friends and being married to Lady Hay,
+whose influence had procured for him successive positions of importance
+which culminated in this appointment.
+
+With a view to encouraging the production of naval stores and obtaining
+a profit for the English Government, Hunter brought over at the expense
+of the Crown several thousand Palatines, German inhabitants of the
+Rhine valley harried by the French, thereby adding another alien
+element to the cosmopolitan population.  The British Government
+appropriated the sum of £10,000 for the project and agreed not only to
+transport the emigrants but to maintain them for a time in return for
+their labor.  These Palatines settled on both banks of the Hudson in
+four villages on lands belonging to Robert Livingston, and in three on
+those belonging to the Crown and situated on the west side of the river.
+
+Authorities differ so widely in respect to the treatment of these
+German immigrants that it seems only fair to present both sides.  One
+shows {187} Hunter working in the interest of the English Government
+against that of the colony and represents the movement as a clever plan
+on the part of the Governor to stimulate the production of tar and
+turpentine, to contribute to the government income, and to prevent the
+manufacture of wool, linen, and cotton goods, which at that time were
+largely bought in England.  When Hunter found that the income did not
+meet the outlay, it is said, he notified the newcomers that they "must
+shift for themselves but not outside the province."
+
+On the other hand, the Governor asserted that dwellers in the lower
+Palatinate of the Rhine, when driven from their homes by the French,
+begged the English Government to give them homes in America; that Queen
+Anne graciously agreed that the Palatines should be transported to New
+York at the expense of the English with the understanding that they
+were to work out the advance payment and also the food and lodgings
+provided by the State and by Livingston; but that the Palatines proved
+lazy and failed to carry out their contract.
+
+All accounts agree, however, in describing the hard lot of these
+unfortunate exiles.  Their ocean voyage was long and stormy with much
+fatal {188} illness.  The sites selected for their settlements were not
+desirable.  The native pine was found unsuited to the production of tar
+in large quantities.  They soon discovered that they would never be
+able to pay for their maintenance by such unprofitable labor.
+Moreover, the provisions given them were of inferior quality; and they
+were forced to furnish men for an expedition against Canada while their
+women and children were left either to starvation or to practical
+servitude.  In this desperate situation some of the Palatines turned
+from their fellow Christians to the native savages, and their appeal
+was not in vain.  The Indians gave them permission to settle at
+Schoharie, and many families removed thither in defiance of the
+Governor, who was still bent on manufacturing tar and pitch.  But the
+great majority remained in the Hudson valley and eventually built homes
+on lands which they purchased.
+
+The climate of New York disagreed with Hunter, and his mental
+depression kept pace with his physical debility.  After six years of
+hopeless effort, he was obliged to admit the failure of his plans to
+produce naval stores.  In 1710 he reported of the locality that it "had
+the finest air to live upon; but not for me"; again he says that {189}
+Sancho Panza is a type for him, since that in spite of every effort to
+do his duty no dog could be worse treated.  It is easy to understand
+that a member of the Pope-Swift-Bolingbroke circle in England should
+have found the social atmosphere of early New York far from
+exhilarating; and it is equally easy to comprehend that the pioneers of
+the New World resented his mismanagement of the campaign of 1711
+against Canada and his assertion of the English Government's right to
+tax the colonists without the consent of the colonial Governments.  But
+perhaps Hunter and the people appreciated each other more than either
+realized, for when he took leave in 1719 his words were warmly
+affectionate and his address embodied the exhortation: "May no strife
+ever happen amongst you but that laudable emulation who shall approve
+himself the most zealous servant and most dutiful subject of the best
+of Princes."  And in response to this farewell address the colony of
+New York assured Governor Hunter that he had governed well and wisely,
+"like a prudent magistrate, like an affectionate parent," and that the
+good wishes of his countrymen followed him wherever he went.
+
+It would be pleasant to dwell on this picture of {190} mutual
+confidence and regard, but the rude facts of history hurry us on to
+quite different scenes.  William Burnet, son of the Bishop of
+Salisbury, continued the policy of his predecessor, it is true, and
+lived on unusually amicable terms with the Assembly.  He identified
+himself with the interests of the province by marrying the daughter of
+a prosperous Dutch merchant and by prohibiting the fur trade between
+Albany and Canada; yet even Burnet clashed with the Assembly on
+occasion.  And when after an interval William Cosby became Governor,
+the worst abuses of executive power returned, fomenting quarrels which
+reached a climax in the famous Zenger trial.
+
+The truth was that no matter how popular a governor might be, clashes
+were bound to occur between him and the representatives of the people
+whom he governed, because they represented divergent interests.  The
+question of revenue was an ever-recurring cause of trouble.  Without
+adequate funds from the home Government, the Governor looked to the
+Assembly for his salary as well as for grants to carry on the
+administration of the province.  No matter how absolute the authority
+conferred by his commission and his instructions, the Governor must bow
+to the lower {191} house of the provincial Legislature, which held the
+purse strings.
+
+Under Sloughter, Fletcher, Bellomont, and Cornbury the Assembly had
+voted revenues for a term of years.  But when Cornbury appropriated to
+his own uses £1000 out of the £1800 granted for the defense of the
+frontiers and when in addition he pocketed £1500 of the funds
+appropriated for the protection of the mouth of the Hudson, the
+Assembly grew wary.  Thereafter for four successive years it made only
+annual appropriations, and, wiser still by 1739, it voted supplies only
+in definite amounts for special purposes.  Short-sighted the Assembly
+often was, sometimes in its parsimony leaving the borders unprotected
+and showing a disposition to take as much and to give as little as
+possible--a policy that was fraught with grave peril as the French and
+Indian War drew on apace.
+
+The growing insubordination of the province gave more than one governor
+anxious thought.  Governor Hunter wrote warningly to friends in
+England: "The colonies are infants at their mother's breasts and will
+wean themselves when they become of age."  And Governor Clinton was so
+incensed by the contumacy of the Assembly that he said bluntly: "Every
+branch of this {192} legislature may be criminal in the eyes of the
+law, and there is a power able to punish you and that will punish you
+if you provoke that power to do it by your behaviour.  _Otherwise you
+must think yourselves independent of the crown of Great Britain!_"
+
+
+
+
+{193}
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE ZENGER TRIAL
+
+Among the children of the Palatines imported by Governor Hunter in 1710
+was a lad of thirteen by the name of John Peter Zenger.  Instead of
+proceeding to the Palatine colony, his widowed mother and her little
+family remained in New York.  There Peter was bound apprentice to
+William Bradford, then a well-known printer, for a term of eight years,
+at the end of which time he set up an office of his own.  He evidently
+found himself hard pressed for the means of living, since one finds him
+in 1732 applying to the consistory of the Dutch Church of New York and
+proposing that, since he had so long played the organ without
+recompense, he might take up a voluntary subscription from the
+congregation and that the members of the consistory should head the
+paper as an example to others.  The consistory agreed to allow him
+provisionally the sum of six pounds, New York {194} currency, to be
+paid by the church masters and promised that they would speak with him
+further on the subject of his seeking subscriptions in the
+congregation, a favor for which John Peter was duly grateful.
+
+Governor William Cosby, as he drove in his coach on a Sunday to Trinity
+Church, or as he walked in stately raiment, attended by a negro servant
+who carried his prayer-book on a velvet cushion, could have little
+dreamed that the young printer striding past him on his way to play the
+organ in the old Dutch Church was destined to be the instrument of His
+Excellency's downfall; but the time was not far off when this David,
+armed only with a blackened type of his printer's form, was to set
+forth against this Goliath.  All flaming convictions have a tendency to
+cool into cant, and "the Freedom of the Press" has so long been a
+vote-catching phrase that it is hard nowadays to realize that it was
+once an expression of an ideal for which men were willing to die but
+which they scarcely hoped to achieve.
+
+When Colonel Cosby, former Governor of Minorca, came over the seas in
+1732, to become Governor of New York, he brought with him a none too
+savory reputation.  All that he seemed {195} to have learned in his
+former executive post was the art of conveying public funds to private
+uses.  His government in New York sustained his reputation: it was as
+high-handed as it was corrupt.  He burned deeds and strove to overthrow
+old land-patents, in order that fees for new ones might find their way
+into his pocket.  "Cosby's Manor," a vast tract of land in the Mohawk
+Valley, bore testimony to the success of his methods in acquiring
+wealth.
+
+Upon the death of Cosby's predecessor, John Montgomerie, in 1731, Rip
+van Dam, as president of the Council, had assumed control of the
+affairs of the province until the arrival of the new Governor.  At the
+close of his term, which had lasted a little more than a year, the
+Council passed warrants giving Rip van Dam the salary and the fees of
+the office for the time of his service.  When Cosby appeared he
+produced an order from the King commanding that the perquisites of the
+Governor during the interregnum be equally divided between him and Van
+Dam.  On the authority of this document, Cosby demanded half of the
+salary which Van Dam had received.  "Very well," answered the stalwart
+Dutchman, "but always provided that you share with me on the same {196}
+authority the half of the emoluments which you have received during the
+same period."
+
+The greedy Governor maintained that this was a very different matter.
+Nevertheless he was somewhat puzzled as to how to proceed legally with
+a view to filling his purse.  Since he was himself Chancellor, he could
+not sue in chancery.  He did not dare to bring a suit at common law, as
+he feared that a jury would give a verdict against him.  Under these
+circumstances Cosby took advantage of a clause in the commissions of
+the judges of the Supreme Court which seemed to constitute them Barons
+of the Exchequer, and he therefore directed that an action against Van
+Dam be brought in the name of the King before that court.  The Chief
+Justice, who had held office for eighteen years, was Lewis Morris.  Van
+Dam's counsel promptly took exception to the jurisdiction of the court
+and Morris sustained their plea, whereupon Cosby removed Morris as
+Chief Justice.  Cosby's party included De Lancey, Philipse, Bradley,
+and Harrison, while Alexander, Stuyvesant, Livingston, Cadwallader
+Golden, and most of the prominent citizens, supported Van Dam.  The
+people of New York were now awakening to the fact that this was no
+petty quarrel between two men as to which {197} should receive the
+larger share of government moneys, but that it involved the much larger
+question of whether citizens were to be denied recourse to impartial
+courts in the defense of their rights.
+
+The only paper published in the province, the _New York Weekly
+Gazette_, established in 1725, was entirely in Cosby's interest, and
+the Van Dam party seemed powerless.  They determined, however, to
+strike at least one blow for freedom, and as a first step they
+established in 1733 a paper known as the _New York Weekly Journal_, to
+be published by John Peter Zenger, but to be under the control of far
+abler men.  Morris, Alexander, Smith, and Golden were the principal
+contributors to the new paper, and in a series of articles they
+vigorously criticized the Governor's administration, particularly his
+treatment of Van Dam.  The Governor and Council in high dudgeon at once
+demanded the punishment of the publisher.  They asked the Assembly to
+join them in prosecuting Zenger, but the request was laid upon the
+table.  The Council then ordered the hangman to make a public bonfire
+of four numbers of the _Weekly Journal_; but the mayor and the aldermen
+declared the order illegal and refused to allow it to {198} be carried
+out.  Accordingly the offending numbers of the _Journal_ were burned by
+a negro slave of the sheriff in the presence of Francis Harrison, the
+recorder, and some other partizans of Cosby, the magistrates declining
+to be present at the ceremony.  Whatever satisfaction the Governor and
+his adherents could gain from the burning of these copies of the
+_Journal_ was theirs; but their action served only to make them both
+more ridiculous and more despicable in the eyes of the people.
+
+Not long after this episode Zenger was arrested upon order of the
+Council and thrown into the jail, which was at that time in the City
+Hall on the site of the present United States Sub-Treasury building on
+Wall Street.  Zenger was denied the use of pens, ink, or paper.  The
+grand jury refused to indict him.  But Cosby's attorney-general filed
+an "information" against Zenger for "false, scandalous, malicious and
+seditious libels."
+
+Public interest was now transferred from Van Dam to Zenger, and the
+people saw him as their representative, robbed of his right of free
+speech and imprisoned on an "information" which was in form and
+substance an indictment without action of a grand jury.  Months elapsed
+while Zenger was kept in prison.  His counsel, Smith and Alexander,
+{199} attacked two judges of the court before which he was to be tried,
+on the ground that they were irregularly appointed, the commissions of
+two of them, Chief Justice De Lancey and Judge Philipse, running
+"during pleasure" instead of "during good behavior" and having been
+granted by the Governor without the advice or consent of his Council.
+The anger of the judges thus assailed was expressed by De Lancey, who
+replied: "You have brought it to that point, gentlemen, that either we
+must go from the bench or you from the bar," wherewith he summarily
+ordered the names of the two distinguished lawyers stricken from the
+list of attorneys.
+
+This was obviously a heavy blow to Zenger, as the only other lawyer of
+note in New York was retained in the interests of Cosby and his
+faction.  But Zenger's friends never ceased their determined efforts in
+his behalf, and Smith and Alexander remained active in counsel if not
+in court.  Meanwhile the judges appointed an insignificant attorney,
+John Chambers by name, to act for Zenger and fancied that their
+intrigue was sure of success.
+
+The trial came on before the Supreme Court sitting on August 4, 1735,
+De Lancey acting as Chief Justice, Philipse as second judge, and {200}
+Bradley as attorney-general.  Chambers pleaded "not guilty" on behalf
+of his client; but to the throng who crowded the court-room to
+suffocation, Zenger's case must have looked black indeed.  There was no
+question that he had published the objectionable articles, and
+according to the English law of the day the truth of a libel could not
+be set up as a defense.  It was even some years later that Lord
+Mansfield upheld the amazing doctrine that "the greater the truth the
+greater the libel."  A part of the importance of the Zenger trial lies
+in its sweeping away in this part of the world the possibility of so
+monstrous a theory.
+
+A great and overwhelming surprise, however, awaited the prosecutors of
+Zenger.  The secret had been well kept and apparently every one was
+amazed when there appeared for the defense one Andrew Hamilton, a
+citizen of Philadelphia, of venerable age and the most noted and able
+lawyer in the colonies.  From this moment he became the central figure
+of the trial and his address was followed with breathless interest.  He
+touched upon his own age and feebleness with consummate tact and
+dramatic effect:
+
+
+You see that I labour under the weight of years, and am borne down with
+great infirmities of body; yet, old and {201} weak as I am, I should
+think it my duty, if required, to go to the utmost part of the land,
+where my service could be of use in assisting to quench the flame of
+prosecutions upon _information_ set on foot by the government, to
+deprive a people of the right of remonstrating (and complaining too) of
+the arbitrary attempts of men in power.  Men who injure and oppress the
+people under their administration provoke them to cry out and complain,
+and then make that very complaint the foundation for new oppressions
+and prosecutions.  I wish I could say there were no instances of this
+kind.  But to conclude: the question before the court, and you,
+gentlemen of the jury, is not of small nor private concern; it is not
+the cause of a poor printer, nor of New York alone, which you are now
+trying.  No!  It may in its consequence affect every freeman that lives
+under a British government on the main of America!  It is the best
+cause.  It is the cause of liberty, and I make no doubt but your
+upright conduct this day will not only entitle you to the love and
+esteem of your fellow-citizens, but every man who prefers freedom to a
+life of slavery will bless and honour you, as men who have baffled the
+attempt of tyranny, and by an impartial and uncorrupt verdict have laid
+a noble foundation for securing to ourselves, our posterity, and our
+neighbors, that to which nature and the laws of our country have given
+us a right--the liberty both of exposing and opposing arbitrary power
+... by speaking and writing _truth_!
+
+
+With scathing irony he fell upon the theory that truth was no defense
+for libel:
+
+
+{202} If a libel is understood in the large and unlimited sense urged
+by Mr. Attorney, there is scarce a writing I know that may not be
+called a libel, or scarce any person safe from being called to account
+as a libeller; for Moses, meek as he was, libelled Cain, and who is it
+that has not libelled the devil?  For according to Mr. Attorney, it is
+no justification to say that one has a bad name.  Echard has libelled
+our good King William; Burnet has libelled among others, King Charles
+and King James; and Rapin has libelled them all.  How must a man speak
+or write, or what must he hear, read, or sing?  Or when must he laugh,
+so as to be secure from being taken up as a libeller?  I sincerely
+believe that were some persons to go through the streets of New York
+nowadays and read a part of the Bible, if it were not known to be such,
+Mr. Attorney, with the help of his innuendoes, would easily turn it
+into a libel.  As for instance, the sixteenth verse of the ninth
+chapter of Isaiah: _The leaders of the people cause them to err, and
+they that are led by them are destroyed_.  But should Mr. Attorney go
+about to make this a libel, he would treat it thus: "The leaders of the
+people (innuendo, the governor and council of New York) cause them
+(innuendo, the people of this province) to err, and they (meaning the
+people of the province) are destroyed (innuendo, are deceived into the
+loss of their liberty)," which is the worst kind of destruction.  Or,
+if some person should publicly repeat, in a manner not pleasing to his
+betters, the tenth and eleventh verses of the fifty-sixth chapter of
+the same book, there Mr. Attorney would have a large field to display
+his skill in the artful application of his innuendoes.  The words are,
+"His watchmen are all blind, they are ignorant; yes, they are greedy
+dogs, that {203} can never have enough."  But to make them a libel,
+there is according to Mr. Attorney's doctrine, no more wanting but the
+aid of his skill in the right adapting of his innuendoes.  As for
+instance, "His watchmen (innuendo, the governor's council and Assembly)
+are blind; they are ignorant (innuendo, will not see the dangerous
+designs of His Excellency); yea they (meaning the governor and council)
+are greedy dogs which can never have enough (innuendo, enough of riches
+and power)."
+
+
+Thus Hamilton skillfully appealed to the independent principles of the
+jury.  There was no note, satiric, pathetic, or patriotic, which he did
+not strike.  Overwhelmed by the torrent of his eloquence, Bradley, the
+Attorney-General, scarcely attempted a reply.  The Chief Justice stated
+that the jury might bring in a verdict on the fact of publication and
+leave it to the Court to decide whether it were libelous.  But Hamilton
+was far too wary to be caught thus.  "I know, may it please your
+Honor," said he, "the jury may do so; but I do likewise know that they
+may do otherwise.  I know they have the right, beyond all dispute, to
+determine both the law and the fact, and where they do not doubt the
+law, they ought to do so."  Nevertheless the Chief Justice charged the
+jury:
+
+
+Gentlemen of the Jury: The great pains Mr. Hamilton has taken, to show
+you how little regard juries are {204} to pay to the opinion of the
+judges, and his insisting so much upon the conduct of some judges in
+trials of this kind, is done, no doubt, with a design that you should
+take but very little notice of what I might say upon this occasion.  I
+shall, therefore, only observe to you that, as the facts or words in
+the information are confessed; the only thing that can come in question
+before you is whether the words set forth in the information, make a
+libel.  And that is a matter of law, no doubt, and which you may leave
+to the Court.
+
+
+But the show of authority and the attempt at allurement were all in
+vain.  The jury took but a few moments to deliberate and returned with
+the verdict of "not guilty."  The roar of applause which shook the
+court-room was more than a tribute to the eloquence of the aged counsel
+who had accepted an unpopular case without fees because he felt that he
+was working for the cause of freedom.  It was more than a tribute to
+the poor printer who had risked everything in the same cause.  It was
+the spirit of the barons at Runnymede, of the Long Parliament, of the
+Revolution of 1688, of Patrick Henry of Virginia when he cried: "Give
+me liberty or give me death!"
+
+The Court, divided between wrath and surprise, strove to check the wave
+of applause and threatened with imprisonment the leader of the cheers;
+{205} but a son-in-law of ex-Chief Justice Lewis Morris succeeded in
+making himself heard, and declared that cheers were as lawful there as
+in Westminster Hall, where they had been loud enough over the acquittal
+of the seven bishops in 1688.  Upon this the applause broke out again,
+and Hamilton was acclaimed the people's champion.  A dinner was given
+in his honor and the freedom of the city was bestowed upon him.  When
+he entered his barge for the return journey to Philadelphia, flags
+waved, cannon boomed, and hurrahs resounded from all quarters.
+
+
+
+
+{206}
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE NEGRO PLOTS
+
+As early as the eighteenth century New York had become a cosmopolitan
+town.  Its population contained not only Dutch and English in nearly
+equal numbers, but also French, Swedes, Jews, Negroes, and sailors,
+travelers from every land.  The settled portion of the city, according
+to a map of 1729, extended as far north as Beekman Street on the East
+Side and as far as Trinity Church on the West Side.  A few blocks
+beyond the church lay Old Wind Mill Lane touching King's Farm, which
+was still open country.  Here Broadway shook off all semblance to a
+town thoroughfare and became a dusty country road, meeting the
+post-road to Boston near the lower end of the rope walk.  "The cittie
+of New York is a pleasant, well-compacted place," wrote Madam Knight,
+who journeyed on horseback from Boston over this post-road and who
+recorded her experiences in an entertaining {207} journal.  "The
+buildings brick generally, very stately and high, though not altogether
+like ours in Boston.  The bricks in some of the houses are of divers
+coullers and laid in checkers, being glazed look very agreeable.  The
+inside of them are neat to admiration."
+
+Besides its welcoming houses set among spreading trees, New York
+possessed public buildings of dignity and distinction.  There was
+Trinity Church, whose tall steeple was one of the first landmarks to
+catch the traveler's eye as he journeyed down the river from Albany.
+The new City Hall, dating from Bellomont's time and standing on a site
+at the corner of Wall and Broad Streets, given by Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster, was also a source of pride.  With its substantial wings and
+arched colonnade in the center it was quite imposing.  Here the
+Assembly, Council, and Court sat.  Here, too, were offices and a
+library.  But the cellar was used as a dungeon and the attic as a
+common prison.
+
+New markets and wharves told of the growing commerce of the city and
+province.  On every hand were evidences of luxurious living.  There
+were taverns and coffee-houses where gold flowed in abundant streams
+from the pockets of pirates and smugglers, and in the streets
+crest-emblazoned {208} family coaches, while sedan chairs were borne by
+negro slaves along the narrow brick pathways in the center of the town.
+The dress of the people told the same story of prosperity.  The streets
+of the fashionable quarter around Trinity Church were fairly ablaze
+with gay costumes.  Men of fashion wore powdered wigs and cocked hats,
+cloth or velvet coats reaching to the knee, breeches, and low shoes
+with buckles.  They carried swords, sometimes studded with jewels, and
+in their gloved hands they held snuff-boxes of costly material and
+elaborate design.  The ladies who accompanied them were no less gaily
+dressed.  One is described as wearing a gown of purple and gold,
+opening over a black velvet petticoat and short enough to show green
+silk stockings and morocco shoes embroidered in red.  Another wore a
+flowered green and gold gown, over a scarlet and gold petticoat edged
+with silver.  Everywhere were seen strange fabrics of oriental design
+coming from the holds of mysterious ships which unloaded
+surreptitiously along the water front.
+
+The members of one class alone looked on all this prosperous life with
+sullen discontent--the negro slaves whose toil made possible the
+leisure of their owners.  These strange, uncouth Africans seemed {209}
+out of place in New York, and from early times they had exhibited
+resentment and hatred toward the governing classes, who in turn looked
+upon them with distrust.  This smoldering discontent of the blacks
+aroused no little uneasiness and led to the adoption of laws which,
+especially in the cities, were marked by a brutality quite out of
+keeping with the usual moderation of the colony.  When Mrs. Grant wrote
+later of negro servitude in Albany as "slavery softened into a smile,"
+she spoke in the first place from a narrow observation of life in a
+cultivated family, and in the second place from scant knowledge of the
+events which had preceded the kind treatment of the negroes.
+
+In 1684 an ordinance was passed declaring that no negroes or Indian
+slaves above the number of four should meet together on the Lord's Day
+or at any other time or at any place except on their master's service.
+They were not to go armed with guns, swords, clubs, or stones on
+penalty of ten lashes at the whipping-post.  An act provided that no
+slave should go about the streets after nightfall anywhere south of the
+Collect without a lighted lantern "so as the light thereof could be
+plainly seen."  A few years later Governor Cornbury ordered the
+justices of the peace in King's County to seize and {210} apprehend all
+negroes who had assembled themselves in a riotous manner or had
+absconded from their masters.
+
+In 1712, during the Administration of Governor Robert Hunter, a group
+of negroes, perhaps forty in number, formed a plot which justified the
+terror of their masters, though it was so mad that it could have
+originated only in savage minds.  These blacks planned to destroy all
+the white people of the city, then numbering over six thousand.
+Meeting in an orchard the negroes set fire to a shed and then lurked
+about in the shadows, armed with every kind of weapon on which they
+could lay hands.
+
+As the negroes had expected, all the citizens of the neighborhood,
+seeing the conflagration, came running to the spot to fight the flames.
+The blacks succeeded in killing nine men and wounding many more before
+the alarm reached the fort.  Then of course the affair ended.  The
+slaves fled to the forests at the northern end of the island; but the
+soldiers stationed sentries and then hunted down the negroes, beating
+the woods to be sure that none escaped.  Six of the negroes, seeing
+that their doom was sealed, killed themselves, and the fate of the
+captives showed that they well knew what mercy {211} to expect at the
+hands of the enraged whites.  Twenty-one were put to death, one being
+broken on the wheel and several burned at the stake, while the rest
+were hanged.
+
+After this experience of the danger attending the holding of slaves,
+the restrictions upon the negroes grew even more irksome and the
+treatment they received more that of outcasts.  For instance, a slave
+must be buried by daylight, without pallbearers and with not more than
+a dozen negroes present as mourners.
+
+In spite of bright spots in the picture the outlook grew constantly
+darker; a mistrust ready to develop on slight provocation into terror
+perturbed the whites; and every rumor was magnified till there reigned
+a panic as widespread as that caused by the reports of witchcraft in
+New England.  At length in 1741 the storm burst.  One March night,
+while a gale was sweeping the city, a fire was discovered on the roof
+of the Governor's house in the fort.  Church bells sounded the alarm
+and firemen and engines hurried to the spot; but it was hopeless to try
+to extinguish the flames, which spread to the chapel and to the office
+of the secretary over the fort gate, where the records of the colony
+were stored.  The barracks then caught fire, and in a {212} little over
+an hour everything in the fort was destroyed, the hand-grenades
+exploding as they caught fire and spreading destruction in every
+direction.
+
+A month later a fire broke out at night near the Vlei Market.  A bucket
+brigade was formed and the fire was extinguished.  On the same night
+the loft in a house on the west side of the town was found to be in
+flames, and coals were discovered between two straw beds occupied by a
+negro.  The next day coals were found under the coach-house of John
+Murray on Broadway, and on the day following a fire broke out again
+near the Vlei Market.  Thus the townsfolk were made certain that an
+incendiary plot was on foot.  Of course every one's thoughts flew to
+the negro slaves as the conspirators, especially when a Mrs. Earle
+announced that she had overheard three negroes threatening to burn the
+town.
+
+The authorities were as much alarmed as the populace and at once leaped
+to the conclusion that the blame for the incendiarism, of which they
+scarcely paused to investigate the evidence, was to be divided between
+the Roman Catholics and the negroes, who without reasonable grounds had
+so long constituted their chief terror.
+
+{213}
+
+The Common Council offered pardon and a reward of one hundred pounds to
+any conspirator who would reveal the story of the plot and the names of
+the criminals involved.  Under the influence of this offer one Mary
+Burton, a servant in the employ of Hughson, the tavern-keeper, accused
+her master, her mistress, their daughter, and a woman of evil
+reputation known as Peggy Carey, or Kerry, as well as a number of
+negroes, of being implicated in the plot.  She said that the negroes
+brought stolen goods to the tavern and were protected by Hughson, who
+had planned with them the burning and plundering of the city and the
+liberation of the slaves.  On this unsupported evidence Peggy Carey and
+a number of negroes were condemned to execution, and under terror of
+death, or encouraged by the hope of pardon, these prisoners made
+numerous confessions implicating one another, until by the end of
+August twenty-four whites and one hundred and fifty-four negroes had
+been imprisoned.  Four whites, including Hughson and Peggy Carey, were
+executed; fourteen negroes were burned at the stake; eighteen were
+hanged, seventy-one transported, and the remainder pardoned or
+discharged.
+
+Accusations were also made that the Roman {214} Catholics had stirred
+up the plot; and persons of reputation and standing were accused of
+complicity.  The effect of the popular panic, which rendered impossible
+the calm weighing of evidence and extinguished any sense of proportion,
+is seen in the letters of Governor George Clarke.  On June 20, 1741, he
+writes to the Lords of Trade as follows:
+
+
+The fatal fire that consumed the buildings in the fort and great part
+of my substance (for my loss is not less than two thousand pounds), did
+not happen by accident as I at first apprehended, but was kindled by
+design, in the execution of a horrid Conspiracy to burn it and the
+whole town, and to Massacre the people; as appears evidently not only
+by the Confession of the Negro who set fire to it, in some part of the
+same gutter where the Plumber was to work, but also by the testimony of
+several witnesses.  How many Conspirators there were we do not yet
+know; every day produces new discoveries, and I apprehend that in the
+town, if the truth were known, there are not many innocent Negro
+men....  I do myself the honor to send your Lordships the minutes taken
+at the tryal of Quack who burned the fort, and of another Negro, who
+was tryed with him, and their confession at the stake; with some
+examinations, whereby your Lordships will see their designs; it was
+ridiculous to suppose that they could keep possession of the town, if
+they had destroyed the white people, yet the mischief they would have
+done in pursuit of their intention would nevertheless have been {215}
+great....  Whether, or how far, the hand of popery has been in this
+hellish conspiracy, I cannot yet discover; but there is room to suspect
+it, by what two of the Negroes have confessed, viz: that soon after
+they were spoke to, and had consented to be parties to it, they had
+some checks of conscience, which they said, would not suffer them to
+burn houses and kill the White people; whereupon those who drew them
+into the conspiracy told them, there was no sin or wickedness in it,
+and that if they would go to Huson's [Hughson's] house, they should
+find a man who would satisfy them; but they say they would not, nor did
+go.  Margaret Keny [Kerry] was supposed to be a papist, and it is
+suspected that Huson and his wife were brought over to it.  There was
+in town some time ago a man who is said to be a Romish Priest, who used
+to be at Huson's but has disappeared ever since the discovery of the
+conspiracy and is not now to be found.
+
+
+Later in the summer the Governor recorded his suspicions as follows:
+
+
+We then thought it [the] Plot was projected only by Huson [Hughson] and
+the Negroes; but it is now apparent that the hand of popery is in it,
+for a Romish Priest having been tryed, was upon full and clear evidence
+convicted of having a deep share in it....  Where, by whom, or in what
+shape this plot was first projected is yet undiscovered; that which at
+present seems most probable is that Huson, an indigent fellow of a vile
+character, casting in his thoughts how to mend his circumstances,
+inticed some Negroes to rob their Masters and to bring the stolen
+[goods] to him on {216} promise of reward when they were sold; but
+seeing that by this pilfering trade riches did not flow into him fast
+enough, and finding the Negroes fit instruments for any villainy, he
+then fell upon the schemes of burning the fort and town, and murdering
+the people, as the speediest way to enrich himself and them, and to
+gain their freedom, for that was the Negroes main inducement....  The
+conspirators had hopes given them that the Spaniards would come hither
+and join with them early in the Spring; but if they failed of coming,
+then the business was to be done by the Conspirators without them; many
+of them were christen'd by the Priest, absolved from all their past
+sins and whatever they should do in the Plott; many of them sworn by
+him (others by Huson) to burn and destroy, and to be secret; wherein
+they were but too punctual; how weak soever the scheme may appear, it
+was plausible and strong enough to engage and hold the Negroes, and
+that was all that the Priest and Huson wanted; for had the fort taken
+fire in the night, as it was intended, the town was then to have been
+fired in several places at once; in which confusion much rich plunder
+might have been got and concealed; and if they had it in view too, to
+serve the enemy, they could not have done it more effectually; for this
+town being laid in ashes his Majesties forces in the West Indies might
+have suffered much for want of provisions, and perhaps been unable to
+proceed upon any expedition or piece of service from whence they might
+promise themselves great rewards; I doubt the business is pretty nigh
+at an end, for since the Priest has been apprehended, and some more
+white men named, great industry has been used throughout the town to
+discredit the witnesses and prejudice the people {217} against them;
+and I am told it has had in a great measure its intended effect; I am
+sorry for it, for I do not think we are yet got near the bottom of it,
+where I doubt the principal conspirators lie concealed.
+
+
+With the collapse of the excitement through its own excess, ends the
+history of the great negro "plot."  Whether it had any shadow of
+reality has never been determined.  Judge Horsmanden, who sat as one of
+the justices during the trials growing out of the so-called plots,
+compiled later a record of examinations and alleged confessions whereby
+he sought to justify the course of both judges and juries; but the
+impression left by his report is that panic had paralyzed the judgment
+of even the most honest white men, while among the negroes a still
+greater terror, combined with a wave of hysteria, led to boundless
+falsification and to numberless unjustified accusations.
+
+
+
+
+{218}
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON
+
+The story of the French and Indian wars on our border does not fall
+within the scope of this chronicle; but in order to understand the
+development of New York we must know something of the conditions which
+prevailed in the province during that troubled epoch.  The penurious
+policy pursued by the Dutch and continued by the English left the
+colony without defenses on either the northern or southern boundaries.
+For a long time the settlers found themselves bulwarked against the
+French on the north by the steadfast friendship of the "Six Nations,"
+comprising the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, the
+Senecas, and the Tuscaroras; but at last these trusty allies began to
+feel that the English were not doing their share in the war.  The lack
+of military preparation in New York was inexcusable.  The niggardliness
+of the Assembly alienated successive governors and {219} justified
+Clinton's assertion: "If you deny me the necessary supplies all my
+endeavors must become fruitless.  I must wash my own hands and leave at
+your doors the blood of innocent people."
+
+When the Indians under the leadership of the French actually took the
+warpath, the colonists at last awoke to their peril.  Upon call of
+Lieutenant-Governor De Lancey, acting under instructions of the Lords
+of Trade, all the colonies north of the Potomac except New Jersey sent
+commissioners to a congress at Albany in June, 1754, to plan measures
+of defense and of alliance with the Six Nations.
+
+Albany was still a placid little Dutch town.  Mrs. Grant of Laggan in
+Scotland, who visited Albany in her girlhood, wrote of it afterward
+with a gentle suavity which lent glamour to the scenes which she
+described.  She pictures for us a little town in which every house had
+its garden at the rear and in front a shaded stoop with seats on either
+side where the family gathered to enjoy the twilight.  "Each family had
+a cow, fed in a common pasture at the end of the town.  In the evening
+they returned all together, of their own accord, with their tinkling
+bells hung at their necks, along the wide and grassy street, to their
+wonted {220} sheltering trees, to be milked.  At one door were young
+matrons, at another the elders of the people, at a third the youths and
+maidens, gaily chatting or singing together, while the children played
+around the trees, or waited by the cows for the chief ingredient of
+their frugal supper, which they generally ate sitting on the steps in
+the open air."
+
+The court-house of Albany to which the commissioners journeyed by boat
+up the Hudson, is described by Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveler and
+scientist, as a fine stone building by the riverside, three stories
+high with a small steeple containing a bell, and topped by a gilt ball
+and weather-vane.  From the engraved print which has come down to us,
+it seems a barren barrack of a building with an entrance quite
+inadequate for the men of distinction who thronged its halls on this
+memorable occasion.
+
+In this congress at Albany, Benjamin Franklin from Pennsylvania and
+William Johnson of New York were the dominating figures.  The famous
+plan of union which Franklin presented has sometimes made historians
+forget the services rendered by this redoubtable Colonel Johnson at a
+moment when the friendship of the Six Nations was hanging in the
+balance.  Though gifts had been {221} prepared and a general invitation
+had been sent, only a hundred and fifty warriors appeared at Albany and
+they held themselves aloof with a distrust that was almost contempt.
+"Look at the French!" exclaimed Hendrick, the great chief of the
+Mohawks.  "They are men.  They are fortifying everywhere; but, we are
+ashamed to say it, you are all like women--bare and open without any
+fortifications."  In this crisis all the commissioners deferred to
+William Johnson as the one man who enjoyed the complete confidence of
+the Six Nations.  It was he who formulated the Indian policy of the
+congress.
+
+He had been born in Ireland.  His mother was Anne Warren, sister to
+Captain Peter Warren, who "served with reputation" in the Royal Navy
+and afterward became Knight of the Bath and Vice-Admiral of the Red
+Squadron of the British Fleet.  Captain Warren was less than a dozen
+years older than his nephew, whom he regarded with affectionate
+interest.  He described him as "a spritely boy well grown of good parts
+and keen wit but most onruly and streperous," and the sailor added: "I
+see the making of a strong man.  I shall keep my weather eye on the
+lad."
+
+The result of this observation was so favorable {222} that the captain,
+who was on station in America, sent for William Johnson to come out and
+aid him in the development of a real estate venture.  A large tract of
+land near the Mohawk River had come into Warren's possession, and as a
+sailor Warren naturally found difficulty in superintending land at what
+was then a week's journey from the seacoast.  "Billy" was his choice as
+an assistant, and the boy, who was then twenty-three years old, left
+the Old World and in 1738 reached the new plantation where his
+life-work lay before him.  For this he was admirably equipped by his
+Irish inheritance of courage, tact, and humor, by his study of English
+law, and by a facility in acquiring languages which enabled him to
+master the Mohawk tongue in two years after his arrival in New York.
+
+The business arrangement between Captain Warren and his nephew provided
+that Johnson should form a settlement on his uncle's land known as
+Warrensbush, at the juncture of Schoharie Kill and the Mohawk, that he
+should sell farms, oversee settlers, clear and hedge fields, "girdle"
+trees (in order to kill them and let in the sun), purchase supplies,
+and in partnership with Warren establish a village store to meet the
+necessities {223} of the new colonists and to serve as a
+trading-station with the Indians.  In compensation for his services he
+was to be allowed to cultivate a part of the land for himself, though
+it is hard to imagine what time or strength could have been left for
+further exertions after the fulfillment of the onerous duties marked
+out for him.
+
+A few years after his arrival at Warrensbush he married a young Dutch
+or German woman named Catherine Weisenberg, perhaps an indentured
+servant whose passage had been prepaid on condition of service in
+America.  Little is known of the date or circumstances of this
+marriage.  It is certain only that after a few years Catherine died,
+leaving three children, to whom Johnson proved a kind and considerate
+father, in spite of an erratic domestic career which involved his
+taking as the next head of his household Caroline, niece of the Mohawk
+chief Hendrick, and later Molly Brant, sister of the Indian, Joseph
+Brant.
+
+Molly Brant, by whom Johnson had eight children, was recognized as his
+wife by the Indians, while among Johnson's English friends she was
+known euphemistically as "the brown Lady Johnson."  She presided over
+his anomalous household with dignity and discretion; but it is
+noticeable {224} that Johnson, who was so willing to defy public
+opinion in certain matters, was sufficiently conventional in others, as
+we learn from a description of the daily life of the legitimate
+daughters of the house.  While Mohawk chiefs, Oneida braves, Englishmen
+of title, and distinguished guests of every kind thronged the mansion,
+and while the little half-breed children played about the lawns and
+disported themselves on the shores of Kayaderosseras Creek close at
+hand, "the young ladies" lived in almost conventual seclusion.
+
+The grim baronial mansion where this mixed household made its dwelling
+for many years, was called variously Mount Johnson, Castle Johnson, and
+Fort Johnson.  It was built in 1742 with such massive walls that the
+house is still standing in the town of Amsterdam.  In 1755, when the
+Indian peril loomed large on the horizon, the original defenses were
+strengthened, a stockade was built as a further protection, and from
+this time on it was called Fort Johnson.
+
+Owing perhaps to Johnson's precautions and the Indian's knowledge of
+his character, the fort was not attacked and its owner continued to
+dwell in the house until 1762, when, having become one of the richest
+men in the colony, he built on a tract {225} of land in Johnstown a
+more ambitious, and, it is to be hoped, a more cheerful mansion known
+as Johnson Hall.  This house was built of wood with wings of stone,
+pierced at the top for muskets.  On one side of the house lay a garden
+and nursery described as the pride of the surrounding country.  Here
+Johnson lived with an opulence which must have amazed the simple
+settlers around him, especially those who remembered his coming to the
+colony as a poor youth less than thirty years earlier.  He had in his
+service a secretary, a physician, a musician who played the violin for
+the entertainment of guests, a gardener, a butler, a waiter named
+Pontiach, of mixed negro and Indian blood, a pair of white dwarfs to
+attend upon himself and his friends, an overseer, and ten or fifteen
+slaves.
+
+This retinue of servants was none too large to cope with the unbounded
+hospitality which Johnson dispensed.  A visitor reports having seen at
+the Hall from sixty to eighty Indians at one time lodging under tents
+on the lawn and taking their meals from tables made of pine boards
+spread under the trees.  On another occasion, when Sir William called a
+council of the Iroquois at Fort Johnson, a thousand natives gathered,
+and Johnson's {226} neighbors within a circuit of twenty miles were
+invited to assist in the rationing of this horde of visitors.  The
+landholders along the Mohawk might well have been glad to share the
+burden of Sir William's tribal hospitality, since its purpose was as
+much political as social and its results were of endless benefit to the
+entire colony.
+
+At last the Indians had found a friend, a white man who understood them
+and whom they could understand.  He was honest with them and therefore
+they trusted him.  He was sympathetic and therefore they were ready to
+discuss their troubles freely with him.  As an Indian of mixed blood
+declared to the Governor at Albany in speaking of Sir William: "His
+knowledge of our affairs, our laws, and our language made us think he
+was not like any other white but an Indian like ourselves.  Not only
+that; but in his house is an Indian woman, and his little children are
+half-breed as I am."
+
+The English therefore were peculiarly fortunate in finding at the most
+critical stage of their political dealings with the Indians a
+representative endowed with the wisdom and insight of Sir William
+Johnson.  Unlike the French, he did not strive to force an alien form
+of worship upon this primitive people.  Unlike the Dutch, he insisted
+{227} that business should be carried on as honestly with the natives
+as with the white men.  Unlike his fellow-countrymen, he constantly
+urged adequate preparation for war on the part of the English and
+demanded that they should bear their share of the burden.  In a written
+report at the Albany congress he strongly recommended that inasmuch as
+the Six Nations, owing to their wars with the French, had fallen short
+both in hunting and planting, they should be provided with food from
+the English supplies.  Finally he testified to the sincerity of his
+convictions by going to the war himself and rendering valuable service
+first as colonel and later as major-general.  After the Battle of Lake
+George, Johnson was knighted by the King and received a grant of £5000
+from Parliament.  In the same year he was appointed by the Crown "Agent
+and Sole Superintendent of the Six Nations and other northern Indians"
+inhabiting British territory north of the Carolinas and the Ohio River.
+
+Johnson is described by one who saw him about this time or somewhat
+earlier as a man of commanding presence, only a little short of six
+feet in height, "neck massive, broad chest and large limbs, great
+physical strength, the head large and shapely, {228} countenance open
+and beaming with good nature, eyes grayish black, hair brown with tinge
+of auburn."  His activity took every form and was exerted in every
+direction.  His documents and correspondence number over six thousand
+and fill twenty-six volumes preserved in the State Library.  Nor did
+these represent his chief activities.  He was constantly holding
+councils with the native tribes either at Fort Johnson or at the Indian
+camps.  It was he who kept the Mohawks from joining in Pontiac's
+conspiracy which swept the western border; it was he who negotiated the
+famous treaty at Fort Stanwix in 1768.  In the midsummer of 1774 he
+succumbed to an old malady after an impassioned address to six hundred
+Iroquois gathered at Johnson Hall.
+
+He was one of the fortunate few whose characters and careers fit
+exactly.  He found scope for every power that he possessed and he won
+great rewards.  His tireless energy expressed itself in cultivating
+thousands of acres and in building houses, forts, and churches.  He
+dipped a lavish hand into his abundant wealth and scattered his gold
+where it was of the greatest service.  He loved hospitality and
+gathered hundreds round his board.  He was a benevolent autocrat and
+nations bowed {229} to his will.  He paid homage to his King, and died
+cherishing the illusion of the value of prerogative.  He was fortunate
+in his death as in his life, for he was spared the throes of the mighty
+changes already under way, when the King's statue should be pulled down
+to be melted into bullets, when New York should merge her identity in
+the Union of States, and when the dwellers along the banks of the
+Hudson and its tributaries should call themselves no longer Dutch or
+English but Americans.
+
+
+
+
+{231}
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+The student who has the courage to delve in the _Documents relative to
+the Colonial History of the State of New York_, the _Documentary
+History of the State of New York_, the ecclesiastical records, the
+pioneer journals, and the minutes of early city councils, will not only
+reach the fundamental authorities on the history of the settlers on the
+Hudson, but will find many interesting incidents of which the dull
+titles give no promise.
+
+If the reader prefer to follow a blazed trail, he will find a path
+marked out for him in reliable works such as _The History of New
+Netherland_ by E. B. O'Callaghan, 2 vols. (1855), _The History of the
+State of New York_ by J. R. Brodhead, 2 vols. (1871), _The Narratives
+of New Netherland_, admirably edited by J. F. Jameson (1909), _New
+York_, a condensed history by E. H. Roberts (1904), John Fiske's _Dutch
+and Quaker Colonies in America_, 2 vols. (1899), and William Smith's
+_History of the Late Province of New York_ (first published in 1757 and
+still valuable).
+
+Many histories of New York City have been written to satisfy the
+general reader.  Among the larger works are Mrs. M. J. Lamb's _History
+of the City of New York_, 2 vols. (1877; revised edition, 1915, in 3
+vols.), Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer's _History of the City of New York
+in the Seventeenth Century_, 2 vols. (1909), {232} James G. Wilson's
+_Memorial History of the City of New York_, 4 vols. (1892), and
+_Historic New York_, 2 vols. (edited by M. W. Goodwin, A. C. Royce, and
+Ruth Putnam, 1912).  Theodore Roosevelt has written a single volume on
+New York for the _Historic Towns_ series (1910).  In his _New Amsterdam
+and its People_ (1902), J. H. Innes has brought together valuable
+studies of the social and topographical features of the town under
+Dutch and early English rule.  I. N. P. Stokes's _Iconography of
+Manhattan Island_ (1915) is calculated to delight the soul of the
+antiquarian.
+
+One who wishes to turn to the lighter side of provincial life will find
+it set forth in attractive volumes such as _Colonial Days in Old New
+York_ by A. M. Earle (1915), _The Story of New Netherland_ by W. E.
+Griffis (1909), _In Old New York_ by T. A. Janvier (1894), and the
+_Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta_ by M. K. Van Rensselaer (1898).
+
+Most rewarding perhaps of all sources are those dealing with the
+biographies of the prominent figures in the history of the State, since
+in them we find the life of the times illustrated and personalized.  E.
+M. Bacon in his _Henry Hudson_ (1907) gives us a picture of the great
+mariner and the difficulties against which he strove.  The _Van
+Rensselaer-Bowier Manuscripts_, edited by A. J. F. Van Laer (1908) show
+us through his personal letters the Patroon of the upper Hudson and
+make us familiar with life on his estates.  J. K. Paulding in _Affairs
+and Men of New Amsterdam in the Time of Governor Peter Stuyvesant_
+(1843) makes the town-dwellers equally real to us, while W. L. Stone's
+_Life and Times of Sir William Johnson_, 2 vols. (1865), shows us the
+pioneer struggles in the Mohawk Valley.  In the English _State Trials_
+{233} compiled by T. B. Howells, 34 vols. (1828), we read the story of
+the famous pirate Captain Kidd, and find it more interesting than many
+a work of fiction.
+
+Among the autobiographical accounts of colonial life the most
+entertaining are _The Memoirs of an American Lady_ by A. M. Grant
+(1809), _A Two Years' Journal in New York, etc._ by Charles Wolley
+(1902), and _The Private Journal of Sarah Kemble Knight_, the record of
+a journey from Boston to New York in 1704 (1901).
+
+Further bibliographical references will be found appended to the
+articles on _Hudson River_, _New York_, and _New York_ (_City_), in
+_The Encyclopædia Britannica_, 11th edition.
+
+
+
+
+{235}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Adventure-Galley_, The (ship), 170, 171, 172, 173
+
+Albany, name of Fort Orange changed to, 137; refuses to send delegates
+to Fort James, 153; preëminently Dutch, 154; refuses to recognize
+Leisler, 154, 156; Leisler sends troops to assistance of, 156; congress
+(1754), 219, 220-21; court-house, 220; _see also_ Orange, Fort
+
+Alexander, James, supports Van Dam, 196; contributes to _New York
+Weekly Journal_, 197; counsel for Zenger, 198-99
+
+Amersfort, 77
+
+Amsterdam, Fort, established, 54; condition in 1638, 61; becomes Fort
+James, 137; _see also_ James, Fort
+
+Andros, Sir Edmund, Governor of New York, 144; asserts authority in New
+Jersey, 146-147; recalled, 147; appointed Governor-General of "Dominion
+of New England" (1688), 149; imprisoned in Boston, 151; instructed to
+suppress piracy, 167
+
+Angola, Paul d', one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Archer, John, 140
+
+Arlington, Lord, 139
+
+_Arms of Amsterdam_, The (ship), 26
+
+Avery, buccaneer, 173
+
+
+Barents, Reymier, 156
+
+Barentsen, Pieter, 54
+
+Bayard, Mrs., sister of Stuyvesant, 86
+
+Bayard, Nicholas, 154, 155, 159, 160, 163
+
+Bear Mountain, replica of _Half Moon_ at foot of, 16
+
+Bears Island fortified, 45
+
+_Beaver_, The (ship), 161
+
+Beeren (Bears) Island fortified, 45
+
+Bellomont, Earl of, in stock company to fit out privateer, 170;
+succeeds Fletcher as Governor of New York, 170-71, 180-181; Captain
+Kidd communicates with, 174; royal Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, 175 (note); uprightness, 181; espouses Leislerian cause,
+181-83; death (1701), 183; revenues under, 191
+
+Berkeley, Lord, 145
+
+Beverwyck, 72
+
+Birds of Hudson region, 28
+
+Bissels, associate of Van Rensselaer, 40
+
+Blagge, Captain, defense of Leisler, 157-59
+
+Block, Adriaen, 135
+
+Block Island, 135, 174
+
+Blommaert, Samuel, 36, 40
+
+Blucker, of Albany, 156
+
+Bogardug, Rev. Everardus, 88-90
+
+Boston, 151, 168
+
+Bradford, William, printer, 193
+
+Bradley supports Cosby, 196
+
+Brant, Molly, 223
+
+Breuckelen (now Brooklyn), 77
+
+Burnet, William, Governor of New York, 190
+
+Burton, Mary, 213
+
+
+Cabots, The, explorations in Hudson region, 16
+
+Canada, expeditions against, 185-86, 188
+
+Carey (Kerry), Peggy, 213
+
+Carleton, Sir Dudley, English ambassador at The Hague, 132
+
+Caroline, niece of Mohawk chief Hendrick, 223
+
+Carteret, Sir George, part of New Jersey granted to, 145; death (1680),
+146
+
+Carteret, Philip, Governor of New Jersey, 146, 147
+
+Casimir, Fort, 130
+
+Catholics, Roman, oppose Leisler, 153-154; accused of inciting negro
+plots, 212, 213-17
+
+Chambers, John, 199
+
+_Charter of Liberties and Privileges_, 148
+
+Christina, Fort, 127
+
+Clarke, George, Governor of New York, letter on negro plots, 214-15;
+suspicions of, 215-17
+
+Clinton, George, Governor of New York, quoted, 191-92, 219
+
+Coates, Edward, 166
+
+Cod, Cape, 135
+
+Colden, Cadwallader, 196, 197
+
+Colman, John, 6-7
+
+Colve, Captain Anthony, Dutch Governor of New York, 143
+
+Commerce, aim of Dutch in America, 18; with Holland, 24; dubious sea
+ventures, 168-169
+
+Congo, Simon, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Connecticut River, 22, 65, 135
+
+Coorn, Nicholas, 45-46
+
+Cornbury, Edward Hyde, Lord, Governor of New York, 183-185; revenues
+under, 191
+
+Cornelissen, Jan, 95
+
+Cosby, William, Governor of New York, 190, 194-96
+
+"Cosby's Manor," 195
+
+Curtius, Alexander Carolus, 101
+
+Cuyler, Johannes, of Albany, 156
+
+
+De Laet, Johan, 11, 40
+
+De Lancey, James, supports Cosby, 196; Chief Justice, 199;
+Lieutenant-Governor, 219
+
+De la Montagne, J. M., 95
+
+De la Noy, Peter, 162, 169
+
+Delaware, Swedish colony in, 127-28; _see also_ New Sweden
+
+Delaware Bay, 36
+
+Delaware (or South) River, 22, 51, 59
+
+De Neger, Jan, 35
+
+De Peyster, Colonel Abraham, 207
+
+De Vries, Captain David, quoted, 28; takes up territory on Delaware
+Bay, 36; _bouwerie_ of, 39; opinion of Van Twilier, 57; head of
+committee of twelve, 64; appearance, 64; treats with Indians, 65-66;
+account of building of church, 92-93; visits Governor Printz, 129;
+opinion of Eelkens incident, 134
+
+Dongan, Colonel Thomas, Governor of New York, 48, 147, 157; instructed
+to suppress piracy, 167
+
+Drisius, Domine Samuel, 86
+
+"Duke's Laws," 138
+
+Dutch East India Company, 17
+
+Dutch West India Company, 20-22, 30, 32, 33-34, 38, 51, 56, 60, 73
+
+Dyckman, 72
+
+
+Earle, Mrs., overhears negroes plotting, 212
+
+East Indies, pirates in, 168
+
+Education in New Netherland, 93-101
+
+Eelkens, Jacob, 59, 132-35
+
+_Eendragt_, The (ship), 40
+
+Elizabethtown declared a free port, 146
+
+England, war with Holland (1652), 76-77; treaty (1654), 77; sends fleet
+to New Netherland, 79-82; war with Holland (1672), 142-43; treaty
+(1674), 143-44; takes steps against buccaneers, 170
+
+Esopus, Indian troubles at, 74, 79
+
+Evertsen, Admiral Cornells, 143
+
+
+Fenwick, land claimant in West Jersey, 146
+
+Flatbush, 77
+
+Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, Governor of New York, 165; encourages
+piracy, 165-66; revenues under, 191
+
+Flushing, 77; religious toleration in, 86
+
+Food resources, 28
+
+Fordham Manor, 140
+
+_Fortune_, The (ship), 18
+
+Francisco, John, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, at Albany congress, 220
+
+Frederycke (Fredericksen), Kryn, 54
+
+Fur trade, 17, 18-19, 27, 41
+
+
+Gardiner's Island, Captain Kidd at, 174
+
+Godyn, Samuel, 36, 40
+
+_Good Hope_, The (ship), 45-46
+
+Governor's Island, 60
+
+Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, _Memoirs of an American Lady_, 48; on negro
+servitude in Albany, 209; describes Albany, 219-220
+
+Gravesend, 77
+
+_Griffin_, The (ship), 127
+
+Griffis, W. E., defends Van Twiller, 58-59
+
+Gustavus Adolphus, 126
+
+
+_Half Moon_, The (_Halve Maene_) (ship), anchors in New York harbor,
+1-2; description of, 2-5; effect on Indians, 4-5, 7-10; journeys up
+Hudson, 10-12; homeward course, 13; Hudson's cabin, 14; puts to sea,
+15; replica, 16
+
+Hamilton, Andrew, defends Zenger, 200-05
+
+Harrison, Francis, 196, 198
+
+Hartford, Treaty of, 77
+
+Heckwelder, Rev. John, Moravian missionary, account of arrival of _Half
+Moon_, 7-9, 10
+
+Hempstead, 77
+
+Heyn, Peter, 55
+
+Hill, Rowland, quoted, 114
+
+Hobocan Hackingh, 37
+
+Hoboken, 74
+
+Hodgson, Robert, 85
+
+Holland, _see_ United Netherlands
+
+Holmes, Sir Robert, 168
+
+Horsmanden, Judge, 217
+
+Housatonic River discovered, 135
+
+Hudson, Captain Henry, explores Hudson River in _Half Moon_, 1-16;
+barters with Indians, 4-5, 10; entertains Indians, 4-5, 8-10, 13-14; at
+West Point, 10-11; Irving's description of, 12; fights with Indians,
+15; held at Dartmouth, 17
+
+Hudson River, explored, 1-16; "the River of the Steep Hills," 11;
+called Mauritius, 22, 23, 29, 132; commerce on, 28-29; overflows, 79;
+pirates on, 180
+
+Hughson, tavern-keeper, 213, 215-16
+
+Hunter, Robert, Governor of New York, 186; brings Palatines to New
+York, 186-88; resigns, 189; quoted, 191
+
+Hutchiuson, Anne, 65
+
+Huyck, Jan, 90
+
+
+Indians, effect of _Half Moon_ on, 4-5, 7-10; attack Colman, 6;
+friendly at West Point, 10; on _Half Moon_, 13; attempt theft, 14-15;
+conflict with, 15, 62-66, 74-75; legal ceremony toward, 36; paid for
+lands, 37-38, 53; servants of Minuit kill friendly Indian, 55; Kieft's
+troubles with, 62-66; attack New Amsterdam, 74; as neighbors of Dutch,
+124-26; treaty signed on Norman's Kill, 125; friendship of the "Six
+Nations," 218; take warpath, 219; Sir William Johnson as friend of,
+226-27
+
+Ingoldesby, Major Richard, 161, 185-86
+
+Irving, Washington, _see_ Knickerbocker, Diedrich
+
+
+James, Duke of York and Albany, Lord Proprietor of New York, 137,
+144-45; becomes King of England, 148
+
+James, Fort, 137, 143, 153; _see also_ Amsterdam, Fort; Willem
+Hendrick, Fort
+
+Jogues, Isaac, Jesuit missionary, describes Rensselaerswyck, 40-41
+
+Johnson, Sir William, at Albany congress, 220; formulates Indian
+policy, 221; born in Ireland, 221; described by his uncle, 221; life,
+222-24; home, 224-25; hospitality, 225-26; in French and Indian War,
+227; knighted, 227; appearance, 227-28; activities, 228; personal
+characteristics, 228-29
+
+Johnson, Fort, 224, 228
+
+Joris, Adriaen, 22
+
+Juet, Robert, of Limehouse, quoted, 2, 9
+
+
+Kalm, Peter, describes courthouse at Albany, 220
+
+_Key of Kalmar_, The (ship), 127
+
+Kidd, Captain William, 170-179
+
+Kieft, William, succeeds Van Twiller, 45; as Governor of New
+Netherland, 61-67; character, 61; activities, 61-62; relations with
+Indians, 62-66; recalled (1647), 66; drowned, 66; Kuyter and Melyn
+against, 69; upheld by Stuyvesant, 69; opposed by Bogardus, 89-90;
+raises money for church, 92-93; letter to Minuit, 127-128
+
+Knickerbocker, Diedrich (Irving), description of Henry Hudson, 12;
+description of Van Twiller, 58; quoted, 121-122
+
+Knight, Sarah Kemble, quoted, 206-07
+
+Krol, Sebastian, 54, 56-57, 90
+
+Kuyter, Jochem Pietersen, 69
+
+
+Labor in New Netherland, 27
+
+Leisler, Jacob, 150; calls convention at Fort James, 153; appointed
+"Captain of the fort at New York...", 153; Catholics and aristocracy
+oppose, 153-54; temporary victory, 154-55; assumes title of
+Lieutenant-Governor, 155; demands recognition, 155-56; calls convention
+to discuss defense, 156-57; controversy about, 157-60; refuses
+surrender of fort, 161-63; finally yields, 163; sentenced to death,
+163-64; attainder removed, 164; Bellomont causes reburial, 181-82
+
+_Little Fox_, The (ship), 18
+
+Livingston, Robert, 48, 154, 155, 170, 186, 196
+
+Livingston Manor, 48
+
+Long Island, SO; Dutch on, 22; English on, 78, 135-36; becomes county
+of Yorkshire, 138
+
+Loockermans, Govert, 45-46
+
+Lovelace, Colonel Francis, succeeds Nicolls as Governor of New York,
+139-40; establishes first mail service, 140-42
+
+Lovelace, Lord, Governor of New York, 185
+
+Luyck, Ægidius, 101
+
+
+Maasen, Cornelis, 109
+
+Madagascar, meeting place for pirates and merchants, 168-169, 170; Kidd
+reaches, 172
+
+Manhattan Island, 29; Hudson leaves, 10; settlers in, 22; purchased
+from Indians, 25, 53; reserved for Dutch West Indian Company, 33;
+surrendered to England, 80-82; life on, 103
+
+"Mannahattanik," 9
+
+Manors in New York, 32, 34-35, 47-49
+
+Mauritius, (Hudson) River, 22, 23, 29, 132
+
+Maverick, Samuel, 139
+
+May, Cornelis Jacobsen, of Hoorn, 22; first Director-General of New
+Netherland, 51
+
+_Meeuwken_, The (ship), 52
+
+Megapolensis, Rev. Johannes, Jr., 40, 86, 87-88, 90, 109
+
+Melyn, Cornelis, 39, 69
+
+Michaelius, Domine Jonas, 26, 88, 96-97, 109
+
+Middleburgh, 77
+
+Milborne, Jacob, 155-56, 162, 163, 181-82
+
+Minuit, Peter, Director-General of New Netherland, 25, 52; recalled
+(1632), 45, 56; buys Manhattan Island, 53; builds Fort Amsterdam, 54;
+preparations for war, 55; shipbuilding, 66; enters service of Sweden,
+56, 126-27; establishes Swedish colony in Delaware, 127-28
+
+Montgomerie, John, Governor of New York, 195
+
+Moore, William, 172-73
+
+Morris, Lewis, Chief Justice, 196, 197
+
+Motley, J. L., quoted, 30-31, 99
+
+Moussart, associate of Van Rensselaer, 40
+
+Murray, John, 212
+
+Myndertsen, Myndert, 36
+
+
+Nanfan, John, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, 180
+
+Narragansett Bay, 135
+
+Nassau, Fort, 19
+
+Navesink Heights, Hudson passes, 1
+
+Neger, Jan de, 35
+
+Negroes, plot of 1712, 210-11; alleged plots of 1741, 211-17; _see
+also_ Slavery
+
+Netherlands, _see_ United Netherlands
+
+New Amsterdam, established (1626), 25, 54; growth of, 29; "staple
+right" established at, 61; Indian troubles at, 62-66, 74; municipal
+rights given to, 73; in Stuyvesant's time, 75-76; fortification of, 77;
+church building in, 91-93; in seventeenth century, 102, 103;
+development of, 104-06; class distinction in, 107-08 (note); becomes
+New York, 137; _see also_ New York City
+
+New Castle (Del.), 130
+
+New Gottenburg, 129
+
+New Jersey, 65; granted to Berkeley and Carteret, 145-46; enters "the
+Dominion of New England," 149
+
+New Netherland, Dutch claim, 17; commerce, 18-19; New Netherland
+Company, 19-20; Dutch West India Company, 20-22, 30, 32, 33-34;
+colonization, 21-23; settlers, 23-24; supplies from Holland, 24-25;
+slavery, 25-27; resources, 28; patroonship, 32-47; "Privileges and
+Exemptions," 33-35; English take possession of (1664), 47; small
+proprietors in, 49-50; demands made to States General, 72-73;
+convention to consider defense, 77-79; _The Humble Remonstrance_, 78;
+becomes New York, 82; religion in, 83-93; religious liberty in, 83-85;
+religious tyranny, 85-87; education, 93-101; burghers in, 102-22;
+pioneer living conditions, 103-04; fire protection, 104-05; public
+sanitation, 105; improvement in living conditions, 105-06; "great
+burghers," 107-08; dress, 108; children, 109-20; holidays, 114-18;
+christenings, 118; spirit of mystery, 120-21; neighbors, 123 _et seq._;
+relations with New Sweden, 128-31; relations with English, 131-36;
+question of boundaries, 136; bibliography, 231-33; _see also_ New York
+
+_New Netherland_, The (ship), 56
+
+New Netherland Company, 19-20
+
+_New Netherland, The Representation of_, 68, 70
+
+New Orange, 143
+
+New Sweden, established, 127-128; relations with Dutch, 128-131
+
+New York, government changed, 137-38; surrenders to Dutch (1674), 143;
+name changed to New Orange, 143; returned by treaty to English, 144;
+_Charter of Liberties and Privileges_, 148; becomes royal province,
+148; enters "The Dominion of New England," 149; piracy, 165-79; _see
+also_ New Netherland
+
+New York City, market for pirates, 168; becomes cosmopolitan, 206; in
+1729, 206-07; public buildings, 207; luxury, 207-08; negro slaves,
+208-17; bibliography, 231-33; _see also_ New Amsterdam
+
+_New York Weekly Gazette_, 197
+
+_New York Weekly Journal_, 197-198
+
+Nicholson, Francis, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, 151-152, 157;
+leaves for England, 154; imprisons pirates, 168
+
+Nicolls, Colonel Richard, expedition against New Netherland, 80-81;
+first English Governor of New York, 137-138, 139, 144; warns against
+division of territory, 145
+
+Nicolls, William, 159
+
+_Nieu Nederlandt_, The (ship), 22
+
+_Nightingale_, The (ship), 18
+
+Nooten (Nut) Island, old name for Governor's Island, 60
+
+Norman's Kill, treaty with Indians at, 125
+
+Nysen, Wolf, 35
+
+
+Olfertsen treats with Indians, 65
+
+Orange, Fort, 39; established, 19; colonists, 23, 25, 40; supplies
+brought up Hudson to, 29; in 1626-28, 54; Stuyvesant's orders
+concerning, 71-72; strengthened, 77; town on Hudson, 102; Eelkens lands
+near, 134; becomes Albany, 137; _see also_ Albany
+
+Oxenstiern conducts government of Sweden, 126
+
+Oxford, Earl of, 170
+
+
+Palatines in New York, 186-88
+
+Patroons, 32 _et seq._
+
+Pauw, Michiel, 36-37, 39
+
+Pavonia, 39, 74
+
+Philipse, Judge Adolphe, 196, 199
+
+Philipse, Frederick, 184
+
+Philipse Manor, 47
+
+Pietersen, Evert, 95
+
+Piracy, 165-79
+
+Portuguese, Anthony, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Postal service established, 140-42
+
+_Princess_, The (ship), 66
+
+Printz, Johan, Governor of New Sweden, 128-29
+
+
+Quakers, pay Indians for land, 37-38; Stuyvesant's dealings with, 70,
+85-86
+
+_Quedagh Merchant_, The (ship), 172, 174, 177
+
+
+Rapaelje, Sarah, 25, 109
+
+Raritan Indians, 63
+
+Religion in New Netherland, 83-93
+
+Rensselaer's Stein (Castle Rensselaer), 45
+
+Rensselaerswyck, typical patroonship, 39; settlement, 39-41; life in,
+41-46; library, 42; cost of living, 42-43; terms of leases, 43-44;
+hostility between patroon and tenants, 44; relation of patroon and
+Company, 45; Stuyvesant and, 71-72
+
+Roelantsen, Adam, 94
+
+Romney, Earl of, 170
+
+Rondout, 102
+
+Rysing, Governor of New Sweden, 130
+
+
+_St. John_, The (slaver), 26
+
+San Salvador, victory of Dutch over Spanish off (1627), 55
+
+Schenectady, massacre at, 156
+
+Schoharie, Palatines at, 188
+
+Schuyler, Peter, 154, 155
+
+Schuyler estate near Albany, 48-49
+
+Sewall, Samuel, 168
+
+Shipbuilding at New Amsterdam, 56
+
+Shrewsbury, Duke of, 170
+
+Slavery, Dutch introduce, 25-26; treatment of slaves in New Netherland,
+26-27; in New York, 208-09; ordinance regulating slaves (1684), 209-10;
+_see also_ Negroes
+
+Sleepy Hollow, church at, 47-48
+
+Sloughter, Colonel Henry, Governor of New York, 160, 161, 162, 163,
+165, 191
+
+Smith, William, 197, 198-99
+
+Smits, Claes, 63
+
+Somers, Lord Chancellor, 170
+
+_Soutbergh_, The (ship), 57
+
+South (now Delaware) River, 22, 51, 59
+
+Spain, truce with Holland, 17, 30; plots against Holland, 30; defeat by
+Holland, 55
+
+Spuyten Duyvil, 120
+
+Stanwix, Fort, Treaty of, 228
+
+"Staple right" at New Amsterdam, 61
+
+Staten Island, 36, 50, 63; purchased by Pauw, 39; transferred to Melyn,
+39; Indians attack, 74; becomes part of Yorkshire, 138; Dutch fleet
+off, 143
+
+Steenwyck, Cornelis, 139
+
+Stevensen, Jan, 95
+
+Stony Point, _Half Moon_ becalmed at, 13
+
+Stuyvesant, 196
+
+Stuyvesant, Petrus (Pieter), made Director-General, 45; appearance, 67;
+as Director-General, 68; upholds Kieft, 69; arraigned by burghers, 69;
+defense of, 69-70; character of, 70-71; contest with Van Slichtenhorst,
+71-72; arbitrariness, 72; opposes local self-government, 72-73;
+treatment of Indians, 74; warns Company of lack of defense, 76;
+treatment of Convention, 77-79; begs for reinforcements, 79; surrenders
+to English, 81-82; religious tyranny under, 85-87; builds Fort Casimir,
+130; tries to settle boundary disputes, 136
+
+Swannendael, 36
+
+Sweden, plans expedition to New World, 126; entrance into Thirty Years'
+War, 126; establishes colony in America, 127-28
+
+
+Tarrytown, 47
+
+Tew, Thomas, 166-67
+
+Thirty Years' War, 83, 126
+
+Tienpont, associate of May, 61
+
+_Tiger_, The (ship), 18
+
+Trevor, Captain of the _William_, 132
+
+Trinity Church founded, 165
+
+
+Ulster refuses to send delegates to Fort James, 153
+
+United Netherlands, gains foothold in America, 2, 17; colonists from,
+22-29; relations with Spain, 30, 55; character of people, 30-31;
+relations with England, 76-77, 79-82; takes possession of New York in
+1674, 143; _see also_ New Netherland
+
+Usselinx, William, 126
+
+
+Van Buren, A. H., cited, 23 (note)
+
+Van Cortlandt, Stephanus, 154
+
+Van Cortlandt Manor, 47
+
+Van Curler, Arendt, 44
+
+Van Dam, Rip, 195-97
+
+Van der Donck, Adrian, 68, 72; _Representation_, 68, 70
+
+Van Dyck, Hendrick, 74
+
+Van Hoboocken, Harmanus, 95; _Reverential Request_, 100
+
+Van Rensselaer, Jan, 43
+
+Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, system of patroonship suggested by, 32-33;
+establishes Rensselaerswyck, 39-40; born (1580), 59 (note)
+
+Van Rensselaer, Maria, 59 (note)
+
+Van Slichtenhorst, Brandt, 71
+
+Van Tienhoven, Cornelis, 69-70, 103
+
+Van Twiller, Wouter, Governor of New Netherland, 45, 56, 57-61; nephew
+of Van Rensselaer, 45, 59 (note); De Vries's opinion of, 57; Irving's
+description of, 58; Griffis defends, 58-59; birth, 59 (note); lavish
+expenditure of, 59-60; Eelkens incident, 59, 132-35; recalled, 60
+
+Van Wassenaer, Nicholas Janszoon, account of shipment of live stock,
+24; of colony under Minuit, 52-53; of settlement of Fort Orange, 53-54
+
+Verhulst, William, Director-General of New Netherland (1625-1626), 51
+
+Verhulsten Island, 51
+
+Verrazano visits Hudson River region, 16
+
+Verstius (Vestens), William, 95
+
+
+Walloons, 22, 97
+
+Warren, Anne, mother of Sir William Johnson, 221
+
+Warren, Captain Peter, 221
+
+Warrensbush, 222
+
+Weckquaesgeecks, 55, 63-66
+
+Wendell, Captain, 156
+
+Westchester, New Englanders in, 138; becomes part of Yorkshire, 138
+
+West Point, Hudson reaches, 10
+
+Willem Hendrick, Fort, 143
+
+William of Orange and Mary, sovereigns of England, 149 _et seq._
+
+_William_, The (ship), 132, 133, 134, 135
+
+Wiltwyck, 23
+
+Wisenberg, Catherine, wife of Sir William Johnson, 223
+
+
+Yorkshire, 138
+
+
+Zenger, John Peter, apprentice to Bradford, 193; collects subscription
+for playing organ, 193-94; publisher of _New York Weekly Journal_, 197;
+arrested for libel, 198; trial, 199-205
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE OF THE PLAN OF THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA
+
+
+The fifty titles of the Series fall into eight topical sequences or
+groups, each with a dominant theme of its own--
+
+I.  _The Morning of America_
+
+TIME: 1492-1763
+
+The theme of the first sequence is the struggle of nations for the
+possession of the New World.  The mariners of four European
+kingdoms--Spain, Portugal, France, and England--are intent upon the
+discovery of a new route to Asia.  They come upon the American
+continent which blocks the way.  Spain plants colonies in the south,
+lured by gold.  France, in pursuit of the fur trade, plants colonies in
+the north.  Englishmen, in search of homes and of a wider freedom,
+occupy the Atlantic seaboard.  These Englishmen come in time to need
+the land into which the French have penetrated by way of the St.
+Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and a mighty struggle between the two
+nations takes place in the wilderness, ending in the expulsion of the
+French.  This sequence comprises ten volumes:
+
+   1. THE RED MAN'S CONTINENT, by Ellsworth Huntington
+   2. THE SPANISH CONQUERORS, by Irving Berdine Richman
+   3. ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS, by William Wood
+   4. CRUSADERS OF NEW FRANCE, by William Bennett Munro
+   5. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTH, by Mary Johnston
+   6. THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND, by Charles M. Andrews
+   7. DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON, by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+   8. THE QUAKER COLONIES, by Sydney G. Fisher
+   9. COLONIAL FOLKWAYS, by Charles M. Andrews
+  10. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE, by George M. Wrong
+
+
+II.  _The Winning of Independence_
+
+TIME: 1763-1815
+
+The French peril has passed, and the great territory between the
+Alleghanies and the Mississippi is now open to the Englishmen on the
+seaboard, with no enemy to contest their right of way except the
+Indian.  But the question arises whether these Englishmen in the New
+World shall submit to political dictation from the King and Parliament
+of England.  To decide this question the War of the Revolution is
+fought; the Union is born: and the second war with England follows.
+Seven volumes:
+
+  11. THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION, by Carl Becker
+  12. WASHINGTON AND HIS COMRADES IN ARMS, by George M. Wrong
+  13. THE FATHERS OF THE CONSTITUTION, by Max Farrand
+  14. WASHINGTON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Henry Jones Ford
+  15. JEFFERSON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Allen Johnson
+  16. JOHN MARSHALL AND THE CONSTITUTION, by Edward S. Corwin
+  17. THE FIGHT FOR A FREE SEA, by Ralph D. Paine
+
+
+III.  _The Vision of the West_
+
+TIME: 1750-1890
+
+The theme of the third sequence is the American frontier--the conquest
+of the continent from the Alleghanies to the Pacific Ocean.  The story
+covers nearly a century and a half, from the first crossing of the
+Alleghanies by the backwoodsmen of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the
+Carolinas (about 1750) to the heyday of the cowboy on the Great Plains
+in the latter part of the nineteenth century.  This is the marvelous
+tale of the greatest migrations in history, told in nine volumes as
+follows:
+
+  18. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTHWEST, by Constance Lindsay Skinner
+  19. THE OLD NORTHWEST, by Frederic Austin Ogg
+  20. THE REIGN OF ANDREW JACKSON, by Frederic Austin Ogg
+  21. THE PATHS OF INLAND COMMERCE, by Archer B. Hulbert
+  22. ADVENTURERS OF OREGON, by Constance Lindsay Skinner
+  23. THE SPANISH BORDERLANDS, by Herbert E. Bolton
+  24. TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  25. THE FORTY-NINERS, by Stewart Edward White
+  26. THE PASSING OF THE FRONTIER, by Emerson Hough
+
+
+IV.  _The Storm of Secession_
+
+TIME: 1830-1876
+
+The curtain rises on the gathering storm of secession.  The theme of
+the fourth sequence is the preservation of the Union, which carries
+with it the extermination of slavery.  Six volumes as follows:
+
+  27. THE COTTON KINGDOM, by William E. Dodd
+  28. THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, by Jesse Macy
+  29. ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE UNION, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  30. THE DAY OF THE CONFEDERACY, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  31. CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR, by William Wood
+  32. THE SEQUEL OF APPOMATTOX, by Walter Lynwood Fleming
+
+
+V.  _The Intellectual Life_
+
+Two volumes follow on the higher national life, telling of the nation's
+great teachers and interpreters:
+
+  33. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN EDUCATION, by Edwin E. Slosson
+  34. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN LITERATURE, by Bliss Perry
+
+
+VI.  _The Epic of Commerce and Industry_
+
+The sixth sequence is devoted to the romance of industry and business,
+and the dominant theme is the transformation caused by the inflow of
+immigrants and the development and utilization of mechanics on a great
+scale.  The long age of muscular power has passed, and the era of
+mechanical power has brought with it a new kind of civilization.  Eight
+volumes:
+
+  35. OUR FOREIGNERS, by Samuel P. Orth
+  36. THE OLD MERCHANT MARINE, by Ralph D. Paine
+  37. THE AGE OF INVENTION, by Holland Thompson
+  38. THE RAILROAD BUILDERS, by John Moody
+  39. THE AGE OF BIG BUSINESS, by Burton J. Hendrick
+  40. THE ARMIES OF LABOR, by Samuel P. Orth
+  41. THE MASTERS OF CAPITAL, by John Moody
+  42. THE NEW SOUTH, by Holland Thompson
+
+
+VII.  _The Era of World Power_
+
+The seventh sequence carries on the story of government and diplomacy
+and political expansion from the Reconstruction (1876) to the present
+day, in six volumes:
+
+  43. THE BOSS AND THE MACHINE, by Samuel P. Orth
+  44. THE CLEVELAND ERA, by Henry Jones Ford
+  45. THE AGRARIAN CRUSADE, by Solon J. Buck
+  46. THE PATH OF EMPIRE, by Carl Russell Fish
+  47. THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND HIS TIMES, by Harold Howland
+  48. WOODROW WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR, by Charles Seymour
+
+
+VIII.  _Our Neighbors_
+
+Now to round out the story of the continent, the Hispanic peoples on
+the south and the Canadians on the north are taken up where they were
+dropped further back in the Series, and these peoples are followed down
+to the present day:
+
+  49. THE CANADIAN DOMINION, by Oscar D. Skelton
+  50. THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD, by William R. Shepherd
+
+
+_The Chronicles of America_ is thus a great synthesis, giving a new
+projection and a new interpretation of American History.  These
+narratives are works of real scholarship, for every one is written
+after an exhaustive examination of the sources.  Many of them contain
+new facts; some of them--such as those by Howland, Seymour, and
+Hough--are founded on intimate personal knowledge.  But the originality
+of the Series lies, not chiefly in new facts, but rather in new ideas
+and new combinations of old facts.
+
+The General Editor of the Series is Dr. Allen Johnson, Chairman of the
+Department of History of Yale University, and the entire work has been
+planned, prepared, and published under the control of the Council's
+Committee on Publications of Yale University.
+
+
+  YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+  143 ELM STREET, NEW HAVEN
+  522 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dutch and English on the Hudson, by 
+Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON ***
+
+***** This file should be named 34977-8.txt or 34977-8.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/3/4/9/7/34977/
+
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diff --git a/34977-8.zip b/34977-8.zip
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+<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
+<HTML>
+<HEAD>
+
+<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1">
+
+<TITLE>
+The Project Gutenberg E-text of Dutch and English on the Hudson,
+by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+</TITLE>
+
+<STYLE TYPE="text/css">
+BODY { color: Black;
+       background: White;
+       margin-right: 10%;
+       margin-left: 10%;
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+         text-indent: -5% ;
+         margin-left: 5% ;
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+
+P.finis { font-size: larger ;
+          text-align: center ;
+          text-indent: 0% ;
+          margin-left: 0% ;
+          margin-right: 0% }
+
+H4.h4center { margin-left: 0;
+              margin-right: 0 ;
+              margin-bottom: .5% ;
+              margin-top: 0;
+              float: none ;
+              clear: both ;
+              text-align: center  }
+
+IMG.imgcenter { margin-left: auto;
+                margin-bottom: 0;
+                margin-top: 1%;
+                margin-right: auto; }
+
+.pagenum { position: absolute;
+           right: 1%;
+           font-size: 95%;
+           text-align: left;
+           text-indent: 0;
+           font-style: normal;
+           font-weight: normal;
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+
+</STYLE>
+
+</HEAD>
+
+<BODY>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+Project Gutenberg's Dutch and English on the Hudson, by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dutch and English on the Hudson
+       A Chronicle of Colonial New York
+
+Author: Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+Illustrator: C. W. Jefferys
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34977]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+ROOSEVELT EDITION
+</H4>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+VOLUME 7
+<BR>
+THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES
+<BR><BR>
+ALLEN JOHNSON<BR>
+EDITOR<BR>
+</H3>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+GERHARD H. LOMER<BR>
+CHARLES W. JEFFERYS<BR>
+ASSISTANT EDITORS<BR>
+</H4>
+
+<BR>
+
+<HR>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="img-front"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-front.jpg" ALT="LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650.  From the painting by C. W. Jefferys" BORDER="2" WIDTH="454" HEIGHT="729">
+<H4 CLASS="h4center" STYLE="width: 454px">
+LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650.  <BR>From the painting by C. W. Jefferys
+</H4>
+</CENTER>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+A CHRONICLE OF COLONIAL NEW YORK
+</H4>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+BY MAUD WILDER GOODWIN
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+<BR>
+TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK &amp; CO.
+<BR>
+LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
+<BR>
+OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+<BR>
+1921
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+<I>Copyright, 1919, by Yale University Press</I>
+</H5>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pvii"></A>vii}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+CONTENTS
+</H2>
+
+<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="80%">
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">I.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap01">UP THE GREAT RIVER </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+Page   1</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap02">TRADERS AND SETTLERS </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "&nbsp;&nbsp;   17</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap03">PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "&nbsp;&nbsp;   32</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">IV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap04">THE DIRECTORS </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "&nbsp;&nbsp;   51</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">V.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap05">DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+"&nbsp;&nbsp;   83</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap06">THE BURGHERS</A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+"  102</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap07">THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  123</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">VIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap08">THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  137</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">IX.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap09">LEISLER </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  150</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">X.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap10">PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  165</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XI.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap11">COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  180</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap12">THE ZENGER TRIAL </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  193</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XIII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap13">THE NEGRO PLOTS </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  206</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">XIV.&nbsp;&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#chap14">SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  218</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#biblio">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  231</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">&nbsp;</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#index">INDEX </A>
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+ "  235</TD>
+</TR>
+
+</TABLE>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pix"></A>ix}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+</H3>
+
+<TABLE ALIGN="center" WIDTH="80%">
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#img-front">
+LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650</A><BR>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  From the painting by C. W. Jefferys.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+<I>Frontispiece</I>
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+<TR>
+<TD ALIGN="left" VALIGN="top">
+<A HREF="#img-012t">
+THE HUDSON RIVER REGION, 1609-1770</A><BR>
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;  Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American Geographical Society.
+</TD>
+<TD ALIGN="right" VALIGN="top">
+<I>Facing page 12</I>
+</TD>
+</TR>
+
+</TABLE>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap01"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P1"></A>1}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+</H2>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER I
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+UP THE GREAT RIVER
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Geography is the maker of history.  The course of Dutch settlement in
+America was predetermined by a river which runs its length of a hundred
+and fifty miles from the mountains to the sea through the heart of a
+fertile country and which offers a natural highway for transportation
+of merchandise and for communication between colonies.  No man,
+however, could foresee the development of the Empire State when, on
+that memorable September day in 1609, a small Dutch yacht named the
+<I>Halve Maene</I> or <I>Half Moon</I>, under the command of Captain Henry
+Hudson, slipped in past the low hook of sand in front of the Navesink
+Heights, and sounded her way to an
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P2"></A>2}</SPAN>
+anchorage in what is now the
+outer harbor of New York.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Robert Juet of Limehouse, one of the adventurers sailing with Hudson,
+writes in his journal:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+At three of the clock in the afternoone we came to three great rivers,
+so we stood along to the northermost, thinking to have gone into it;
+but we found it to have a very shoald barre before it, for we had but
+ten foot water; then wee cast about to the southward and found two
+fathoms, three fathoms, and three and a quarter, till we came to the
+souther side of them; then we had five and sixe fathoms and anchored.
+So wee sent in our boate to sound and they found no lesse water than
+foure, five, six, and seven fathoms and returned in an hour and a half.
+So wee weighed and went in and rode in five fathoms, oozie ground, and
+saw many salmons, mullets and rayes very great.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+So quietly is chronicled one of the epoch-making events of history, an
+event which opened a rich territory and gave to the United Netherlands
+their foothold in the New World, where Spain, France, and England had
+already established their claims.  Let us try to call to our minds the
+picture of the <I>Half Moon</I> as she lies there in harbor, a quaint,
+clumsily built boat of forty lasts, or eighty tons, burden.  From her
+bow projects a beakhead, a sort of gallery, painted and carved, and
+used as a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P3"></A>3}</SPAN>
+place of rest or of punishment for the sailors.  At the
+tip of the beakhead is the figurehead, a red lion with a golden mane.
+The ship's bow is green, with ornaments of sailors' heads painted red
+and yellow.  Both forecastle and poop are high, the latter painted a
+blue mottled with white clouds.  The stern below is rich in color and
+carving.  Its upper panels show a blue ground picked out with stars and
+set in it a crescent holding a profile of the traditional Man in the
+Moon.  The panel below bears the arms of the City of Amsterdam and the
+letters V.O.C. forming the monogram of the Dutch East India
+Company&mdash;Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Five carved heads uphold the stern, above which hangs one of those
+ornate lanterns which the Dutch love so well.  To add to all this
+wealth of color, flags are flying from every masthead.  At the foretop
+flutters the tricolor of red, white, and black, with the arms of
+Amsterdam in a field of white.  At the maintop flames the flag of the
+seven provinces of the Netherlands, emblazoned with a red lion rampant,
+bearing in his paws a sword and seven arrows.  The bowsprit bears a
+small flag of orange, white, and blue, while from the stern flies the
+Dutch East India Company's
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P4"></A>4}</SPAN>
+special banner.  It is no wonder that
+such an apparition causes the simple natives ashore to believe first
+that some marvelous bird has swept in from the sea, and then that a
+mysterious messenger from the Great Spirit has appeared in all his
+celestial robes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If Hudson's object had been stage-setting for the benefit of the
+natives, he could not have arranged his effects better.  The next day,
+when the ship had moved to a good harbor, the people of the country
+were allowed to come aboard to barter "greene Tabacco" for knives and
+beads.  Hudson probably thought that the savages might learn a lesson
+in regard to the power of the newcomers by an inspection of the
+interior of the ship.  The cannon which protruded their black noses
+amidships held their threat of destruction even when they were not
+belching thunder and lightning.  The forecastle with its neatly
+arranged berths must have seemed a strange contrast to the bare ground
+on which the savages were accustomed to sleep, and the brightness of
+polished and engraved brass tablets caught the untutored eyes which
+could not decipher the inscriptions.  There were three of these
+tablets, the mottoes of which, being translated, read: <I>Honor thy
+father and thy mother</I>!  <I>Do
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P5"></A>5}</SPAN>
+not fight without cause</I>!  <I>Good
+advice makes the wheels run smoothly</I>!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the thing which interested the Indians most was the great
+wooden block fastened to the deck behind the mainmast.  This strange
+object was fashioned in the shape of a man's head, and through it
+passed the ropes used to hoist the yards.  It was called sometimes "the
+silent servant," sometimes "the knighthead."  To the Indians it must
+have seemed the final touch of necromancy, and they were prepared to
+bow down in awe before a race of beings who could thus make blocks of
+wood serve them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Trusting, no doubt, to the impression which he had made on the minds of
+the natives, Hudson decided to go ashore.  The Indians crowded around
+him and "sang in their fashion"&mdash;a motley horde, as strange to the
+ship's crew as the <I>Half Moon</I> and its company seemed marvelous to the
+aborigines.  Men, women, and children, dressed in fur or tricked out
+with feathers, stood about or floated in their boats hewn from solid
+logs, the men carrying pipes of red copper in which they smoked that
+precious product, tobacco&mdash;the consolation prize offered by the New
+World to the Old in lieu of the hoped-for passage to Cathay.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P6"></A>6}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Everything seemed to breathe assurance of peaceful relations between
+the red man and the white; but if the newcomers did not at the moment
+realize the nature of the Indians, their eyes were opened to
+possibilities of treachery by the happenings of the next day.  John
+Colman and a boat's crew were sent out to take further soundings before
+the <I>Half Moon</I> should proceed on her journey.  As the boat was
+returning to report a safe course ahead, the crew, only five in number,
+were set upon by two war-canoes filled with Indians, whose volley of
+arrows struck terror to their hearts.  Colman was mortally wounded in
+the throat by an arrow, and two of his companions were seriously,
+though not fatally, hurt.  Keeping up a running fight, the survivors
+escaped under cover of darkness.  During the night, as they crouched
+with their dead comrade in the boat, the sailors must have thought the
+minutes hours and the hours days.  To add to their discomfort rain was
+falling, and they drifted forlornly at the mercy of the current.  When
+at last dawn came, they could make out the ship at a great distance;
+but it was ten o'clock in the morning before they reached her safe
+shelter.  So ended the brief dream of ideal friendship and confidence
+between the red men and the whites.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P7"></A>7}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+After Colman had been buried in a grave by the side of the beautiful
+sheet of water which he had known for so short a time, the <I>Half Moon</I>
+worked her way cautiously from the Lower Bay through the Narrows to the
+inner harbor and reached the tip of the island which stands at its
+head.  What is now a bewildering mass of towers and palaces of
+industry, looking down upon a far-extended fleet of steam and sailing
+vessels, was then a point, wooded to the water's edge, with a scattered
+Indian village nestling among the trees.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A Moravian missionary, writing at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, set down an account from the red man's point of view of the
+arrival of the <I>Half Moon</I>.  This account he claimed to have received
+from old Indians who held it as part of their tribal traditions.  As
+such it is worth noting and quoting, although as history it is of more
+than doubtful authenticity.  The tradition runs that the chiefs of the
+different tribes on sighting the <I>Half Moon</I> supposed it to be a
+supernatural visitor and assembled on "York Island" to deliberate on
+the manner in which they should receive this Manito on his arrival.
+Plenty of meat was provided for a sacrifice, a grand dance was
+arranged, and the medicine-men were set to work to determine the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P8"></A>8}</SPAN>
+meaning of this phenomenon.  The runners sent out to observe and report
+declared it certain that it was the Great Manito, "but other runners
+soon after arriving, declare it a large house of various colors, full
+of people yet of quite a different color than they [the Indians] are
+of.  That they were also dressed in a different manner from them and
+that one in particular appeared altogether red, which must be the
+Mannitto himself."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The strange craft stopped and a smaller boat drew near.  While some
+stayed behind to guard the boat, the red-clothed man with two others
+advanced into a large circle formed by the Indian chiefs and wise men.
+He saluted them and they returned the salute.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+A large hock-hack [Indian for gourd or bottle] is brought forward by
+the supposed Mannitto's servants and from this a substance is poured
+out into a small cup or glass and handed to the Mannitto.  The expected
+Mannitto drinks, has the glass filled again and hands it to the chief
+next him to drink.  The chief receives the glass but only smelleth at
+it and passes it on to the next chief who does the same.  The glass
+then passes through the circle without the contents being tasted by
+anyone, and is upon the point of being returned again to the
+red-clothed man when one of their number, a spirited man and a great
+warrior jumps up and harangues the assembly on the impropriety of
+returning the glass with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P9"></A>9}</SPAN>
+the contents in it&mdash;that the same was
+handed them by the Mannitto in order that they should drink it as he
+himself had done before them&mdash;that this would please him; but that to
+return it might provoke him and be the cause of their being destroyed
+by him.  He then took the glass and bidding the assembly a farewell,
+drank it up.  Every eye was fixed on their resolute companion to see
+what an effect this would have upon him and he soon beginning to
+stagger about and at last dropping to the ground they bemoan him.  He
+falls into a sleep and they saw him as expiring.  He awakes again,
+jumps up and declares that he never felt himself before so happy as
+after he had drank the cup.  Wishes for more.  His wish is granted and
+the whole assembly soon join him and become intoxicated.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The Delawares, as the missionary points out further, call New York
+Island "Mannahattanik," "the place where we were all drunk."  With this
+picturesque account let us contrast the curt statement of Robert Juet:
+"This morning at our first rode in the River there came eight and
+twenty canoes full of men, women and children to betray us; but we saw
+their intent and suffered none of them to come aboord of us.  At twelve
+of the clocke they departed.  They brought with them oysters and beanes
+whereof we bought some."  If there had been any such striking scene as
+the missionary's chronicle reports, Juet would probably
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P10"></A>10}</SPAN>
+have
+recorded it; but in addition to his silence in the matter we must
+recall the fact that this love-feast is supposed to have occurred only
+a few days after the killing of Colman and the return of the
+terror-stricken crew.  This makes it seem extremely improbable that
+Hudson would have taken the risk of going ashore among hostile natives
+and proffering the hospitalities which had been so ill requited on his
+previous landing.  Let us therefore pass by the Reverend John
+Heckwelder's account as "well found, but not well founded," and
+continue to follow the cruise of the <I>Half Moon</I> up the great river.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The days now were fair and warm, and Hudson, looking around him when
+the autumn sun had swept away the haze from the face of the water,
+declared it as fair a land as could be trodden by the foot of man.  He
+left Manhattan Island behind, passed the site of Yonkers, and was
+carried by a southeasterly wind beyond the Highlands till he reached
+what is now West Point.  In this region of the Catskills the Dutch
+found the natives friendly, and, having apparently recovered from their
+first suspicious attitude, the explorers began to open barter and
+exchange with such as wished to come aboard.  On at least one occasion
+Hudson
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P11"></A>11}</SPAN>
+himself went ashore.  The early Dutch writer, De Laet, who
+used Hudson's last journal, quotes at length Hudson's description of
+this landing, and the quotation, if genuine, is probably the longest
+description of his travels that we have from the pen of the great
+navigator.  He says that he sailed to the shore in one of their canoes,
+with an old man who was chief of a tribe.  There he found a house of
+oak bark, circular in shape, apparently well built, and with an arched
+roof.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+On our coming near the house, two mats were spread to sit upon and
+immediately some food was served in well-made red wooden bowls; two men
+were also dispatched at once with bows and arrows in quest of game, who
+soon after brought a pair of pigeons which they had shot.  They
+likewise killed at once a fat dog and skinned it in great haste, with
+shells which they get out of the water....  The natives are a very good
+people, for when they saw that I would not remain, they supposed that I
+was afraid of their bows, and taking the arrows they broke them in
+pieces and threw them into the fire.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+So the <I>Half Moon</I> drifted along "<I>the River of the Steep Hills</I>,"
+through the golden autumnal weather, now under frowning cliffs, now
+skirting low sloping shores and fertile valleys, till at length the
+shoaling water warned Hudson that he could not penetrate much farther.
+He knew now that he had failed to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P12"></A>12}</SPAN>
+find the northwest passage to
+Cathay which had been the object of his expedition; but he had explored
+one of the world's noblest rivers from its mouth to the head of its
+navigable waters.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is a matter of regret to all students that so little is known of
+this great adventurer.  Sober history tells us that no authentic
+portrait of him is extant; but I like to figure him to myself as drawn
+by that mythical chronicler, Diedrich Knickerbocker, who was always
+ready to help out fact with fiction and both with humor.  He pictures
+Henry Hudson as "a short, brawny old gentleman with a double chin, a
+mastiff mouth and a broad copper nose which was supposed in those days
+to have acquired its fiery hue from the constant neighborhood of his
+tobacco pipe.  He wore a true Andrea Ferrara, tucked in a leathern
+belt, and a commodore's cocked hat on one side of his head.  He was
+remarkable for always jerking up his breeches when he gave his orders
+and his voice sounded not unlike the brattling of a tin trumpet, owing
+to the number of hard northwesters which he had swallowed in the course
+of his sea-faring."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This account accords with our idea of this doughty navigator far better
+than the popular picture of the forlorn white-bearded old gentleman
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P13"></A>13}</SPAN>
+amid the arctic ice-floes.  The cause of the fiery nose seems more
+likely to have been spirits than tobacco, for Hudson was well
+acquainted with the effects of strong waters.  At one stage of his
+journey he was responsible for an incident which may perhaps have given
+rise to the Indian legend of the mysterious potations attending the
+first landing of the white men.  Hudson invited certain native chiefs
+to the ship and so successfully plied them with brandy that they were
+completely intoxicated.  One fell asleep and was deserted by his
+comrades, who, however, returned next day and were rejoiced to find the
+victim professing great satisfaction over his experience.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="img-012t"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<A HREF="images/img-012.jpg">
+<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-012t.jpg" ALT="The Hudson River Region, 1609-1770" BORDER="2">
+</A>
+<H4 CLASS="h4center" STYLE="width: 496px">
+The Hudson River Region, 1609-1770
+</H4>
+</CENTER>
+
+<P>
+The ship had now reached the northernmost bounds of her exploration and
+anchored at a point not exactly determined but not far below Albany.
+Hudson sent an exploring boat a little farther, and on its return he
+put the helm of the <I>Half Moon</I> about and headed the red lion with the
+golden mane southward.  On this homeward course, the adventurers met
+with even more exciting experiences than had marked their progress up
+the river.  At a place near the mouth of Haverstraw Bay at Stony Point
+the <I>Half Moon</I> was becalmed and a party of Mountain Indians came off
+in canoes to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P14"></A>14}</SPAN>
+visit the ship.  Here they showed the cunning and the
+thieving propensities of which Hudson accused them, for while some
+engaged the attention of the crew on deck, one of their number ran his
+canoe under the stern and contrived to climb by the aid of the
+rudder-post into the cabin.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To understand how this theft was carried out it is necessary to
+remember the build of the seventeenth century Dutch sailing-vessels in
+which the forecastle and poop rose high above the waist of the ship.
+In the poop were situated the cabins of the captain and the mate.  Of
+Hudson's cabin we have a detailed description.  Its height was five
+feet three inches.  It was provided with lockers, a berth, a table, and
+a bench with four divisions, a most desirable addition when the vessel
+lurched suddenly.  Under the berth were a box of books and a
+medicine-chest, besides such other equipment as a globe, a compass, a
+silver sun-dial, a cross staff, a brass tinder-box, pewter plates,
+spoons, a mortar and pestle, and the half-hour glass which marked the
+different watches on deck.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Doubtless the savage intruder would have been glad to capture some of
+this rich booty; but it must have been the mate's cabin into which he
+stumbled, for he obtained only a pillow and a couple of shirts,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P15"></A>15}</SPAN>
+for which he sold his life.  The window in the stern projecting over
+the water was evidently standing open in order to admit the soft
+September air, and the Indian saw his chance.  Into this window he
+crept and from it started to make off with the stolen goods; but the
+mate saw the thief, shot, and killed him.  Then all was a scene of wild
+confusion.  The savages scattered from the ship, some taking to their
+canoes, some plunging into the river.  The small boat was sent in
+pursuit of the stolen goods, which were soon recovered; but, as the
+boat returned, a red hand reached up from the water to upset it,
+whereupon the ship's cook, seizing a sword, cut off the hand as it
+gripped the gunwale, and the wretched owner sank never to reappear.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the following day Hudson and his men came into conflict with more
+than a hundred savages, who let loose a flight of arrows.  But one of
+the ship's cannon was trained upon them, and one shot followed by a
+discharge of musketry quickly ended the battle.  The mariners thereupon
+made their way without molestation to the mouth of the river, whence
+they put to sea on a day in early October, only a month after their
+entrance into the bay.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Hudson was destined never again to see the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P16"></A>16}</SPAN>
+country from which he
+set out on this quest, never again to enter the river which he had
+explored.  But he had achieved immortal fame for himself and had
+secured a new empire for the Netherlands.  The Cabots possibly, and
+Verrazano almost certainly, had visited the locality of "the Great
+River" before him; but Hudson was in the truest sense its discoverer,
+and history has accorded him his rights.  Today the replica of the
+<I>Half Moon</I> lies in a quiet backwater of the Hudson River at the foot
+of Bear Mountain&mdash;stripped of her gilding, her sails, and her gay
+pennants.  She still makes a unique appeal to our imagination as we
+fancy the tiny original buffeting the ocean waves and feeling her way
+along uncharted waters to the head of navigation.  To see even the copy
+is to feel the thrill of adventure and to realize the boldness of those
+early mariners whom savages could not affright nor any form of danger
+daunt.[<A NAME="chap01fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap01fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+<A NAME="chap01fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap01fn1text">1</A>] For further details of the appearance of the <I>Half Moon</I>, see E. H.
+Hall's paper on <I>Henry Hudson and the Discovery of the Hudson River</I>,
+published by the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society
+(1910).
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P17"></A>17}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER II
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+TRADERS AND SETTLERS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+As he was returning to Holland from his voyage to America, Hudson was
+held with his ship at the port of Dartmouth, on the ground that, being
+an Englishman by birth, he owed his services to his country.  He did
+not again reach the Netherlands, but he forwarded to the Dutch East
+India Company a report of his discoveries.  Immediately the enthusiasm
+of the Dutch was aroused by the prospect of a lucrative fur trade, as
+Spain had been set aflame by the first rumors of gold in Mexico and
+Peru; and the United Provinces, whose independence had just been
+acknowledged, thereupon laid claim to the new country.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To a seafaring people like the Dutch, the ocean which lay between them
+and their American possessions had no terrors, and the twelve-year
+truce just concluded with Spain set free a vast energy to be applied to
+commerce and oversea
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P18"></A>18}</SPAN>
+trading.  Within a year after the return of
+the <I>Half Moon</I>, Dutch merchants sent out a second ship, the crew of
+which included several sailors who had served under Hudson and of which
+the command was given, in all probability, to Hudson's former mate.
+The vessel was soon followed by the <I>Fortune</I>, the <I>Tiger</I>, the <I>Little
+Fox</I>, and the <I>Nightingale</I>.  By this time the procession of vessels
+plying between the Netherlands Old and New was fairly set in motion.
+But the aim of all these voyages was commerce rather than colonization.
+Shiploads of tobacco and furs were demanded by the promoters, and to
+obtain these traders and not farmers were needed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The chronicle of these years is melancholy reading for lovers of
+animals, for never before in the history of the continent was there
+such a wholesale, organized slaughter of the unoffending creatures of
+the forest.  Beavers were the greatest sufferers.  Their skins became a
+medium of currency, and some of the salaries in the early days of the
+colony were paid in so many "beavers."  The manifest of one cargo
+mentions 7246 beavers, 675 otters, 48 minks, and 36 wildcats.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In establishing this fur trade with the savages, the newcomers
+primarily required trading-posts
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P19"></A>19}</SPAN>
+guarded by forts.  Late in 1614
+or early in 1615, therefore, Fort Nassau was planted on a small island
+a little below the site of Albany.  Here the natives brought their
+peltries and the traders unpacked their stores of glittering trinkets,
+knives, and various implements of which the Indians had not yet learned
+the use.  In 1617 Fort Nassau was so badly damaged by a freshet that it
+was allowed to fall into ruin, and later a new stronghold and
+trading-post known as Fort Orange was set up where the city of Albany
+now stands.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Meanwhile in 1614 the States-General of the United Netherlands had
+granted a charter to a company of merchants of the city of Amsterdam,
+authorizing their vessels "exclusively to visit and navigate" the newly
+discovered region lying in America between New France and Virginia, now
+first called New Netherland.  This monopoly was limited to four
+voyages, commencing on the first of January, 1615, or sooner.  If any
+one else traded in this territory, his ship and cargo were liable to
+confiscation and the owners were subject to a heavy fine to be paid to
+the New Netherland Company.  The Company was chartered for only three
+years, and at the expiration of the time a renewal of the charter was
+refused, although the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P20"></A>20}</SPAN>
+Company was licensed to trade in the
+territory from year to year.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1621 this haphazard system was changed by the granting of a charter
+which superseded all private agreements and smaller enterprises by the
+incorporation of "that great armed commercial association," the Dutch
+West India Company.  By the terms of the charter the States-General
+engaged to secure to the Company freedom of traffic and navigation
+within prescribed limits, which included not only the coast and
+countries of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope
+but also the coasts of America.  Within these vague and very extended
+bounds the Company was empowered to make contracts and alliances, to
+build forts, to establish government, to advance the peopling of
+fruitful and unsettled parts, and to "do all that the service of those
+countries and the profit and increase of trade shall require."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For these services the States-General agreed to grant a subsidy of a
+million guilders, or about half a million dollars, "provided that we
+with half the aforesaid million of guilders, shall receive and bear
+profit and risk in the same manner as the other members of this
+Company."  In case of war, which
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P21"></A>21}</SPAN>
+was far from improbable at this
+time, when the twelve years' truce with Spain was at an end, the
+Company was to be assisted, if the situation of the country would in
+any wise admit of it, "with sixteen warships and four yachts, fully
+armed and equipped, properly mounted, and provided in all respects both
+with brass and other cannon and a proper quantity of ammunition,
+together with double suits of running and standing rigging, sails,
+cables, anchors, and other things thereto belonging, such as are proper
+to be used in all great expeditions."  These ships were to be manned,
+victualed, and maintained at the expense of the Company, which in its
+turn was to contribute and maintain sixteen like ships of war and four
+yachts.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The object of forming this great company with almost unlimited power
+was twofold, at once political and commercial.  Its creators planned
+the summoning of additional military resources to confront the hostile
+power of Spain and also the more thorough colonization and development
+of New Netherland.  In these purposes they were giving expression to
+the motto of the House of Nassau: "I will maintain."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Two years elapsed between the promulgation of the charter and the first
+active operations of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P22"></A>22}</SPAN>
+West India Company; but throughout this
+period the air was electric with plans for occupying and settling the
+new land beyond the sea.  Finally in March, 1623, the ship <I>Nieu
+Nederlandt</I> sailed for the colony whose name it bore, under the command
+of Cornelis Jacobsen May, of Hoorn, the first Director-General.  With
+him embarked some thirty families of Walloons, who were descendants of
+Protestant refugees from the southern provinces of the Netherlands,
+which, being in general attached to the Roman Catholic Church, had
+declined to join the confederation of northern provinces in 1579.
+Sturdy and industrious artisans of vigorous Protestant stock, the
+Walloons were a valuable element in the colonization of New Nether
+land.  After a two months' voyage the ship <I>Nieu Nederlandt</I> reached
+the mouth of the Hudson, then called the Mauritius in honor of the
+Stadholder, Prince Maurice, and the leaders began at once to distribute
+settlers with a view to covering as much country as was defensible.
+Some were left in Manhattan, several families were sent to the South
+River, now the Delaware, others to Fresh River, later called the
+Connecticut, and others to the western shore of Long Island.  The
+remaining colonists, led by Adriaen Joris, voyaged up the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P23"></A>23}</SPAN>
+length
+of the Mauritius, landed at Fort Orange, and made their home there.
+Thus the era of settlement as distinguished from trade had begun.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The description of the first settlers at Wiltwyck, on the western shore
+of the great river, may be applied to all the pioneer Dutch colonists.
+"Most of them could neither read nor write.  They were a wild, uncouth,
+rough, and most of the time a drunken crowd.  They lived in small log
+huts, thatched with straw.  They wore rough clothes, and in the winter
+were dressed in skins.  They subsisted on a little corn, game, and
+fish.  They were afraid of neither man, God, nor the Devil.  They were
+laying deep the foundation of the Empire State."[<A NAME="chap02fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The costume of the wife of a typical settler usually consisted of a
+single garment, reaching from neck to ankles.  In the summer time she
+went bareheaded and barefooted.  She was rough, coarse, ignorant,
+uncultivated.  She helped her husband to build their log hut, to plant
+his grain, and to gather his crops.  If Indians appeared in her
+husband's absence, she grasped the rifle, gathered her children about
+her, and with a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P24"></A>24}</SPAN>
+dauntless courage defended them even unto death.
+This may not be a romantic presentation of the forefathers and
+foremothers of the State, but it bears the marks of truth and shows us
+a stalwart race strong to hold their own in the struggle for existence
+and in the establishment of a permanent community.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the time of the founding of settlements, outward-bound ships from
+the Netherlands brought supplies for the colonists and carried back
+cargoes of furs, tobacco, and maize.  In April, 1625, there was shipped
+to the new settlements a valuable load made up of one hundred and three
+head of live stock&mdash;stallions, mares, bulls, and cows&mdash;besides hogs and
+sheep, all distributed in two ships with a third vessel as convoy.  The
+chronicler, Nicholaes Janszoon Van Wassenaer, gives a detailed account
+of their disposal which illustrates the traditional Dutch orderliness
+and cleanliness.  He tells us that each animal had its own stall, and
+that the floor of each stall was covered with three feet of sand, which
+served as ballast for the ship.  Each animal also had its respective
+servant, who knew what his reward was to be if he delivered his charge
+alive.  Beneath the cattle-deck were stowed three hundred tuns of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P25"></A>25}</SPAN>
+fresh water, which was pumped up for the live stock.  In addition to
+the load of cattle, the ship carried agricultural implements and "all
+furniture proper for the dairy," as well as a number of settlers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The year 1625 marked an important event, the birth of a little daughter
+in the household of Jan Joris Rapaelje, the "first-born Christian
+daughter in New Netherland."  Her advent was followed by the appearance
+of a steadily increasing group of native citizens, and Dutch cradles
+multiplied in the cabins of the various settlements from Fort Orange to
+New Amsterdam.  The latter place was established as a fortified post
+and the seat of government for the colony in 1626 by Peter Minuit, the
+third Director-General, who in this year purchased Manhattan Island
+from the Indians.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The colony was now thriving, with the whole settlement "bravely
+advanced" and grain growing as high as a man.  But across this bright
+picture fell the dark shadow of negro slavery, which, it is said, the
+Dutch were the first to introduce upon the mainland of North America in
+1625 or 1626.  Among the first slaves were Simon Congo, Anthony
+Portuguese, John Francisco, Paul d'Angola&mdash;names
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P26"></A>26}</SPAN>
+evidently drawn
+from their native countries&mdash;and seven others.  Two years later came
+three slave women.  In a letter dated August 11, 1628, and addressed to
+his "Kind Friend and Well Beloved Brother in Christ the Reverend,
+learned and pious Mr. Adrianus Smoutius," we learn with regret that
+Domine Michaelius, having two small motherless daughters, finds himself
+much hindered and distressed because he can find no competent maid
+servants "and the Angola slave women are thievish, lazy, and useless
+trash."  Let us leave it to those who have the heart and the nerves to
+dwell upon the horrors of the middle passage and the sufferings of the
+poor negroes as set down in the log-books of the slavers, the <I>St.
+John</I> and the <I>Arms of Amsterdam</I>.  It is comforting to the more
+soft-hearted of us to feel that after reaching the shores of New
+Netherland, the blacks were treated in the main with humanity.  The
+negro slave was of course a chattel, but his fate was not without hope.
+Several negroes with their wives were manumitted on the ground of long
+and faithful service.  They received a grant of land; but they were
+obliged to pay for it annually twenty-two and a half bushels of corn,
+wheat, pease, or beans, and a hog worth eight dollars in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P27"></A>27}</SPAN>
+modern
+currency.  If they failed in this payment they lost their recently
+acquired liberty and returned to the status of slaves.  Meanwhile,
+their children, already born or yet to be born, remained under
+obligation to serve the Company.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Apparently the Dutch were conscious of no sense of wrong-doing in the
+importation of the blacks.  A chief justice of the King's Bench in
+England expressed the opinion that it was right that pagans should be
+slaves to Christians, because the former were bondsmen of Satan while
+the latter were servants of God.  Even this casuist, however, found
+difficulty in explaining why it was just that one born of free and
+Christian parents should remain enslaved.  But granting that the
+problems which the settlers were creating in these early days were
+bound to cause much trouble later both to themselves and to the whole
+country, there is no doubt that slave labor contributed to the
+advancement of agriculture and the other enterprises of the colony.
+Free labor was scarce and expensive, owing both to the cost of
+importing it from Europe and to the allurements of the fur trade, which
+drew off the <I>boer-knecht</I> from farming.  Slave labor was therefore of
+the highest value in exploiting the resources of the new country.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P28"></A>28}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+These resources were indeed abundant.  The climate was temperate, with
+a long season of crops and harvests.  Grape-vines produced an abundant
+supply of wines.  The forests contained a vast variety of animals.
+Innumerable birds made the wilderness vocal.  Turkeys and wild fowl
+offered a variety of food.  The rivers produced fish of every kind and
+oysters which the letters of the colonists describe as a foot long,
+though this is somewhat staggering to the credulity of a later age.  De
+Vries, one of the patroons, or proprietors, whose imagination was
+certainly of a lively type, tells us that he had seen a New
+Netherlander kill eighty-four thrushes or maize-birds at one shot.  He
+adds that he has noticed crabs of excellent flavor on the flat shores
+of the bay.  "Their claws," he says naïvely, "are of the color of our
+Prince's flag, orange, white and blue, so that the crabs show clearly
+enough that we ought to people the country and that it belongs to us."
+When the very crabs thus beckoned to empire, how could the Netherlander
+fail to respond to their invitation?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The newly discovered river soon began to be alive with sail,
+high-pooped vessels from over sea, and smaller <I>vlie booten</I>
+(Anglicized into "flyboats"),
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P29"></A>29}</SPAN>
+which plied between New Amsterdam
+and Fort Orange, loaded with supplies and household goods.  Tying the
+prow of his boat to a tree at the water's edge, the enterprising
+skipper turned pedler and opened his packs of beguiling wares for the
+housewife at the farm beside the river.  Together with the goods in his
+pack, he doubtless also opened his budget of news from the other
+settlements and told the farmer's wife how the houses about the fort at
+Manhattan had increased to thirty, how the new Director was
+strengthening the fort, and how all promised well for the future of New
+Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For the understanding of these folk, who, with their descendants, have
+left an indelible impression on New York as we know it today, we must
+leave the thread of narrative in America, abandon the sequence of
+dates, and turn back to the Holland of some years earlier.  Remembering
+that those who cross the sea change their skies but not their hearts,
+we may be sure that the same qualities which marked the inhabitants of
+the Netherlands showed themselves in the emigrants to the colony on the
+banks of the Mauritius.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the truce with Spain was announced, a few months before Hudson set
+sail for America,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P30"></A>30}</SPAN>
+it was celebrated throughout Holland by the
+ringing of bells, the discharge of artillery, the illumination of the
+houses, and the singing of hymns of thanksgiving in all the churches.
+The devout people knelt in every cathedral and village <I>Kerk</I> to thank
+their God that the period of butchery and persecution was over.  But no
+sooner had the joy-bells ceased ringing and the illuminations faded
+than the King of Spain began plotting to regain by diplomacy what he
+had been unable to hold by force.  The Dutch, however, showed
+themselves as keenly alive as the Spanish to the value of treaties and
+alliances.  They met cunning with caution, as they had met tyranny with
+defiance, and at last, as the end of the truce drew near, they flung
+into the impending conflict the weight of the Dutch West India Company.
+They were shrewd and sincere people, ready to try all things by the
+test of practical experience.  One of their great statesmen at this
+period described his fellow-countrymen as having neither the wish nor
+the skill to deceive others, but on the other hand as not being easy to
+be deceived themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Motley says of the Dutch Republic that "it had courage, enterprise,
+intelligence, faith in itself, the instinct of self-government and
+self-help,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P31"></A>31}</SPAN>
+hatred of tyranny, the disposition to <I>domine</I>er,
+aggressiveness, greediness, inquisitiveness, insolence, the love of
+science, of liberty, and of money."  As the state is only a sum of
+component parts, its qualities must be those of its citizens, and of
+these citizens our colonists were undoubtedly typical.  We may
+therefore accept this description as picturing their mental and
+spiritual qualities in the pioneer days of their venture in the New
+World.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+<A NAME="chap02fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn1text">1</A>] See the monograph by Augustus H. Van Buren in the <I>Proceedings of
+the New York Historical Society</I>, vol. xi, p. 133.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P32"></A>32}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER III
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Their High Mightinesses, the States-General of the United Netherlands,
+as we have seen, granted to the Dutch West India Company a charter
+conveying powers nearly equaling and often overlapping those of the
+States themselves.  The West India Company in turn, with a view to
+stimulating colonization, granted to certain members known as patroons
+manorial rights frequently in conflict with the authority of the
+Company.  And for a time it seemed as though the patroonship would be
+the prevailing form of grant in New Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The system of patroonships seems to have been suggested by Kiliaen Van
+Rensselaer, one of the directors of the West India Company and a
+lapidary of Amsterdam, who later became the most successful of the
+patroons.  A shrewd, keen, far-seeing man, he was one of the first of
+the West India Company to perceive that the building up of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P33"></A>33}</SPAN>
+New
+Netherland could not be carried on without labor, and that labor could
+not be procured without permanent settlers.  "Open up the country with
+agriculture: that must be our first step," was his urgent advice; but
+the dwellers in the Netherlands, finding themselves prosperous in their
+old homes, saw no reason for emigrating, and few offered themselves for
+the overseas settlements.  The West India Company was not inclined to
+involve itself in further expense for colonization, and matters
+threatened to come to a halt, when someone, very likely the shrewd
+Kiliaen himself, evolved the plan of granting large estates to men
+willing to pay the cost of settling and operating them.  From this
+suggestion the scheme of patroonship was developed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The list of "Privileges and Exemptions" published by the West India
+Company in 1629 declared that all should be acknowledged patroons of
+New Netherland who should, within the space of four years, plant there
+a colony of fifty souls upwards of fifteen years old.  "The island of
+the Manhattes" was reserved for the Company.  The patroons, it was
+stipulated, must make known the situation of their proposed
+settlements, but they were allowed to change should their first
+location prove
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P34"></A>34}</SPAN>
+unsatisfactory.  The lands were to extend sixteen
+miles along the shore on one side of a navigable river, or eight miles
+on both sides of a river, and so far into the country as the situation
+of the colonies and their settlers permitted.  The patroons were
+entitled to dispose of their grants by will, and they were free to
+traffic along the coast of New Netherland for all goods except furs,
+which were to be the special perquisite of the West India Company.
+They were forbidden to allow the weaving of linen, woolen, or cotton
+cloth on their estates, the looms in Holland being hungry for raw
+material.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Company agreed that it would not take any one from the service of
+the patroon during the years for which the servant was bound, and any
+colonist who should without written permission enter the service of
+another patroon or "betake himself to freedom" was to be proceeded
+against with all the available force of the law.  The escaped servant
+would fare ill if his case came before the courts, since it was one of
+the prerogatives of a patroon to administer high, middle, and low
+justice&mdash;that is, to appoint magistrates and erect courts which should
+deal with all grades of crimes committed within the limits of the manor
+and also with breaches of the civil law.  In civil cases,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P35"></A>35}</SPAN>
+disputes
+over contracts, titles, and such matters, where the amount in
+litigation exceeded twenty dollars, as well as in criminal cases
+affecting life and limb, it was possible to appeal to the Director and
+Council at Fort Amsterdam; but the local authorities craftily evaded
+this provision by compelling their colonists to promise not to appeal
+from the tribunal of the manor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>scherprechter</I>, or hangman, was included with the superintendent,
+the <I>schout fiscaal</I>, or sheriff, and the magistrates as part of the
+manorial court system.  One such <I>scherprechter</I> named Jan de Neger,
+perhaps a freed negro, is named among the dwellers at Rensselaerswyck
+and we find him presenting a claim for thirty-eight florins ($15.00)
+for executing Wolf Nysen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No man in the manorial colony was to be deprived of life or property
+except by sentence of a court composed of five people, and all accused
+persons were entitled to a speedy and impartial trial.  As we find
+little complaint of the administration of justice in all the records of
+disputes, reproaches, and recriminations which mark the records of
+those old manors, we must assume that the processes of law were carried
+on in harmony with the spirit of fairness prevailing in the home
+country.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P36"></A>36}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Even before the West India Company had promulgated its charter, a
+number of rich merchants had availed themselves of the opportunity to
+secure lands under the offered privileges and exemptions.  Godyn and
+Blommaert, in association with Captain David de Vries and others, took
+up a large territory on Delaware Bay, and here they established a
+colony called "Swannendael," which was destroyed by the Indians in
+1632.  Myndert Myndertsen established his settlement on the mainland
+behind Staten Island, and his manor extended from Achter Kul, or Newark
+Bay, to the Tappan Zee.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the first patents recorded was granted to Michiel Pauw in 1630.
+In the documentary record the Director and Council of New Netherland,
+under the authority of their High Mightinesses, the Lords
+States-General and the West India Company Department of Amsterdam,
+testify to the bargain made with the natives, who are treated
+throughout with legal ceremony as if they were high contracting parties
+and fully capable of understanding the transaction in which they were
+engaged.  These original owners of the soil appeared before the Council
+and declared that in consideration of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P37"></A>37}</SPAN>
+certain merchandise, they
+agreed to "transfer, cede, convey and deliver for the benefit of the
+Honorable Mr. Michiel Paauw" as true and lawful freehold, the land at
+Hobocan Hackingh, opposite Manhattan, so that "he or his heirs may take
+possession of the aforesaid land, live on it in peace, inhabit, own and
+use it ... without that they, the conveying party shall have or retain
+the least pretension, right, power or authority either concerning
+ownership or sovereignty; but herewith they desist, abandon, withdraw
+and renounce in behalf of aforesaid now and forever totally and
+finally."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must have been a pathetic and yet a diverting spectacle when the
+simple red men thus swore away their title to the broad acres of their
+fathers for a consideration of beads, shells, blankets, and trinkets;
+but, when they listened to the subtleties of Dutch law as expounded by
+the Dogberrys at Fort Amsterdam, they may have been persuaded that
+their simple minds could never contend with such masters of language
+and that they were on the whole fortunate to secure something in
+exchange for their land, which they were bound to lose in any event.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It has been the custom to ascribe to the Dutch and Quakers the system
+of paying for lands taken
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P38"></A>38}</SPAN>
+from the Indians.  But Fiske points out
+that this conception is a mistake and he goes on to state that it was a
+general custom among the English and that not a rood of ground in New
+England was taken from the savages without recompense, except when the
+Pequots began a war and were exterminated.  The "payment" in all cases,
+however, was a mere farce and of value only in creating good feeling
+between savages and settlers.  As to the ethics of the transaction,
+much might be said on both sides.  The red men would be justified in
+feeling that they had been kept in ignorance of the relative importance
+of what they gave and what they received, while the whites might
+maintain that they created the values which ensued upon their purchase
+and that, if they had not come, lands along the Great River would have
+remained of little account.  In any case the recorded transaction did
+not prove a financial triumph for the purchaser, as the enterprise cost
+much in trouble and outlay and did not meet expenses.  The property was
+resold to the Company seven years later&mdash;at a price, however, of
+twenty-six thousand guilders, which represented a fair margin of profit
+over the "certain merchandise" paid to the original owners eight years
+earlier.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P39"></A>39}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Very soon after the purchase of the land on the west shore of the North
+River, Pauw bought, under the same elaborate legal forms, the whole of
+Staten Island, so called in honor of the Staaten or States-General.  To
+the estate he gave the title of Pavonia, a Latinized form of his own
+name.  Staten Island was subsequently purchased from Pauw by the
+Company and transferred (with the exception of the <I>bouwerie</I> of
+Captain De Vries) to Cornelis Melyn, who was thus added to the list of
+patroons.  Other regions also were erected into patroonships; but
+almost all were either unsuccessful from the beginning or short-lived.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The patroonship most successful, most permanent, and most typical was
+Rensselaerswyck, which offers the best opportunity for a study of the
+Dutch colonial system.  Van Rensselaer, though he did not apparently
+intend to make a home for himself in New Netherland, was one of the
+first to ask for a grant of land.  He received, subject to payment to
+the Indians, a tract of country to the north and south of Fort Orange,
+but not including that trading-post, which like the island of Manhattan
+remained under the control of the West India Company.  By virtue of
+this grant and later purchases Van Rensselaer acquired a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P40"></A>40}</SPAN>
+tract
+comprising what are now the counties of Albany and Rensselaer with part
+of Columbia.  Of this tract, called Rensselaerswyck, Van Rensselaer was
+named patroon, and five other men, Godyn, Blommaert, De Laet, Bissels,
+and Moussart, whom he had been forced to conciliate by taking into
+partnership, were named codirectors.  Later the claims of these five
+associates were bought out by the Van Rensselaer family.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1630 the first group of emigrants for this new colony sailed on the
+ship <I>Eendragt</I> and reached Fort Orange at the beginning of June.  How
+crude was the settlement which they established we may judge from the
+report made some years later by Father Jogues, a Jesuit missionary, who
+visited Rensselaerswyck in 1643.  He speaks of a miserable little fort
+built of logs and having four or five pieces of Breteuil cannon.  He
+describes also the colony as composed of about a hundred persons, "who
+reside in some twenty-five or thirty houses built along the river as
+each found most convenient."  The patroon's agent was established in
+the principal house, while in another, which served also as a church,
+was domiciled the <I>domine</I>, the Reverend Johannes Megapolensis, Jr. The
+houses he describes as built of boards and roofed with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P41"></A>41}</SPAN>
+thatch,
+having no mason-work except in the chimneys.  The settlers had found
+some ground already cleared by the natives and had planted it with
+wheat and oats in order to provide beer and horse-fodder; but being
+hemmed in by somewhat barren hills, they had been obliged to separate
+in order to obtain arable land.  The settlements, therefore, spread
+over two or three leagues.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The fear of raids from the savages prompted the patroon to advise that,
+with the exception of the brewers and tobacco planters who were obliged
+to live on their plantations, no other settlers should establish
+themselves at any distance from the church, which was the village
+center; for, says the prudent Van Rensselaer, "every one residing where
+he thinks fit, separated far from others, would be unfortunately in
+danger of their lives in the same manner as sorrowful experience has
+taught around the Manhattans."  Our sympathy goes out to those early
+settlers who lived almost as serfs under their patroon, the women
+forbidden to spin or weave, the men prohibited from trading in the furs
+which they saw building up fortunes around them.  They sat by their
+lonely hearths in a little clearing of the forest, listening to the
+howl of wolves and fearing to see a savage face at the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P42"></A>42}</SPAN>
+window.
+This existence was a tragic change indeed from the lively social
+existence along the canals of Amsterdam or on the stoops of Rotterdam.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nor can we feel that these tenants were likely to be greatly cheered by
+the library established at Rensselaerswyck, unless there were hidden
+away a list of more interesting books than those described in the
+patroon's invoice as sent in an <I>oosterse</I>, or oriental, box.  These
+volumes include a Scripture concordance, the works of Calvin, of Livy,
+and of Ursinus, the friend of Melanchthon, <I>A Treatise on Arithmetic</I>
+by Adrian Metius, <I>The History of the Holy Land</I>, and a work on natural
+theology.  As all the titles are in Latin, it is to be presumed that
+the body of the text was written in the same language, and we may
+imagine the light and cheerful mood which they inspired in their
+readers after a day of manual toil.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+I suspect, however, that the evening hours of these tenants at
+Rensselaerswyck were spent in anxious keeping of accounts with a
+wholesome fear of the patroon before the eyes of the accountants.  Life
+on the <I>bouweries</I> was by no means inexpensive, even according to
+modern standards.  Bearing in mind that a stiver was equivalent to two
+cents of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P43"></A>43}</SPAN>
+our currency and a florin to forty cents, it is easy to
+calculate the cost of living in the decade between 1630 and 1640 as set
+down in the accounts of Rensselaerswyck.  A blanket cost eight florins,
+a hat ten florins, an iron anvil one hundred florins, a musket and
+cartouche box nineteen florins, a copper sheep's bell one florin and
+six stivers.  On the other hand all domestic produce was cheap, because
+the tenant and patroon preferred to dispose of it in the settlements
+rather than by transporting it to New Amsterdam.  We learn with envy
+that butter was only eight stivers or sixteen cents per pound, a pair
+of fowl two florins, a beaver twenty-five florins.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+How hard were the terms on which the tenants held their leases is
+apparent from a report written by the guardians and tutors of Jan Van
+Rensselaer, a later patroon of Rensselaerswyck.  The patroon reserved
+to himself the tenth of all grains, fruits, and other products raised
+on the <I>bouwerie</I>.  The tenant was bound, in addition to his rent of
+five hundred guilders or two hundred dollars, to keep up the roads,
+repair the buildings, cut ten pieces of oak or fir wood, and bring the
+same to the shore; he must also every year give to the patroon three
+days' service with his horses and wagon;
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P44"></A>44}</SPAN>
+each year he was to cut,
+split, and bring to the waterside two fathoms of firewood; and he was
+further to deliver yearly to the Director as quit-rent two bushels of
+wheat, twenty-five pounds of butter, and two pairs of fowls.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It was the difficult task of the agent of the colony to harmonize the
+constant hostilities between the patroon and his "people."  Van
+Curler's letter to Kiliaen Van Rensselaer begins: "Laus Deo!  At the
+Manhattans this 16th June, 1643, Most honorable, wise, powerful, and
+right discreet Lord, my Lord Patroon&mdash;."  After which propitiatory
+beginning it embarks at once on a reply to the reproaches which the
+honorable, wise, and powerful Lord has heaped upon his obedient
+servant.  Van Curler admits that the accounts and books have not been
+forwarded to Holland as they should have been; but he pleads the
+difficulty of securing returns from the tenants, whom he finds slippery
+in their accounting.  "Everything they have laid out on account of the
+Lord Patroon they well know how to specify for what was expended.  But
+what has been laid out for their private use, that they know nothing
+about."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If the patroon's relations with his tenants were thorny, he had no less
+trouble in his dealings with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P45"></A>45}</SPAN>
+the Director-General at New
+Amsterdam.  It is true, Peter Minuit, the first important Director, was
+removed in 1632 by the Company for unduly favoring the patroons, and
+Van Twiller, another Director and a nephew of Van Rensselaer by
+marriage, was not disposed to antagonize his relative; but when Van
+Twiller was replaced by Kieft, and he in turn by Stuyvesant, the
+horizon at Rensselaerswyck grew stormy.  In 1643 the patroon ordered
+Nicholas Coorn to fortify Beeren or Bears Island, and to demand a toll
+of each ship, except those of the West India Company, that passed up
+and down the river.  He also required that the colors on every ship be
+lowered in passing Rensselaer's Stein or Castle Rensselaer, as the fort
+on the steep little island was named.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Govert Loockermans, sailing down the river one day on the ship <I>Good
+Hope</I>, failed to salute the flag, whereupon a lively dialogue ensued to
+the following effect, and not, we may be assured, carried on in low or
+amicable tones:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Coorn</I>: "Lower your colors!"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Loockermans</I>: "For whom should I?"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Coorn</I>: "For the staple-right of Rensselaerswyck."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Loockermans</I>: "I lower my colors for no one
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P46"></A>46}</SPAN>
+except the Prince of
+Orange and the Lords my masters."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The practical result of this interchange of amenities was a shot which
+tore the mainsail of the <I>Good Hope</I>, "perforated the princely flag,"
+and so enraged the skipper that on his arrival at New Amsterdam he
+hastened to lay his grievance before the Council, who thereupon ordered
+Coorn to behave with more civility.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The patroon system was from the beginning doomed to failure.  As we
+study the old documents we find a sullen tenantry, an obsequious and
+careworn agent, a dissatisfied patroon, an impatient company, a
+bewildered government&mdash;and all this in a new and promising country
+where the natives were friendly, the transportation easy, the land
+fertile, the conditions favorable to that conservation of human
+happiness which is and should be the aim of civilization.  The reason
+for the discontent which prevailed is not far to seek, and all classes
+were responsible for it, for they combined in planting an anachronistic
+feudalism in a new country, which was dedicated by its very physical
+conditions to liberty and democracy.  The settlers came from a nation
+which had battled
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P47"></A>47}</SPAN>
+through long years in the cause of freedom.
+They found themselves in a colony adjoining those of Englishmen who had
+braved the perils of the wilderness to establish the same principles of
+liberty and democracy.  No sane mind could have expected the Dutch
+colonists to return without protest to a medieval system of government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the English took possession of New Netherland in 1664, the old
+patroonships were confirmed as manorial grants from England.  As time
+went on, many new manors were erected until, when the province was
+finally added to England in 1674, "The Lords of the Manor" along the
+Hudson had taken on the proportions of a landed aristocracy.  On the
+lower reaches of the river lay the Van Cortlandt and Philipse Manors,
+the first containing 85,000 acres and a house so firmly built that it
+is still standing with its walls of freestone, three feet thick.  The
+Philipse Manor, at Tarrytown, represented the remarkable achievement of
+a self-made man, born in the Old World and a carpenter by trade, who
+rose in the New World to fortune and eminence.  By dint of business
+acumen and by marrying two heiresses in succession he achieved wealth,
+and built "Castle Philipse" and the picturesque little church at Sleepy
+Hollow,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P48"></A>48}</SPAN>
+still in use.  Farther up the river lay the Livingston
+Manor.  In 1685 Robert Livingston was granted by Governor Dongan a
+patent of a tract half way between New York and Rensselaerswyck, across
+the river from the Catskills and covering many thousand acres.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the estate of which we know most, thanks to the records left by
+Mrs. Grant of Laggan in her <I>Memoirs of an American Lady</I>, written in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is that belonging to the
+Schuylers at "the Flats" near Albany, which runs along the western bank
+of the Hudson for two miles and is bordered with sweeping elm trees.
+The mansion consisted of two stories and an attic.  Through the middle
+of the house ran a wide passage from the front to the back door.  At
+the front door was a large <I>stoep</I>, open at the sides and with seats
+around it.  One room was open for company.  The other apartments were
+bedrooms, a drawing-room being an unheard-of luxury.  "The house
+fronted the river, on the brink of which, under shades of elm and
+sycamore, ran the great road toward Saratoga, Stillwater, and the
+northern lakes."  Adjoining the orchard was a huge barn raised from the
+ground by beams which rested on stone and held up a massive oak
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P49"></A>49}</SPAN>
+floor.  On one side ran a manger.  Cattle and horses stood in rows with
+their heads toward the threshing-floor.  "There was a prodigious large
+box or open chest in one side built up, for holding the corn after it
+was threshed, and the roof which was very lofty and spacious was
+supported by large cross beams.  From one to the other of these was
+stretched a great number of long poles so as to form a sort of open
+loft, on which the whole rich crop was laid up."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Altogether it is an attractive picture of peace and plenty, of
+hospitality and simple luxury, that is drawn by this visitor to the
+Schuyler homestead.  We see through her eyes its carpeted winter rooms,
+its hall covered with tiled oilcloth and hung with family portraits,
+its vine-covered <I>stoeps</I>, provided with ledges for the birds, and
+affording "pleasant views of the winding river and the distant hills."
+Such a picture relieves pleasantly the arid waste of historical
+statistics.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the reader who dwells too long on the picturesque aspects of manors
+and patroonships is likely to forget that New Netherland was peopled
+for the most part by colonists who were neither patroons nor lords of
+manors.  It was the small proprietors who eventually predominated on
+western
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P50"></A>50}</SPAN>
+Long Island, on Staten Island, and along the Hudson.  "In
+the end," it has been well said, "this form of grant played a more
+important part in the development of the province than did the larger
+fiefs for which such detailed provision was made."
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P51"></A>51}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IV
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE DIRECTORS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The first Director-General of the colony, Captain Cornelis May, was
+removed by only a generation from those "Beggars of the Sea" whom the
+Spaniard held in such contempt; but this mendicant had begged to such
+advantage that the sea granted him a noble river to explore and a cape
+at its mouth to preserve his name to posterity.  It is upon his
+discoveries along the South River, later called the Delaware, and not
+upon his record as Director of New Netherland, that his title to fame
+must rest.  Associated with him was Tienpont, who appears to have been
+assigned to the North River while May assumed personal supervision of
+the South.  May acted as the agent of the West India Company for one
+year only (1624-1625), and was followed in office by Verhulst
+(1625-1626), who bequeathed his name to Verhulsten Island, in the
+Delaware River, and then quietly passed out of history.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P52"></A>52}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Neither of these officials left any permanent impress on the history of
+the colony.  It was therefore a day of vast importance to the dwellers
+on the North River, and especially to the little group of settlers on
+Manhattan Island, when the <I>Meeuwken</I> dropped her anchor in the harbor
+in May, 1626, and her small boat landed Peter Minuit, Director-General
+of New Netherland, a Governor who had come to govern.  Minuit, though
+registered as "of Wesel," Germany, was of Huguenot ancestry, and is
+reported to have spoken French, Dutch, German, and English.  He proved
+a tactful and efficient ruler, and the new system of government took
+form under the Director and Council, the <I>koopman</I>, who was commercial
+agent and secretary, and a <I>schout</I> who performed the duties of sheriff
+and public prosecutor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Van Wassenaer, the son of a <I>domine</I> in Amsterdam, gives us a report of
+the colony as it existed under Minuit.  He writes of a counting-house
+built of stone and thatched with reeds, of thirty ordinary houses on
+the east side of the river, and a horse-mill yet unfinished over which
+is to be constructed a spacious room to serve as a temporary church and
+to be decorated with bells captured at the sack of San Juan de Porto
+Rico in 1625 by the Dutch fleet.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P53"></A>53}</SPAN>
+According to this chronicler,
+every one in New Netherland who fills no public office is busy with his
+own affairs.  One trades, one builds houses, another plants farms.
+Each farmer pastures the cows under his charge on the <I>bouwerie</I> of the
+Company, which also owns the cattle; but the milk is the property of
+the farmer, who sells it to the settlers.  "The houses of settlers," he
+says, "are now outside the fort; but when that is finished they will
+all remove within, in order to garrison it and be safe from sudden
+attack."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of Minuit's first acts as Director was the purchase of Manhattan
+Island, covering some twenty-two thousand acres, for merchandise valued
+at sixty guilders or twenty-four dollars.  He thus secured the land at
+the rate of approximately ten acres for one cent.  A good bargain,
+Peter Minuit!  The transaction was doubly effective in placating the
+savages, or the <I>wilden</I>, as the settlers called them, and in
+establishing the Dutch claim as against the English by urging rights
+both of discovery and of purchase.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In spite of the goodwill manifested by the natives, the settlers were
+constantly anxious lest some conspiracy might suddenly break out.  Van
+Wassenaer, reporting the news from the colony as
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P54"></A>54}</SPAN>
+it reached him in
+Amsterdam, wrote in 1626 that Pieter Barentsen was to be sent to
+command Fort Orange, and that the families were to be brought down the
+river, sixteen men without women being left to garrison the fort.  Two
+years later he wrote that there were no families at Fort Orange, all
+having been brought down the river.  Only twenty-five or twenty-six
+traders remained and Krol, who had been vice-director there since 1626.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Minuit showed true statesmanship by following conciliation with a show
+of strength against hostile powers on every hand.  He had brought with
+him a competent engineer, Kryn Frederycke, or Fredericksen, who had
+been an officer in the army of Prince Maurice.  With his help Minuit
+laid out Fort Amsterdam on what was then the tip of Manhattan Island,
+the green park which forms the end of the island today being then under
+water.  Fredericksen found material and labor so scarce that he could
+plan at first only a blockhouse surrounded by palisades of red cedar
+strengthened with earthworks.  The fort was completed in 1626, and at
+the close of the year a settlement called New Amsterdam had grown up
+around it and had been made the capital of New Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+During the building of the fort there occurred
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P55"></A>55}</SPAN>
+an episode fraught
+with serious consequences.  A friendly Indian of the Weckquaesgeeck
+tribe came with his nephew to traffic at Fort Amsterdam.  Three
+servants of Minuit fell upon the Indian, robbed him, and murdered him.
+The nephew, then but a boy, escaped to his tribe and vowed a vengeance
+which he wreaked in blood nearly a score of years later.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Minuit's preparations for war were not confined to land fortification.
+In 1627 the hearts of the colonists were gladdened by a great victory
+of the Dutch over the Spanish, when, in a battle off San Salvador,
+Peter Heyn demolished twenty-six Spanish warships.  On the 5th of
+September the same bold sailor captured the whole of the Spanish
+silver-fleet with spoils amounting to twelve million guilders.  In the
+following year the gallant commander, then a lieutenant-admiral, died
+in battle on the deck of his ship.  The States-General sent to his old
+peasant mother a message of condolence, to which she replied: "Ay, I
+thought that would be the end of him.  He was always a vagabond; but I
+did my best to correct him.  He got no more than he deserved."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It was perhaps the echo of naval victories like these which prompted
+Minuit to embark upon a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P56"></A>56}</SPAN>
+shipbuilding project of great magnitude
+for that time.  Two Belgian shipbuilders arrived in New Amsterdam and
+asked the help of the Director in constructing a large vessel.  Minuit,
+seeing the opportunity to advertise the resources of the colony, agreed
+to give his assistance and the result was that the <I>New Netherland</I>, a
+ship of eight hundred tons carrying thirty guns, was built and launched.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This enterprise cost more than had been expected and the bills were
+severely criticized by the West India Company, already dissatisfied
+with Minuit on the ground that he had favored the interests of the
+patroons, who claimed the right of unrestricted trade within their
+estates, as against the interests of the Company.  Urged by many
+complaints, the States-General set on foot an investigation of the
+Director, the patroons, and the West India Company itself, with the
+result that in 1632 Minuit was recalled and the power of the patroons
+was limited.  New Netherland had not yet seen the last of Peter Minuit,
+however.  Angry and embittered, he entered the service of Sweden and
+returned later to vex the Dutch colony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the interval between Minuit's departure and the arrival of Van
+Twiller, the reins of authority
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P57"></A>57}</SPAN>
+were held by Sebastian Krol, whose
+name is memorable chiefly for the fact that he had been influential in
+purchasing the domain of Rensselaerswyck for its patroon (1630) and the
+tradition that the cruller, <I>crolyer</I> or <I>krolyer</I>, was so called in
+his honor.  The Company's selection of a permanent successor to Minuit
+was not happy.  Wouter Van Twiller, nephew of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer,
+must have owed his appointment as Director to family influence, since
+neither his career nor his reputation justified the choice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+David de Vries, writing on April 16, 1633, notes that on arriving about
+noon before Fort Amsterdam he found there a ship called the <I>Soutbergh</I>
+which had brought over the new Governor, Wouter Van Twiller, a former
+clerk in the West India House at Amsterdam.  De Vries gives his opinion
+of Van Twiller in no uncertain terms.  He expressed his own surprise
+that the West India Company should send fools into this country who
+knew nothing except how to drink, and quotes an Englishman as saying
+that he could not understand the unruliness among the officers of the
+Company and that a governor should have no more control over them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For the personal appearance of this "Walter
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P58"></A>58}</SPAN>
+the Doubter," we must
+turn again to the testimony of Knickerbocker, whose mocking
+descriptions have obtained a quasi-historical authority:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+This renowned old gentleman arrived at New Amsterdam in the merry month
+of June....  He was exactly five feet six inches in height and six feet
+five inches in circumference.  His head was a perfect sphere and of
+such stupendous dimensions that Dame Nature, with all her sex's
+ingenuity would have been puzzled to construct a neck capable of
+supporting it: Wherefore she wisely declined the attempt and settled it
+firmly on the top of his backbone just between the shoulders....  His
+legs were short but sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to
+sustain so that when erect he had not a little the appearance of a beer
+barrel on skids.  His face, that infallible index of the mind,
+presented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of those lines which
+disfigure the human countenance with what is termed expression....  His
+habits were regular.  He daily took his four stated meals,
+appropriating exactly an hour to each; he smoked and doubted eight
+hours, and he slept the remaining twelve of the four-and-twenty.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+A later historian, taking up the cudgels in behalf of the Director,
+resents Knickerbocker's impeachment and protests that "so far from
+being the aged, fat and overgrown person represented in caricature Van
+Twiller was youthful and inexperienced, and his faults were those of a
+young
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P59"></A>59}</SPAN>
+man unused to authority and hampered by his instructions."[<A NAME="chap04fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In his new office Van Twiller was confronted with questions dealing
+with the encroachment of the patroons from within and of the English
+from without, the unwelcome visit of Eelkens, of whom we shall hear
+later, and massacres by the Indians on the South River.  Such problems
+might well have puzzled a wiser head and a more determined character
+than Van Twiller's.  We cannot hold him wholly blameworthy if he dealt
+with them in a spirit of doubt and hesitation.  What we find harder to
+excuse is his shrewd advancement of his own interests and his lavish
+expenditure of the Company's money.  The cost of building the fort
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P60"></A>60}</SPAN>
+was more than justifiable.  To have neglected the defenses would have
+been culpable; and the barracks built for the hundred and four soldiers
+whom he had brought over from the Fatherland may also be set down as
+necessary.  But when the Company was groaning under the expenses of the
+colony, it was, to say the least, lacking in tact to build for himself
+the most elaborate house in New Netherland, besides erecting on one of
+the Company's <I>bouweries</I> a house, a barn, a boathouse, and a brewery,
+to say nothing of planting another farm with tobacco, working it with
+slave labor at the Company's expense, and appropriating the profits.
+In the year 1688, after he had been five years in office, the outcry
+against Van Twiller for misfeasance, malfeasance, and especially
+nonfeasance, grew too loud to be ignored, and he was recalled; but
+before he left New Netherland he bought Nooten or Nut Island, since
+called Governor's Island, and also two other islands in the East River.
+At the time of his marriage in 1643, Van Twiller was in command of a
+competence attained at the expense of the West India Company, and there
+is much excuse for the feeling of his employers that he had been more
+active in his own affairs than in theirs.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P61"></A>61}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The principal service which he had rendered to the Company in his term
+of office was the establishment of "staple right" at New Amsterdam,
+compelling all ships trading on the coast or the North River to pay
+tolls or unload their cargoes on the Company's property.  But on the
+reverse side of the account we must remember that he allowed the fort
+to fall into such decay that when Kieft arrived in 1638 he found the
+defenses, which had been finished only three years before, already in a
+shamefully neglected condition, the guns dismounted, the public
+buildings inside the walls in ruins, and the walls of the fort itself
+so beaten down that any one might enter at will, "save at the stone
+point."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The hopes of the colonists rose again with the coming of a new
+governor; but the appointment of Kieft reflected as little credit as
+that of Van Twiller upon the sagacity of the West India Company.  The
+man now chosen to rule New Netherland was a narrow-minded busybody,
+eager to interfere in small matters and without the statesmanship
+required to conduct large affairs.  Some of his activities, it is true,
+had practical value.  He fixed the hours at which the colonists should
+go to bed and ordered the curfew to be rung at nine o'clock;
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P62"></A>62}</SPAN>
+he
+established two annual fairs to be held on the present Bowling Green,
+one in October for cattle and one in November for hogs; and he built a
+new stone church within the fort, operated a brewery, founded a
+hostelry, and planted orchards and gardens.  But on the other side of
+the account he was responsible for a bloody war with the Indians which
+came near to wrecking the colony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His previous record held scant promise for his success as a governor.
+He had failed as a merchant in Rochelle, for which offense his portrait
+had been affixed to a gallows.  Such a man was a poor person to be put
+in control of the complicated finances of New Netherland and of the
+delicate relations between the colonists and the Indians&mdash;relations
+calling for infinite tact, wisdom, firmness, and forbearance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The natives in the region of New Amsterdam were increasingly irritated
+by the encroachments of the whites.  They complained that stray cows
+spoiled their unfenced cornfields and that various other depredations
+endangered their crops.  To add to this irritation Kieft proposed to
+tax the natives for the protection afforded them by the Fort, which was
+now being repaired at large expense.  The situation, already bad
+enough, was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P63"></A>63}</SPAN>
+further complicated by Kieft's clumsy handling of an
+altercation on Staten Island.  Some pigs were stolen, by servants of
+the Company as appeared later; but the offense was charged to the
+Raritan Indians.  Without waiting to make investigations Kieft sent out
+a punitive expedition of seventy men, who attacked the innocent
+natives, killed a number of them, and laid waste their crops.  This
+stupid and wicked attack still further exasperated the Indians, who in
+the high tide of mid-summer saw their lands laid bare and their homes
+desolated by the wanton hand of the intruders.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some months later the trouble between the whites and the red men was
+brought to a head by an unforeseen tragedy.  A savage came to Claes
+Smits, <I>radenmaker</I> or wheelwright, to trade beaver for duffel cloth.
+As Claes stooped down to take out the duffel from a chest, the Indian
+seized an axe which chanced to stand near by and struck the wheelwright
+on the neck, killing him instantly.  The murderer then stole the goods
+from the chest and fled to the forest.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Kieft sent to the tribe of the Weckquaesgeecks to inquire the
+cause of this murder and to demand the slayer, the Indian told the
+chief that he had seen his uncle robbed and killed at the fort
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P64"></A>64}</SPAN>
+while it was being built; that he himself had escaped and had vowed
+revenge; and that the unlucky Claes was the first white man upon whom
+he had a chance to wreak vengeance.  The chief then replied to the
+Director that he was sorry that twenty Christians had not been killed
+and that the Indian had done only a pious duty in avenging his uncle.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this emergency Kieft called a meeting at which the prominent
+burghers chose a committee of twelve to advise the Director.  This took
+place in 1641.  The Council was headed by Captain David de Vries, whose
+portrait with its pointed chin, high forehead, and keen eyes, justifies
+his reputation as the ablest man in New Netherland.  He insisted that
+it was inadvisable to attack the Indians&mdash;not to say hazardous.
+Besides, the Company had warned them to keep peace.  It is interesting
+to speculate on what would have been the effect on the colony if the
+Company's choice had fallen upon De Vries instead of on Kieft as
+Director.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Although restrained for the time, Kieft never relinquished his purpose.
+On February 24, 1643, he again announced his intention of making a raid
+upon the Indians, and in spite of further
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P65"></A>65}</SPAN>
+remonstrance from De
+Vries he sent out his soldiers, who returned after a massacre which
+disgraced the Director, enraged the natives, and endangered the colony.
+Kieft was at first proud of his treachery; but as soon as it was known
+every Algonquin tribe around New Amsterdam started on the warpath.
+From New Jersey to the Connecticut every farm was in peril.  The famous
+and much-persecuted Anne Hutchinson perished with her family; towns
+were burned; and men, women, and children fled in panic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the approach of spring, when the Indians had to plant their corn or
+face famine, sachems of the Long Island Indians sought a parley with
+the Dutch.  De Vries and Olfertsen volunteered to meet the savages.  In
+the woods near Rockaway they found nearly three hundred Indians
+assembled.  The chiefs placed the envoys in the center of the circle,
+and one among them, who had a bundle of sticks, laid down one stick at
+a time as he recounted the wrongs of his tribe.  This orator told how
+the red men had given food to the settlers and were rewarded by the
+murder of their people, how they had protected and cherished the
+traders, and how they had been abused in return.  At length De Vries,
+like the practical man that he was,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P66"></A>66}</SPAN>
+suggested that they all
+adjourn to the Fort, promising them presents from the Director.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The chiefs consented to meet the Director and eventually were persuaded
+to make a treaty of peace; but Kieft's gifts were so niggardly that the
+savages went away with rancor still in their hearts, and the war of the
+races continued its bloody course.  It is no wonder that when De Vries
+left the Governor on this occasion, he told Kieft in plain terms of his
+guilt and predicted that the shedding of so much innocent blood would
+yet be avenged upon his own head.  This prophecy proved a strangely
+true one.  When recalled by the States-General in 1647, Kieft set out
+for Holland on the ship <I>Princess</I>, carrying with him the sum of four
+hundred thousand guilders.  The ship was wrecked in the Bristol channel
+and Kieft was drowned.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The evil that Kieft did lived after him and the good, if interred with
+his bones, would not have occupied much space in the tomb.  The only
+positive advance during his rule&mdash;and that was carried through against
+his will&mdash;was the appointment of an advisory committee of the twelve
+men, representing the householders of the colony, who were called
+together in the emergency following
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P67"></A>67}</SPAN>
+the murder of Claes Smits, and
+in 1643 of a similar board of eight men, who protested against his
+arbitrary measures and later procured his recall.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the departure of Kieft the most picturesque figure of the period
+of Dutch rule in America appeared at New Amsterdam, Petrus or Pieter
+Stuyvesant.  We have an authentic portrait in which the whole
+personality of the man is writ large.  The dominant nose, the small,
+obstinate eyes, the close-set, autocratic mouth, tell the character of
+the man who was come to be the new and the last Director-General of New
+Netherland.  As Director of the West India Company's colony at Curaçao,
+Stuyvesant had undertaken the task of reducing the Portuguese island of
+St. Martin and had lost a leg in the fight.  This loss he repaired with
+a wooden leg, of which he professed himself prouder than of all his
+other limbs together and which he had decorated with silver bands and
+nails, thus earning for him the sobriquet of "Old Silver Nails."
+Still, so the legend runs, Peter Stuyvesant's ghost at night "stumps to
+and fro with a shadowy wooden leg through the aisles of St. Mark's
+Church near the spot where his bones lie buried."  But many events were
+to happen
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P68"></A>68}</SPAN>
+before those bones were laid in the family vault of the
+chapel on his <I>bouwerie</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Stuyvesant reached the country over which he was to rule, it was
+noted by the colonists that his bearing was that of a prince.  "I shall
+be as a father over his children," he told the burghers of New
+Amsterdam, and in this patriarchal capacity he kept the people standing
+with their heads uncovered for more than an hour, while he wore his
+hat.  How he bore out this first impression we may gather from <I>The
+Representation of New Netherland</I>, an arraignment of the Director,
+drawn up and solemnly attested in 1650 by eleven responsible burghers
+headed by Adrian Van der Donck, and supplemented by much detailed
+evidence.  The witnesses express the earnest wish that Stuyvesant's
+administration were at an end, for they have suffered from it and know
+themselves powerless.  Whoever opposes the Director "hath as much as
+the sun and moon against him."  In the council he writes an opinion
+covering several pages and then adds orally: "This is my opinion.  If
+any one have aught to object to it, let him express it!"  If any one
+ventures to make any objection, his Honor flies into a passion and
+rails in language better fitted to the fish-market than to the
+council-hall.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P69"></A>69}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+When two burghers, Kuyter and Melyn, who had been leaders of the
+opposition to Kieft, petitioned Stuyvesant to investigate his conduct,
+Stuyvesant supported his predecessor on the ground that one Director
+should uphold another.  At Kieft's instigation he even prosecuted and
+convicted Kuyter and Melyn for seditious attack on the government.
+When Melyn asked for grace till his case could be presented in the
+Fatherland, he was threatened, according to his own testimony, in
+language like this: "If I knew, Melyn, that you would divulge our
+sentence [that of fine and banishment] or bring it before Their High
+Mightinesses, I would cause you to be hanged at once on the highest
+tree in New Netherland."  In another case the Director said: "It may
+during my administration be contemplated to appeal; but if anyone
+should do it, I will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to
+Holland and let him appeal in that way."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+An answer to this arraignment by the burghers of New Netherland was
+written by Van Tienhoven, who was sent over to the Netherlands to
+defend Stuyvesant; but its value is impaired by the fact that he was
+<I>schout fiscaal</I> and interested in the acquittal of Stuyvesant, whose
+tool he was,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P70"></A>70}</SPAN>
+and also by the fact that he was the subject of
+bitter attack in the <I>Representation</I> by Adrian Van der Donck, who
+accused Van Tienhoven of continually shifting from one side to another
+and asserted that he was notoriously profligate and untrustworthy.  One
+passage in his reply amounted to a confession.  Who, he asks, are they
+who have complained about the haughtiness of the Director, and he
+answers that they are "such as seek to live without law or rule."  "No
+one," he goes on to say, "can prove that Director Stuyvesant has used
+foul language to or railed at as clowns any respectable persons who
+have treated him decently.  It may be that some profligate person has
+given the Director, <I>if he has used any bad words to him</I>, cause to do
+so."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It has been the fashion in popular histories to allude to Stuyvesant as
+a doughty knight of somewhat choleric temper, "a valiant, weather
+beaten, leathern-sided, lion-hearted, generous-spirited, old governor";
+but I do not so read his history.  I find him a brutal tyrant, as we
+have seen in the affair of Kieft <I>versus</I> Melyn; a narrow-minded bigot,
+as we shall see later in his dealing with the Quakers at Flushing; a
+bully when his victims were completely in his power; and a loser
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P71"></A>71}</SPAN>
+
+in any quarrel when he was met with blustering comparable to his own.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In support of the last indictment let us take his conduct in a conflict
+with the authorities at Rensselaerswyck.  In 1646 Stuyvesant had
+ordered that no building should be erected within cannon-shot of Fort
+Orange.  The superintendent of the settlement denied Stuyvesant's right
+to give such an order and pointed to the fact that his trading-house
+had been for a long time on the border of the fort.  To the claim that
+a clear space was necessary to the fort's efficiency, Van
+Slichtenhorst, Van Rensselaer's agent, replied that he had spent more
+than six months in the colony and had never seen a single person
+carrying a sword, musket, or pike, nor had he heard a drum-beat except
+on the occasion of a visit from the Director and his soldiers in the
+summer.  Stuyvesant rejoined by sending soldiers and sailors to tear
+down the house which Van Slichtenhorst was building near Fort Orange,
+and the commissary was ordered to arrest the builder if he resisted;
+but the commissary wrote that it would be impossible to carry out the
+order, as the settlers at Rensselaerswyck, reënforced by the Indians,
+outnumbered his troops.  Stuyvesant then recalled his soldiers and
+ordered Van
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P72"></A>72}</SPAN>
+Slichtenhorst to appear before him, which the agent
+refused to do.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1652 Stuyvesant ordered Dyckman, then in command at Fort Orange, not
+to allow any one to build a house near the fort or to remain in any
+house already built.  In spite of proclamations and other bluster this
+order proved fruitless and on April 1, 1653, Stuyvesant came in person
+to Fort Orange and sent a sergeant to lower the patroon's flag.  The
+agent refusing to strike the patroon's colors, the soldiers entered,
+lowered the flag, and discharged their guns.  Stuyvesant declared that
+the region staked out by posts should be known as Beverwyck and
+instituted a court there.  Van Slichtenhorst tore down the
+proclamation, whereupon Stuyvesant ordered him to be imprisoned in the
+fort.  Later the Director transported the agent under guard to New
+Amsterdam.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Stuyvesant's arbitrary character also appears in his overriding of the
+measure of local self-government decreed by the States-General in 1653.
+Van der Donck and his fellows had asked three things of their High
+Mightinesses, the States-General: first, that they take over the
+government of New Netherland; second, that they establish a better city
+government in New Amsterdam; and third,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P73"></A>73}</SPAN>
+that they clearly define
+the boundaries of New Netherland.  The first of these requests, owing
+to the deeply intrenched interest of the West India Company, could not
+be granted, the last still less.  But the States-General urged that
+municipal rights should be given to New Amsterdam, and in 1652 the
+Company yielded.  The charter limited the number of <I>schepens</I> or
+aldermen to five and the number of burgomasters to two, and also
+ordained that they as well as the <I>schout</I> should be elected by the
+citizens; but Stuyvesant ignored this provision and proceeded to
+appoint men of his own choosing.  The Stone Tavern built by Kieft at
+the head of Coenties Slip was set apart as a <I>Stadt-Huys</I>, or City
+Hall, and here Stuyvesant's appointees, supposed to represent the
+popular will, held their meetings.  It was something that they did hold
+meetings and nominally at least in the interest of the people.  Another
+concession followed.  In 1658 Stuyvesant yielded so far to the
+principles of popular government as to concede to the <I>schepens</I> and
+burgomasters of New Amsterdam the right to nominate double the number
+of candidates for office, from whom the Director was to make a choice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1655, during the absence of Stuyvesant on the South River, the
+Indians around Manhattan
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P74"></A>74}</SPAN>
+appeared with a fleet of sixty-four war
+canoes, attacked and looted New Amsterdam, then crossed to Hoboken and
+continued their bloody work in Pavonia and on Staten Island.  In three
+days a hundred men, women, and children were slain, and a hundred and
+fifty-two were taken captive, and the damage to property was estimated
+at two hundred thousand guilders&mdash;approximately eighty thousand
+dollars.  As usual the Dutch had been the aggressors, for Van Dyck,
+formerly <I>schout fiscaal</I>, had shot and killed an old Indian woman who
+was picking peaches in his orchard.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must be set down to Stuyvesant's credit that on his return he acted
+toward the Indians in a manner that was kind and conciliating, and at
+the same time provided against a repetition of the recent disaster by
+erecting blockhouses at various points and by concentrating the
+settlers for mutual defense.  By this policy of mingled diplomacy and
+preparation against attack Stuyvesant preserved peace for a period of
+three years.  But trouble with the Indians continued to disturb the
+colonies on the river and centered at Esopus, where slaughters of both
+white and red men occurred.  Eight white men were burned at the stake
+in revenge for shots fired by Dutch soldiers, and an Indian chief was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P75"></A>75}</SPAN>
+killed with his own tomahawk.  In 1660 a treaty of peace was
+framed; but three years later we find the two races again embroiled.
+Thus Indian wars continued down to the close of Dutch rule.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In spite of these troubles in the more outlying districts, New
+Amsterdam continued to grow and thrive.  In Stuyvesant's time the
+thoroughfares of New Amsterdam were laid out as streets and were named.
+The line of houses facing the fort on the eastern side was called the
+Marckveldt, or Marketfield, taking its name from the green opposite,
+which had been the site of the city market.  De Heere Straat, the
+principal street, ran north from the fort through the gate at the city
+wall.  De Hoogh Straat ran parallel with the East River from the city
+bridge to the water gate and on its line stood the <I>Stadt-Huys</I>.  'T
+Water ran in a semi-circular line from the point of the island and was
+bordered by the East River.  De Brouwer Straat took its name from the
+breweries situated on it and was probably the first street in the town
+to be regulated and paved.  De Brugh Straat, as the name implies, led
+to the bridge crossing.  De Heere Graft, the principal canal, was a
+creek running deep into the island from the East River and protected
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P76"></A>76}</SPAN>
+by a siding of boards.  An official was appointed for the care of
+this canal with orders to see "that the newly made <I>graft</I> was kept in
+order, that no filth was cast into it, and that the boats, canoes, and
+other vessels were laid in order."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The new city was by this time thoroughly cosmopolitan.  One traveler
+speaks of the use of eighteen different languages, and the forms of
+faith were as varied as the tongues spoken.  Seven or eight large ships
+came every year from Amsterdam.  The Director occupied a fine house on
+the point of the island.  On the east side of the town stood the
+<I>Stadt-Huys</I> protected by a half-moon of stone mounted with three small
+brass cannon.  In the fort stood the Governor's house, the church, the
+barracks, the house for munitions, and the long-armed windmills.
+Everything was prospering except the foundation on which all depended.
+There was no adequate defense for all this property.  Here we must
+acquit Stuyvesant from responsibility, since again and again he had
+warned the Company against the weakness of the colony; but they would
+not heed the warnings, and the consequences which might have been
+averted suddenly overtook the Dutch possessions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The war which broke out in 1652 between
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P77"></A>77}</SPAN>
+England and the
+Netherlands, once leagued against Catholic Spain but now parted by
+commercial rivalries, found an immediate echo on the shores of the
+Hudson.  With feverish haste the inhabitants of New Amsterdam began to
+fortify.  Across the island at the northern limit of the town, on the
+line of what is now Wall Street, they built a wall with stout palisades
+backed by earthworks.  They hastily repaired the fort, organized the
+citizens as far as possible to resist attack, and also strengthened
+Fort Orange.  The New England Colonies likewise began warlike
+preparations; but, perhaps owing to the prudence of Stuyvesant in
+accepting the Treaty of Hartford, peace between the Dutch and English
+in the New World continued for the present, though on precarious terms;
+and, the immediate threat of danger being removed by the treaty between
+England and Holland in 1654, the New Netherlander relaxed their
+vigilance and curtailed the expense of fortifications.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Meanwhile Stuyvesant had alienated popular sympathy and lessened united
+support by his treatment of a convention of delegates from New
+Amsterdam, Flushing, Breuckelen, Hempstead, Amersfort, Middleburgh,
+Flatbush, and Gravesend who had gathered to consider the defense and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P78"></A>78}</SPAN>
+welfare of the colonies.  The English of the Long Island towns
+were the prime movers in this significant gathering.  There is an
+unmistakable English flavor in the contention of <I>The Humble
+Remonstrance</I> adopted by the Convention, that "'tis contrary to the
+first intentions and genuine principles of every well regulated
+government, that one or more men should arrogate to themselves the
+exclusive power to dispose, at will, of the life and property of any
+individual."  As a people "not conquered or subjugated, but settled
+here on a mutual covenant and contract entered into with the Lord
+Patroons, with the consent of the Natives," they protested against the
+enactment of laws and the appointment of magistrates without their
+consent or that of their representatives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Stuyvesant replied with his usual bigotry and in a rage at being
+contradicted.  He asserted that there was little wisdom to be expected
+from popular election when naturally "each would vote for one of his
+own stamp, the thief for a thief, the rogue, the tippler and the
+smuggler for his brother in iniquity, so that he may enjoy more
+latitude in vice and fraud."  Finally Stuyvesant ordered the delegates
+to disperse, declaring: "We derive our authority from God and the
+Company, not from a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P79"></A>79}</SPAN>
+few ignorant subjects, and we alone can call
+the inhabitants together."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With popular support thus alienated and with appeals for financial and
+military aid from the States-General and the West India Company denied
+or ignored, the end of New Netherland was clearly in sight.  In 1663
+Stuyvesant wrote to the Company begging them to send him
+reënforcements.  "Otherwise," he said, "it is wholly out of our power
+to keep the sinking ship afloat any longer."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This year was full of omens.  The valley of the Hudson was shaken by an
+earthquake followed by an overflow of the river, which ruined the
+crops.  Smallpox visited the colony, and on top of all these calamities
+came the appalling Indian massacre at Esopus.  The following year,
+1664, brought the arrival of the English fleet, the declaration of war,
+and the surrender of the Dutch Province.  For many years the English
+had protested against the Dutch claims to the territory on the North
+and South rivers.  Their navigators had tried to contest the trade in
+furs, and their Government at home had interfered with vessels sailing
+to and from New Amsterdam.  Now at length Charles II was ready to
+appropriate the Dutch possessions.  He did not
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P80"></A>80}</SPAN>
+trouble himself
+with questions of international law, still less with international
+ethics; but, armed with the flimsy pretense that Cabot's visit
+established England's claim to the territory, he stealthily made
+preparations to seize the defenseless colony on the river which had
+begun to be known as the Hudson.  Five hundred veteran troops were
+embarked on four ships, under command of Colonel Richard Nicolls, and
+sailed on their expedition of conquest.  Stuyvesant's suspicions,
+aroused by rumors of invasion, were so far lulled by dispatches from
+Holland that he allowed several ships at New Amsterdam to sail for
+Curaçao ladened with provisions, while he himself journeyed to
+Rensselaerswyck to quell an Indian outbreak.  While he was occupied in
+this task, a messenger arrived to inform him that the English fleet was
+hourly expected in the harbor of New Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant made haste
+down the river; but on the day after he arrived at Manhattan Island, he
+saw ships flying the flag of England in the lower harbor, where they
+anchored below the Narrows.  Colonel Nicolls demanded the surrender of
+the "towns situate on the island commonly known by the name of
+Manhattoes, with all the forts thereunto belonging."
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P81"></A>81}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Although the case of New Amsterdam was now hopeless, Stuyvesant yet
+strove for delay.  He sent a deputation to Nicolls to carry on a
+parley; but Nicolls was firm.  "When may we visit you again?" the
+deputation asked.  Nicolls replied with grim humor that he would speak
+with them at Manhattan.  "Friends are welcome there," answered
+Stuyvesant's representative diplomatically; but Nicolls told them
+bluntly that he was coming with ships and soldiers.  "Hoist a white
+flag at the fort," he said, "and I may consider your proposals."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Colonel Nicolls was as good as his word and, to the consternation of
+the dwellers in New Amsterdam, the fleet of English frigates, under
+full sail and with all guns loaded, appeared before the walls of the
+useless old Fort Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant stood on one of the angles of
+the fort and the gunners with lighted matches awaited his command to
+fire.  The people entreated him to yield.  "Resistance is not
+soldiership," said one of them.  "It is sheer madness."  Stuyvesant,
+who with all his faults was a brave soldier, felt to the quick the
+humiliation; but he saw also that resistance meant only useless
+bloodshed.  At last he submitted, and the English vessels sailed on
+their way unmolested,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P82"></A>82}</SPAN>
+while Stuyvesant groaned, "I would much rather be
+carried to my grave."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Without firing a shot the English thus took possession of the rich
+country which the States-General had not thought worth defending, and
+New Netherland became New York.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+<A NAME="chap04fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn1text">1</A>] Van Twiller's advocate, W. E. Griffis, quotes the Nijkerk records
+in proof that Van Twiller was born on May 22, 1606, which would fix his
+age at twenty-seven when he was sent out to the colony.  The editor of
+the Van Rensselaer-Bowier manuscript states that Kiliaen Van Rensselaer
+was born in 1580, that his sister, Maria, married Richard, or Ryckaert,
+Van Twiller and that the Wouter of our chronicles was their son and
+therefore Van Rensselaer's nephew.  We are the more inclined to accept
+the year 1606 as the true date of Van Twiller's birth because the year
+1580, previously accepted by historians, would have been the same as
+that of the birth of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer himself, and because,
+according to the author of the <I>Story of New Netherland</I>, Maria Van
+Rensselaer was betrothed in 1605.  Otherwise we should find it almost
+beyond credence that a youth of twenty-seven should have been so
+suddenly promoted from the counting-house at Amsterdam to the
+responsible post of Director of New Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P83"></A>83}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER V
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Because the Netherlander were not, like the New Englanders, fugitives
+from persecution at the hands of their fellow-countrymen, the Dutch
+colonization in America is often spoken of as a purely commercial
+venture; but in reality the founding of New Netherland marked a
+momentous epoch in the struggle for the freedom of conscience.
+Established between the long contest with the Inquisition in Spain and
+the Thirty Years' War for religious liberty in Germany, this plantation
+along the Hudson offered protection in America to those rights of free
+conscience for which so much blood had been shed and so much treasure
+spent in Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Dutch colonists were deeply religious, with no more bigotry than
+was inseparable from the ideas of the seventeenth century.  They were
+determined to uphold the right to worship God in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P84"></A>84}</SPAN>
+their own way;
+and to say that their own way of worship was as dear to them as their
+beliefs is not strikingly to differentiate them from the rest of
+mankind.  They brought with them from the home country a tenacious
+reverence for their fathers' method of worship and for the Calvinistic
+polity of the Dutch Reformed Church.  They looked with awe upon the
+<I>synod</I>, the final tribunal in Holland for ecclesiastical disputes.
+They regarded with respect the <I>classis</I>, composed of ministers and
+elders in a certain district; but their hearts went out in a special
+affection to the <I>consistory</I>, which was made up of the ministers and
+elders of the single local <I>kerk</I>.  This at least they could reproduce
+in the crude conditions under which they labored, and it seemed a link
+with the home which they had left so far behind them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+They had no intention, however, of forcing this church discipline on
+those who could not conscientiously accept it.  The devout wish of
+William the Silent that all his countrymen might dwell together in
+amity regardless of religious differences was fulfilled among the early
+settlers in New Netherland.  Their reputation for tolerance was spread
+abroad early in the history of the colony, and Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Presbyterians,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P85"></A>85}</SPAN>
+Moravians, and Anabaptists lived unmolested in New
+Netherland till the coming of Director Peter Stuyvesant in 1647.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The religious tyranny which marked Stuyvesant's rule must be set down
+to his personal discredit, for almost every instance of persecution was
+met by protest from the settlers themselves, including his
+coreligionists.  He deported to Holland a Lutheran preacher; he revived
+and enforced a dormant rule of the West India Company which forbade the
+establishment of any church other than the Dutch Reformed; and he
+imprisoned parents who refused to have their children baptized in that
+faith.  But it was in his dealings with the Quakers that his bigotry
+showed itself in its most despotic form.  Robert Hodgson, a young
+Quaker, was arrested in Hempstead, Long Island, and was brought to New
+Amsterdam.  After he had been kept in prison for several days, the
+magistrate condemned him either to pay a fine of a hundred guilders or
+to work with a wheelbarrow for two years in company with negroes.  He
+declined to do either.  After two or three days he was whipped on his
+bare back and warned that the punishment would be repeated if he
+persisted in his obstinacy.  This treatment is recorded by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P86"></A>86}</SPAN>
+
+Domines Megapolensis and Drisius in a letter to the <I>classis</I> of
+Amsterdam, not only without protest but with every sign of approbation.
+Yet in the end public opinion made itself felt and Mrs. Bayard,
+Stuyvesant's sister (or sister-in-law, as some authorities say)
+procured the release of his victim.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In another case, a resident of Flushing ventured to hold Quaker
+meetings at his home.  He was sentenced to pay a fine or submit to be
+flogged and banished; but the town officers refused to carry out the
+decree.  A letter, signed by a number of prominent townsfolk of
+Flushing, declared that the law of love, peace, and liberty was the
+true glory of Holland, that they desired not to offend one of Christ's
+little ones under whatever name he appeared, whether Presbyterian,
+Independent, Baptist, or Quaker.  "Should any of these people come in
+love among us therefore," said they, "we cannot in conscience lay
+violent hands upon them."  This letter immediately brought down upon
+the writers the despotic rage of Stuyvesant.  The sheriff of Flushing
+was cashiered and fined; the town clerk was imprisoned; and penalties
+of varying degree were imposed on all the signers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When accounts of Stuyvesant's proceedings
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P87"></A>87}</SPAN>
+reached Amsterdam,
+however, he received from the Chamber a letter of stinging rebuke,
+informing him that "the consciences of men ought to be free and
+unshackled, so long as they continue moderate, inoffensive, and not
+hostile to government."  The Chamber, after reminding the Director that
+toleration in old Amsterdam had brought the oppressed and persecuted of
+all countries to that city as to an asylum, recommended Stuyvesant to
+follow in the same course.  Herewith ended the brief period of
+religious persecution in New Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The amiable Domine Megapolensis who acquiesced in these persecutions
+came over to the colony of Rensselaerswyck in 1642 in the service of
+Kiliaen Van Rensselaer.  He was to have a salary of forty guilders per
+month and a fit dwelling that was to be provided for him.  So the
+"Reverend, Pious, and learned Dr. Johannes Megapolensis, junior," set
+sail for America "to proclaim Christ to Christians and heathens in such
+distant lands."  His name, by the way, like that of Erasmus,
+Melanchthon, Æcolampadius, Dryander, and other worthies of the
+Reformation, was a classical form of the homely Dutch patronymic to
+which he had been born.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Apparently the Reverend Johannes was more
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P88"></A>88}</SPAN>
+successful in his
+mission to the heathen than in that to the Christians, for he learned
+the Mohawk language, wrote a valuable account of the tribe, and
+understood them better than he understood the Lutherans and Quakers of
+New Amsterdam and Long Island.  In 1664 when Stuyvesant was in the mood
+to fire on the British fleet and take the consequences, Megapolensis,
+so tradition runs, dissuaded him with the argument: "Of what avail are
+our poor guns against that broadside of more than sixty?  It is wrong
+to shed innocent blood."  One wonders if the <I>domine</I> had any room in
+his mind for thoughts of the useless sufferings which had been
+inflicted on Hodgson and Townsend and the Lutheran preachers while he
+stood by consenting.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Megapolensis arrived at New Netherland he found the Reverend
+Everardus Bogardus already installed as minister of the Gospel at Fort
+Amsterdam, his predecessor Michaelius having returned to Holland.  From
+the beginning Bogardus proved a thorn in the side of the Government.
+He came to blows with Van Twiller and wrote a letter to the Director in
+which he called him a child of the Devil, a villain whose bucks were
+better than he, to whom he should give such a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P89"></A>89}</SPAN>
+shake from the
+pulpit the following Sabbath as would make him shudder.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The difficulties which Bogardus had with Van Twiller, however, were as
+the breath of May zephyrs compared to his stormy quarrels with Kieft.
+This Director had taken Bogardus to task for having gone into the
+pulpit intoxicated, and had also accused him of defending the greatest
+criminals in the country and of writing in their defense.  The fighting
+parson promptly countered on this attack.  "What," he asked from the
+pulpit, "are the great men of the country but receptacles of wrath,
+fountains of woe and trouble?  Nothing is thought of but to plunder
+other people's property&mdash;to dismiss&mdash;to banish&mdash;to transport to
+Holland."  Kieft, realizing that he had raised up a fighter more
+unsparing than himself and, unable to endure these harangues from the
+pulpit, ceased to attend the <I>kerk</I>; but the warlike <I>domine</I> continued
+to belabor him till Kieft prepared an indictment, beginning: "Whereas
+your conduct stirs the people to mutiny and rebellion when they are
+already too much divided, causes schisms and abuses in the church, and
+makes us a scorn and a laughing stock to our neighbors, all which
+cannot be tolerated in a country where justice is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P90"></A>90}</SPAN>
+maintained,
+therefore our sacred duty imperatively requires us to prosecute you in
+a court of justice."  The quarrel was never fought to a finish but was
+allowed to die out, and the episode ended without credit to either
+party.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Like everything else in the colony of New Netherland, the original
+meeting-places for worship were of the simplest type.  Domine
+Megapolensis held services in his own house, and Bogardus conducted
+worship in the upper part of the horse-mill at Fort Amsterdam, where
+before his arrival Sebastian Jansen Krol and Jan Huyck had read from
+the Scriptures on Sunday.  These men had been appointed
+<I>ziekentroosters</I> or <I>krankenbesoeckers</I> (<I>i.e.</I>, consolers of the
+sick), whose business it was, in addition to their consolatory
+functions, to hold Sunday services in the absence of a regularly
+ordained clergyman.  In time these rude gathering-places gave way to
+buildings of wood or stone, modeled, as one would expect, on similar
+buildings in the old country, with a pulpit built high above the
+congregation, perhaps with intent to emphasize the authority of the
+church.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The clerk, or <I>voorleser</I>, standing in the baptistery below the pulpit,
+opened the services by reading from the Bible and leading in the
+singing of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P91"></A>91}</SPAN>
+a psalm.  The <I>domine</I>, who had stood in silent prayer
+during the psalm, afterward entered the pulpit, and then laid out his
+text and its connection with the sermon to follow&mdash;a part of the
+service known as the <I>exordium remotum</I>.  During this address the
+deacons stood facing the pulpit, alms-bag in hand.  The deacons
+collected the contribution by thrusting in front of each row of seats
+the <I>kerk sacjes</I> of cloth or velvet suspended from the end of a long
+pole.  Sometimes a bell hung at the bottom of the bag to call the
+attention of the slothful or the niggardly to the contribution, and
+while the bags were passed the <I>domine</I> was wont to dwell upon the
+necessities of the poor and to invoke blessings upon those who gave
+liberally to their support.  When the sermon commenced, the
+<I>voorsinger</I> turned the hour-glass which marked the length of the
+discourse.  The sermon ended, the <I>voorleser</I> rose and, with the aid of
+a long rod cleft in the end, handed to the <I>domine</I> in the pulpit the
+requests for prayers or thanksgiving offered by members of the
+congregation.  When these had been read aloud, another psalm was sung
+and the people then filed out in an orderly procession.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The principle of competitive giving for the church was evidently well
+understood in New
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P92"></A>92}</SPAN>
+Amsterdam.  De Vries has left us an account of a
+conversation held in 1642 between himself and Kieft in which he told
+the Director that there was great need of a church, that it was a
+scandal when the English came that they should see only a mean barn for
+public worship, that the first thing built in New England after the
+dwellings was a church, and that there was the less excuse for the
+Dutch as they had fine wood, good stone, and lime made from oyster
+shells, close at hand.  The Director admitted the justice of the plea
+but asked who would undertake the work.  "Those who love the Reformed
+Religion," De Vries answered.  Kieft replied adroitly that De Vries
+must be one of them, as he had proposed the plan, and that he should
+give a hundred guilders.  De Vries craftily observed that Kieft as
+commander must be the first giver.  Kieft bethought himself that he
+could use several thousand guilders from the Company's funds.  Not only
+was he as good as his word, but later he contrived to extort private
+subscriptions on the occasion of the marriage of Bogardus's
+step-daughter.  As usual when the <I>domine</I> was present, the wine flowed
+freely.  "The Director thought this a good time for his purpose, and
+set to work after the fourth or fifth drink; and he himself
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P93"></A>93}</SPAN>
+setting a liberal example, let the wedding-guests sign whatever they
+were disposed to give towards the church.  Each, then, with a light
+head, subscribed away at a handsome rate, one competing with the other;
+and although some heartily repented it when their senses came back,
+they were obliged nevertheless to pay."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In view of this story it was perhaps a fine irony which inspired the
+inscription placed on the church when it was finished: "Ao. Do.
+MDCXLII.  W. Kieft Dr. Gr. <I>Heeft de Gemeente desen Tempel doen
+Bouwen</I>," <I>i.e.</I>, "William Kieft, the Director-General, has caused the
+congregation to build this church."  The correct interpretation,
+however, probably read: "William Kieft being Director-General, the
+congregation has caused this church to be built."[<A NAME="chap05fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Evidently religion prospered better than education in the colony, for
+the same lively witness who reports the Bogardus affair and the
+generosity stimulated by the flowing wine says also: "The bowl has been
+passed around a long time for a common school which has been built with
+words, for as yet the first stone is not laid; some materials only have
+been provided.  However the money
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P94"></A>94}</SPAN>
+given for the purpose has all
+disappeared and is mostly spent, so that it falls somewhat short; and
+nothing permanent has as yet been effected for this purpose."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first schoolmaster sent to New Netherland arrived in 1633 at the
+same time as Bogardus, and represented the cause of education even less
+creditably than did the bibulous <I>domine</I> that of religion.  Adam
+Roelantsen was twenty-seven years old when he took up his duties as
+instructor of youth in the colony, and he was as precious a scoundrel
+as ever was set to teach the young.  He eked out his slender income in
+the early days by taking in washing or by establishing a bleachery,
+which must be noted as one of the most creditable items in his
+scandalous career.  He was constantly before the local courts of New
+Amsterdam, sometimes as plaintiff, sometimes as defendant, and finally
+he appeared as a malefactor charged with so grave an offense that the
+court declared that, as such deeds could not be tolerated, "therefore
+we condemn the said Roelantsen to be brought to the place of execution
+and there flogged and banished forever out of this country."
+Apparently, on the plea of having four motherless children, he escaped
+the infliction of punishment and continued alternately
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P95"></A>95}</SPAN>
+to amuse
+and to outrage the respectable burghers of New Amsterdam.  He was
+succeeded in order by Jan Stevensen, Jan Cornelissen, William Verstius,
+sometimes written Vestens, Johannes Morice de la Montagne, Harmanus Van
+Hoboocken, and Evert Pietersen.  In addition to these there were two
+teachers of a Latin school and several unofficial instructors.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The duties of these early teachers were by no means light, especially
+in proportion to their scanty wage.  We learn in one case that school
+began at eight in the morning and lasted until eleven, when there was a
+two-hour recess, after which it began again at one and closed at four
+o'clock.  It was the duty of the teacher to instruct the children in
+the catechism and common prayer.  The teacher was ordered to appear at
+the church on Wednesdays with the children entrusted to his care, to
+examine his scholars "in the presence of the Reverend Ministers and
+Elders who may be present, what they in the course of the week, do
+remember of the Christian commands and catechism, and what progress
+they have made; after which the children shall be allowed a decent
+recreation."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides his duties as instructor, the official schoolmaster was pledged
+"to promote religious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P96"></A>96}</SPAN>
+worship, to read a portion of the word of
+God to the people, to endeavor, as much as possible to bring them up in
+the ways of the Lord, to console them in their sickness, and to conduct
+himself with all diligence and fidelity in his calling, so as to give
+others a good example as becometh a devout, pious and worthy consoler
+of the sick, church-clerk, Precenter and School master."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Throughout the history of New Netherland we find the church and school
+closely knit together.  Frequently the same building served for secular
+instruction on week-days and for religious service on Sundays.  In a
+letter written by Van Curler to his patroon, he says: "As for the
+Church it is not yet contracted for, nor even begun....  That which I
+intend to build this summer in the pine grove (or green wood) will be
+thirty-four feet long by nineteen wide.  It will be large enough for
+the first three or four years to preach in and can afterwards always
+serve for the residence of the sexton or for a school."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+How small were the assemblies of the faithful in the early days we may
+gather from a letter of Michaelius, the first <I>domine</I> of the colony,
+incidentally also one of the most lovable and spiritually minded of
+these men.  In his account of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P97"></A>97}</SPAN>
+condition of the church at
+Manhattan he observes that at the first communion fifty were present.
+The number of Walloons and French-speaking settlers was so small that
+the <I>domine</I> did not think it worth while to hold a special service for
+them, but once in four months he contented himself with administering
+the communion and preaching a sermon in French.  This discourse he
+found it necessary to commit to writing, as he could not trust himself
+to speak extemporaneously in that language.  There is something
+beautiful and pathetic in the picture of this little group of half a
+hundred settlers in the wilderness, gathered in the upper room of the
+grist-mill, surrounded by the sacks of grain, and drinking from the
+<I>avondmaalsbeker</I>, or communion cup, while the rafters echoed to the
+solemn sounds of the liturgy which had been familiar in their old homes
+across the sea.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There is the true ring of a devout and simple piety in all the
+utterances of the settlers on the subject of their church.  The
+pioneers were ready to spend and be spent in its service and they gave
+freely out of their scanty resources for its support.  In the matter of
+education their enthusiasm, as we have seen, was far less glowing, and
+the reasons for this coolness are a subject for curious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P98"></A>98}</SPAN>
+consideration.  The Dutch in Europe were a highly cultivated people,
+devoted to learning and reverencing the printed book.  Why then were
+their countrymen in the New World willing to leave the education of
+their children in the hands of inferior teachers and to delay so long
+the building of suitable schoolhouses?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We must remember that the colonists in the early days were drawn from a
+very simple class.  Their church was important to them as a social
+center as well as a spiritual guide.  For this church they were willing
+to make any sacrifice; but that done, they must pause and consider the
+needs of their daily life.  Children old enough to attend school were
+old enough to lend a helping hand on the <I>bouwerie</I>, in the dairy, or
+by the side of the cradle.  Money if plentiful might well be spent on
+salaries and schoolhouses; but if scarce, it must be saved for bread
+and butter, clothing, warmth, and shelter.  In short, reading, writing,
+and figuring could wait; but souls must be saved first; and after that
+eating and drinking were matters of pressing urgency.  Fortunately,
+however, not all education is bound up in books, and, in the making of
+sturdy and efficient colonists, the rude training of hardships and
+privation when combined with a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P99"></A>99}</SPAN>
+first-hand knowledge of nature and
+of the essential industries provided a fair substitute for learning.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other side of the picture we must consider what type of men
+would naturally be drawn to cross the sea and settle in the new colony
+as schoolmasters.  Many of the clergymen came urged by the same zeal
+for the conversion of the savages which fired John Eliot in New England
+and the Jesuit Fathers in the Canadian missions.  For the schoolmasters
+there was not this incentive, and they naturally looked upon the
+question of emigration as a business enterprise or a chance of
+professional advancement.  As a first consideration they must have
+realized that they were leaving a country where education and educators
+were held in high respect.  "There was hardly a Netherlander," says
+Motley, "man, woman or child, that could not read and write.  The
+school was the common property of the people, paid for among the
+municipal expenses in the cities as well as in the rural districts.
+There were not only common schools but classical schools.  In the
+burgher families it was rare to find boys who had not been taught Latin
+or girls unacquainted with French."  From this atmosphere of scholastic
+enthusiasm, from the opportunities of the libraries
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P100"></A>100}</SPAN>
+and contact
+with the universities, the pedagogue was invited to turn to a rude
+settlement in the primeval forest, where the Bible, the catechism, and
+the concordance formed the greater part of the literary wealth at his
+disposal, and to take up the multiple duties of sexton, bell-ringer,
+precentor, schoolmaster, consoler of the sick, and general understudy
+for the <I>domine</I>.  In return for this he was to receive scanty wages in
+either cash or public esteem.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What hardships were experienced by these early schoolmasters in New
+Netherland we may understand by reading the <I>Reverential Request</I>
+written by Harmanus Van Hoboocken to the burgomasters and <I>schepens</I>
+that he may be allowed the use of the hall and side-chamber of the
+<I>Stadt-Huys</I> to accommodate his school and as a residence for his
+family, as he has no place to keep school in or to live in during the
+winter, for it is necessary that the rooms should be made warm, and
+that cannot be done in his own house.  The burgomasters and <I>schepens</I>
+replied that "whereas the room which petitioner asks for his use as a
+dwelling and schoolroom is out of repair and moreover is wanted for
+other uses it cannot be allowed to him.  But as the town youth are
+doing so uncommon well now, it is thought
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P101"></A>101}</SPAN>
+proper to find a
+convenient place for their accommodation and for that purpose
+petitioner is granted one hundred guilders yearly."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Can we wonder that New Netherland did not secure a particularly learned
+and distinguished type of pedagogue in the early days?  In 1658 the
+burgomasters and <I>schepens</I> of New Amsterdam with a view to founding an
+academy petitioned the West India Company for a teacher of Latin, and
+Alexander Carolus Curtius was sent over to be the classical teacher in
+the new academy; but he was so disheartened by the smallness of his
+salary and by the roughness of the youthful burghers that he shortly
+returned to Holland, and his place was taken by Ægidius Luyck, who,
+though only twenty-two years old, established such discipline and
+taught so well that the reputation of the academy spread far and wide,
+and Dutch boys were no longer sent to New England to learn their
+classics.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+<A NAME="chap05fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn1text">1</A>] Brodhead, <I>History of the State of New York</I>, vol. 1, p. 337 (note).
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap06"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P102"></A>102}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VI
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE BURGHERS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+In the earliest days of New Netherland there were no burgers because,
+as the name implies, burghers are town-dwellers, and for a number of
+years after the coming of the Dutch nothing worthy to be called a town
+existed in the colony.  In the middle of the seventeenth century a
+traveler wrote from New Netherland that there were only three towns on
+the Hudson&mdash;Fort Orange, Rondout, and New Amsterdam&mdash;and that the rest
+were mere villages or settlements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These centers were at first trading-posts, and it is as idle to judge
+of the manners, customs, and dress prevailing in them by those of
+Holland at the same epoch, as to judge San Francisco in the mining days
+of 1849 by Boston and New York at the same date.  These early traders
+and settlers brought with them the character and traditions of home;
+but their way of life was perforce modified by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P103"></A>103}</SPAN>
+crude
+conditions into which they plunged.  The picturesque farmhouses of Long
+Island and the crow-gables of New Amsterdam were not built in a day.
+Savages must be subdued and land cleared and planted before the
+evolution of the dwelling could fairly begin.  Primitive community life
+lingered long even on Manhattan Island.  As late as 1649 the farmers
+petitioned for a free pasturage between their plantation of Schepmoes
+and the fence of the Great Bowerie Number One.  The City Hall Park
+region bounded by Broadway, Nassau, Ann, and Chambers Streets continued
+very late to be recognized as village commons where the cattle were
+pastured.  The cowherd drove the cows afield and home again at
+milking-time, and it was his business to sound his horn at every gate
+announcing the safe return of the cows.  Correspondingly in the morning
+the harsh summons called the cattle from every yard to join the
+procession toward the meadows.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Tienhoven, Stuyvesant's secretary, sent out information for the
+benefit of those planning to take up land in New Netherland, he
+suggested that those who had not means to build at first might shelter
+themselves by digging a pit six or seven feet deep as large as needed,
+covering the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P104"></A>104}</SPAN>
+floor and walls with timber and placing over it a
+roof of spars covered with bark or green sods.  Even with this rude
+housing he suggests planting at once a garden with all sorts of
+pot-herbs and maize, or Indian corn, which might serve as food for man
+and beast alike.  Naturally these pioneer conditions of living lasted
+longer in the farming region than at New Amsterdam, where as early as
+1640 we see simple but comfortable little houses clustered in the
+shelter of the fort, and gathered close about the stone tavern, the
+West India Company's stores, and the Church of St. Nicholas.  The
+gallows and pillory, in full view, seemed to serve notice that law and
+order had asserted themselves and that settlers might safely solidify
+their houses and holdings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1648 the building of wooden chimneys was forbidden, and roofs of
+reed were replaced with more solid and less inflammable material.  The
+constant threat of fire led to drastic regulations for the cleaning of
+chimneys.  It was ordered that "if anyone prove negligent he shall,
+whenever the Firewardens find the chimneys foul, forthwith without any
+contradiction, pay them a fine of three guilders for every flue found
+on examination to be dirty, to be expended for fire ladders, hooks and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P105"></A>105}</SPAN>
+buckets, which shall be procured and provided at the earliest and
+most convenient opportunity."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The early settlers found much difficulty in enforcing public
+sanitation, for, in spite of the world-wide reputation of the Dutch for
+indoor cleanliness, we find the burghers in 1658 bitterly reproached
+for throwing their rubbish, filth, dead animals, and the like into the
+streets "to the great inconvenience of the community and dangers
+arising from it."  The burgomasters and <I>schepens</I> ordained that all
+such refuse be brought to dumping-grounds near the City Hall and the
+gallows or to other designated places.  Failure to observe this rule
+was punishable by fines or severer penalties.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As prosperity increased, all conditions of living improved.  Many ships
+from Holland brought loads of brick and tiles as ballast, and the
+houses began to assume the typical Dutch aspect.  They were still built
+chiefly of wood, but with a gable end of brick facing the street.  The
+steep roofs seldom had eave-troughs, at least in the early days, and
+mention is made in deeds of "free-drip."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The house was supplied, as the chronicler tells us, with "an abundance
+of large doors and small windows on every floor, the date of its
+erection was curiously designated by iron figures on the front,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P106"></A>106}</SPAN>
+and on the top of the roof was perched a fierce little weather-cock to
+let the family into the important secret which way the wind blew."  The
+front doors were usually divided, as in the old houses in Holland, into
+an upper and lower half hung on heavy hinges.  The door opened with a
+latch, and bore a brass knocker wrought frequently in the device of an
+animal's head.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Only on formal occasions was this door thrown open or the fore-room to
+which it gave access used, for the life of the family, as in all
+primitive communities, was centered in the kitchen.  Here in winter
+roared the great fires up the wide-throated chimneys.  Here children
+and negro servants gathered in groups and told stories of the old home
+and the new.  Here the women knit their stockings and here the burghers
+smoked when the day's work was done.  But the fore-room, or <I>voorhuis</I>,
+though seldom occupied, was dear to the soul of the vrouw of New
+Netherland.  Here stood all the treasures too valuable or too fragile
+for daily use: the least, or chest, stored with household linen, the
+cabinet filled with Delft plates from Holland, and generally the carved
+four-poster covered with feather beds of prime goose-feathers and hung
+with gay chintz.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P107"></A>107}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+A shrewd observer has said that luxury implies waste while comfort
+lives in thrift.  We are safe in assuming that comfort rather than
+luxury prevailed in New Netherland and that the highly colored pictures
+of elegant life on the shores of the Hudson represent a very late
+phase, when the Dutch influence still prevailed under English
+protection.  The earlier settlers were a far simpler people, whose
+floors were scrubbed and sanded instead of carpeted, who used
+hour-glasses instead of clocks, and who set their four-poster beds in
+the rooms where visitors were formally received.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It was of course the "great burghers" who set the social as well as the
+official tone in New Amsterdam.[<A NAME="chap06fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap06fn1">1</A>]  It was they who owned the finest
+houses,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P108"></A>108}</SPAN>
+who imported tables and chests of ebony inlaid with
+ivory.  It was they whose wives were bravely fitted out with
+petticoats, over which an upper garment was looped to display the
+velvet, cloth, silk, or satin which marked the social position and
+material wealth of the wearer.  The burgher himself went clad,
+according to his wealth, in cloaks of cloth or velvet, embroidered or
+silk-lined; but he always wore wide boots and wide breeches and a coat
+adorned with an abundance of buttons, the whole topped by a
+broad-brimmed hat adorned with buckles and feathers and seldom removed
+in the house.  The dress of the farmers was simpler than that of the
+town-dwellers or burghers.  It consisted generally of wide breeches, a
+<I>hemdrok</I> or shirt-coat made of wool or cotton, an overfrock called a
+<I>paltsrok</I>, a low flat collar, the usual wide-brimmed hat, and shoes of
+leather on Sundays, and of wood on week-days for work on the
+<I>bouwerie</I>.  The children of burghers and farmers alike were clad in
+miniature copies of the garb of their elders, doubtless in many cases
+wearing the same garments
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P109"></A>109}</SPAN>
+made over by removing the outworn
+portions.  It was a question of warmth rather than fashion which
+confronted the settlers and their children.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To those of us who believe that the state exists for the protection of
+the home and the home for the protection of the child, it is neither
+futile nor frivolous to consider at some length what life had to offer
+to the small colonists.  Little Sarah Rapaelje, "the first-born
+Christian daughter in New Netherland," was soon surrounded by a circle
+of boys and girls.  Cornelis Maasen and his wife came over in 1631, and
+their first child was born on the voyage.  Following this little
+Hendrick came Martin, Maas, Steyntje, and Tobias.  We have already
+noted the two little motherless daughters of Domine Michaelius who were
+so hard put to it for a nurse.  A little later came Domine Megapolensis
+with his children Hellegond, Dirrick, Jan, and Samuel, running from
+eight to fourteen years in age.  The patroon had directed that they be
+furnished with clothing "in such small and compact parcels as can be
+properly stowed away on the ship."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With the era of permanent settlers in New Netherland, cradles came to
+be in demand.  In the region of New Amsterdam the familiar hooded
+variety was brought from Holland, while farther
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P110"></A>110}</SPAN>
+up the river and
+especially among the poorer folk birch bark was fashioned into a
+sleeping-place for the babies.  For the older children trundle-beds
+fitting under the big four-posters of the elders and rolled out at
+night were much in use, since the difficulty of heating made economy of
+bedroom-space a necessity.  This <I>treke-bed</I> and its protecting
+four-poster, however, probably came later than the built-in
+<I>sloep-bank</I>, little more than a bunk in the side of the wall concealed
+by a curtain and softened by thick feather-beds.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However rude the sleeping-place of the babies, the old home lullabies
+soothed them to slumber.  Dearest and most familiar was the following:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Trip a trop a tronjes,<BR>
+De varken in de boonjes,<BR>
+De koejes in de klaver,<BR>
+De paaden in de haver,<BR>
+De eenjes in de water plas,<BR>
+De kalver in de lang gras,<BR>
+So goed myn klein poppetje was.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Thus to pictures of pigs in the bean patch and cows in the clover,
+ducks in the water and calves in the meadow, the little ones fell
+peacefully to sleep, oblivious of the wild beasts and wilder men
+lurking in the primeval forests around the little
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P111"></A>111}</SPAN>
+clearing where
+the pioneers were making a home for themselves and their children.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the babies' eyelids unclosed in the morning they opened on a busy
+scene, for whatever anxious vigils the father and mother might have
+kept through the night, toil began with the dawn.  The boys were set to
+gathering firewood and drawing water, while the <I>goede vrouw</I> was
+busily preparing a substantial morning meal of suppawn and sausage
+before her husband began the day's work of loading beaver-skins or
+tilling the ground or hewing timber.  A pioneer life means hard work
+for children as well as for their elders, and in the early years there
+was little time for play on the part of the youthful New Netherlander.
+As prosperity advanced and as negro servants were introduced, the
+privileges of childhood were extended and we find accounts of their
+sliding on their <I>slees</I> or sleds down the hills of Fort Orange and
+skating at New Amsterdam on the Collect Pond, which took its name from
+the Dutch <I>kalk</I>, or lime, and was so called from the heaps of
+oyster-shells accumulated by the Indians.  The skates were of the type
+used in Holland, very long with curves at the front and rear, and, when
+metal could not be obtained, formed of ox-bone.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P112"></A>112}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+With an appetite bred of out-of-door work and play, and a breakfast
+hour at five or six in the morning, the children were hungry for the
+homely and substantial dinner when it eventually appeared at early
+noon.  Whatever social visits were planned took place at the supper,
+which occurred between three o'clock and six.  The tea-table, the
+chronicler tells us,
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+was crowned with a huge earthen dish, well stored with slices of fat
+pork and fried trout, cut up into morsels and swimming in gravy.  The
+company, being seated round the genial board and each furnished with a
+fork, evinced their dexterity in launching at the fattest pieces in
+this mighty dish in much the same manner as sailors harpoon porpoises
+at sea, or our Indians spear salmon in the lakes.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+Sometimes the table was graced with immense apple pies, or saucers full
+of preserved peaches or pears; but it was always sure to boast an
+enormous dish of balls of sweetened dough, fried in hog's fat and
+called doughnuts or <I>olykoeks</I>....  The tea was served out of a
+majestic Delft tea-pot ornamented with paintings of fat little Dutch
+shepherds and shepherdesses tending pigs, with boats sailing in the air
+and houses built in the clouds....  To sweeten the beverage a lump of
+sugar was laid beside each cup and the company alternately nibbled and
+sipped with great decorum.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+In the houses of the richer colonists, as prosperity advanced,
+shell-shaped silver boxes for sugar, called
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P113"></A>113}</SPAN>
+"bite and stir"
+boxes, were set on the table and, according to one authority, the lumps
+of sugar were of the nature of toffy with molasses added to the sugar.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The feast ended, the young folk went their homeward way lighted by the
+moon, or, late in the century, on dark nights by a lantern hung on a
+pole from every seventh house.  When the curfew rang from the belfry
+"eight o'clock," lights were put out and all was made fast for the
+night, while the children's minds were set at rest by the tramp of the
+<I>klopperman</I>, who shook his rattle at each door as he passed from house
+to house through the dark hours, assuring the burghers that all was
+well and that no marauders were about.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If winter offered sports and pastimes, spring, summer, and autumn had
+each its own pleasures, fishing and clam digging, shooting and
+trapping, games with ball and slings, berry picking, and the gathering
+of peaches which fell so thickly that the very hogs refused them.  The
+market days in New Amsterdam offered a long procession of delights to
+the young colonists.  But merriest of all were the holidays which were
+observed in New Netherland after much the same fashion as in the old
+home.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P114"></A>114}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+I do not know how to account for the fact that while the struggle of
+the Dutch people with the Papacy had been as bitter as that of England
+and the throwing off of the yoke by the Dutch fully as decided, they
+still retained the holidays which the Puritans eschewed as dangerous
+remnants of superstition.  Perhaps it was on the principle of robbing
+Satan of his hoofs and horns but keeping his cheerful scarlet costume,
+or perhaps they thought, as Rowland Hill remarked, that "it was poor
+policy to leave all the good times to the Devil."  In any case it was
+all grist to the children's mill.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the 1st of January all was arranged for the greeting of the New
+Year.  Mighty bowls of punch were brewed, cordials prepared from
+long-cherished family recipes were brought out, and the women, in their
+best apparel, seated themselves in the seldom-used <I>ontvangkamer</I>,
+where wine was handed to their callers to be received with the wish of
+a "Happy New Year!"  While these stately ceremonies were in progress
+the young people amused themselves with turkey-shooting, sleigh-riding,
+skating, and dancing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After New Year's Day the most characteristic national and local holiday
+was <I>Pinkster</I>, coming in the seventh week after <I>Paasch</I>, or Easter,
+and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P115"></A>115}</SPAN>
+falling generally in late May or early June.  The orchards
+were then white with blossoms and the grass thick with dandelions and
+spring flowers.  Children set out early to gather boughs from the green
+woods.  These boughs they sprinkled with water and left over the doors
+of late sleepers that the sluggards might be drenched on opening the
+door.  At first all was innocent merriment, gathering of Pinkster
+flowers, and picnicking; but for some unexplained reason this festival
+was gradually relegated to the negroes.  Apple-jack was freely
+consumed, barbaric dances began, and fun so far degenerated into
+license that the white people and their children shunned the festivity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>Kermis</I>, an Old World festival, was one of those early introduced
+at New Amsterdam.  It originated centuries before and had taken its
+name from the <I>kerk mis</I> or church mass.  In the olden days it was
+celebrated with pomp and solemnity, but it early developed a more
+festive character.  Booths and stalls were erected for a market, and
+dances and processions were organized.  The first stroke of the clock
+at noon opened at the same moment the market and the first dance.  The
+last stroke saw white crosses nailed on all the bridges across the
+canal and on the market place.  It was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P116"></A>116}</SPAN>
+indeed a festive
+appearance that the market presented, with its double stalls filled
+with eggs and gherkins, its booths hung with dried fish, its
+<I>poffertjeskraam</I> dispensing the tempting batter-cakes, and its
+<I>wafelkraamen</I> offering the more costly and aristocratic waffles.  The
+youths and maidens were given full license to parade arm in arm along
+the streets singing "Hossen, hossen, hossen!" and making the town ring
+with their mirth and laughter.  The first <I>Kermis</I> held at New
+Amsterdam was in October, 1659.  Booths were arranged on the parade
+ground, and barter and sale and merrymaking went on gaily for six
+weeks, to the unspeakable joy of the little Hendricks and Jans and
+Annetjes who wandered from booth to booth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But keen as the delight of the Dutch children may have been, there was
+in their minds the hope of even better things to come a few weeks
+later, at their own especial, particular, undisputed feast of St.
+Nicholas, the beloved Santa Claus, patron saint of children in general
+and of young Netherlanders in particular.  The 6th of December was the
+day dedicated to this genial benefactor, and on the eventful night a
+white sheet was spread on the floor.  Around this stood the children
+singing
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P117"></A>117}</SPAN>
+songs of welcome, of which the most popular was the
+familiar
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+Saint Nicholaes, goed heilig man,<BR>
+Trekt uw'besten tabbard aan,<BR>
+En reist daamee naar Amsterdam,<BR>
+Von Amsterdam naar Spanje.<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+If the Saint would ride forth thus accoutered and if he would do what
+they asked of him, the children explained that they would be his good
+friends, as for that matter they always had been, and would serve him
+as long as they lived.  At last the fateful moment arrived.  A shower
+of sweets was hurled through the open door and amid the general
+scramble appeared the Saint in full vestments attended by a servant
+known as <I>Knecht Ruprecht</I>, and, after the Dutch settlements in
+America, a black man, who added much to the fascination and excitement
+of the occasion.  He held in one hand an open sack into which to put
+particularly ill-behaved children, while in the other hand he carried a
+bunch of rods, which he shook vigorously from time to time.  The good
+Saint meanwhile smilingly distributed to the children the parcels that
+he had brought, and, after these had all been opened and the presents
+had been sufficiently
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P118"></A>118}</SPAN>
+admired, the children dropped into their
+trundle-beds to dream of all the glories of the day.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the dust-sheet and litter of wrappings had been removed, the older
+people gathered around a table spread with a white cloth and set out
+with chocolate punch and a dish of steaming hot chestnuts, while the
+inevitable pipe, ornamented with a head of St. Nicholas, made its
+appearance and the evening ended with dancing and song in honor of the
+"goed heilig man."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides these stated anniversaries, home life had its more intimate
+festivities such as those celebrating the birth of a child, whose
+christening was made quite a solemn event.  Every church owned its
+<I>doop-becken</I> or dipping bowl from which the water was taken to be
+dropped on the baby's head.  One beautiful bowl of silver dating from
+the year 1695 is still in existence in a New York church.  About a week
+after the birth of the little New Netherlander, the neighbors were
+summoned to rejoice with the proud father and mother.  In the early
+days of the colony and in the farming region, these gatherings were as
+rude and simple as they were under similar conditions in Holland.  The
+men were invited at noon to partake of a long pipe and a bottle of gin
+and bitters.  The women arrived
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P119"></A>119}</SPAN>
+later to find spread for their
+entertainment dishes of rusks spread with aniseed and known as muisjes
+or mice, accompanied by eggnog.  As society grew more sophisticated in
+the colony, these simple gatherings gave place to the elaborate caudle
+parties, where the caudle was served in silver bowls hung about with
+spoons that each guest might ladle out for himself into a china cup the
+rich compound of lemons, raisins, and spiced wine.  It is evident that
+there was no lack of material good cheer among the colonists of New
+Netherland, and we may be sure that the boys and girls secured their
+share of substantials and dainties.  I fear they were rather rough and
+rude, these young burghers, for all the reports which we have of them
+show them always in conflict with law and order.  The boys especially,
+owing to deficient schooling facilities, were quite out of hand.  They
+set dogs upon the night watchman at New Amsterdam and shouted
+"Indians!" to frighten him in his rounds.  They tore the clothes from
+each other's backs in the schoolroom where the unfortunate master was
+striving to keep order.  In Fort Orange sliding became so fast and
+furious that the legislators were obliged to threaten the confiscation
+of the <I>slees</I>, and it was no doubt with a keen realization of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P120"></A>120}</SPAN>
+behavior of their offspring that the inhabitants of Flatbush
+inserted these words in the articles of agreement with the new
+schoolmaster: "He shall demean himself patient and friendly towards the
+children and be active and attentive to their improvement."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However little learning from books entered into the lives of the young
+colonists, much that was stimulating to the imagination came to them by
+word of mouth from the <I>wilden</I>, from the negroes, and from their
+elders as they sat about the blazing fire in the twilight, or
+<I>schemerlicht</I>.  Then the tales were told of phantom ships, of ghosts
+walking on the cliffs of the Highlands, and of the unlucky wight who
+found his death in the river where he had sworn to plunge in spite of
+the Devil, a spot which still bears the name of Spuyten Duyvil in
+memory of the rash boast.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We may find it hard to reconcile the reputation of the Dutch as a
+phlegmatic and unimaginative people with the fact that they and their
+children endowed the Hudson with more glamour, more of the supernatural
+and of elfin lore than haunts any other waterway in America.  Does the
+explanation perhaps lie in the fact that the Dutch colonists, coming
+from a small country situated on a level
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P121"></A>121}</SPAN>
+plain where the
+landscape was open as far as the eye could see, and left no room for
+mystery, were suddenly transplanted to a region shut in between
+overhanging cliffs where lightning flashed and thunder rolled from
+mountain wall to mountain wall, where thick forests obscured the view,
+and strange aboriginal savages hid in the underbrush?  Was it not the
+sense of wonder springing from this change in their accustomed
+surroundings that peopled the dim depths of the <I>hinterland</I> with
+shapes of elf and goblin, of demons and super-human presences?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At any rate the spirit of mystery lurked on the outskirts of the Dutch
+settlements, and the youthful burghers along the Hudson were fed full
+on tales, mostly of a terrifying nature, drawn from the folklore of
+three races, the Dutch, the Indians, and the Africans, with some few
+strands interwoven from local legend and tradition that had already
+grown up along the banks of the Hudson.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It was a simple but by no means a pitiable life that was led in those
+days by burghers and farmers alike on the shores of this great river.
+Never does the esteemed Diedrich Knickerbocker come nearer the truth
+than when he says: "Happy would it have been for New Amsterdam could it
+always
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P122"></A>122}</SPAN>
+have existed in this state of blissful ignorance and lowly
+simplicity; but alas! the days of childhood are too sweet to last.
+Cities, like men, grow out of them in time and are doomed alike to grow
+into the bustle, the cares and the miseries of the world."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+<A NAME="chap06fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap06fn1text">1</A>] In 1657 the burgomasters and <I>schepens</I> were authorized to create a
+great <I>burger-recht</I> the members of which should be in a sense a
+privileged class.  It was set forth that "whereas in all beginnings
+some thing or person must be the first so that afterward a distinction
+may take place, in like manner it must be in establishing the great and
+small citizenship."  For which reason the line of great burghers was
+drawn as follows: first, those who had been members of the supreme
+government; second, the burgomasters and <I>schepens</I> of the city past
+and present; third, ministers of the gospel; fourth, officers of the
+militia from the staff to the ensign included.  The privileges of this
+caste were open to the male descendants of each class; but as they
+could be secured by others outside the sacred circle on payment of
+fifty guilders it is difficult to understand wherein the exclusiveness
+lay.  The small burghers were decreed to be those who had lived in the
+city for a year and six weeks and had kept fire and light, those born
+within the town, and those who had married the daughters of citizens.
+A payment of twenty guilders was exacted of all such.  This effort to
+promote class distinctions was soon abandoned.  In 1668 the distinction
+was abolished and every burgher, on payment of fifty guilders, was
+declared entitled to all burgher privileges.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap07"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P123"></A>123}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VII
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Machiavelli observed that to the wise ruler only two courses were
+open&mdash;to conciliate or to crush.  The history of the Dutch in America
+illustrates by application the truth of this view.  The settlers at
+Fort Orange conciliated the Indians and by this means not only lived in
+peace with the native tribes but established a bulwark between
+themselves and the French.  Under Stuyvesant the settlers at Fort
+Amsterdam took a determined stand against the Swedes and crushed their
+power in America.  Toward the English, however, the Dutch adopted a
+course of feeble aggression unbacked by force.  Because they met
+English encroachments with that most fatal of all policies, protest
+without action, the Empire of the United Netherlands in America was
+blotted from the map.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The neighbors of the Dutch in America were the Indians, the French, the
+Swedes, and the English.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P124"></A>124}</SPAN>
+The earliest, most intimate, and most
+continuous relations of the Dutch settlers were with the Indians.
+These people were divided into a number of independent tribes or
+nations.  The valley of the North River was shared by the Mohawks, who
+inhabited the region along the west side of its upper waters, and the
+Mohegans, or Mahicans, as the Dutch called them, who lived on either
+side of the banks of its lower reaches, with various smaller tribes
+scattered between.  The warlike Manhattans occupied the island called
+by their name, while the Mohegans raised their wigwams also on the
+eastern shore of the upper river opposite the Mohawks, and ranged over
+the land reaching to the Connecticut River.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Mohawks, with the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the
+Senecas, formed the famous Five Nations, generally known as the
+Iroquois.  Their territory was bounded on the north by Lake Ontario and
+the St. Lawrence River, on the east by Lake Champlain and the North
+River, on the west by Lake Erie and the Niagara River, and on the south
+by the region occupied by the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware tribes.  But
+their power extended far beyond these limits over dependent tribes.
+They were in a constant state of warfare
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P125"></A>125}</SPAN>
+with their Algonquin
+neighbors on the north and east, who had been enabled to offer a
+formidable resistance by the use of firearms furnished them by the
+French.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When, therefore, the white men appeared among the Mohawks, bearing
+these strange weapons which had been used with such dire effect against
+the Iroquois by the Algonquins, the Mohawks eagerly sought the
+friendship of the newcomers, hoping to secure the same power which had
+made their enemies triumphant.  The Dutch were intelligent enough to
+make instant use of these friendly sentiments on the part of the
+natives and hastened to make a treaty with the Iroquois, the Mohegans,
+and the Lenni Lenapes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This treaty, which is said to have been signed on the banks of Norman's
+Kill in the neighborhood of Albany, was concluded with all formalities.
+Each tribe was represented by its chief.  The calumet was smoked, the
+hatchet was buried, and everlasting friendship was sworn between the
+old inhabitants and the new.  By this agreement the Dutch secured not
+only peace with the neighboring Indians&mdash;a peace never broken in the
+north, whatever broils disturbed the lower waters of the river&mdash;but at
+the same time a guard between
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P126"></A>126}</SPAN>
+them and any encroachments of the
+French and Algonquins in Canada.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other boundaries and outskirts of their possessions, the Dutch
+were less fortunate.  They had always claimed all the territory from
+the South or Delaware River to the Fresh or Connecticut River, but
+their pretensions were early challenged by the English on the ground of
+prior discovery and by the Swedes on the argument of non-occupation of
+the land.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The reports of the wealth to be acquired from the fur trade had quickly
+spread from Holland to Sweden, and as early as 1624, Gustavus Adolphus,
+encouraged by William Usselinx, a Dutchman and promoter of the Dutch
+West India Company, was planning expeditions to the New World.  But the
+entrance of Sweden into the Thirty Years' War in 1630 put a stop to
+this plan, and the funds were applied to war purposes.  Gustavus
+Adolphus fell at Lützen in 1632, leaving the kingdom to his little
+daughter Christina.  Her Government was conducted by Oxenstiern, a
+statesman trained in the great traditions of Gustavus, who felt with
+him that an American colony would be "the jewel of his kingdom."  An
+instrument for his purpose presented itself in Peter Minuit, who had
+returned
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P127"></A>127}</SPAN>
+to Holland in 1632, smarting under his dismissal as
+Director of New Netherland.  He offered his services to Sweden for the
+establishment of a new colony, and they were accepted.  In the opening
+of 1638, he arrived in what is now Delaware Bay with two ships, the
+<I>Griffin</I> and the <I>Key of Kalmar</I>.  From the Indians he bought large
+tracts of land in what is now the State of Delaware, and on the site of
+the present city of Wilmington he planted a fort named Christina.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When news was brought to Kieft that Minuit had sailed up the South
+River and planned to raise the Swedish flag on a fort upon its shores,
+the Director promptly dispatched the following letter:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+I, Willem Kieft, Director-General of New Netherland, residing in the
+island of Manhattan, in the Fort Amsterdam, under the government of the
+High and Mighty States-General of the United Netherlands and the West
+India Company, privileged by the Senate Chamber in Amsterdam, make
+known to thee, Peter Minuit, who stylest thyself commander in the
+service of Her Majesty, the Queen of Sweden, that the whole South River
+of New Netherland, both upper and lower, has been our property for many
+years, occupied with our forts, and sealed by our blood, which also was
+done when thou wast in the service of New Netherland, and is therefore
+well known to thee.  But as thou art come between our forts to erect a
+fort to our damage and injury, which we
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P128"></A>128}</SPAN>
+will never permit, as we
+also believe Her Swedish Majesty hath not empowered thee to erect
+fortifications on our coasts and rivers, or to settle people on the
+lands adjoining or to undertake any other thing to our prejudice; now
+therefore we protest against all such encroachments and all the evil
+consequences from the same, as bloodshed, sedition and whatever injury
+our trading company may suffer, and declare that we shall protect our
+rights in every manner that may be advisable.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+This blustering protest Minuit treated with contempt and continued
+building his fort.  The Swedish colony soon grew so rapidly as to be a
+serious menace to the Dutch in spite of their stronger fortifications.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1642 Johan Printz, a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, was sent over as
+Governor of New Sweden with instructions to maintain friendly relations
+with the Dutch, but to yield no foot of ground.  He established several
+other settlements on the South or Delaware River.  So tactlessly,
+however, did he perform his duties, that conflicts with the Dutch grew
+more and more frequent.  He built two forts on opposite sides of the
+river and ordered that every ship entering the waters should strike her
+colors and await permission to pass.  The first vessel on which the new
+orders were tried carried
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P129"></A>129}</SPAN>
+as a passenger David de Vries.  The
+skipper asked his advice about lowering his colors.  "If it were my
+ship," De Vries asserts that he answered, "I would not lower to these
+intruders."  But peace at any price prevailed, the skipper lowered his
+colors, and the ship passed on to New Gottenburg, the capital of the
+colony.  Here De Vries was welcomed by Governor Printz, whom the
+traveler describes as "a brave man of brave size."  The evening was
+spent in talk over a jug of Rhenish wine.  Such friendly intercourse
+and the aggressions of the English against both Dutch and Swedes led to
+the temporary alliance of these latter in 1651.  Indians called in
+council confirmed the Dutch title to all lands except the site of the
+Swedish fort planted by Minuit, and a peace which lasted for three
+years was declared between the Dutch and the Swedes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In endeavoring to understand the relations between the settlements of
+the different nations in America in the seventeenth century we must
+realize that the colonies were only pawns in the great game being
+played in Europe between Spain and the Papacy on the one hand and the
+Protestant countries, England, Sweden, and the United Netherlands on
+the other.  Once apprehending
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P130"></A>130}</SPAN>
+this, we can easily understand why
+the governor of each colony, though instructed to seize and hold every
+foot of land which could be occupied, was advised not to antagonize the
+other friendly nations and thus weaken the alliance against the common
+enemy.  As the power of Spain declined, however, and the estimate of
+the value of the American colonies increased, the friction in the New
+World became more acute and the instructions from the home governments
+grew imperative.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Affairs then came to an open rupture between New Netherland and New
+Sweden.  In 1651 Governor Stuyvesant inaugurated a more aggressive
+policy against the Swedes by building Fort Casimir near what is now New
+Castle, Delaware, not far from the Swedish fort.  Three years later
+Fort Casimir fell into the hands of the Swedes.  The Dutch Government
+now commanded Stuyvesant to drive the Swedes from the river or compel
+their submission.  As a result the Director and his fleet sailed into
+the Delaware in September, 1655, and captured one fort after another,
+till Rysing, the last of the Swedish governors, was completely
+defeated.  Though the colonists were promised security in possession of
+their lands, the power of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P131"></A>131}</SPAN>
+New Sweden was ended, and the
+jurisdiction of the Dutch was for a time established.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+New Netherland had, however, other neighbors more powerful, more
+persistent, and with more at stake than the French, the Indians, and
+the Swedes.  These were the English colonists, pressing northward from
+the Virginias and southward from New England.  From the beginning of
+the Dutch colonization, England had looked askance at the wedge thus
+driven between her own settlements.  She had stubbornly refused to
+recognize the sovereignty of the States-General in the region of New
+Netherland while at the same time she vainly sought a pretext for the
+establishment of her own.  England put forward the apocryphal claim of
+discovery by Cabot; but here she was stopped by the doctrine announced
+in a previous century that in order to give title to a new country,
+discovery must be followed by occupation.  When England maintained
+that, since Hudson was an Englishman, the title to his discovery must
+pass to his native land, she was reminded that Cabot was a Genoese, and
+that Genoa might as well claim title to Virginia as England to New
+Netherland.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Plymouth Company particularly was concerned at the Dutch occupation
+of this middle
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P132"></A>132}</SPAN>
+region to which the charter granted by King James
+gave it a claim.  It formally protested in 1621 against these "Dutch
+intruders."  Whereupon King James I directed Sir Dudley Carleton, his
+ambassador at The Hague, to protest against the Dutch settlements; but
+nothing was accomplished, both parties having their hands too full with
+European quarrels to carry these transatlantic matters to extremities.
+The tension, however, was constantly increased on both sides by a
+series of encroachments and provocations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In April, 1633, for example, the ship <I>William</I> arrived at Fort
+Amsterdam under command of Captain Trevor, with Jacob Eelkens as
+supercargo.  Eelkens had been dismissed by the West India Company from
+the post of Commissary at Fort Orange, and was now in the service of
+some London merchants, in whose behalf he had come, as he told the
+Director, to buy furs on Henry Hudson's River.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"Don't talk to me of Henry Hudson's River!" replied Van Twiller, "it is
+the River Mauritius."  He then called for the commission of Eelkens,
+who refused to show it, saying that he was within the dominions of the
+English King, and a servant of His Majesty, and asking the Dutch
+Council what
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P133"></A>133}</SPAN>
+commission they themselves had to plant in the
+English dominion.  Whereupon Van Twiller replied that it was not
+fitting that Eelkens should proceed up the river, as the whole of that
+country belonged to the Prince of Orange and not to the King of England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After this exchange of amenities, Eelkens returned to his ship, which
+remained at anchor for several days.  At the end of the time, he
+presented himself again at the fort to ask if the Director would
+consent in a friendly way to his going up the river; otherwise, he
+would proceed if it cost his life.  In reply, Van Twiller ordered the
+Dutch flag to be run up at the fort and three pieces of ordnance fired
+in honor of the Prince of Orange.  Eelkens on his part ordered the
+English flag to be hoisted on the <I>William</I> and a salute fired in honor
+of King Charles.  Van Twiller warned Eelkens that the course which he
+was pursuing might cost him his neck; but the supercargo weighed anchor
+and proceeded calmly on his way.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Van Twiller then assembled all his forces before his door, brought out
+a cask of wine, filled a bumper, and cried out that those who loved the
+Prince of Orange and him should follow his example and protect him from
+the outrages of the Englishman;
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P134"></A>134}</SPAN>
+Eelkens, by this time, was out of
+sight sailing up the river.  The people drank, but only laughed at
+their governor, and De Vries told him that he had been very foolish.
+"If it were my affair," he said, "I would have helped him away from the
+fort with beans from the eight-pounders."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>William</I>, meanwhile, journeyed up the river and Eelkens, who knew
+the country well, landed with his crew about a mile below Fort Orange
+and set up a tent where he displayed the wares which he hoped to
+exchange with the natives for beaver-skins.  Very soon reports of this
+exploit reached the ears of the commissary at Fort Orange, who at once
+embarked with a trumpeter on a shallop decorated with green boughs.
+The Dutch landed close beside the English and set up a rival tent; but
+the Indians preferred to deal with Eelkens, whom they had known years
+before and who spoke their language.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the high tide of success, however, Eelkens was rudely ordered to
+depart by a Dutch officer who had come up the river in charge of three
+vessels, a pinnace, a caravel, and a hoy.  To enforce the commands came
+soldiery from both Dutch forts, armed with muskets, half-pikes, swords,
+and other weapons, and ordered Eelkens
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P135"></A>135}</SPAN>
+to strike his flag.  They
+pulled down the tent, sent the goods on board ship, and sounded their
+trumpets in the boat "in disgrace of the English."  The Dutch boarded
+the <I>William</I>, weighed her anchor, and convoyed her down the river with
+their fleet, and finally dismissed her at the mouth of the river.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The troubles of the Dutch with their English neighbors, however, did
+not end with these aggressions on the Hudson and similar acts on the
+Delaware.  In the year 1614, Adriaen Block, a great navigator whose
+name deserves to rank with that of Hudson, had sailed through the East
+River, and putting boldly across Long Island Sound, had discovered the
+Housatonic and Connecticut rivers.  He also discovered and gave his own
+name to Block Island and explored Narragansett Bay, whence he took his
+course to Cape Cod.  These discoveries reported to the States-General
+of the United Netherlands caused their High Mightinesses at once to lay
+claim to the new lands; but before they could secure enough colonists
+to occupy the country, restless pioneers of English stock planted towns
+in the Connecticut valley, along the Sound, and on the shore of Long
+Island.  These were uncomfortable neighbors with aggressive
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P136"></A>136}</SPAN>
+manners which quite upset the placid Dutch of New Amsterdam.
+Inevitable boundary disputes followed, which reached no adjustment
+until, in 1650, Stuyvesant went to Hartford to engage in a conference
+with commissioners of the United Colonies of New England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Director began as usual with bravado; but presently he consented to
+leave the question of boundaries to a board of four arbitrators.  This
+board decided that the boundary between the Dutch and English
+possessions should run on Long Island from Oyster Bay south to the
+Atlantic, and that on the mainland it should run north from Greenwich
+Bay, but never approach within ten miles of the Hudson River.  The
+Dutch in New Netherland were amazed and disgusted at the decision; but
+though Stuyvesant is said to have exclaimed in dramatic fashion that he
+had been betrayed, he found it hopeless to struggle against the
+superior force arrayed against him.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap08"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P137"></A>137}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VIII
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The English Government was fortunate in its first representative after
+the surrender of Stuyvesant.  Colonel Richard Nicolls, who had enforced
+the surrender with all the energy of a soldier, afterward displayed all
+the tact and wisdom of a statesman.  It is true that the towns and
+forts were rechristened, and New Amsterdam, Fort Amsterdam, and Fort
+Orange became respectively New York, Fort James, and Albany in honor of
+the King's brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, to whom as Lord
+Proprietor the new English province was now granted; but the Dutch were
+not interfered with in their homes, their holdings, or their religion,
+and for nearly a year the city government at New Amsterdam went on as
+of old under the control of burgomasters, <I>schepens</I>, and <I>schouts</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the following year Nicolls, according to instructions from the Duke
+of York, abolished "the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P138"></A>138}</SPAN>
+form of government late in practice,"
+appointed a mayor, aldermen, and a sheriff to rule New York, and
+directed the new officials to swear allegiance to the Duke.  He
+continued the commercial rights of the freeman who represented the
+burghers of the Dutch period, and he also introduced trial by jury,
+which placated the dwellers at New York and along the Hudson.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On Long Island and in Westchester where New Englanders had settled,
+Nicolls proceeded with greater vigor.  This section together with
+Staten Island was erected into the district of Yorkshire, where "the
+Duke's Laws" were proclaimed and the machinery of English county
+government was put in operation.  With its three ridings, its courts of
+sessions, and its court of assizes, Yorkshire soon had an unmistakable
+English character even though Dutch inhabitants were numerous in
+western Long Island and in Staten Island.  The Duke's Laws were
+compiled mainly from the laws of the New England colonies, though they
+departed in many particulars from New England traditions.  In the Dutch
+towns <I>schouts</I> and <I>schepens</I> gave place to overseers and constables.
+The characteristic form of town government in the province was that in
+which freeholders elected
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P139"></A>139}</SPAN>
+a board of eight overseers and a
+constable for one year.  Little by little English law and English
+institutions were to crowd out Dutch law and Dutch political
+institutions in the conquered province.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+By his wise policy, his magnetic personality, his scholarly tastes, and
+his social geniality, Nicolls seems to have won all hearts.  Maverick,
+his colleague, wrote Lord Arlington that it was wonderful how this man
+could harmonize things in a world so full of strife.  Entrusted by the
+Duke of York with practically unlimited power, he used it with the
+utmost discretion and for the good of the province.  When he resigned
+his post after four years of service, New York was deeply regretful
+over his departure and Cornelis Steenwyck, the Dutch mayor of the city,
+gave a farewell banquet in his honor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His successor, Colonel Francis Lovelace, was a favorite at court and a
+gallant cavalier who had been loyal to the King throughout his
+adversity.  With far less ability than Nicolls, Lovelace was at one
+with him in desire to benefit and unify the colony.  He established a
+club where English, French, and Dutch were spoken, and he offered
+prizes to be run for on the Long Island race-course.  Under his rule
+shipping increased and trade
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P140"></A>140}</SPAN>
+flourished.  Merchants began to hold
+weekly meetings, thus laying the foundations of The Merchants'
+Exchange.  But his most notable achievement was the establishment of
+the first mail service on the American continent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In spite of all the sea commerce and trading up and down the river by
+sloops, pinks, flyboats, ketches, and canoes, the colonies of New York
+and New England demanded swifter and more frequent means of
+communication, and Governor Lovelace began to consider how the bonds
+could be drawn closer.  In 1671 one John Archer bought part of Van der
+Donck's old estate and built a village "near unto the passage commonly
+called Spiting Devil" on "the road for passengers to go to and fro from
+the main as well as for mutual intercourse with the neighboring
+colony."  Lovelace consented to make the village an enfranchised town
+by the name of Fordham Manor, provided its inhabitants should forward
+to the next town all public packets and letters coming to or going from
+New York.  The scheme evidently proved a success, for Lovelace shortly
+decided on a wider extension of communication, and the year 1673 was
+celebrated by the setting out of the first post between New York and
+New England.  It was to have started on New
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P141"></A>141}</SPAN>
+Year's Day, but was
+delayed by waiting for news from Albany.  On the arrival of
+communications from Albany the carrier was sworn into office,
+instructed "to behave civily," to inquire of the New England
+authorities as to the best post-road, and to mark it for the benefit of
+other travelers.  The message which Lovelace sent to Governor Winthrop
+of Massachusetts on this occasion ran as follows:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+I here present you with two rarities, a pacquett of the latest
+intelligence I could meet withal, and a Post.  By the first, you will
+see what has been acted on the stage of Europe; by the latter you will
+meet with a monthly fresh supply; so that if it receive but the same
+ardent inclinations from you as at first it hath from myself, by our
+monthly advises all publique occurrences may be transmitted between us,
+together with severall other great conveniencys of publique importance,
+consonant to the commands laid upon us by His sacred Majestie, who
+strictly injoins all his American subjects to enter into a close
+correspondency with each other.  This I look upon as the most
+compendious means to beget a mutual understanding; and that it may
+receive all the countenance from you for its future duration, I shall
+acquaint you with the model I have proposed; and if you please but to
+make an addition to it, or subtraction, or any other alteration, I
+shall be ready to comply with you.  This person that has undertaken the
+imployment I conceaved most proper, being both active, stout, and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P142"></A>142}</SPAN>
+indefatigable.  He is sworne as to his fidelity.  I have affixt an
+annuall sallery on him, which, together with the advantage of his
+letters and other small portable packes, may afford him a handsome
+livelyhood.  Hartford is the first stage I have designed him to change
+his horse, where constantly I expect he should have a fresh one lye.
+All the letters outward shall be delivered gratis with a signification
+of <I>Post Payd</I> on the superscription; and reciprocally, we expect all
+to us free.  Each first Monday of the month he sets out from New York,
+and is to return within the month from Boston to us againe.  The maile
+has divers baggs, according to the townes the letters are designed to,
+which are all sealed up till their arrivement, with the scale of the
+Secretarie's Office, whose care it is on Saturday night to seale them
+up.  Only by-letters are in an open bag, to dispense by the wayes.
+Thus you see the scheme I have drawne to promote a happy
+correspondence.  I shall only beg of you your furtherance to so
+universall a good work.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+By trail, road, and waterway the colonists were thus drawing nearer to
+each other and steadily increasing their facilities for trade, when all
+was interrupted by the reassertion of Dutch sovereignty and the
+reconquest of the English colony by the Dutch under much the same
+circumstances as had marked the surrender of Stuyvesant in 1664.  The
+old habit of unpreparedness survived under the English as under the
+Dutch; and the third war between England and Holland, begun in 1672 and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P143"></A>143}</SPAN>
+ended in 1674, found the strategic points on the Hudson again
+unprotected.  One August day in 1673 a powerful Dutch fleet appeared
+off Staten Island.  On the next day it sailed up through the Narrows,
+and Manhattan saw a repetition, with a difference, of the scene of
+1664.  After a brief exchange of volleys between the strong fleet and
+the weak fortress, the garrison recognized that resistance was
+hopeless, New York surrendered to Admiral Evertsen, and the flag of the
+Dutch Republic floated once more over the fortress, which changed its
+name to Fort Willem Hendrick while New York became New Orange.
+Governor Lovelace was absent from the city at the moment, and the blame
+of the surrender fell upon Manning, a subordinate, who was tried for
+neglect of duty, cowardice, and treachery.  His sword was broken over
+his head and he was pronounced ineligible for any office of trust.  But
+no governor could have saved the situation, as nothing was ready for
+defense.  When the Dutch took possession, Captain Anthony Colve was
+appointed Governor.  He proceeded with energy to put the fort into
+condition for defense, and for a time it seemed as if the Dutch might
+at last hold their rich heritage along the Hudson.  At the close of
+hostilities, however, a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P144"></A>144}</SPAN>
+treaty which was signed at Westminster in
+February, 1674, and proclaimed at the City Hall of New Orange in July
+of the same year, stipulated that New Netherland should again become an
+English province.  Thus for the third time, a national flag was lowered
+at the fort on Manhattan Island without serious effort at opposition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The treaty did not restore New York to the Duke whose name it bore but
+handed it over directly to Charles II, who, however, again granted it
+to his brother James.  Edmund Andros, a major in Prince Rupert's
+regiment of dragoons, was sent out to take control of the province,
+which had now changed hands for the last time.  His character was
+probably neither so white nor so black as it has been painted; but it
+is certain that he lacked the tact of Nicolls, and he brought to his
+task the habits of a soldier rather than an administrator.  He never
+succeeded in winning the complete confidence of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the beginning Andros showed himself hostile to popular liberty and
+loyal to the interests of his patron as he saw them.  But the
+difficulties of his position, it must be admitted, were very great.
+James, Duke of York, brother of Charles II, and, in the absence of
+legitimate children of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P145"></A>145}</SPAN>
+the King, the heir to the throne, had, as
+we have seen, been granted all rights in the conquered territory of New
+Netherland in 1664.  Part of this territory he promptly gave to two
+court favorites, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.  The sagacious
+Nicolls protested that this partition which surrendered to a divided
+ownership the rich lands of New Jersey&mdash;so called in honor of
+Carteret's gallant defense of the Island of Jersey during the Civil
+Wars&mdash;was a menace to the well-being of New York.  His warning, which
+might not have been heeded in any case, did not reach England until the
+transfer was completed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With the Dutch occupation all titles were canceled, but under the new
+treaty, James, although by this time thoroughly informed of the
+complications involved, with the usual fatuity of the Stuarts now made
+a grant of the eastern part of New Jersey to Carteret in severally,
+taking no notice of the western part, which Berkeley had already sold
+for the sum of a thousand pounds.  By this grant to Carteret many
+questions were at once raised.  Was Sir George Carteret a lord
+proprietor like the Duke himself, responsible only to the King, or was
+he only a lord of the manor responsible to his master the Duke?  Was
+East Jersey a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P146"></A>146}</SPAN>
+part of New York, or was it an independent
+province?  As usual the importance of the questions was based on
+commercial considerations.  If New Jersey were a separate entity then
+it might trade directly with England; if it were dependent on New York
+it could trade only by permission of the Duke's representative.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Philip Carteret, a kinsman of Sir George, whom the latter had appointed
+Governor of his share of New Jersey, and who went to America in the
+same ship as Andros in 1674, determined to test the matter by declaring
+Elizabethtown a free port, while Andros demanded that all ships bound
+to or from any port in the original New Netherland must enter and clear
+at New York.  With equal pertinacity Andros asserted the Duke's
+authority in West Jersey, haling Fenwick, one of the claimants under
+the original grant of 1674, to court in New York.  Fenwick's land
+titles, however, were sustained, and Andros then released him upon his
+explicit promise that he would not meddle with the government of West
+Jersey.  Taking advantage of the death of Sir George Carteret in 1680,
+Andros next arrested and imprisoned Governor Philip Carteret on the
+ground that he now had no authority, and then himself assumed the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P147"></A>147}</SPAN>
+governorship of East Jersey.  But Carteret was acquitted, the Assembly
+of East Jersey sustained their Governor, and the towns refused to
+submit.  Meanwhile, charges of corruption had been brought against
+Andros in New York, where his imperious manner and arbitrary conduct
+had made enemies.  He was recalled to England in 1681 to answer these
+charges, and in consequence of the disaffection which he had stirred up
+he was removed from office.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Colonel Thomas Dongan, the Governor chosen to succeed Andros, was a
+younger son of an Irish Baronet and a Roman Catholic.  The laws of
+England forbade a Catholic to hold office in that country; but there
+was not the same barrier in the province subject to a Lord Proprietor.
+James, being of the Catholic faith, was therefore glad to appoint
+people of that religion in the New World.  Realizing, however, that the
+feeling against Catholicism was strong in the colony, the Duke gilded
+the pill by granting more liberal laws and a more popular form of
+government than had previously been permitted.  At the time of his
+appointment Dongan received instructions from the Duke of York to call
+a representative Assembly of not more than eighteen members to be
+chosen by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P148"></A>148}</SPAN>
+freeholders of the province.  This Assembly met in
+October, 1683, and passed some fifteen laws, the first and most
+memorable of which was the so-called <I>Charter of Liberties and
+Privileges</I>.  The most notable provisions of the charter were those
+establishing the principles of popular representation and religious
+liberty, and those reciting the guarantees of civil rights familiar to
+all Englishmen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Before this charter could be finally ratified by the Duke of York,
+Charles II died from a stroke of apoplexy, and James became King.
+After fifteen minutes in his closet, where he had retired to give "full
+scope to his tears," he emerged to work for three years his bigoted
+will on the affairs of the realm.  James the King took a different view
+of many things from James the Duke.  The status of New York was
+similarly changed from a ducal proprietorship to a royal province.  The
+new charter recognized a Lord Proprietor.  But that Lord Proprietor had
+now become King of England, and this King found some of the enactments
+of the charter so objectionable to His Majesty that he disallowed the
+charter.  Moreover, James did away with the Assembly which he had
+previously allowed to be summoned.  But the seed of popular government
+had been planted in the Western
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P149"></A>149}</SPAN>
+Hemisphere and within the next
+century it was ripe for the harvesting.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1688 New York and New Jersey were united with the Eastern colonies
+under title of "The Dominion of New England," and Sir Edmund Andros was
+appointed Governor-General of a territory of imperial dimensions.  But
+the year of his arrival in New York marked the departure of his royal
+master from England.  Bigotry and tyranny had overshot the mark and the
+English people had determined to dethrone James.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the invitation of the Protestant nobility, James's son-in-law,
+William of Orange, landed at Torbay in November, 1688, and rapidly won
+popular support.  After beginning negotiations with him, James became
+alarmed and took flight to France at the close of the year.  William of
+Orange and his wife, James's daughter Mary, then became King and Queen
+of England (February 13, 1689) and New York once more passed under the
+control of a Dutch sovereign.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap09"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P150"></A>150}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IX
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+LEISLER
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The story of the so-called Leisler Rebellion illustrates the difficulty
+of sifting conflicting historical testimony.  Among the earlier
+chroniclers of New Netherland there is the widest difference of opinion
+about the chief actor in the drama.  Leisler was "an illiterate
+German," says one authority.  Another says: "He was the son of a French
+clergyman driven into exile, and making his home in Frankfort where the
+little Jacob was born.  The boy was taught to write and speak Dutch,
+French, and German; but being unskilled in the English tongue he was
+unjustly charged with illiteracy."  By one party he was branded as a
+vulgar demagogue ready to ally himself with the mob against the
+conservative citizenry.  By another he was acclaimed as the champion of
+the people's rights and religion when they were threatened with
+invasion by the minions of the perfidious Stuarts.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P151"></A>151}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+In regard to the main events of this troubled time there is,
+fortunately, little dispute, although they are so complicated that they
+require close attention.  When James II fled from England at the end of
+the year 1688 and was succeeded by William and Mary, the affairs of the
+American provinces were thrown into a state of chaos.  The change of
+government was not known in Massachusetts until March, 1689.  The
+immediate result of the news was to fan the popular wrath against Sir
+Edmund Andros, then in Boston, into such a flame that the Governor was
+seized and thrown into prison before he was able to make his escape to
+New York.  His imprisonment left Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson,
+Andros's deputy at New York, in a difficult position.  Andros was still
+Governor and Nicholson was unable to communicate with him.  Some people
+held that Nicholson thus became acting Governor; others claimed that
+the whole existing machinery of government was swept away by the
+abdication of James and that the provinces were free to govern
+themselves till they could learn the will of the new sovereigns.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nicholson was a weak man, and his vacillation produced the impression
+that he might be engaged in a conspiracy to bring back the rule of
+James.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P152"></A>152}</SPAN>
+Three years before, in the King's camp, he had knelt when
+Mass was celebrated.  Who knew what Catholic designs might lurk behind
+this significant act?  Rumor grew into suspicion, and suspicion turned
+to panic.  At length Nicholson fell into an altercation with an officer
+on guard at Fort James who asserted his authority.  In the course of
+the argument the Lieutenant-Governor remarked angrily: "I would rather
+see the city on fire than commanded by an impudent fellow like him."
+Next morning word had spread far and wide through the town that
+Nicholson had threatened to burn New York, and all was in an uproar.  A
+crowd of citizens appeared at the house of Leisler, who was an officer
+in the train-band, a citizen well known for honesty, a stanch, even
+bigoted Protestant, and withal a man of firm purpose, and they begged
+him to act as their leader in a determined effort to preserve their
+liberties and hold New York for William and Mary.  It is easy to see on
+looking back over two centuries that the dangers of conspiracy were
+greatly exaggerated; but we must remember that these men really
+believed that they themselves and all that they held sacred were in
+jeopardy.  The possibility of war with France was indeed not remote;
+and fear
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P153"></A>153}</SPAN>
+of an invasion from Canada with all the horrors of an
+Indian war haunted the minds of every frontier family.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Leisler invited the people of the towns and counties of New York to
+choose delegates to a convention to be held at Fort James on June 25,
+1689, to consider what was best to be done under existing conditions.
+Ulster, Albany, and most of the towns in Queens County refused to send
+delegates.  The others responded, however, and the delegates formed
+themselves into a committee of safety.  They appointed Leisler "Captain
+of the fort at New York until orders shall be received from their
+Majesties," and Leisler accepted the responsibilities of government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Massachusetts and Connecticut congratulated him on his conduct, and in
+the province of New York he was generally approved; but he had the
+misfortune to be opposed by the Roman Catholics and the landed gentry.
+The former were few in number and, after the establishment of the
+Protestant succession, a negligible danger, though in view of the
+assertion made by James to the Pope that "it was his full purpose to
+have set up Roman Catholic Religion in the English Plantations of
+America," we can scarcely call it bigotry on
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P154"></A>154}</SPAN>
+Leisler's part to
+fear their influence.  Unfortunately for the Leislerians "the gentry"
+made common cause with the Catholics against the new Government.
+Albany, which was preëminently Dutch and held the Reformed Church in
+reverence, was also aristocratic in sympathy and resented the rule of
+Leisler as the representative of the common people.  Even so, had
+Leisler shown more tact and less obstinacy there might still have been
+a chance to placate the opposing factions; but by his fanatical attacks
+on all Catholics and his open defiance of such prominent citizens as
+Nicholas Bayard, Stephanus Van Cortlandt, Frederick Philipse, Peter
+Schuyler, and Robert Livingston, he fomented the strife until
+conciliation became impossible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the beginning of January, 1689, Leisler committed a grievous
+strategical error in permitting Nicholson to leave for England to
+render an account of the state of affairs, while the Leislerians
+depended upon communications written in dubious English and carried by
+a bearer who was of inferior social standing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Meanwhile Leisler won a temporary victory over his opponents.  In
+December dispatches arrived from the Privy Council and the King and
+Queen of England, addressed to "Our Lieutenant-Governor
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P155"></A>155}</SPAN>
+and
+Commander-in-Chief of our Province of New York, or in his absence to
+such as for the time being take care to keep the peace and administer
+the laws," and authorizing him to take the reins of government, calling
+to his assistance "in the administration thereof the principal
+freeholders and inhabitants of the same, or so many of them as you
+shall think fit."  Nicholson having departed for England, the messenger
+was in some doubt as to the proper recipient of the message.  Bayard
+and his faction strove to obtain possession of it; but it was finally
+delivered to Leisler.  He appointed a council of eight men, all
+reputable citizens and by no means representing the rabble, as his
+enemies charged.  In this procedure he was acting in strict conformity
+with the letter from the Privy Council.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Leisler assumed the title of Lieutenant-Governor and, much to the
+chagrin of his foes, took his seat in the Governor's pew at church.  It
+was his moment of triumph; but troubles were already darkening the
+horizon.  In November Leisler sent to Albany his deputy, an Englishman
+named Milborne, to demand the recognition of his Government; but the
+mandate being opposed by Schuyler, Livingston, and Bayard, all well
+known and highly
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P156"></A>156}</SPAN>
+esteemed in Albany and representing the
+aristocratic faction, that town refused entrance to Milborne and his
+escort and refused likewise to recognize Leisler as Governor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Albany Records for November, 1689, describe the incident as
+follows: "Three sloops neared Albany bearing troops under Jacob
+Milborne and immediately Captain Wendell and Blucker, Johannes Cuyler
+and Reymier Barents go aboard to learn the object of his visit.  Jacob
+Milborne asks: 'Is the fort open to receive me and my men?'  The reply
+is: 'No, the Mayor is in command and will hold it.'"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the receipt of this inhospitable message, reënforced by military
+demonstrations, Milborne wisely withdrew his inadequate force and
+returned to New York to report the failure of his mission.  Three
+months after Milborne's rejection, in the bitter February weather of
+1690, the village of Schenectady, at that time a western frontier post,
+was burned and its inhabitants were massacred in a French and Indian
+raid.  Once more Leisler sent his deputy at the head of a body of
+troops to the assistance of the Albanians, and this time Milborne was
+not denied entrance to the town.  Having thus gained control of the
+province, Leisler summoned
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P157"></A>157}</SPAN>
+a convention of delegates from
+Massachusetts and Connecticut to meet at New York on May 1, 1690, in
+order to discuss the defense of the colonies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Meanwhile the Leislerians and their opponents were bombarding the new
+King and Queen with their conflicting claims.  In 1690, Captain Blagge,
+congratulating their Majesties on "the late Happy Revolution in
+England" asked their Majesties' approbation for Leisler on the ground
+that "Nicholson, like Col. Dongan, had neglected to repair the
+fortifications of the city, which excited suspicions against his
+loyalty, and he was disaffected towards the late happy revolution in
+England."  Hence Jacob Leisler had been chosen, "with a committee, to
+make such repairs and to administer the government until William's
+pleasure could be known."  The memorial goes on to say:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+Shortly after, their Majesties' Proclamation arrived by which William
+and Mary were to be proclaimed King and Queen of England.  Notice was
+given to the late Council of Nicholson, and to the Mayor and Aldermen
+to assist, with proper ceremonies, in this Proclamation.  They desired
+an hour's time for considering it, and then refused.  Leisler and his
+Committee and most of the inhabitants did then celebrate the event with
+many demonstrations of joy and affection.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+The Mayor and Aldermen were then suspended from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P158"></A>158}</SPAN>
+office, and
+certain opponents of the Revolution and their Majesties' interests,
+were imprisoned.  Shortly after their Majesties' letters arrived,
+directed to Lieutenant Governor Nicholson, or, "in his absence to such
+as for the time being do take care for the preservation of their
+Majesties' Peace, and administering the Lawes in that their Majesties'
+Province; ordering such to take upon them the place of Lieutenant
+Governor and Commander in Chief of the said Province and to proclaim
+King William and Queen Mary, King and Queen of England, Scotland,
+France and Ireland, and supream Lord and Lady of the Province of New
+York, if not already done"; which was accordingly done.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+The Inhabitants generally were satisfied therewith, and Leisler's
+committee was dismissed, and a Council chosen to assist him in the
+government; but the members of the old government opposed all this and
+created a faction.  This excited fear lest the Province should yet be
+delivered up to the French in Canada, which fear greatly agitated the
+Protestant population.  The said faction also surrounded Captain
+Leisler and abused him with ill language and threats, and would have
+done violence to him, if they had not feared the people, who rescued
+him out of their hands, and imprisoned the ringleaders of the
+opposition.  Multitudes also flocked into the city from the country, to
+defend the existing government, and it was with great difficulty that
+their zeal could be restrained.  The prisoners were ultimately fined
+and discharged upon their own recognizance to keep the peace.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+The Fort and City were therefore, now in a good condition, excepting a
+lack of ammunition.  The Commission of all military men who had acted
+under Governors
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P159"></A>159}</SPAN>
+Dongan and Andros, had been called in, and other
+Commissions issued in the name of their present Majesties, and only to
+those who were well affected thereto.  But our efforts thus to secure
+their Majesties interests have been greatly misrepresented, and we have
+been loaded with reproaches; our actions have been called a Dutch plot,
+although three quarters of the inhabitants are of Dutch descent, and
+speak Dutch; and our ruin is threatened, if the government ever falls
+into the hands of our opponents.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+To this lengthy defense Bayard and Nicolls made response as follows:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+Jacob Leisler a man of desperate fortune, ambitiously did assume unto
+himselfe the title of Lieutenant-Governor of this Province of New York,
+and chose a councel of ye meanest and most abject common people; made
+to himself a Broad Seale, which he called ye Seale of ye Province, with
+ye usuall armes of Kings of England; and affixed the same to some
+unlawful graunts of land within this Province; and commissionated under
+ye same Justices of ye Peace, in whose hartes were mischiefe.  He
+constituted Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and tryed severall subjects
+for pretended treason, murther and other crimes.  He taxed and levied
+monney upon their Majesties subjects to their grievous oppression and
+great impoverishment.  When he wanted more money for his occasions, he
+forcebly robbed and spoiled, broke open doors and locx were he guissed
+it was to be found, and carried away to ye vallue of some thousands of
+pounds in money or goods; and all this against the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P160"></A>160}</SPAN>
+best
+Protestant subjects in the Province.  He imprisoned whom he feared,
+without any other cause than that their integrity to ye Protestant
+interest, and fidelity to their Majesties, became a terroire to him;
+some of them after a tedious confignment, without collour of law, he
+whipt and branded; and some he kept in duresse so long as he held ye
+fort.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Upon one point, both the followers and opponents of Leisler agreed:
+there was no Dutch plot behind this revolution.  "The notion of a Dutch
+plott cannot be applicable to Leisler and his adherents," said Bayard;
+"the much greater part of Albany which wholly consists of Dutch people,
+and all the men of best repute for religion, estatte, and integrity of
+the Dutch nacon, throughout the whole Province, having alwaies been
+manifestly against Leisler and his society, in all their illegall and
+irregular proceedings."  To these representations their Majesties'
+advisers made no reply, but the appointment of Governor of New York was
+given to Colonel Henry Sloughter, "a profligate, needy, and narrow
+minded adventurer," the selection of whom did little credit to the
+wisdom of William of Orange.  All the papers from both factions were
+committed to this inefficient officer with instructions to examine the
+allegations strictly and impartially and to make a true report.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P161"></A>161}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+In December, 1690, Sloughter set sail with several ships and a body of
+troops.  By some accident the vessels were separated, and the ship
+bearing Major Richard Ingoldesby, "a rash, hot-headed man" who had
+served in Holland and recently returned from service in Ireland,
+arrived in the <I>Beaver</I> two months before Sloughter's ship reached New
+York.  His commission required him to obey the royal Governor, but did
+not give him authority to act as commander-in-chief in case of
+Sloughter's absence or death.  Nevertheless Ingoldesby at once
+announced the appointment of Sloughter and demanded the surrender of
+the fort.  Leisler replied by offering quarters for Ingoldesby's
+soldiers; but refused to surrender the fort till he saw the Major's
+commission.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Ingoldesby had no credentials whatever, but he issued a proclamation
+calling on the people and magistrates to aid him in enforcing the royal
+commission.  Leisler issued a counter proclamation warning him at his
+peril not to attempt hostilities against the city or the fort; but on
+receiving assurances that Ingoldesby had no intention of using force
+against the people of New York, he permitted the troops to land.  The
+fort, however, he would not yield.  With rival forces in the town,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P162"></A>162}</SPAN>
+peace was difficult to maintain.  Neither commander trusted the
+other.  Recrimination followed protest.  Finally, on the 17th of March,
+Leisler fired on Ingoldesby's troops, killing two and wounding others.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At length on March 19, 1691, Sloughter entered the harbor of New York.
+Representative anti-Leislerians hastened to board his ship and escorted
+him to the City Hall, where he took the oath of office at eleven
+o'clock at night.  He immediately dispatched Ingoldesby to demand the
+surrender of the fort.  Again Leisler's bigotry and obstinacy overcame
+his prudence.  Instead of surrendering at once he dispatched a
+messenger bearing letters and warning him to look well at Sloughter and
+be sure he was no counterfeit.  Sloughter informed Leisler's messenger
+that he intended to make himself known in New York as well as in
+England and ordered Ingoldesby for the second time to demand possession
+of the fort and to release from their prison Colonel Bayard and Mr.
+Nicolls, that they might attend the council to which they had been
+appointed members.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Leisler refused either to surrender the fort or to release the
+prisoners but sent Milborne and De la Noy to endeavor to make terms.
+Sloughter
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P163"></A>163}</SPAN>
+imprisoned both envoys and ordered his frigate to hold
+itself in readiness to fire on the fort.  Leisler, at length and too
+late realizing that resistance was useless, sent a letter to the
+Governor offering submission.  For the third time Ingoldesby was
+ordered to demand the possession of the fort.  This time the garrison
+yielded and Leisler was put under arrest.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With Milborne, now his son-in-law, and eight others, Leisler was
+arraigned before a court having inveterate royalists as judges.  Two
+insurgents were acquitted.  Six made their defense, were convicted of
+high treason, and were reprieved.  Leisler and Milborne declined to
+plead and appealed to the King.  They were, however, condemned and
+sentenced to death.  Sloughter was reluctant to sign the
+death-warrants; but his associates, more particularly Bayard, who had
+been imprisoned by Leisler, were determined on the execution.  It is
+maintained that the Governor's signature was obtained at a banquet when
+he was under the influence of liquor, and that an officer stole with
+the warrant to the prison and ordered the victims led out for immediate
+execution.  Be this as it may, Sloughter's compunctions were overcome
+and the death-warrants signed.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P164"></A>164}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The scaffold was erected at the lower end of the park and weeping
+people thronged about the victims.  Leisler's dying speech, which was
+marked by neither anger nor bitterness, affirmed that he had no other
+aim than "to maintain against Popery or any schism or heresy whatever
+the interest of our Sovereign Lord and Lady and the Reformed Protestant
+Churches" in these parts.  The drop fell, the populace rushed up to
+claim some relics of their leader, the bodies were taken down,
+beheaded, and buried, and so the worthless Sloughter thought to make an
+end of "a troublesome fellow."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the Leisler blood still flowed in the veins of the dead man's son,
+who never ceased fighting till in 1695 the attainder on the estate was
+removed.  This action of the English Parliament was tantamount to a
+confession that Leisler had been unjustly accused, tried, and hanged,
+and that these, the only people ever put to death for political reasons
+on the soil of New York, died as misguided martyrs, not as criminal
+conspirators.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap10"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P165"></A>165}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER X
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Sloughter did not live long to enjoy his triumph over Leisler, and his
+death came so suddenly that the anti-Leislerites raised their eyebrows
+and whispered "poison," while the Leislerites shrugged their shoulders
+and sneered "delirium tremens."  Neither faction seemed particularly
+reluctant to part with him.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, who was sent over from England as the next
+Governor, arrived in New York in the summer of 1692.  His rule is
+chiefly memorable for the founding of Trinity Church and for the
+encouragement which he gave to piracy.  These strangely differing
+activities were both obnoxious to the Dutch burghers, who were almost
+as strongly opposed to the Church of England as to that of Rome, and
+who suspected the Governor of conniving at the practice of piracy or at
+least of closing his eyes to the source of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P166"></A>166}</SPAN>
+doubloons of
+Spain, the louis d'or of France, and other strange coin which at this
+epoch had begun to circulate together with ivory and sandalwood in the
+little town at the tip of Manhattan Island.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In one sense Fletcher cannot be held responsible for the existence of
+piracy in the colony or on the high seas.  The institution was as old
+as navigation.  Moreover the issuance of letters of marque in the war
+with Spain had legalized privateering, which was so near akin to piracy
+that it was often hard to distinguish between the two.  Even royalty
+was not above accepting a share in the questionable spoils of the sea,
+as in the well-known case of Queen Elizabeth and the booty which Drake
+brought home.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is easy, therefore, to guess the source of the Eastern rugs, the
+carved teakwood furniture, and stuffs from India looms which adorned
+the houses of the rich men of New York.  On the streets pirate captains
+were pointed out as celebrities.  One of them, Edward Coates, presented
+Madam Fletcher with jewels, silks, and cashmere shawls.  Thomas Tew,
+another "filibustier," is described by a contemporary as a slight, dark
+man about forty years of age, who wore a uniform consisting of a blue
+jacket bordered with gold lace and short
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P167"></A>167}</SPAN>
+trousers of white linen
+covering his legs to the knee, below which came embroidered stockings.
+Around his neck he wore a chain of beaten gold and from his belt
+protruded a dagger's hilt set with sparkling jewels.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These picturesque pirates and privateers swaggered about the taverns in
+the shadow of the <I>Stadt-Huys</I> or lounged along the wharves at the
+harbor.  Everywhere they were the center of attention, and their tales
+of adventure were listened to with the most eager interest.  But these
+adventurers in the end pushed things so far that the Government in
+England found itself obliged to take vigorous action against them.
+James expressly instructed the provincial Governors Andros and Dongan
+to suppress "all pirates and sea rovers," for they had become so bold
+in their activities along the Spanish Main that lawful trading was
+languishing and merchants were in terror.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Many of the adventurers in the West Indies having been originally
+engaged in the honest business of <I>boucanning</I>, or smoking fish and
+meat after the manner of the Carib savages, they and their piratical
+comrades were generally known in Europe as "buchaniers" or
+"buccaneers."  By the Hollanders they were named "<I>zee rovers</I>"; by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P168"></A>168}</SPAN>
+French "<I>flibustiers</I>," which was only the Frenchman's way of
+pronouncing "freebooter."  In 1652 Samuel Sewall established in Boston
+a free mint, which attracted the pirates to that town, where they could
+bring their booty in gold and silver and have it safely dropped into
+the melting-pot beyond the reach of either discovery or recovery.  In
+1687 Sir Robert Holmes was sent with a squadron to the West Indies to
+put a stop to the nefarious trade of the freebooters, and in the next
+year Nicholson imprisoned at Boston several pirates whose leader was
+"one Petersen."  These activities on the part of the authorities had
+the effect of driving the "<I>zee rovers</I>" from the Caribbean to the East
+Indies for their enterprises and from Boston to New York for their
+market.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Sea commerce at this time had so far outstripped a naval power adequate
+to protect it that piracy grew more and more profitable, and many a
+respected merchant held private stock in some more than dubious sea
+venture.  The coast of Madagascar was a meeting place for pirates and
+merchantmen, and there Oriental stuffs, gold, and jewels were exchanged
+for rum or firearms, and the merchant vessel returned to New York,
+where her
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P169"></A>169}</SPAN>
+goods were sold cheaply and no questions were asked.
+One ship sailing from New York laden with Jamaica rum, Madeira wine,
+and gunpowder returned with a cargo of slaves and East India goods, and
+the voyage was reported to have cleared a net profit of thirty thousand
+pounds.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The scandal of "adventuring" continued to grow, and in 1695 Peter De la
+Noy wrote thus to the home government:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+We have a parcell of pirates in these parts which (people) call the Red
+Sea men, who often get great booty of Arabian Gold.  His Excellency
+gives all due encouragement to these men, because they make all due
+acknowledgements to him; one Coats, a captain of this honorable order
+presented his Excellency with his ship, which his Excellency sold for
+eight hundred pounds and every one of the crew made him a suitable
+present of Arabian Gold for his protection; one Captain Twoo who is
+gone to the Red Sea upon the same errand was before his departure
+highly caressed by His Excellency in his coach and six horses, and
+presented with a gold watch to engage him to make New York his port at
+his return.  Twoo retaliated the kindnesse with a present of Jewells;
+but I can't learn how much further the bargain proceeded; time must
+shew that....  After this all you will perhaps wonder when I tell you
+that this man's bell rings twice a day for prayers and that he appears
+with a great affectation of piety; but this is true, and it is as true
+that it makes him only more ridiculous, not more respected.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P170"></A>170}</SPAN>
+Not only were the buccaneers terrorizing the West Indies, the Red
+Sea, and the Madagascar coast, but according to the Albany Records of
+1696 "pirates in great numbers infest the Hudson River at its mouth and
+waylay vessels on their way to Albany, speeding out from covers and
+from behind islands and again returning to the rocky shores, or
+ascending the mountains along the river to conceal their plunder."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Government in England now prepared to take vigorous measures.  It
+desired to fit out an armed force to suppress the buccaneers; but as
+all the regular navy was needed in the war with France it was decided
+to organize a stock company in which the King, the Duke of Shrewsbury,
+Lord Chancellor Somers, the Earls of Bellomont, Oxford, and Romney,
+Robert Livingston, and others took shares, for the purpose of fitting
+out a privateer vessel to fight the pirates and at the same time to win
+some profit for themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>Adventure-Galley</I>, carrying thirty guns and manned by over one
+hundred sailors, was fitted out and entrusted to the command of William
+Kidd, a sea-captain of New York who chanced to be in London at the time
+and who was warmly recommended by Robert Livingston to Lord Bellomont,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P171"></A>171}</SPAN>
+who had been appointed to succeed Fletcher as Governor of New
+York.  He was well known as a bold and skillful sailor, and a man of
+wealth and repute in New York, and in his marriage certificate he was
+called "Captain William Kidd, Gentleman."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The plan finally formed was that Kidd with a privateer furnished with a
+letter of marque and a special commission from the King should cruise
+about in search of the pirates and capture them.  In pursuance of the
+scheme Kidd set sail on the <I>Adventure-Galley</I> and reached New York in
+the spring of 1696.  He set up placards all over the town asking for
+recruits, with the result that a motley crew of adventurers rushed to
+take ship in this strange new enterprise.  At this time Kidd was living
+in one of the handsomest houses in New York, on what is now Liberty
+Street.  Before this, in 1691, he had married the widow of a fellow
+sea-captain, a woman of great respectability, by whom he had one
+daughter, and he was known far and wide as a solid and trustworthy
+merchant.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His venture seemed bulwarked by every guarantee; but even at that epoch
+there were not wanting those who predicted strange things for the
+<I>Adventure-Galley</I>.  Few, however, foresaw any events as strange as
+those which actually occurred.  After
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P172"></A>172}</SPAN>
+cruising along the American
+coast without achieving the capture of any pirate ships Kidd set sail
+for the Red Sea and reached the coast of Madagascar in the fall of
+1697.  Here again he found no trace of the corsairs, who had probably
+been forewarned of his coming.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Kidd then took on water and provisions and proceeded to the coast of
+Madagascar.  Still no pirates.  Water and provisions were running low,
+and the crew threatened mutiny unless they were allowed to take up the
+business of piracy on their own account.  Kidd thereupon decided to
+yield, and the <I>Adventure-Galley</I> began by capturing several vessels
+owned by the Great Mogul, as well as some ships sailing under French
+colors.  In December, 1698, Kidd captured an East India ship named the
+<I>Quedagh Merchant</I>.  The <I>Adventure-Galley</I> being in bad condition,
+Kidd set the crew of the <I>Quedagh Merchant</I> on shore, took possession
+of the ship, burned his old one, and set sail in his new vessel for
+Madagascar.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In spite of their rich spoils, the mutineers remained sullen, and many
+deserted.  The men's discontent led to an altercation with William
+Moore, a gunner, in the course of which Kidd hit him on the head with a
+bucket.  The resulting
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P173"></A>173}</SPAN>
+injury proved fatal to Moore and
+ultimately resulted in disaster for Kidd.  After leaving Madagascar the
+pirate captain sailed for the West Indies, and it must have been with a
+sinking heart that he received the news which awaited him there.  The
+piracy of the <I>Adventure-Galley</I> was already known in England, and a
+committee of Parliament had been appointed to inquire into the whole
+affair.  Free pardon for acts committed before May 1, 1699, was offered
+by royal proclamation to all pirates who would surrender.  But an
+ominous exception was made in this proclamation of mercy: Avery, a
+notorious buccaneer, and William Kidd were not included.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The cause of this exclusion from grace is not far to seek.  It was not
+that Kidd was a sinner above all others; but that he had involved great
+personages from the King down, and that the Tories were making capital
+out of the connection between prominent Whig statesmen and the misdeeds
+of Captain Kidd.  The outlaw now determined on a course which in a
+righteous cause might well have been called bold but which under the
+circumstances could only be described as brazen.  He bought at the
+island of Hispaniola a small sloop which he loaded with gold coin, gold
+dust, gems,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P174"></A>174}</SPAN>
+and other booty and, with what remained of his crew,
+he set sail for New York.  Thus at San Domingo the <I>Quedagh Merchant</I>,
+with her fifty guns and her valuable cargo, was abandoned.  Her fate
+has continued a mystery to this day, and from time to time the search
+for the lost booty is still suggested and inaugurated by enthusiasts
+for adventure or seekers for gold.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Kidd drew near New York he found that the Earl of Bellomont had
+gone to Boston, and he resolved to follow the Governor to
+Massachusetts.  Much uncertainty surrounds his course at this time.  It
+is said that he sailed up Long Island Sound, stopped at Gardiner's
+Island, and buried a chest of treasure there, that he presented Mrs.
+Gardiner with brocades embroidered with gold threads and dropped jewels
+into his wine.  It is said that he succeeded in reaching his wife by a
+letter, asking her to meet him at Block Island.  Rumor has it that from
+Narragansett Bay he communicated with Bellomont and informed his
+lordship that he, William Kidd, was on board a sloop with ten thousand
+pounds' worth of goods and that he was entirely guiltless of the piracy
+with which he was charged.  It is said that Bellomont replied that, if
+Kidd could establish his
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P175"></A>175}</SPAN>
+innocence, he might count on the
+Governor's protection.[<A NAME="chap10fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap10fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Amid all these rumors there seems good evidence that Kidd landed in
+Boston in July and had the effrontery to offer the Governor a gift of
+jewels for Lady Bellomont.  With the approval of the Council Bellomont
+accepted the gift and handed the gems to a trustee as evidence in the
+case against Kidd.  The Earl of Bellomont, being a man of sterling
+integrity, was naturally sensitive as to his apparent complicity in the
+Kidd piracy, refused any further parley, and sent the buccaneer to
+England to stand his trial there.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Kidd was held in London for several months pending the collection of
+evidence against him, and his trial for piracy and the murder of
+William Moore finally began at the Old Bailey in the spring of 1701.
+From this point we have the original documents of the state trials and
+a complete record of the evidence for and against Kidd.  Bellomont is
+eliminated as a factor, and it becomes a case of the Crown against
+Captain William Kidd and a number of others, for murder and piracy upon
+the high seas.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P176"></A>176}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+However we may feel as to Kidd's guilt in the matter of piracy, we can
+but realize that, according to the standards of modern times, he was
+not given a fighting chance for his life.  He was detained in Newgate
+Prison and denied all counsel until he had pleaded "guilty" or "not
+guilty."  In spite of all his protests he was brought to trial on the
+first indictment for murder, incidentally the least certain of his
+offenses.  The jury being sworn, the clerk proceeded with the first
+indictment for murder and declared that "the jurors of our sovereign
+Lord the King do upon their oath present that William Kidd, late of
+London, married, not having the fear of God before his eyes; but being
+moved and seduced by the Devil ... did make assault in and upon one
+William Moore ... and that the aforesaid William Kidd with a certain
+wooden bucket, bound with iron hoops, of the value of eight pence,
+which he the said William Kidd then and there held in his right hand,
+did violently, feloniously, voluntarily, and of his malice aforethought
+beat and strike the aforesaid William Moore in and upon the right part
+of the head of him, the said William Moore then and there upon the high
+sea in the ship aforesaid and within the jurisdiction of England."
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P177"></A>177}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Several sailors testified to the circumstances of the murder, that Kidd
+had called the gunner "a lousy dog" and Moore had replied: "If I am a
+lousy dog you have made me so.  You have brought me to ruin and many
+more."  At this, Kidd's temper being roused, he struck Moore with the
+bucket, and the gunner died the next day as a result of the blow.
+Considering the severity of treatment of mutinous sailors permitted to
+ships' officers at that time, there is little reason to think that
+under ordinary circumstances Kidd would have been adjudged guilty of
+murder for a blow struck in hot blood and under provocation; but the
+verdict was certain before the trial had begun.  The jury after an
+hour's consultation brought in a verdict of guilty, and Kidd was
+remanded to Newgate Prison to await trial for piracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This second trial took place in May, 1701, and included, beside the
+Captain, nine other mariners charged with piracy, in that "they
+feloniously did steal, take and carry away the said merchant ship
+<I>Quedagh Merchant</I> and the apparel and tackle of the same ship of the
+value of four hundred pounds of lawful money of England, seventy chests
+of opium, besides twenty bales of raw silk, a hundred bales of calico,
+two hundred bales of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P178"></A>178}</SPAN>
+muslins, two hundred and fifty bales of
+sugar and three bales of romels."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Kidd's defense was that the ships captured were sailing under French
+passes and therefore lawful prizes according to the terms of his
+commission.  These passes, he said, had been delivered into Bellomont's
+hands.  But the Court made no effort to procure these passes or to
+inquire further into the matter.  The jury was out for a short time
+only and brought in their verdict against or for the mariners
+separately.  All but three were found guilty.  In addressing them the
+Court said: "You have been tried by the laws of the land and convicted
+and nothing now remains but that sentence be passed according to the
+law.  And the sentence of the law is this: You shall be taken from the
+place where you are and be carried to the place from whence you came
+and from thence to the place of execution and there be severally hanged
+by your necks until you be dead.  And may the Lord have mercy on your
+souls!"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Captain Kidd was hanged at Execution Dock on May 23, 1701.  Thus ended
+the most famous pirate of the age.  His career so impressed the popular
+imagination that a host of legends sprang up concerning him and his
+treasure ship, while
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P179"></A>179}</SPAN>
+innumerable doleful ballads were written
+setting forth his incredible depravity.  Yet it is curious to consider
+that, had he died a few years earlier, he would have passed away as an
+honored citizen of New York and would have been buried with pomp and
+circumstance and the usual laudatory funeral oration.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+<A NAME="chap10fn1"></A>
+[<A HREF="#chap10fn1text">1</A>] Bellomont was commissioned Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, as well as of New York.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap11"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P180"></A>180}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XI
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+While Captain Kidd was still on the high seas and pirates were still
+infesting the lower Hudson, the Earl of Bellomont arrived in New York
+(in April, 1698), accompanied by his wife and his cousin, John Nanfan,
+who had been appointed Lieutenant-Governor.  The citizens greeted the
+new Governor with every demonstration of delight.  The corporation gave
+a public banquet and offered a eulogistic address.  Bellomont on his
+part entered into his task with enthusiasm.  In the new Assembly called
+in 1699, he spoke of the disorder prevailing in the province, left as
+it was with a divided people, an empty treasury, ruined fortifications,
+and a few half-naked soldiers.  He spoke of the ill repute of New York
+as a rendezvous for pirates and said: "It would be hard if I who come
+before you with an honest heart and a resolution
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P181"></A>181}</SPAN>
+to be just to
+your interests, should meet with greater difficulties in the discharge
+of His Majesty's service than those who have gone before me."  He
+declared it his firm intention that there should be no more
+misapplication of the public money, a veiled attack upon Fletcher's
+grants of land and privileges which had become a public scandal.  He
+would, he said, pocket none of the money himself nor permit any
+embezzlement of it by others and promised exact accounts to be laid
+before the Assembly "when and as often as you require."  The Assembly
+passed a vote of thanks and voted a six years' revenue.  Apparently
+everything was auspicious; but the seed of discord was already sown by
+Bellomont's early espousal of the Leislerian cause, which was in effect
+the cause of the common people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the Ecclesiastical Records of the State an account of the
+disinterment and reburial of the mutilated remains of Leisler and of
+his son-in-law Milborne shows the determination of Bellomont to make
+what reparation was possible, in addition to the removal of attainder,
+for the injustice done.  The document closes with these words:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+Yesterday, October 20, [1698] the remains of Commander Jacob Leisler
+and of Jacob Milborne [eight years and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P182"></A>182}</SPAN>
+five months after their
+execution and burial] were exhumed, and interred again with great pomp
+under our [new] Dutch Church [in Garden Street].  Their weapons and
+armorial ensigns of honor were there [in the Church] hung up, and thus,
+as far as it was possible, their honor was restored to them.  Special
+permission to do this had been received by his Honor's son, Jacob
+Leisler, from his Majesty.  This gave unutterable joy to their families
+and to those people who, under him, had taken up arms for our blessed
+King William.  With this circumstance we trust that the dissensions
+which have so long harassed us, will also be buried.  To this end our
+Right Honorable Governor, my lord the Earl of Bellomont, long wished
+for by us, is exerting his good offices.  He tries to deal impartially
+with all, acting with great fairness and moderation.  He has begun [his
+administration] by remembering the Lord God; for he has ordered a day
+of solemn fasting and prayer throughout the whole land.  In a
+proclamation of great seriousness, he has exhorted the inhabitants
+earnestly to pray for these things [peace among the people] to the
+Divine Majesty.  We hope the Lord will bestow his gracious blessings
+and grace, upon your Reverences, with all our hearts.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+This proceeding on the part of Bellomont, combined with the appointment
+to office of prominent Leislerians and the dismissal of some of their
+opponents, arrayed at once a formidable body of important citizens
+against him.  Their numbers were augmented by the people who had
+profited by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P183"></A>183}</SPAN>
+unlawful privileges won from Fletcher and now
+stripped from them by Bellomont; but the Governor pursued his course
+undaunted either by the threats or by the taunts cast against him as a
+partner of the pirate, Captain Kidd.  So beloved was Bellomont by the
+people and so strongly intrenched by influence in the Government at
+home that he could probably have carried through the reforms which he
+had at heart; but his untimely death in 1701, after a brief rule of
+three years, put an end to all his far-reaching schemes for the good of
+the colonies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His death was followed by a condition approaching civil war between the
+followers of Leisler and their foes.  In 1702 Queen Anne, who had
+recently ascended the throne, appointed as Governor her relative,
+Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury.  He suppressed the Leislerians and exalted
+the aristocratic party, thereby restoring order but at the same time
+bringing odium upon his cause by his personal vices.  Cornbury was a
+type of everything that a colonial governor should not be, a scamp, a
+spendthrift, and a drunkard.  Relying upon his relationship to Queen
+Anne, he felt himself superior to the ordinary restraints of
+civilization.  He took bribes under guise of gifts, was addicted to all
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P184"></A>184}</SPAN>
+forms of debauchery, and incidentally proved as foolish as he was
+wicked, one of his amusements, it is said, being that of parading the
+streets of New York in the evening, clad in woman's attire.  His lady
+was as unpopular as he and it is said that when the wheels of her coach
+were heard approaching the house of any of the wealthy citizens of New
+York, the family was hastily set to work hiding the attractive
+ornaments to which her ladyship might take a fancy, as she had no
+compunction in asking for them as a gift.  In an expedition to Albany
+in 1702, Cornbury's vanity led him to decorate his barge with brilliant
+colors, to provide new uniforms for the crew, and generally to play the
+peacock at the expense of the colony.  Rumor placed the sum of his
+debts at £7000.  Moreover he was charged with the embezzlement of £1500
+of government money.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A long-suffering community finally demanded the recall of Lord Cornbury
+and demanded it with the same insistence which was to make itself felt
+in revolution in the last half of the century.  As is usual with
+sovereigns when any right is demanded with sufficient firmness, Queen
+Anne was graciously pleased to withdraw Lord Cornbury in 1708.  On the
+arrival of his successor, Cornbury was placed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P185"></A>185}</SPAN>
+by indignant
+creditors in the charge of the sheriff, and was held in custody until
+the news of his succession to the earldom of Clarendon reached the
+colony.  The library, furniture, and pictures of the Queen's cousin
+were sold at auction, while the ex-Governor skulked back to England to
+make the best possible showing as to his appropriation of public moneys
+to private uses.  We can picture him wiping his eyes in pathetic
+deprecation, as he exclaimed: "If the Queen is not pleased to pay me,
+the having the Government of New Jersey, which I am persuaded the Queen
+intended for my benefit, will prove my ruin!"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Lord Lovelace, Cornbury's successor, demanded a permanent revenue.  But
+recent experience had taught the colonists to hold the financial power
+in their own hands and they consented only to an annual appropriation,
+thus making the salary of the Governor dependent on his good conduct.
+What would have been the result of this clash of interests will never
+be known, since Lord Lovelace died on May 5, 1709, the same day on
+which the act was passed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Major Richard Ingoldesby, Leisler's old enemy, now came into power and
+held the reins for a few months, until mismanagement of an expedition
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P186"></A>186}</SPAN>
+against Canada caused such indignation that he was withdrawn and
+Robert Hunter became Governor in 1710.  Although of humble Scotch
+parentage he had risen to prominence in English society, numbering
+Swift and Addison among his friends and being married to Lady Hay,
+whose influence had procured for him successive positions of importance
+which culminated in this appointment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With a view to encouraging the production of naval stores and obtaining
+a profit for the English Government, Hunter brought over at the expense
+of the Crown several thousand Palatines, German inhabitants of the
+Rhine valley harried by the French, thereby adding another alien
+element to the cosmopolitan population.  The British Government
+appropriated the sum of £10,000 for the project and agreed not only to
+transport the emigrants but to maintain them for a time in return for
+their labor.  These Palatines settled on both banks of the Hudson in
+four villages on lands belonging to Robert Livingston, and in three on
+those belonging to the Crown and situated on the west side of the river.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Authorities differ so widely in respect to the treatment of these
+German immigrants that it seems only fair to present both sides.  One
+shows
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P187"></A>187}</SPAN>
+Hunter working in the interest of the English Government
+against that of the colony and represents the movement as a clever plan
+on the part of the Governor to stimulate the production of tar and
+turpentine, to contribute to the government income, and to prevent the
+manufacture of wool, linen, and cotton goods, which at that time were
+largely bought in England.  When Hunter found that the income did not
+meet the outlay, it is said, he notified the newcomers that they "must
+shift for themselves but not outside the province."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other hand, the Governor asserted that dwellers in the lower
+Palatinate of the Rhine, when driven from their homes by the French,
+begged the English Government to give them homes in America; that Queen
+Anne graciously agreed that the Palatines should be transported to New
+York at the expense of the English with the understanding that they
+were to work out the advance payment and also the food and lodgings
+provided by the State and by Livingston; but that the Palatines proved
+lazy and failed to carry out their contract.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All accounts agree, however, in describing the hard lot of these
+unfortunate exiles.  Their ocean voyage was long and stormy with much
+fatal
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P188"></A>188}</SPAN>
+illness.  The sites selected for their settlements were not
+desirable.  The native pine was found unsuited to the production of tar
+in large quantities.  They soon discovered that they would never be
+able to pay for their maintenance by such unprofitable labor.
+Moreover, the provisions given them were of inferior quality; and they
+were forced to furnish men for an expedition against Canada while their
+women and children were left either to starvation or to practical
+servitude.  In this desperate situation some of the Palatines turned
+from their fellow Christians to the native savages, and their appeal
+was not in vain.  The Indians gave them permission to settle at
+Schoharie, and many families removed thither in defiance of the
+Governor, who was still bent on manufacturing tar and pitch.  But the
+great majority remained in the Hudson valley and eventually built homes
+on lands which they purchased.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The climate of New York disagreed with Hunter, and his mental
+depression kept pace with his physical debility.  After six years of
+hopeless effort, he was obliged to admit the failure of his plans to
+produce naval stores.  In 1710 he reported of the locality that it "had
+the finest air to live upon; but not for me"; again he says that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P189"></A>189}</SPAN>
+Sancho Panza is a type for him, since that in spite of every effort to
+do his duty no dog could be worse treated.  It is easy to understand
+that a member of the Pope-Swift-Bolingbroke circle in England should
+have found the social atmosphere of early New York far from
+exhilarating; and it is equally easy to comprehend that the pioneers of
+the New World resented his mismanagement of the campaign of 1711
+against Canada and his assertion of the English Government's right to
+tax the colonists without the consent of the colonial Governments.  But
+perhaps Hunter and the people appreciated each other more than either
+realized, for when he took leave in 1719 his words were warmly
+affectionate and his address embodied the exhortation: "May no strife
+ever happen amongst you but that laudable emulation who shall approve
+himself the most zealous servant and most dutiful subject of the best
+of Princes."  And in response to this farewell address the colony of
+New York assured Governor Hunter that he had governed well and wisely,
+"like a prudent magistrate, like an affectionate parent," and that the
+good wishes of his countrymen followed him wherever he went.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It would be pleasant to dwell on this picture of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P190"></A>190}</SPAN>
+mutual
+confidence and regard, but the rude facts of history hurry us on to
+quite different scenes.  William Burnet, son of the Bishop of
+Salisbury, continued the policy of his predecessor, it is true, and
+lived on unusually amicable terms with the Assembly.  He identified
+himself with the interests of the province by marrying the daughter of
+a prosperous Dutch merchant and by prohibiting the fur trade between
+Albany and Canada; yet even Burnet clashed with the Assembly on
+occasion.  And when after an interval William Cosby became Governor,
+the worst abuses of executive power returned, fomenting quarrels which
+reached a climax in the famous Zenger trial.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The truth was that no matter how popular a governor might be, clashes
+were bound to occur between him and the representatives of the people
+whom he governed, because they represented divergent interests.  The
+question of revenue was an ever-recurring cause of trouble.  Without
+adequate funds from the home Government, the Governor looked to the
+Assembly for his salary as well as for grants to carry on the
+administration of the province.  No matter how absolute the authority
+conferred by his commission and his instructions, the Governor must bow
+to the lower
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P191"></A>191}</SPAN>
+house of the provincial Legislature, which held the
+purse strings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Under Sloughter, Fletcher, Bellomont, and Cornbury the Assembly had
+voted revenues for a term of years.  But when Cornbury appropriated to
+his own uses £1000 out of the £1800 granted for the defense of the
+frontiers and when in addition he pocketed £1500 of the funds
+appropriated for the protection of the mouth of the Hudson, the
+Assembly grew wary.  Thereafter for four successive years it made only
+annual appropriations, and, wiser still by 1739, it voted supplies only
+in definite amounts for special purposes.  Short-sighted the Assembly
+often was, sometimes in its parsimony leaving the borders unprotected
+and showing a disposition to take as much and to give as little as
+possible&mdash;a policy that was fraught with grave peril as the French and
+Indian War drew on apace.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The growing insubordination of the province gave more than one governor
+anxious thought.  Governor Hunter wrote warningly to friends in
+England: "The colonies are infants at their mother's breasts and will
+wean themselves when they become of age."  And Governor Clinton was so
+incensed by the contumacy of the Assembly that he said bluntly: "Every
+branch of this
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P192"></A>192}</SPAN>
+legislature may be criminal in the eyes of the
+law, and there is a power able to punish you and that will punish you
+if you provoke that power to do it by your behaviour.  <I>Otherwise you
+must think yourselves independent of the crown of Great Britain!</I>"
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap12"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P193"></A>193}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XII
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE ZENGER TRIAL
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+Among the children of the Palatines imported by Governor Hunter in 1710
+was a lad of thirteen by the name of John Peter Zenger.  Instead of
+proceeding to the Palatine colony, his widowed mother and her little
+family remained in New York.  There Peter was bound apprentice to
+William Bradford, then a well-known printer, for a term of eight years,
+at the end of which time he set up an office of his own.  He evidently
+found himself hard pressed for the means of living, since one finds him
+in 1732 applying to the consistory of the Dutch Church of New York and
+proposing that, since he had so long played the organ without
+recompense, he might take up a voluntary subscription from the
+congregation and that the members of the consistory should head the
+paper as an example to others.  The consistory agreed to allow him
+provisionally the sum of six pounds, New York
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P194"></A>194}</SPAN>
+currency, to be
+paid by the church masters and promised that they would speak with him
+further on the subject of his seeking subscriptions in the
+congregation, a favor for which John Peter was duly grateful.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Governor William Cosby, as he drove in his coach on a Sunday to Trinity
+Church, or as he walked in stately raiment, attended by a negro servant
+who carried his prayer-book on a velvet cushion, could have little
+dreamed that the young printer striding past him on his way to play the
+organ in the old Dutch Church was destined to be the instrument of His
+Excellency's downfall; but the time was not far off when this David,
+armed only with a blackened type of his printer's form, was to set
+forth against this Goliath.  All flaming convictions have a tendency to
+cool into cant, and "the Freedom of the Press" has so long been a
+vote-catching phrase that it is hard nowadays to realize that it was
+once an expression of an ideal for which men were willing to die but
+which they scarcely hoped to achieve.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Colonel Cosby, former Governor of Minorca, came over the seas in
+1732, to become Governor of New York, he brought with him a none too
+savory reputation.  All that he seemed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P195"></A>195}</SPAN>
+to have learned in his
+former executive post was the art of conveying public funds to private
+uses.  His government in New York sustained his reputation: it was as
+high-handed as it was corrupt.  He burned deeds and strove to overthrow
+old land-patents, in order that fees for new ones might find their way
+into his pocket.  "Cosby's Manor," a vast tract of land in the Mohawk
+Valley, bore testimony to the success of his methods in acquiring
+wealth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Upon the death of Cosby's predecessor, John Montgomerie, in 1731, Rip
+van Dam, as president of the Council, had assumed control of the
+affairs of the province until the arrival of the new Governor.  At the
+close of his term, which had lasted a little more than a year, the
+Council passed warrants giving Rip van Dam the salary and the fees of
+the office for the time of his service.  When Cosby appeared he
+produced an order from the King commanding that the perquisites of the
+Governor during the interregnum be equally divided between him and Van
+Dam.  On the authority of this document, Cosby demanded half of the
+salary which Van Dam had received.  "Very well," answered the stalwart
+Dutchman, "but always provided that you share with me on the same
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P196"></A>196}</SPAN>
+authority the half of the emoluments which you have received during the
+same period."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The greedy Governor maintained that this was a very different matter.
+Nevertheless he was somewhat puzzled as to how to proceed legally with
+a view to filling his purse.  Since he was himself Chancellor, he could
+not sue in chancery.  He did not dare to bring a suit at common law, as
+he feared that a jury would give a verdict against him.  Under these
+circumstances Cosby took advantage of a clause in the commissions of
+the judges of the Supreme Court which seemed to constitute them Barons
+of the Exchequer, and he therefore directed that an action against Van
+Dam be brought in the name of the King before that court.  The Chief
+Justice, who had held office for eighteen years, was Lewis Morris.  Van
+Dam's counsel promptly took exception to the jurisdiction of the court
+and Morris sustained their plea, whereupon Cosby removed Morris as
+Chief Justice.  Cosby's party included De Lancey, Philipse, Bradley,
+and Harrison, while Alexander, Stuyvesant, Livingston, Cadwallader
+Golden, and most of the prominent citizens, supported Van Dam.  The
+people of New York were now awakening to the fact that this was no
+petty quarrel between two men as to which
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P197"></A>197}</SPAN>
+should receive the
+larger share of government moneys, but that it involved the much larger
+question of whether citizens were to be denied recourse to impartial
+courts in the defense of their rights.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The only paper published in the province, the <I>New York Weekly
+Gazette</I>, established in 1725, was entirely in Cosby's interest, and
+the Van Dam party seemed powerless.  They determined, however, to
+strike at least one blow for freedom, and as a first step they
+established in 1733 a paper known as the <I>New York Weekly Journal</I>, to
+be published by John Peter Zenger, but to be under the control of far
+abler men.  Morris, Alexander, Smith, and Golden were the principal
+contributors to the new paper, and in a series of articles they
+vigorously criticized the Governor's administration, particularly his
+treatment of Van Dam.  The Governor and Council in high dudgeon at once
+demanded the punishment of the publisher.  They asked the Assembly to
+join them in prosecuting Zenger, but the request was laid upon the
+table.  The Council then ordered the hangman to make a public bonfire
+of four numbers of the <I>Weekly Journal</I>; but the mayor and the aldermen
+declared the order illegal and refused to allow it to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P198"></A>198}</SPAN>
+be carried
+out.  Accordingly the offending numbers of the <I>Journal</I> were burned by
+a negro slave of the sheriff in the presence of Francis Harrison, the
+recorder, and some other partizans of Cosby, the magistrates declining
+to be present at the ceremony.  Whatever satisfaction the Governor and
+his adherents could gain from the burning of these copies of the
+<I>Journal</I> was theirs; but their action served only to make them both
+more ridiculous and more despicable in the eyes of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Not long after this episode Zenger was arrested upon order of the
+Council and thrown into the jail, which was at that time in the City
+Hall on the site of the present United States Sub-Treasury building on
+Wall Street.  Zenger was denied the use of pens, ink, or paper.  The
+grand jury refused to indict him.  But Cosby's attorney-general filed
+an "information" against Zenger for "false, scandalous, malicious and
+seditious libels."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Public interest was now transferred from Van Dam to Zenger, and the
+people saw him as their representative, robbed of his right of free
+speech and imprisoned on an "information" which was in form and
+substance an indictment without action of a grand jury.  Months elapsed
+while Zenger was kept in prison.  His counsel, Smith and Alexander,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P199"></A>199}</SPAN>
+attacked two judges of the court before which he was to be tried,
+on the ground that they were irregularly appointed, the commissions of
+two of them, Chief Justice De Lancey and Judge Philipse, running
+"during pleasure" instead of "during good behavior" and having been
+granted by the Governor without the advice or consent of his Council.
+The anger of the judges thus assailed was expressed by De Lancey, who
+replied: "You have brought it to that point, gentlemen, that either we
+must go from the bench or you from the bar," wherewith he summarily
+ordered the names of the two distinguished lawyers stricken from the
+list of attorneys.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This was obviously a heavy blow to Zenger, as the only other lawyer of
+note in New York was retained in the interests of Cosby and his
+faction.  But Zenger's friends never ceased their determined efforts in
+his behalf, and Smith and Alexander remained active in counsel if not
+in court.  Meanwhile the judges appointed an insignificant attorney,
+John Chambers by name, to act for Zenger and fancied that their
+intrigue was sure of success.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The trial came on before the Supreme Court sitting on August 4, 1735,
+De Lancey acting as Chief Justice, Philipse as second judge, and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P200"></A>200}</SPAN>
+Bradley as attorney-general.  Chambers pleaded "not guilty" on behalf
+of his client; but to the throng who crowded the court-room to
+suffocation, Zenger's case must have looked black indeed.  There was no
+question that he had published the objectionable articles, and
+according to the English law of the day the truth of a libel could not
+be set up as a defense.  It was even some years later that Lord
+Mansfield upheld the amazing doctrine that "the greater the truth the
+greater the libel."  A part of the importance of the Zenger trial lies
+in its sweeping away in this part of the world the possibility of so
+monstrous a theory.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A great and overwhelming surprise, however, awaited the prosecutors of
+Zenger.  The secret had been well kept and apparently every one was
+amazed when there appeared for the defense one Andrew Hamilton, a
+citizen of Philadelphia, of venerable age and the most noted and able
+lawyer in the colonies.  From this moment he became the central figure
+of the trial and his address was followed with breathless interest.  He
+touched upon his own age and feebleness with consummate tact and
+dramatic effect:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+You see that I labour under the weight of years, and am borne down with
+great infirmities of body; yet, old and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P201"></A>201}</SPAN>
+weak as I am, I should
+think it my duty, if required, to go to the utmost part of the land,
+where my service could be of use in assisting to quench the flame of
+prosecutions upon <I>information</I> set on foot by the government, to
+deprive a people of the right of remonstrating (and complaining too) of
+the arbitrary attempts of men in power.  Men who injure and oppress the
+people under their administration provoke them to cry out and complain,
+and then make that very complaint the foundation for new oppressions
+and prosecutions.  I wish I could say there were no instances of this
+kind.  But to conclude: the question before the court, and you,
+gentlemen of the jury, is not of small nor private concern; it is not
+the cause of a poor printer, nor of New York alone, which you are now
+trying.  No!  It may in its consequence affect every freeman that lives
+under a British government on the main of America!  It is the best
+cause.  It is the cause of liberty, and I make no doubt but your
+upright conduct this day will not only entitle you to the love and
+esteem of your fellow-citizens, but every man who prefers freedom to a
+life of slavery will bless and honour you, as men who have baffled the
+attempt of tyranny, and by an impartial and uncorrupt verdict have laid
+a noble foundation for securing to ourselves, our posterity, and our
+neighbors, that to which nature and the laws of our country have given
+us a right&mdash;the liberty both of exposing and opposing arbitrary power
+... by speaking and writing <I>truth</I>!
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+With scathing irony he fell upon the theory that truth was no defense
+for libel:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P202"></A>202}</SPAN>
+If a libel is understood in the large and unlimited sense urged
+by Mr. Attorney, there is scarce a writing I know that may not be
+called a libel, or scarce any person safe from being called to account
+as a libeller; for Moses, meek as he was, libelled Cain, and who is it
+that has not libelled the devil?  For according to Mr. Attorney, it is
+no justification to say that one has a bad name.  Echard has libelled
+our good King William; Burnet has libelled among others, King Charles
+and King James; and Rapin has libelled them all.  How must a man speak
+or write, or what must he hear, read, or sing?  Or when must he laugh,
+so as to be secure from being taken up as a libeller?  I sincerely
+believe that were some persons to go through the streets of New York
+nowadays and read a part of the Bible, if it were not known to be such,
+Mr. Attorney, with the help of his innuendoes, would easily turn it
+into a libel.  As for instance, the sixteenth verse of the ninth
+chapter of Isaiah: <I>The leaders of the people cause them to err, and
+they that are led by them are destroyed</I>.  But should Mr. Attorney go
+about to make this a libel, he would treat it thus: "The leaders of the
+people (innuendo, the governor and council of New York) cause them
+(innuendo, the people of this province) to err, and they (meaning the
+people of the province) are destroyed (innuendo, are deceived into the
+loss of their liberty)," which is the worst kind of destruction.  Or,
+if some person should publicly repeat, in a manner not pleasing to his
+betters, the tenth and eleventh verses of the fifty-sixth chapter of
+the same book, there Mr. Attorney would have a large field to display
+his skill in the artful application of his innuendoes.  The words are,
+"His watchmen are all blind, they are ignorant; yes, they are greedy
+dogs, that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P203"></A>203}</SPAN>
+can never have enough."  But to make them a libel,
+there is according to Mr. Attorney's doctrine, no more wanting but the
+aid of his skill in the right adapting of his innuendoes.  As for
+instance, "His watchmen (innuendo, the governor's council and Assembly)
+are blind; they are ignorant (innuendo, will not see the dangerous
+designs of His Excellency); yea they (meaning the governor and council)
+are greedy dogs which can never have enough (innuendo, enough of riches
+and power)."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Thus Hamilton skillfully appealed to the independent principles of the
+jury.  There was no note, satiric, pathetic, or patriotic, which he did
+not strike.  Overwhelmed by the torrent of his eloquence, Bradley, the
+Attorney-General, scarcely attempted a reply.  The Chief Justice stated
+that the jury might bring in a verdict on the fact of publication and
+leave it to the Court to decide whether it were libelous.  But Hamilton
+was far too wary to be caught thus.  "I know, may it please your
+Honor," said he, "the jury may do so; but I do likewise know that they
+may do otherwise.  I know they have the right, beyond all dispute, to
+determine both the law and the fact, and where they do not doubt the
+law, they ought to do so."  Nevertheless the Chief Justice charged the
+jury:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+Gentlemen of the Jury: The great pains Mr. Hamilton has taken, to show
+you how little regard juries are
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P204"></A>204}</SPAN>
+to pay to the opinion of the
+judges, and his insisting so much upon the conduct of some judges in
+trials of this kind, is done, no doubt, with a design that you should
+take but very little notice of what I might say upon this occasion.  I
+shall, therefore, only observe to you that, as the facts or words in
+the information are confessed; the only thing that can come in question
+before you is whether the words set forth in the information, make a
+libel.  And that is a matter of law, no doubt, and which you may leave
+to the Court.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+But the show of authority and the attempt at allurement were all in
+vain.  The jury took but a few moments to deliberate and returned with
+the verdict of "not guilty."  The roar of applause which shook the
+court-room was more than a tribute to the eloquence of the aged counsel
+who had accepted an unpopular case without fees because he felt that he
+was working for the cause of freedom.  It was more than a tribute to
+the poor printer who had risked everything in the same cause.  It was
+the spirit of the barons at Runnymede, of the Long Parliament, of the
+Revolution of 1688, of Patrick Henry of Virginia when he cried: "Give
+me liberty or give me death!"
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Court, divided between wrath and surprise, strove to check the wave
+of applause and threatened with imprisonment the leader of the cheers;
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P205"></A>205}</SPAN>
+but a son-in-law of ex-Chief Justice Lewis Morris succeeded in
+making himself heard, and declared that cheers were as lawful there as
+in Westminster Hall, where they had been loud enough over the acquittal
+of the seven bishops in 1688.  Upon this the applause broke out again,
+and Hamilton was acclaimed the people's champion.  A dinner was given
+in his honor and the freedom of the city was bestowed upon him.  When
+he entered his barge for the return journey to Philadelphia, flags
+waved, cannon boomed, and hurrahs resounded from all quarters.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap13"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P206"></A>206}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIII
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+THE NEGRO PLOTS
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+As early as the eighteenth century New York had become a cosmopolitan
+town.  Its population contained not only Dutch and English in nearly
+equal numbers, but also French, Swedes, Jews, Negroes, and sailors,
+travelers from every land.  The settled portion of the city, according
+to a map of 1729, extended as far north as Beekman Street on the East
+Side and as far as Trinity Church on the West Side.  A few blocks
+beyond the church lay Old Wind Mill Lane touching King's Farm, which
+was still open country.  Here Broadway shook off all semblance to a
+town thoroughfare and became a dusty country road, meeting the
+post-road to Boston near the lower end of the rope walk.  "The cittie
+of New York is a pleasant, well-compacted place," wrote Madam Knight,
+who journeyed on horseback from Boston over this post-road and who
+recorded her experiences in an entertaining
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P207"></A>207}</SPAN>
+journal.  "The
+buildings brick generally, very stately and high, though not altogether
+like ours in Boston.  The bricks in some of the houses are of divers
+coullers and laid in checkers, being glazed look very agreeable.  The
+inside of them are neat to admiration."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides its welcoming houses set among spreading trees, New York
+possessed public buildings of dignity and distinction.  There was
+Trinity Church, whose tall steeple was one of the first landmarks to
+catch the traveler's eye as he journeyed down the river from Albany.
+The new City Hall, dating from Bellomont's time and standing on a site
+at the corner of Wall and Broad Streets, given by Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster, was also a source of pride.  With its substantial wings and
+arched colonnade in the center it was quite imposing.  Here the
+Assembly, Council, and Court sat.  Here, too, were offices and a
+library.  But the cellar was used as a dungeon and the attic as a
+common prison.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+New markets and wharves told of the growing commerce of the city and
+province.  On every hand were evidences of luxurious living.  There
+were taverns and coffee-houses where gold flowed in abundant streams
+from the pockets of pirates and smugglers, and in the streets
+crest-emblazoned
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P208"></A>208}</SPAN>
+family coaches, while sedan chairs were borne by
+negro slaves along the narrow brick pathways in the center of the town.
+The dress of the people told the same story of prosperity.  The streets
+of the fashionable quarter around Trinity Church were fairly ablaze
+with gay costumes.  Men of fashion wore powdered wigs and cocked hats,
+cloth or velvet coats reaching to the knee, breeches, and low shoes
+with buckles.  They carried swords, sometimes studded with jewels, and
+in their gloved hands they held snuff-boxes of costly material and
+elaborate design.  The ladies who accompanied them were no less gaily
+dressed.  One is described as wearing a gown of purple and gold,
+opening over a black velvet petticoat and short enough to show green
+silk stockings and morocco shoes embroidered in red.  Another wore a
+flowered green and gold gown, over a scarlet and gold petticoat edged
+with silver.  Everywhere were seen strange fabrics of oriental design
+coming from the holds of mysterious ships which unloaded
+surreptitiously along the water front.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The members of one class alone looked on all this prosperous life with
+sullen discontent&mdash;the negro slaves whose toil made possible the
+leisure of their owners.  These strange, uncouth Africans seemed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P209"></A>209}</SPAN>
+out of place in New York, and from early times they had exhibited
+resentment and hatred toward the governing classes, who in turn looked
+upon them with distrust.  This smoldering discontent of the blacks
+aroused no little uneasiness and led to the adoption of laws which,
+especially in the cities, were marked by a brutality quite out of
+keeping with the usual moderation of the colony.  When Mrs. Grant wrote
+later of negro servitude in Albany as "slavery softened into a smile,"
+she spoke in the first place from a narrow observation of life in a
+cultivated family, and in the second place from scant knowledge of the
+events which had preceded the kind treatment of the negroes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1684 an ordinance was passed declaring that no negroes or Indian
+slaves above the number of four should meet together on the Lord's Day
+or at any other time or at any place except on their master's service.
+They were not to go armed with guns, swords, clubs, or stones on
+penalty of ten lashes at the whipping-post.  An act provided that no
+slave should go about the streets after nightfall anywhere south of the
+Collect without a lighted lantern "so as the light thereof could be
+plainly seen."  A few years later Governor Cornbury ordered the
+justices of the peace in King's County to seize and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P210"></A>210}</SPAN>
+apprehend all
+negroes who had assembled themselves in a riotous manner or had
+absconded from their masters.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1712, during the Administration of Governor Robert Hunter, a group
+of negroes, perhaps forty in number, formed a plot which justified the
+terror of their masters, though it was so mad that it could have
+originated only in savage minds.  These blacks planned to destroy all
+the white people of the city, then numbering over six thousand.
+Meeting in an orchard the negroes set fire to a shed and then lurked
+about in the shadows, armed with every kind of weapon on which they
+could lay hands.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the negroes had expected, all the citizens of the neighborhood,
+seeing the conflagration, came running to the spot to fight the flames.
+The blacks succeeded in killing nine men and wounding many more before
+the alarm reached the fort.  Then of course the affair ended.  The
+slaves fled to the forests at the northern end of the island; but the
+soldiers stationed sentries and then hunted down the negroes, beating
+the woods to be sure that none escaped.  Six of the negroes, seeing
+that their doom was sealed, killed themselves, and the fate of the
+captives showed that they well knew what mercy
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P211"></A>211}</SPAN>
+to expect at the
+hands of the enraged whites.  Twenty-one were put to death, one being
+broken on the wheel and several burned at the stake, while the rest
+were hanged.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After this experience of the danger attending the holding of slaves,
+the restrictions upon the negroes grew even more irksome and the
+treatment they received more that of outcasts.  For instance, a slave
+must be buried by daylight, without pallbearers and with not more than
+a dozen negroes present as mourners.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In spite of bright spots in the picture the outlook grew constantly
+darker; a mistrust ready to develop on slight provocation into terror
+perturbed the whites; and every rumor was magnified till there reigned
+a panic as widespread as that caused by the reports of witchcraft in
+New England.  At length in 1741 the storm burst.  One March night,
+while a gale was sweeping the city, a fire was discovered on the roof
+of the Governor's house in the fort.  Church bells sounded the alarm
+and firemen and engines hurried to the spot; but it was hopeless to try
+to extinguish the flames, which spread to the chapel and to the office
+of the secretary over the fort gate, where the records of the colony
+were stored.  The barracks then caught fire, and in a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P212"></A>212}</SPAN>
+little over
+an hour everything in the fort was destroyed, the hand-grenades
+exploding as they caught fire and spreading destruction in every
+direction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A month later a fire broke out at night near the Vlei Market.  A bucket
+brigade was formed and the fire was extinguished.  On the same night
+the loft in a house on the west side of the town was found to be in
+flames, and coals were discovered between two straw beds occupied by a
+negro.  The next day coals were found under the coach-house of John
+Murray on Broadway, and on the day following a fire broke out again
+near the Vlei Market.  Thus the townsfolk were made certain that an
+incendiary plot was on foot.  Of course every one's thoughts flew to
+the negro slaves as the conspirators, especially when a Mrs. Earle
+announced that she had overheard three negroes threatening to burn the
+town.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The authorities were as much alarmed as the populace and at once leaped
+to the conclusion that the blame for the incendiarism, of which they
+scarcely paused to investigate the evidence, was to be divided between
+the Roman Catholics and the negroes, who without reasonable grounds had
+so long constituted their chief terror.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P213"></A>213}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The Common Council offered pardon and a reward of one hundred pounds to
+any conspirator who would reveal the story of the plot and the names of
+the criminals involved.  Under the influence of this offer one Mary
+Burton, a servant in the employ of Hughson, the tavern-keeper, accused
+her master, her mistress, their daughter, and a woman of evil
+reputation known as Peggy Carey, or Kerry, as well as a number of
+negroes, of being implicated in the plot.  She said that the negroes
+brought stolen goods to the tavern and were protected by Hughson, who
+had planned with them the burning and plundering of the city and the
+liberation of the slaves.  On this unsupported evidence Peggy Carey and
+a number of negroes were condemned to execution, and under terror of
+death, or encouraged by the hope of pardon, these prisoners made
+numerous confessions implicating one another, until by the end of
+August twenty-four whites and one hundred and fifty-four negroes had
+been imprisoned.  Four whites, including Hughson and Peggy Carey, were
+executed; fourteen negroes were burned at the stake; eighteen were
+hanged, seventy-one transported, and the remainder pardoned or
+discharged.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Accusations were also made that the Roman
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P214"></A>214}</SPAN>
+Catholics had stirred
+up the plot; and persons of reputation and standing were accused of
+complicity.  The effect of the popular panic, which rendered impossible
+the calm weighing of evidence and extinguished any sense of proportion,
+is seen in the letters of Governor George Clarke.  On June 20, 1741, he
+writes to the Lords of Trade as follows:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+The fatal fire that consumed the buildings in the fort and great part
+of my substance (for my loss is not less than two thousand pounds), did
+not happen by accident as I at first apprehended, but was kindled by
+design, in the execution of a horrid Conspiracy to burn it and the
+whole town, and to Massacre the people; as appears evidently not only
+by the Confession of the Negro who set fire to it, in some part of the
+same gutter where the Plumber was to work, but also by the testimony of
+several witnesses.  How many Conspirators there were we do not yet
+know; every day produces new discoveries, and I apprehend that in the
+town, if the truth were known, there are not many innocent Negro
+men....  I do myself the honor to send your Lordships the minutes taken
+at the tryal of Quack who burned the fort, and of another Negro, who
+was tryed with him, and their confession at the stake; with some
+examinations, whereby your Lordships will see their designs; it was
+ridiculous to suppose that they could keep possession of the town, if
+they had destroyed the white people, yet the mischief they would have
+done in pursuit of their intention would nevertheless have been
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P215"></A>215}</SPAN>
+great....  Whether, or how far, the hand of popery has been in this
+hellish conspiracy, I cannot yet discover; but there is room to suspect
+it, by what two of the Negroes have confessed, viz: that soon after
+they were spoke to, and had consented to be parties to it, they had
+some checks of conscience, which they said, would not suffer them to
+burn houses and kill the White people; whereupon those who drew them
+into the conspiracy told them, there was no sin or wickedness in it,
+and that if they would go to Huson's [Hughson's] house, they should
+find a man who would satisfy them; but they say they would not, nor did
+go.  Margaret Keny [Kerry] was supposed to be a papist, and it is
+suspected that Huson and his wife were brought over to it.  There was
+in town some time ago a man who is said to be a Romish Priest, who used
+to be at Huson's but has disappeared ever since the discovery of the
+conspiracy and is not now to be found.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Later in the summer the Governor recorded his suspicions as follows:
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="quote">
+We then thought it [the] Plot was projected only by Huson [Hughson] and
+the Negroes; but it is now apparent that the hand of popery is in it,
+for a Romish Priest having been tryed, was upon full and clear evidence
+convicted of having a deep share in it....  Where, by whom, or in what
+shape this plot was first projected is yet undiscovered; that which at
+present seems most probable is that Huson, an indigent fellow of a vile
+character, casting in his thoughts how to mend his circumstances,
+inticed some Negroes to rob their Masters and to bring the stolen
+[goods] to him on
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P216"></A>216}</SPAN>
+promise of reward when they were sold; but
+seeing that by this pilfering trade riches did not flow into him fast
+enough, and finding the Negroes fit instruments for any villainy, he
+then fell upon the schemes of burning the fort and town, and murdering
+the people, as the speediest way to enrich himself and them, and to
+gain their freedom, for that was the Negroes main inducement....  The
+conspirators had hopes given them that the Spaniards would come hither
+and join with them early in the Spring; but if they failed of coming,
+then the business was to be done by the Conspirators without them; many
+of them were christen'd by the Priest, absolved from all their past
+sins and whatever they should do in the Plott; many of them sworn by
+him (others by Huson) to burn and destroy, and to be secret; wherein
+they were but too punctual; how weak soever the scheme may appear, it
+was plausible and strong enough to engage and hold the Negroes, and
+that was all that the Priest and Huson wanted; for had the fort taken
+fire in the night, as it was intended, the town was then to have been
+fired in several places at once; in which confusion much rich plunder
+might have been got and concealed; and if they had it in view too, to
+serve the enemy, they could not have done it more effectually; for this
+town being laid in ashes his Majesties forces in the West Indies might
+have suffered much for want of provisions, and perhaps been unable to
+proceed upon any expedition or piece of service from whence they might
+promise themselves great rewards; I doubt the business is pretty nigh
+at an end, for since the Priest has been apprehended, and some more
+white men named, great industry has been used throughout the town to
+discredit the witnesses and prejudice the people
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P217"></A>217}</SPAN>
+against them;
+and I am told it has had in a great measure its intended effect; I am
+sorry for it, for I do not think we are yet got near the bottom of it,
+where I doubt the principal conspirators lie concealed.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+With the collapse of the excitement through its own excess, ends the
+history of the great negro "plot."  Whether it had any shadow of
+reality has never been determined.  Judge Horsmanden, who sat as one of
+the justices during the trials growing out of the so-called plots,
+compiled later a record of examinations and alleged confessions whereby
+he sought to justify the course of both judges and juries; but the
+impression left by his report is that panic had paralyzed the judgment
+of even the most honest white men, while among the negroes a still
+greater terror, combined with a wave of hysteria, led to boundless
+falsification and to numberless unjustified accusations.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap14"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P218"></A>218}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIV
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON
+</H4>
+
+<P>
+The story of the French and Indian wars on our border does not fall
+within the scope of this chronicle; but in order to understand the
+development of New York we must know something of the conditions which
+prevailed in the province during that troubled epoch.  The penurious
+policy pursued by the Dutch and continued by the English left the
+colony without defenses on either the northern or southern boundaries.
+For a long time the settlers found themselves bulwarked against the
+French on the north by the steadfast friendship of the "Six Nations,"
+comprising the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, the
+Senecas, and the Tuscaroras; but at last these trusty allies began to
+feel that the English were not doing their share in the war.  The lack
+of military preparation in New York was inexcusable.  The niggardliness
+of the Assembly alienated successive governors and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P219"></A>219}</SPAN>
+justified
+Clinton's assertion: "If you deny me the necessary supplies all my
+endeavors must become fruitless.  I must wash my own hands and leave at
+your doors the blood of innocent people."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the Indians under the leadership of the French actually took the
+warpath, the colonists at last awoke to their peril.  Upon call of
+Lieutenant-Governor De Lancey, acting under instructions of the Lords
+of Trade, all the colonies north of the Potomac except New Jersey sent
+commissioners to a congress at Albany in June, 1754, to plan measures
+of defense and of alliance with the Six Nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Albany was still a placid little Dutch town.  Mrs. Grant of Laggan in
+Scotland, who visited Albany in her girlhood, wrote of it afterward
+with a gentle suavity which lent glamour to the scenes which she
+described.  She pictures for us a little town in which every house had
+its garden at the rear and in front a shaded stoop with seats on either
+side where the family gathered to enjoy the twilight.  "Each family had
+a cow, fed in a common pasture at the end of the town.  In the evening
+they returned all together, of their own accord, with their tinkling
+bells hung at their necks, along the wide and grassy street, to their
+wonted
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P220"></A>220}</SPAN>
+sheltering trees, to be milked.  At one door were young
+matrons, at another the elders of the people, at a third the youths and
+maidens, gaily chatting or singing together, while the children played
+around the trees, or waited by the cows for the chief ingredient of
+their frugal supper, which they generally ate sitting on the steps in
+the open air."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The court-house of Albany to which the commissioners journeyed by boat
+up the Hudson, is described by Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveler and
+scientist, as a fine stone building by the riverside, three stories
+high with a small steeple containing a bell, and topped by a gilt ball
+and weather-vane.  From the engraved print which has come down to us,
+it seems a barren barrack of a building with an entrance quite
+inadequate for the men of distinction who thronged its halls on this
+memorable occasion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this congress at Albany, Benjamin Franklin from Pennsylvania and
+William Johnson of New York were the dominating figures.  The famous
+plan of union which Franklin presented has sometimes made historians
+forget the services rendered by this redoubtable Colonel Johnson at a
+moment when the friendship of the Six Nations was hanging in the
+balance.  Though gifts had been
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P221"></A>221}</SPAN>
+prepared and a general invitation
+had been sent, only a hundred and fifty warriors appeared at Albany and
+they held themselves aloof with a distrust that was almost contempt.
+"Look at the French!" exclaimed Hendrick, the great chief of the
+Mohawks.  "They are men.  They are fortifying everywhere; but, we are
+ashamed to say it, you are all like women&mdash;bare and open without any
+fortifications."  In this crisis all the commissioners deferred to
+William Johnson as the one man who enjoyed the complete confidence of
+the Six Nations.  It was he who formulated the Indian policy of the
+congress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+He had been born in Ireland.  His mother was Anne Warren, sister to
+Captain Peter Warren, who "served with reputation" in the Royal Navy
+and afterward became Knight of the Bath and Vice-Admiral of the Red
+Squadron of the British Fleet.  Captain Warren was less than a dozen
+years older than his nephew, whom he regarded with affectionate
+interest.  He described him as "a spritely boy well grown of good parts
+and keen wit but most onruly and streperous," and the sailor added: "I
+see the making of a strong man.  I shall keep my weather eye on the
+lad."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The result of this observation was so favorable
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P222"></A>222}</SPAN>
+that the captain,
+who was on station in America, sent for William Johnson to come out and
+aid him in the development of a real estate venture.  A large tract of
+land near the Mohawk River had come into Warren's possession, and as a
+sailor Warren naturally found difficulty in superintending land at what
+was then a week's journey from the seacoast.  "Billy" was his choice as
+an assistant, and the boy, who was then twenty-three years old, left
+the Old World and in 1738 reached the new plantation where his
+life-work lay before him.  For this he was admirably equipped by his
+Irish inheritance of courage, tact, and humor, by his study of English
+law, and by a facility in acquiring languages which enabled him to
+master the Mohawk tongue in two years after his arrival in New York.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The business arrangement between Captain Warren and his nephew provided
+that Johnson should form a settlement on his uncle's land known as
+Warrensbush, at the juncture of Schoharie Kill and the Mohawk, that he
+should sell farms, oversee settlers, clear and hedge fields, "girdle"
+trees (in order to kill them and let in the sun), purchase supplies,
+and in partnership with Warren establish a village store to meet the
+necessities
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P223"></A>223}</SPAN>
+of the new colonists and to serve as a
+trading-station with the Indians.  In compensation for his services he
+was to be allowed to cultivate a part of the land for himself, though
+it is hard to imagine what time or strength could have been left for
+further exertions after the fulfillment of the onerous duties marked
+out for him.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A few years after his arrival at Warrensbush he married a young Dutch
+or German woman named Catherine Weisenberg, perhaps an indentured
+servant whose passage had been prepaid on condition of service in
+America.  Little is known of the date or circumstances of this
+marriage.  It is certain only that after a few years Catherine died,
+leaving three children, to whom Johnson proved a kind and considerate
+father, in spite of an erratic domestic career which involved his
+taking as the next head of his household Caroline, niece of the Mohawk
+chief Hendrick, and later Molly Brant, sister of the Indian, Joseph
+Brant.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Molly Brant, by whom Johnson had eight children, was recognized as his
+wife by the Indians, while among Johnson's English friends she was
+known euphemistically as "the brown Lady Johnson."  She presided over
+his anomalous household with dignity and discretion; but it is
+noticeable
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P224"></A>224}</SPAN>
+that Johnson, who was so willing to defy public
+opinion in certain matters, was sufficiently conventional in others, as
+we learn from a description of the daily life of the legitimate
+daughters of the house.  While Mohawk chiefs, Oneida braves, Englishmen
+of title, and distinguished guests of every kind thronged the mansion,
+and while the little half-breed children played about the lawns and
+disported themselves on the shores of Kayaderosseras Creek close at
+hand, "the young ladies" lived in almost conventual seclusion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The grim baronial mansion where this mixed household made its dwelling
+for many years, was called variously Mount Johnson, Castle Johnson, and
+Fort Johnson.  It was built in 1742 with such massive walls that the
+house is still standing in the town of Amsterdam.  In 1755, when the
+Indian peril loomed large on the horizon, the original defenses were
+strengthened, a stockade was built as a further protection, and from
+this time on it was called Fort Johnson.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Owing perhaps to Johnson's precautions and the Indian's knowledge of
+his character, the fort was not attacked and its owner continued to
+dwell in the house until 1762, when, having become one of the richest
+men in the colony, he built on a tract
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P225"></A>225}</SPAN>
+of land in Johnstown a
+more ambitious, and, it is to be hoped, a more cheerful mansion known
+as Johnson Hall.  This house was built of wood with wings of stone,
+pierced at the top for muskets.  On one side of the house lay a garden
+and nursery described as the pride of the surrounding country.  Here
+Johnson lived with an opulence which must have amazed the simple
+settlers around him, especially those who remembered his coming to the
+colony as a poor youth less than thirty years earlier.  He had in his
+service a secretary, a physician, a musician who played the violin for
+the entertainment of guests, a gardener, a butler, a waiter named
+Pontiach, of mixed negro and Indian blood, a pair of white dwarfs to
+attend upon himself and his friends, an overseer, and ten or fifteen
+slaves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This retinue of servants was none too large to cope with the unbounded
+hospitality which Johnson dispensed.  A visitor reports having seen at
+the Hall from sixty to eighty Indians at one time lodging under tents
+on the lawn and taking their meals from tables made of pine boards
+spread under the trees.  On another occasion, when Sir William called a
+council of the Iroquois at Fort Johnson, a thousand natives gathered,
+and Johnson's
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P226"></A>226}</SPAN>
+neighbors within a circuit of twenty miles were
+invited to assist in the rationing of this horde of visitors.  The
+landholders along the Mohawk might well have been glad to share the
+burden of Sir William's tribal hospitality, since its purpose was as
+much political as social and its results were of endless benefit to the
+entire colony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At last the Indians had found a friend, a white man who understood them
+and whom they could understand.  He was honest with them and therefore
+they trusted him.  He was sympathetic and therefore they were ready to
+discuss their troubles freely with him.  As an Indian of mixed blood
+declared to the Governor at Albany in speaking of Sir William: "His
+knowledge of our affairs, our laws, and our language made us think he
+was not like any other white but an Indian like ourselves.  Not only
+that; but in his house is an Indian woman, and his little children are
+half-breed as I am."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The English therefore were peculiarly fortunate in finding at the most
+critical stage of their political dealings with the Indians a
+representative endowed with the wisdom and insight of Sir William
+Johnson.  Unlike the French, he did not strive to force an alien form
+of worship upon this primitive people.  Unlike the Dutch, he insisted
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P227"></A>227}</SPAN>
+that business should be carried on as honestly with the natives
+as with the white men.  Unlike his fellow-countrymen, he constantly
+urged adequate preparation for war on the part of the English and
+demanded that they should bear their share of the burden.  In a written
+report at the Albany congress he strongly recommended that inasmuch as
+the Six Nations, owing to their wars with the French, had fallen short
+both in hunting and planting, they should be provided with food from
+the English supplies.  Finally he testified to the sincerity of his
+convictions by going to the war himself and rendering valuable service
+first as colonel and later as major-general.  After the Battle of Lake
+George, Johnson was knighted by the King and received a grant of £5000
+from Parliament.  In the same year he was appointed by the Crown "Agent
+and Sole Superintendent of the Six Nations and other northern Indians"
+inhabiting British territory north of the Carolinas and the Ohio River.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Johnson is described by one who saw him about this time or somewhat
+earlier as a man of commanding presence, only a little short of six
+feet in height, "neck massive, broad chest and large limbs, great
+physical strength, the head large and shapely,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P228"></A>228}</SPAN>
+countenance open
+and beaming with good nature, eyes grayish black, hair brown with tinge
+of auburn."  His activity took every form and was exerted in every
+direction.  His documents and correspondence number over six thousand
+and fill twenty-six volumes preserved in the State Library.  Nor did
+these represent his chief activities.  He was constantly holding
+councils with the native tribes either at Fort Johnson or at the Indian
+camps.  It was he who kept the Mohawks from joining in Pontiac's
+conspiracy which swept the western border; it was he who negotiated the
+famous treaty at Fort Stanwix in 1768.  In the midsummer of 1774 he
+succumbed to an old malady after an impassioned address to six hundred
+Iroquois gathered at Johnson Hall.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+He was one of the fortunate few whose characters and careers fit
+exactly.  He found scope for every power that he possessed and he won
+great rewards.  His tireless energy expressed itself in cultivating
+thousands of acres and in building houses, forts, and churches.  He
+dipped a lavish hand into his abundant wealth and scattered his gold
+where it was of the greatest service.  He loved hospitality and
+gathered hundreds round his board.  He was a benevolent autocrat and
+nations bowed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P229"></A>229}</SPAN>
+to his will.  He paid homage to his King, and died
+cherishing the illusion of the value of prerogative.  He was fortunate
+in his death as in his life, for he was spared the throes of the mighty
+changes already under way, when the King's statue should be pulled down
+to be melted into bullets, when New York should merge her identity in
+the Union of States, and when the dwellers along the banks of the
+Hudson and its tributaries should call themselves no longer Dutch or
+English but Americans.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="biblio"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P231"></A>231}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+The student who has the courage to delve in the <I>Documents relative to
+the Colonial History of the State of New York</I>, the <I>Documentary
+History of the State of New York</I>, the ecclesiastical records, the
+pioneer journals, and the minutes of early city councils, will not only
+reach the fundamental authorities on the history of the settlers on the
+Hudson, but will find many interesting incidents of which the dull
+titles give no promise.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If the reader prefer to follow a blazed trail, he will find a path
+marked out for him in reliable works such as <I>The History of New
+Netherland</I> by E. B. O'Callaghan, 2 vols. (1855), <I>The History of the
+State of New York</I> by J. R. Brodhead, 2 vols. (1871), <I>The Narratives
+of New Netherland</I>, admirably edited by J. F. Jameson (1909), <I>New
+York</I>, a condensed history by E. H. Roberts (1904), John Fiske's <I>Dutch
+and Quaker Colonies in America</I>, 2 vols. (1899), and William Smith's
+<I>History of the Late Province of New York</I> (first published in 1757 and
+still valuable).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Many histories of New York City have been written to satisfy the
+general reader.  Among the larger works are Mrs. M. J. Lamb's <I>History
+of the City of New York</I>, 2 vols. (1877; revised edition, 1915, in 3
+vols.), Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer's <I>History of the City of New York
+in the Seventeenth Century</I>, 2 vols. (1909),
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P232"></A>232}</SPAN>
+James G. Wilson's
+<I>Memorial History of the City of New York</I>, 4 vols. (1892), and
+<I>Historic New York</I>, 2 vols. (edited by M. W. Goodwin, A. C. Royce, and
+Ruth Putnam, 1912).  Theodore Roosevelt has written a single volume on
+New York for the <I>Historic Towns</I> series (1910).  In his <I>New Amsterdam
+and its People</I> (1902), J. H. Innes has brought together valuable
+studies of the social and topographical features of the town under
+Dutch and early English rule.  I. N. P. Stokes's <I>Iconography of
+Manhattan Island</I> (1915) is calculated to delight the soul of the
+antiquarian.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One who wishes to turn to the lighter side of provincial life will find
+it set forth in attractive volumes such as <I>Colonial Days in Old New
+York</I> by A. M. Earle (1915), <I>The Story of New Netherland</I> by W. E.
+Griffis (1909), <I>In Old New York</I> by T. A. Janvier (1894), and the
+<I>Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta</I> by M. K. Van Rensselaer (1898).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Most rewarding perhaps of all sources are those dealing with the
+biographies of the prominent figures in the history of the State, since
+in them we find the life of the times illustrated and personalized.  E.
+M. Bacon in his <I>Henry Hudson</I> (1907) gives us a picture of the great
+mariner and the difficulties against which he strove.  The <I>Van
+Rensselaer-Bowier Manuscripts</I>, edited by A. J. F. Van Laer (1908) show
+us through his personal letters the Patroon of the upper Hudson and
+make us familiar with life on his estates.  J. K. Paulding in <I>Affairs
+and Men of New Amsterdam in the Time of Governor Peter Stuyvesant</I>
+(1843) makes the town-dwellers equally real to us, while W. L. Stone's
+<I>Life and Times of Sir William Johnson</I>, 2 vols. (1865), shows us the
+pioneer struggles in the Mohawk Valley.  In the English <I>State Trials</I>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P233"></A>233}</SPAN>
+compiled by T. B. Howells, 34 vols. (1828), we read the story of
+the famous pirate Captain Kidd, and find it more interesting than many
+a work of fiction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the autobiographical accounts of colonial life the most
+entertaining are <I>The Memoirs of an American Lady</I> by A. M. Grant
+(1809), <I>A Two Years' Journal in New York, etc.</I> by Charles Wolley
+(1902), and <I>The Private Journal of Sarah Kemble Knight</I>, the record of
+a journey from Boston to New York in 1704 (1901).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Further bibliographical references will be found appended to the
+articles on <I>Hudson River</I>, <I>New York</I>, and <I>New York</I> (<I>City</I>), in
+<I>The Encyclopædia Britannica</I>, 11th edition.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="index"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P235"></A>235}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+INDEX
+</H3>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Adventure-Galley</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P170">170</A>, <A HREF="#P171">171</A>, <A HREF="#P172">172</A>, <A HREF="#P173">173</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Albany, name of Fort Orange changed to, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>; refuses to send delegates
+to Fort James, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>; preëminently Dutch, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>; refuses to recognize
+Leisler, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>; Leisler sends troops to assistance of, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>; congress
+(1754), <A HREF="#P219">219</A>, <A HREF="#P220">220-21</A>; court-house, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>; <I>see also</I> Orange, Fort
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Alexander, James, supports Van Dam, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>; contributes to <I>New York
+Weekly Journal</I>, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>; counsel for Zenger, <A HREF="#P198">198-99</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Amersfort, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Amsterdam, Fort, established, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; condition in 1638, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>; becomes Fort
+James, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>; <I>see also</I> James, Fort
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Andros, Sir Edmund, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>; asserts authority in New
+Jersey, <A HREF="#P146">146-147</A>; recalled, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>; appointed Governor-General of "Dominion
+of New England" (1688), <A HREF="#P149">149</A>; imprisoned in Boston, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>; instructed to
+suppress piracy, <A HREF="#P167">167</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Angola, Paul d', one of the first negro slaves, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Archer, John, <A HREF="#P140">140</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Arlington, Lord, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Arms of Amsterdam</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P26">26</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Avery, buccaneer, <A HREF="#P173">173</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Barents, Reymier, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Barentsen, Pieter, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bayard, Mrs., sister of Stuyvesant, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bayard, Nicholas, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>, <A HREF="#P155">155</A>, <A HREF="#P159">159</A>, <A HREF="#P160">160</A>, <A HREF="#P163">163</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bear Mountain, replica of <I>Half Moon</I> at foot of, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bears Island fortified, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Beaver</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P161">161</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Beeren (Bears) Island fortified, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bellomont, Earl of, in stock company to fit out privateer, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>;
+succeeds Fletcher as Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P170">170-71</A>, <A HREF="#P180">180-181</A>; Captain
+Kidd communicates with, <A HREF="#P174">174</A>; royal Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, <A HREF="#P175">175</A> (note); uprightness, <A HREF="#P181">181</A>; espouses Leislerian cause,
+<A HREF="#P181">181-83</A>; death (1701), <A HREF="#P183">183</A>; revenues under, <A HREF="#P191">191</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Berkeley, Lord, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Beverwyck, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Birds of Hudson region, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bissels, associate of Van Rensselaer, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Blagge, Captain, defense of Leisler, <A HREF="#P157">157-59</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Block, Adriaen, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Block Island, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>, <A HREF="#P174">174</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Blommaert, Samuel, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Blucker, of Albany, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bogardug, Rev. Everardus, <A HREF="#P88">88-90</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Boston, <A HREF="#P151">151</A>, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bradford, William, printer, <A HREF="#P193">193</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bradley supports Cosby, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Brant, Molly, <A HREF="#P223">223</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Breuckelen (now Brooklyn), <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Burnet, William, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P190">190</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Burton, Mary, <A HREF="#P213">213</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cabots, The, explorations in Hudson region, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Canada, expeditions against, <A HREF="#P185">185-86</A>, <A HREF="#P188">188</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Carey (Kerry), Peggy, <A HREF="#P213">213</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Carleton, Sir Dudley, English ambassador at The Hague, <A HREF="#P132">132</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Caroline, niece of Mohawk chief Hendrick, <A HREF="#P223">223</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Carteret, Sir George, part of New Jersey granted to, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>; death (1680),
+<A HREF="#P146">146</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Carteret, Philip, Governor of New Jersey, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Casimir, Fort, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Catholics, Roman, oppose Leisler, <A HREF="#P153">153-154</A>; accused of inciting negro
+plots, <A HREF="#P212">212</A>, <A HREF="#P213">213-17</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Chambers, John, <A HREF="#P199">199</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Charter of Liberties and Privileges</I>, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christina, Fort, <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Clarke, George, Governor of New York, letter on negro plots, <A HREF="#P214">214-15</A>;
+suspicions of, <A HREF="#P215">215-17</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Clinton, George, Governor of New York, quoted, <A HREF="#P191">191-92</A>, <A HREF="#P219">219</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Coates, Edward, <A HREF="#P166">166</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cod, Cape, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Colden, Cadwallader, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Colman, John, <A HREF="#P6">6-7</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Colve, Captain Anthony, Dutch Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Commerce, aim of Dutch in America, <A HREF="#P18">18</A>; with Holland, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>; dubious sea
+ventures, <A HREF="#P168">168-169</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Congo, Simon, one of the first negro slaves, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Connecticut River, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Coorn, Nicholas, <A HREF="#P45">45-46</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cornbury, Edward Hyde, Lord, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P183">183-185</A>; revenues
+under, <A HREF="#P191">191</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cornelissen, Jan, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cosby, William, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P190">190</A>, <A HREF="#P194">194-96</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+"Cosby's Manor," <A HREF="#P195">195</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Curtius, Alexander Carolus, <A HREF="#P101">101</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cuyler, Johannes, of Albany, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De Laet, Johan, <A HREF="#P11">11</A>, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De Lancey, James, supports Cosby, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>; Chief Justice, <A HREF="#P199">199</A>;
+Lieutenant-Governor, <A HREF="#P219">219</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De la Montagne, J. M., <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De la Noy, Peter, <A HREF="#P162">162</A>, <A HREF="#P169">169</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Delaware, Swedish colony in, <A HREF="#P127">127-28</A>; <I>see also</I> New Sweden
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Delaware Bay, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Delaware (or South) River, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De Neger, Jan, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De Peyster, Colonel Abraham, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+De Vries, Captain David, quoted, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; takes up territory on Delaware
+Bay, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; <I>bouwerie</I> of, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>; opinion of Van Twilier, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; head of
+committee of twelve, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; appearance, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>; treats with Indians, <A HREF="#P65">65-66</A>;
+account of building of church, <A HREF="#P92">92-93</A>; visits Governor Printz, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>;
+opinion of Eelkens incident, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Dongan, Colonel Thomas, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>, <A HREF="#P157">157</A>; instructed
+to suppress piracy, <A HREF="#P167">167</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Drisius, Domine Samuel, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+"Duke's Laws," <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Dutch East India Company, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Dutch West India Company, <A HREF="#P20">20-22</A>, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>, <A HREF="#P33">33-34</A>, <A HREF="#P38">38</A>, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Dyckman, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Earle, Mrs., overhears negroes plotting, <A HREF="#P212">212</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+East Indies, pirates in, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Education in New Netherland, <A HREF="#P93">93-101</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Eelkens, Jacob, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>, <A HREF="#P132">132-35</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Eendragt</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Elizabethtown declared a free port, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+England, war with Holland (1652), <A HREF="#P76">76-77</A>; treaty (1654), <A HREF="#P77">77</A>; sends fleet
+to New Netherland, <A HREF="#P79">79-82</A>; war with Holland (1672), <A HREF="#P142">142-43</A>; treaty
+(1674), <A HREF="#P143">143-44</A>; takes steps against buccaneers, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Esopus, Indian troubles at, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Evertsen, Admiral Cornells, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fenwick, land claimant in West Jersey, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Flatbush, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P165">165</A>; encourages
+piracy, <A HREF="#P165">165-66</A>; revenues under, <A HREF="#P191">191</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Flushing, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>; religious toleration in, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Food resources, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fordham Manor, <A HREF="#P140">140</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Fortune</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Francisco, John, one of the first negro slaves, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Franklin, Benjamin, at Albany congress, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Frederycke (Fredericksen), Kryn, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fur trade, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>, <A HREF="#P18">18-19</A>, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>, <A HREF="#P41">41</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gardiner's Island, Captain Kidd at, <A HREF="#P174">174</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Godyn, Samuel, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Good Hope</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P45">45-46</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Governor's Island, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, <I>Memoirs of an American Lady</I>, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>; on negro
+servitude in Albany, <A HREF="#P209">209</A>; describes Albany, <A HREF="#P219">219-220</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gravesend, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Griffin</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Griffis, W. E., defends Van Twiller, <A HREF="#P58">58-59</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gustavus Adolphus, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Half Moon</I>, The (<I>Halve Maene</I>) (ship), anchors in New York harbor,
+<A HREF="#P1">1-2</A>; description of, <A HREF="#P2">2-5</A>; effect on Indians, <A HREF="#P4">4-5</A>, <A HREF="#P7">7-10</A>; journeys up
+Hudson, <A HREF="#P10">10-12</A>; homeward course, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; Hudson's cabin, <A HREF="#P14">14</A>; puts to sea,
+<A HREF="#P15">15</A>; replica, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hamilton, Andrew, defends Zenger, <A HREF="#P200">200-05</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Harrison, Francis, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>, <A HREF="#P198">198</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hartford, Treaty of, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Heckwelder, Rev. John, Moravian missionary, account of arrival of <I>Half
+Moon</I>, <A HREF="#P7">7-9</A>, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hempstead, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Heyn, Peter, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hill, Rowland, quoted, <A HREF="#P114">114</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hobocan Hackingh, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hoboken, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hodgson, Robert, <A HREF="#P85">85</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Holland, <I>see</I> United Netherlands
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Holmes, Sir Robert, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Horsmanden, Judge, <A HREF="#P217">217</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Housatonic River discovered, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hudson, Captain Henry, explores Hudson River in <I>Half Moon</I>, <A HREF="#P1">1-16</A>;
+barters with Indians, <A HREF="#P4">4-5</A>, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>; entertains Indians, <A HREF="#P4">4-5</A>, <A HREF="#P8">8-10</A>, <A HREF="#P13">13-14</A>; at
+West Point, <A HREF="#P10">10-11</A>; Irving's description of, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>; fights with Indians,
+<A HREF="#P15">15</A>; held at Dartmouth, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hudson River, explored, <A HREF="#P1">1-16</A>; "the River of the Steep Hills," <A HREF="#P11">11</A>;
+called Mauritius, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>, <A HREF="#P132">132</A>; commerce on, <A HREF="#P28">28-29</A>; overflows, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>;
+pirates on, <A HREF="#P180">180</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hughson, tavern-keeper, <A HREF="#P213">213</A>, <A HREF="#P215">215-16</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hunter, Robert, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P186">186</A>; brings Palatines to New
+York, <A HREF="#P186">186-88</A>; resigns, <A HREF="#P189">189</A>; quoted, <A HREF="#P191">191</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hutchiuson, Anne, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Huyck, Jan, <A HREF="#P90">90</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Indians, effect of <I>Half Moon</I> on, <A HREF="#P4">4-5</A>, <A HREF="#P7">7-10</A>; attack Colman, <A HREF="#P6">6</A>;
+friendly at West Point, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>; on <I>Half Moon</I>, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>; attempt theft, <A HREF="#P14">14-15</A>;
+conflict with, <A HREF="#P15">15</A>, <A HREF="#P62">62-66</A>, <A HREF="#P74">74-75</A>; legal ceremony toward, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>; paid for
+lands, <A HREF="#P37">37-38</A>, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; servants of Minuit kill friendly Indian, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>; Kieft's
+troubles with, <A HREF="#P62">62-66</A>; attack New Amsterdam, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>; as neighbors of Dutch,
+<A HREF="#P124">124-26</A>; treaty signed on Norman's Kill, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>; friendship of the "Six
+Nations," <A HREF="#P218">218</A>; take warpath, <A HREF="#P219">219</A>; Sir William Johnson as friend of,
+<A HREF="#P226">226-27</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ingoldesby, Major Richard, <A HREF="#P161">161</A>, <A HREF="#P185">185-86</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Irving, Washington, <I>see</I> Knickerbocker, Diedrich
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+James, Duke of York and Albany, Lord Proprietor of New York, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>,
+<A HREF="#P144">144-45</A>; becomes King of England, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+James, Fort, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>; <I>see also</I> Amsterdam, Fort; Willem
+Hendrick, Fort
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Jogues, Isaac, Jesuit missionary, describes Rensselaerswyck, <A HREF="#P40">40-41</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Johnson, Sir William, at Albany congress, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>; formulates Indian
+policy, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>; born in Ireland, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>; described by his uncle, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>; life,
+<A HREF="#P222">222-24</A>; home, <A HREF="#P224">224-25</A>; hospitality, <A HREF="#P225">225-26</A>; in French and Indian War,
+<A HREF="#P227">227</A>; knighted, <A HREF="#P227">227</A>; appearance, <A HREF="#P227">227-28</A>; activities, <A HREF="#P228">228</A>; personal
+characteristics, <A HREF="#P228">228-29</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Johnson, Fort, <A HREF="#P224">224</A>, <A HREF="#P228">228</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Joris, Adriaen, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Juet, Robert, of Limehouse, quoted, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P9">9</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Kalm, Peter, describes courthouse at Albany, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Key of Kalmar</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P127">127</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Kidd, Captain William, <A HREF="#P170">170-179</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Kieft, William, succeeds Van Twiller, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>; as Governor of New
+Netherland, <A HREF="#P61">61-67</A>; character, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>; activities, <A HREF="#P61">61-62</A>; relations with
+Indians, <A HREF="#P62">62-66</A>; recalled (1647), <A HREF="#P66">66</A>; drowned, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>; Kuyter and Melyn
+against, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>; upheld by Stuyvesant, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>; opposed by Bogardus, <A HREF="#P89">89-90</A>;
+raises money for church, <A HREF="#P92">92-93</A>; letter to Minuit, <A HREF="#P127">127-128</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Knickerbocker, Diedrich (Irving), description of Henry Hudson, <A HREF="#P12">12</A>;
+description of Van Twiller, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>; quoted, <A HREF="#P121">121-122</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Knight, Sarah Kemble, quoted, <A HREF="#P206">206-07</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Krol, Sebastian, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56-57</A>, <A HREF="#P90">90</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Kuyter, Jochem Pietersen, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Labor in New Netherland, <A HREF="#P27">27</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Leisler, Jacob, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>; calls convention at Fort James, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>; appointed
+"Captain of the fort at New York...", <A HREF="#P153">153</A>; Catholics and aristocracy
+oppose, <A HREF="#P153">153-54</A>; temporary victory, <A HREF="#P154">154-55</A>; assumes title of
+Lieutenant-Governor, <A HREF="#P155">155</A>; demands recognition, <A HREF="#P155">155-56</A>; calls convention
+to discuss defense, <A HREF="#P156">156-57</A>; controversy about, <A HREF="#P157">157-60</A>; refuses
+surrender of fort, <A HREF="#P161">161-63</A>; finally yields, <A HREF="#P163">163</A>; sentenced to death,
+<A HREF="#P163">163-64</A>; attainder removed, <A HREF="#P164">164</A>; Bellomont causes reburial, <A HREF="#P181">181-82</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Little Fox</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Livingston, Robert, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>, <A HREF="#P155">155</A>, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>, <A HREF="#P186">186</A>, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Livingston Manor, <A HREF="#P48">48</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Long Island, SO; Dutch on, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; English on, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>, <A HREF="#P135">135-36</A>; becomes county
+of Yorkshire, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Loockermans, Govert, <A HREF="#P45">45-46</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lovelace, Colonel Francis, succeeds Nicolls as Governor of New York,
+<A HREF="#P139">139-40</A>; establishes first mail service, <A HREF="#P140">140-42</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lovelace, Lord, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P185">185</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Luyck, Ægidius, <A HREF="#P101">101</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Maasen, Cornelis, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Madagascar, meeting place for pirates and merchants, <A HREF="#P168">168-169</A>, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>; Kidd
+reaches, <A HREF="#P172">172</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Manhattan Island, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; Hudson leaves, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>; settlers in, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; purchased
+from Indians, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; reserved for Dutch West Indian Company, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>;
+surrendered to England, <A HREF="#P80">80-82</A>; life on, <A HREF="#P103">103</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+"Mannahattanik," <A HREF="#P9">9</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Manors in New York, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>, <A HREF="#P34">34-35</A>, <A HREF="#P47">47-49</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mauritius, (Hudson) River, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>, <A HREF="#P132">132</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Maverick, Samuel, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+May, Cornelis Jacobsen, of Hoorn, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>; first Director-General of New
+Netherland, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Meeuwken</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P52">52</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Megapolensis, Rev. Johannes, Jr., <A HREF="#P40">40</A>, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>, <A HREF="#P87">87-88</A>, <A HREF="#P90">90</A>, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Melyn, Cornelis, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Michaelius, Domine Jonas, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>, <A HREF="#P96">96-97</A>, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Middleburgh, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Milborne, Jacob, <A HREF="#P155">155-56</A>, <A HREF="#P162">162</A>, <A HREF="#P163">163</A>, <A HREF="#P181">181-82</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Minuit, Peter, Director-General of New Netherland, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P52">52</A>; recalled
+(1632), <A HREF="#P45">45</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>; buys Manhattan Island, <A HREF="#P53">53</A>; builds Fort Amsterdam, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>;
+preparations for war, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>; shipbuilding, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>; enters service of Sweden,
+<A HREF="#P56">56</A>, <A HREF="#P126">126-27</A>; establishes Swedish colony in Delaware, <A HREF="#P127">127-28</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Montgomerie, John, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P195">195</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Moore, William, <A HREF="#P172">172-73</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Morris, Lewis, Chief Justice, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Motley, J. L., quoted, <A HREF="#P30">30-31</A>, <A HREF="#P99">99</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Moussart, associate of Van Rensselaer, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Murray, John, <A HREF="#P212">212</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Myndertsen, Myndert, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nanfan, John, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P180">180</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Narragansett Bay, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nassau, Fort, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Navesink Heights, Hudson passes, <A HREF="#P1">1</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Neger, Jan de, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Negroes, plot of 1712, <A HREF="#P210">210-11</A>; alleged plots of 1741, <A HREF="#P211">211-17</A>; <I>see
+also</I> Slavery
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Netherlands, <I>see</I> United Netherlands
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Amsterdam, established (1626), <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; growth of, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; "staple
+right" established at, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>; Indian troubles at, <A HREF="#P62">62-66</A>, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>; municipal
+rights given to, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>; in Stuyvesant's time, <A HREF="#P75">75-76</A>; fortification of, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>;
+church building in, <A HREF="#P91">91-93</A>; in seventeenth century, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>, <A HREF="#P103">103</A>;
+development of, <A HREF="#P104">104-06</A>; class distinction in, <A HREF="#P107">107-08</A> (note); becomes
+New York, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>; <I>see also</I> New York City
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Castle (Del.), <A HREF="#P130">130</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Gottenburg, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Jersey, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>; granted to Berkeley and Carteret, <A HREF="#P145">145-46</A>; enters "the
+Dominion of New England," <A HREF="#P149">149</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Netherland, Dutch claim, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>; commerce, <A HREF="#P18">18-19</A>; New Netherland
+Company, <A HREF="#P19">19-20</A>; Dutch West India Company, <A HREF="#P20">20-22</A>, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>, <A HREF="#P33">33-34</A>;
+colonization, <A HREF="#P21">21-23</A>; settlers, <A HREF="#P23">23-24</A>; supplies from Holland, <A HREF="#P24">24-25</A>;
+slavery, <A HREF="#P25">25-27</A>; resources, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; patroonship, <A HREF="#P32">32-47</A>; "Privileges and
+Exemptions," <A HREF="#P33">33-35</A>; English take possession of (1664), <A HREF="#P47">47</A>; small
+proprietors in, <A HREF="#P49">49-50</A>; demands made to States General, <A HREF="#P72">72-73</A>;
+convention to consider defense, <A HREF="#P77">77-79</A>; <I>The Humble Remonstrance</I>, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>;
+becomes New York, <A HREF="#P82">82</A>; religion in, <A HREF="#P83">83-93</A>; religious liberty in, <A HREF="#P83">83-85</A>;
+religious tyranny, <A HREF="#P85">85-87</A>; education, <A HREF="#P93">93-101</A>; burghers in, <A HREF="#P102">102-22</A>;
+pioneer living conditions, <A HREF="#P103">103-04</A>; fire protection, <A HREF="#P104">104-05</A>; public
+sanitation, <A HREF="#P105">105</A>; improvement in living conditions, <A HREF="#P105">105-06</A>; "great
+burghers," <A HREF="#P107">107-08</A>; dress, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>; children, <A HREF="#P109">109-20</A>; holidays, <A HREF="#P114">114-18</A>;
+christenings, <A HREF="#P118">118</A>; spirit of mystery, <A HREF="#P120">120-21</A>; neighbors, <A HREF="#P123">123</A> <I>et seq.</I>;
+relations with New Sweden, <A HREF="#P128">128-31</A>; relations with English, <A HREF="#P131">131-36</A>;
+question of boundaries, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>; bibliography, <A HREF="#P231">231-33</A>; <I>see also</I> New York
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>New Netherland</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Netherland Company, <A HREF="#P19">19-20</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>New Netherland, The Representation of</I>, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Orange, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New Sweden, established, <A HREF="#P127">127-128</A>; relations with Dutch, <A HREF="#P128">128-131</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New York, government changed, <A HREF="#P137">137-38</A>; surrenders to Dutch (1674), <A HREF="#P143">143</A>;
+name changed to New Orange, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>; returned by treaty to English, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>;
+<I>Charter of Liberties and Privileges</I>, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>; becomes royal province,
+<A HREF="#P148">148</A>; enters "The Dominion of New England," <A HREF="#P149">149</A>; piracy, <A HREF="#P165">165-79</A>; <I>see
+also</I> New Netherland
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+New York City, market for pirates, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>; becomes cosmopolitan, <A HREF="#P206">206</A>; in
+1729, <A HREF="#P206">206-07</A>; public buildings, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>; luxury, <A HREF="#P207">207-08</A>; negro slaves,
+<A HREF="#P208">208-17</A>; bibliography, <A HREF="#P231">231-33</A>; <I>see also</I> New Amsterdam
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>New York Weekly Gazette</I>, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>New York Weekly Journal</I>, <A HREF="#P197">197-198</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nicholson, Francis, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P151">151-152</A>, <A HREF="#P157">157</A>;
+leaves for England, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>; imprisons pirates, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nicolls, Colonel Richard, expedition against New Netherland, <A HREF="#P80">80-81</A>;
+first English Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P137">137-138</A>, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>; warns against
+division of territory, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nicolls, William, <A HREF="#P159">159</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Nieu Nederlandt</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P22">22</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Nightingale</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nooten (Nut) Island, old name for Governor's Island, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Norman's Kill, treaty with Indians at, <A HREF="#P125">125</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nysen, Wolf, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Olfertsen treats with Indians, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Orange, Fort, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>; established, <A HREF="#P19">19</A>; colonists, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P40">40</A>; supplies
+brought up Hudson to, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>; in 1626, <A HREF="#P54">54</A>; Stuyvesant's orders
+concerning, <A HREF="#P71">71-72</A>; strengthened, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>; town on Hudson, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>; Eelkens lands
+near, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>; becomes Albany, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>; <I>see also</I> Albany
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Oxenstiern conducts government of Sweden, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Oxford, Earl of, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Palatines in New York, <A HREF="#P186">186-88</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Patroons, <A HREF="#P32">32</A> <I>et seq.</I>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pauw, Michiel, <A HREF="#P36">36-37</A>, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pavonia, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Philipse, Judge Adolphe, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>, <A HREF="#P199">199</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Philipse, Frederick, <A HREF="#P184">184</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Philipse Manor, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pietersen, Evert, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Piracy, <A HREF="#P165">165-79</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Portuguese, Anthony, one of the first negro slaves, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Postal service established, <A HREF="#P140">140-42</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Princess</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P66">66</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Printz, Johan, Governor of New Sweden, <A HREF="#P128">128-29</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Quakers, pay Indians for land, <A HREF="#P37">37-38</A>; Stuyvesant's dealings with, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>,
+<A HREF="#P85">85-86</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Quedagh Merchant</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P172">172</A>, <A HREF="#P174">174</A>, <A HREF="#P177">177</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rapaelje, Sarah, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>, <A HREF="#P109">109</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Raritan Indians, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Religion in New Netherland, <A HREF="#P83">83-93</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rensselaer's Stein (Castle Rensselaer), <A HREF="#P45">45</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rensselaerswyck, typical patroonship, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>; settlement, <A HREF="#P39">39-41</A>; life in,
+<A HREF="#P41">41-46</A>; library, <A HREF="#P42">42</A>; cost of living, <A HREF="#P42">42-43</A>; terms of leases, <A HREF="#P43">43-44</A>;
+hostility between patroon and tenants, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>; relation of patroon and
+Company, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>; Stuyvesant and, <A HREF="#P71">71-72</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roelantsen, Adam, <A HREF="#P94">94</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Romney, Earl of, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rondout, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rysing, Governor of New Sweden, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>St. John</I>, The (slaver), <A HREF="#P26">26</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+San Salvador, victory of Dutch over Spanish off (1627), <A HREF="#P55">55</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Schenectady, massacre at, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Schoharie, Palatines at, <A HREF="#P188">188</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Schuyler, Peter, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>, <A HREF="#P155">155</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Schuyler estate near Albany, <A HREF="#P48">48-49</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sewall, Samuel, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shipbuilding at New Amsterdam, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shrewsbury, Duke of, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Slavery, Dutch introduce, <A HREF="#P25">25-26</A>; treatment of slaves in New Netherland,
+<A HREF="#P26">26-27</A>; in New York, <A HREF="#P208">208-09</A>; ordinance regulating slaves (1684), <A HREF="#P209">209-10</A>;
+<I>see also</I> Negroes
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sleepy Hollow, church at, <A HREF="#P47">47-48</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sloughter, Colonel Henry, Governor of New York, <A HREF="#P160">160</A>, <A HREF="#P161">161</A>, <A HREF="#P162">162</A>, <A HREF="#P163">163</A>,
+<A HREF="#P165">165</A>, <A HREF="#P191">191</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Smith, William, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>, <A HREF="#P198">198-99</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Smits, Claes, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Somers, Lord Chancellor, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Soutbergh</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P57">57</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+South (now Delaware) River, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spain, truce with Holland, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>; plots against Holland, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>; defeat by
+Holland, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spuyten Duyvil, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Stanwix, Fort, Treaty of, <A HREF="#P228">228</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+"Staple right" at New Amsterdam, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Staten Island, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>, <A HREF="#P50">50</A>, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>; purchased by Pauw, <A HREF="#P39">39</A>; transferred to Melyn,
+<A HREF="#P39">39</A>; Indians attack, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>; becomes part of Yorkshire, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>; Dutch fleet
+off, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Steenwyck, Cornelis, <A HREF="#P139">139</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Stevensen, Jan, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Stony Point, <I>Half Moon</I> becalmed at, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Stuyvesant, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Stuyvesant, Petrus (Pieter), made Director-General, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>; appearance, <A HREF="#P67">67</A>;
+as Director-General, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>; upholds Kieft, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>; arraigned by burghers, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>;
+defense of, <A HREF="#P69">69-70</A>; character of, <A HREF="#P70">70-71</A>; contest with Van Slichtenhorst,
+<A HREF="#P71">71-72</A>; arbitrariness, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; opposes local self-government, <A HREF="#P72">72-73</A>;
+treatment of Indians, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>; warns Company of lack of defense, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>;
+treatment of Convention, <A HREF="#P77">77-79</A>; begs for reinforcements, <A HREF="#P79">79</A>; surrenders
+to English, <A HREF="#P81">81-82</A>; religious tyranny under, <A HREF="#P85">85-87</A>; builds Fort Casimir,
+<A HREF="#P130">130</A>; tries to settle boundary disputes, <A HREF="#P136">136</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Swannendael, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sweden, plans expedition to New World, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>; entrance into Thirty Years'
+War, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>; establishes colony in America, <A HREF="#P127">127-28</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tarrytown, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tew, Thomas, <A HREF="#P166">166-67</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Thirty Years' War, <A HREF="#P83">83</A>, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tienpont, associate of May, <A HREF="#P61">61</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>Tiger</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P18">18</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Trevor, Captain of the <I>William</I>, <A HREF="#P132">132</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Trinity Church founded, <A HREF="#P165">165</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ulster refuses to send delegates to Fort James, <A HREF="#P153">153</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+United Netherlands, gains foothold in America, <A HREF="#P2">2</A>, <A HREF="#P17">17</A>; colonists from,
+<A HREF="#P22">22-29</A>; relations with Spain, <A HREF="#P30">30</A>, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>; character of people, <A HREF="#P30">30-31</A>;
+relations with England, <A HREF="#P76">76-77</A>, <A HREF="#P79">79-82</A>; takes possession of New York in
+1674, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>; <I>see also</I> New Netherland
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Usselinx, William, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Buren, A. H., cited, <A HREF="#P23">23</A> (note)
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Cortlandt, Stephanus, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Cortlandt Manor, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Curler, Arendt, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Dam, Rip, <A HREF="#P195">195-97</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van der Donck, Adrian, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>; <I>Representation</I>, <A HREF="#P68">68</A>, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Dyck, Hendrick, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Hoboocken, Harmanus, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>; <I>Reverential Request</I>, <A HREF="#P100">100</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Rensselaer, Jan, <A HREF="#P43">43</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, system of patroonship suggested by, <A HREF="#P32">32-33</A>;
+establishes Rensselaerswyck, <A HREF="#P39">39-40</A>; born (1580), <A HREF="#P59">59</A> (note)
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Rensselaer, Maria, <A HREF="#P59">59</A> (note)
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Slichtenhorst, Brandt, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Tienhoven, Cornelis, <A HREF="#P69">69-70</A>, <A HREF="#P103">103</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Twiller, Wouter, Governor of New Netherland, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>, <A HREF="#P56">56</A>, <A HREF="#P57">57-61</A>; nephew
+of Van Rensselaer, <A HREF="#P45">45</A>, <A HREF="#P59">59</A> (note); De Vries's opinion of, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; Irving's
+description of, <A HREF="#P58">58</A>; Griffis defends, <A HREF="#P58">58-59</A>; birth, <A HREF="#P59">59</A> (note); lavish
+expenditure of, <A HREF="#P59">59-60</A>; Eelkens incident, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>, <A HREF="#P132">132-35</A>; recalled, <A HREF="#P60">60</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Van Wassenaer, Nicholas Janszoon, account of shipment of live stock,
+<A HREF="#P24">24</A>; of colony under Minuit, <A HREF="#P52">52-53</A>; of settlement of Fort Orange, <A HREF="#P53">53-54</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Verhulst, William, Director-General of New Netherland (1625-1626), <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Verhulsten Island, <A HREF="#P51">51</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Verrazano visits Hudson River region, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Verstius (Vestens), William, <A HREF="#P95">95</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Walloons, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>, <A HREF="#P97">97</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Warren, Anne, mother of Sir William Johnson, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Warren, Captain Peter, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Warrensbush, <A HREF="#P222">222</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Weckquaesgeecks, <A HREF="#P55">55</A>, <A HREF="#P63">63-66</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wendell, Captain, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Westchester, New Englanders in, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>; becomes part of Yorkshire, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+West Point, Hudson reaches, <A HREF="#P10">10</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Willem Hendrick, Fort, <A HREF="#P143">143</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+William of Orange and Mary, sovereigns of England, <A HREF="#P149">149</A> <I>et seq.</I>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+<I>William</I>, The (ship), <A HREF="#P132">132</A>, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>, <A HREF="#P135">135</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wiltwyck, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wisenberg, Catherine, wife of Sir William Johnson, <A HREF="#P223">223</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Yorkshire, <A HREF="#P138">138</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Zenger, John Peter, apprentice to Bradford, <A HREF="#P193">193</A>; collects subscription
+for playing organ, <A HREF="#P193">193-94</A>; publisher of <I>New York Weekly Journal</I>, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>;
+arrested for libel, <A HREF="#P198">198</A>; trial, <A HREF="#P199">199-205</A>
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<HR>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap17"></A>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+AN OUTLINE OF THE PLAN OF <BR>THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA
+</H3>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The fifty titles of the Series fall into eight topical sequences or
+groups, each with a dominant theme of its own&mdash;
+</P>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+I.  <I>The Morning of America</I>
+<BR>
+TIME: 1492-1763
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The theme of the first sequence is the struggle of nations for the
+possession of the New World.  The mariners of four European
+kingdoms&mdash;Spain, Portugal, France, and England&mdash;are intent upon the
+discovery of a new route to Asia.  They come upon the American
+continent which blocks the way.  Spain plants colonies in the south,
+lured by gold.  France, in pursuit of the fur trade, plants colonies in
+the north.  Englishmen, in search of homes and of a wider freedom,
+occupy the Atlantic seaboard.  These Englishmen come in time to need
+the land into which the French have penetrated by way of the St.
+Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and a mighty struggle between the two
+nations takes place in the wilderness, ending in the expulsion of the
+French.  This sequence comprises ten volumes:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">1. THE RED MAN'S CONTINENT, by Ellsworth Huntington</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">2. THE SPANISH CONQUERORS, by Irving Berdine Richman</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">3. ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS, by William Wood</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">4. CRUSADERS OF NEW FRANCE, by William Bennett Munro</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">5. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTH, by Mary Johnston</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">6. THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND, by Charles M. Andrews</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">7. DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON, by Maud Wilder Goodwin</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">8. THE QUAKER COLONIES, by Sydney G. Fisher</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 0.5em">9. COLONIAL FOLKWAYS, by Charles M. Andrews</SPAN><BR>
+10. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE, by George M. Wrong<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+II.  <I>The Winning of Independence</I>
+<BR>
+TIME: 1763-1815
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The French peril has passed, and the great territory between the
+Alleghanies and the Mississippi is now open to the Englishmen on the
+seaboard, with no enemy to contest their right of way except the
+Indian.  But the question arises whether these Englishmen in the New
+World shall submit to political dictation from the King and Parliament
+of England.  To decide this question the War of the Revolution is
+fought; the Union is born: and the second war with England follows.
+Seven volumes:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+11. THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION, by Carl Becker<BR>
+12. WASHINGTON AND HIS COMRADES IN ARMS, by George M. Wrong<BR>
+13. THE FATHERS OF THE CONSTITUTION, by Max Farrand<BR>
+14. WASHINGTON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Henry Jones Ford<BR>
+15. JEFFERSON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Allen Johnson<BR>
+16. JOHN MARSHALL AND THE CONSTITUTION, by Edward S. Corwin<BR>
+17. THE FIGHT FOR A FREE SEA, by Ralph D. Paine<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+III.  <I>The Vision of the West</I>
+<BR>
+TIME: 1750-1890
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The theme of the third sequence is the American frontier&mdash;the conquest
+of the continent from the Alleghanies to the Pacific Ocean.  The story
+covers nearly a century and a half, from the first crossing of the
+Alleghanies by the backwoodsmen of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the
+Carolinas (about 1750) to the heyday of the cowboy on the Great Plains
+in the latter part of the nineteenth century.  This is the marvelous
+tale of the greatest migrations in history, told in nine volumes as
+follows:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+18. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTHWEST, by Constance Lindsay Skinner<BR>
+19. THE OLD NORTHWEST, by Frederic Austin Ogg<BR>
+20. THE REIGN OF ANDREW JACKSON, by Frederic Austin Ogg<BR>
+21. THE PATHS OF INLAND COMMERCE, by Archer B. Hulbert<BR>
+22. ADVENTURERS OF OREGON, by Constance Lindsay Skinner<BR>
+23. THE SPANISH BORDERLANDS, by Herbert E. Bolton<BR>
+24. TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson<BR>
+25. THE FORTY-NINERS, by Stewart Edward White<BR>
+26. THE PASSING OF THE FRONTIER, by Emerson Hough<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+IV.  <I>The Storm of Secession</I>
+<BR>
+TIME: 1830-1876
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The curtain rises on the gathering storm of secession.  The theme of
+the fourth sequence is the preservation of the Union, which carries
+with it the extermination of slavery.  Six volumes as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+27. THE COTTON KINGDOM, by William E. Dodd<BR>
+28. THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, by Jesse Macy<BR>
+29. ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE UNION, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson<BR>
+30. THE DAY OF THE CONFEDERACY, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson<BR>
+31. CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR, by William Wood<BR>
+32. THE SEQUEL OF APPOMATTOX, by Walter Lynwood Fleming<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+V.  <I>The Intellectual Life</I>
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Two volumes follow on the higher national life, telling of the nation's
+great teachers and interpreters:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+33. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN EDUCATION, by Edwin E. Slosson<BR>
+34. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN LITERATURE, by Bliss Perry<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+VI.  <I>The Epic of Commerce and Industry</I>
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The sixth sequence is devoted to the romance of industry and business,
+and the dominant theme is the transformation caused by the inflow of
+immigrants and the development and utilization of mechanics on a great
+scale.  The long age of muscular power has passed, and the era of
+mechanical power has brought with it a new kind of civilization.  Eight
+volumes:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+35. OUR FOREIGNERS, by Samuel P. Orth<BR>
+36. THE OLD MERCHANT MARINE, by Ralph D. Paine<BR>
+37. THE AGE OF INVENTION, by Holland Thompson<BR>
+38. THE RAILROAD BUILDERS, by John Moody<BR>
+39. THE AGE OF BIG BUSINESS, by Burton J. Hendrick<BR>
+40. THE ARMIES OF LABOR, by Samuel P. Orth<BR>
+41. THE MASTERS OF CAPITAL, by John Moody<BR>
+42. THE NEW SOUTH, by Holland Thompson<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+VII.  <I>The Era of World Power</I>
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The seventh sequence carries on the story of government and diplomacy
+and political expansion from the Reconstruction (1876) to the present
+day, in six volumes:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+43. THE BOSS AND THE MACHINE, by Samuel P. Orth<BR>
+44. THE CLEVELAND ERA, by Henry Jones Ford<BR>
+45. THE AGRARIAN CRUSADE, by Solon J. Buck<BR>
+46. THE PATH OF EMPIRE, by Carl Russell Fish<BR>
+47. THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND HIS TIMES, by Harold Howland<BR>
+48. WOODROW WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR, by Charles Seymour<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+VIII.  <I>Our Neighbors</I>
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Now to round out the story of the continent, the Hispanic peoples on
+the south and the Canadians on the north are taken up where they were
+dropped further back in the Series, and these peoples are followed down
+to the present day:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+49. THE CANADIAN DOMINION, by Oscar D. Skelton<BR>
+50. THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD, by William R. Shepherd<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+<I>The Chronicles of America</I> is thus a great synthesis, giving a new
+projection and a new interpretation of American History.  These
+narratives are works of real scholarship, for every one is written
+after an exhaustive examination of the sources.  Many of them contain
+new facts; some of them&mdash;such as those by Howland, Seymour, and
+Hough&mdash;are founded on intimate personal knowledge.  But the originality
+of the Series lies, not chiefly in new facts, but rather in new ideas
+and new combinations of old facts.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+The General Editor of the Series is Dr. Allen Johnson, Chairman of the
+Department of History of Yale University, and the entire work has been
+planned, prepared, and published under the control of the Council's
+Committee on Publications of Yale University.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS<BR>
+</H3>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+143 ELM STREET, NEW HAVEN<BR>
+522 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK<BR>
+</H4>
+
+<BR><BR><BR><BR>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dutch and English on the Hudson, by 
+Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Dutch and English on the Hudson, by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Dutch and English on the Hudson
+       A Chronicle of Colonial New York
+
+Author: Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
+Illustrator: C. W. Jefferys
+
+Release Date: January 15, 2011 [EBook #34977]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+ROOSEVELT EDITION
+
+
+VOLUME 7
+
+THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA SERIES
+
+  ALLEN JOHNSON
+  EDITOR
+
+
+  GERHARD H. LOMER
+  CHARLES W. JEFFERYS
+  ASSISTANT EDITORS
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+[Frontispiece: LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650.  From the painting by C. W.
+Jefferys]
+
+
+
+
+
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+
+
+A CHRONICLE OF COLONIAL NEW YORK
+
+
+BY MAUD WILDER GOODWIN
+
+
+
+
+NEW HAVEN: YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+TORONTO: GLASGOW, BROOK & CO.
+
+LONDON: HUMPHREY MILFORD
+
+OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+1921
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright, 1919, by Yale University Press_
+
+
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+    I.  UP THE GREAT RIVER                                   Page   1
+   II.  TRADERS AND SETTLERS                                   "   17
+  III.  PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR                        "   32
+   IV.  THE DIRECTORS                                          "   51
+    V.  DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS                            "   83
+   VI.  THE BURGHERS                                           "  102
+  VII.  THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND                        "  123
+ VIII.  THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS                            "  137
+   IX.  LEISLER                                                "  150
+    X.  PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES                                 "  165
+   XI.  COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY          "  180
+  XII.  THE ZENGER TRIAL                                       "  193
+ XIII.  THE NEGRO PLOTS                                        "  206
+  XIV.  SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON                                    "  218
+        BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE                                   "  231
+        INDEX                                                  "  235
+
+
+
+
+{ix}
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+LOWER BROADWAY IN 1650
+  From the painting by C. W. Jefferys.      _Frontispiece_
+
+THE HUDSON RIVER REGION, 1609-1770
+  Map by W. L. G. Joerg, American
+  Geographical Society.                     _Facing page 12_
+
+
+
+
+{1}
+
+DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+UP THE GREAT RIVER
+
+Geography is the maker of history.  The course of Dutch settlement in
+America was predetermined by a river which runs its length of a hundred
+and fifty miles from the mountains to the sea through the heart of a
+fertile country and which offers a natural highway for transportation
+of merchandise and for communication between colonies.  No man,
+however, could foresee the development of the Empire State when, on
+that memorable September day in 1609, a small Dutch yacht named the
+_Halve Maene_ or _Half Moon_, under the command of Captain Henry
+Hudson, slipped in past the low hook of sand in front of the Navesink
+Heights, and sounded her way to an {2} anchorage in what is now the
+outer harbor of New York.
+
+Robert Juet of Limehouse, one of the adventurers sailing with Hudson,
+writes in his journal:
+
+
+At three of the clock in the afternoone we came to three great rivers,
+so we stood along to the northermost, thinking to have gone into it;
+but we found it to have a very shoald barre before it, for we had but
+ten foot water; then wee cast about to the southward and found two
+fathoms, three fathoms, and three and a quarter, till we came to the
+souther side of them; then we had five and sixe fathoms and anchored.
+So wee sent in our boate to sound and they found no lesse water than
+foure, five, six, and seven fathoms and returned in an hour and a half.
+So wee weighed and went in and rode in five fathoms, oozie ground, and
+saw many salmons, mullets and rayes very great.
+
+
+So quietly is chronicled one of the epoch-making events of history, an
+event which opened a rich territory and gave to the United Netherlands
+their foothold in the New World, where Spain, France, and England had
+already established their claims.  Let us try to call to our minds the
+picture of the _Half Moon_ as she lies there in harbor, a quaint,
+clumsily built boat of forty lasts, or eighty tons, burden.  From her
+bow projects a beakhead, a sort of gallery, painted and carved, and
+used as a {3} place of rest or of punishment for the sailors.  At the
+tip of the beakhead is the figurehead, a red lion with a golden mane.
+The ship's bow is green, with ornaments of sailors' heads painted red
+and yellow.  Both forecastle and poop are high, the latter painted a
+blue mottled with white clouds.  The stern below is rich in color and
+carving.  Its upper panels show a blue ground picked out with stars and
+set in it a crescent holding a profile of the traditional Man in the
+Moon.  The panel below bears the arms of the City of Amsterdam and the
+letters V.O.C. forming the monogram of the Dutch East India
+Company--Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie.
+
+Five carved heads uphold the stern, above which hangs one of those
+ornate lanterns which the Dutch love so well.  To add to all this
+wealth of color, flags are flying from every masthead.  At the foretop
+flutters the tricolor of red, white, and black, with the arms of
+Amsterdam in a field of white.  At the maintop flames the flag of the
+seven provinces of the Netherlands, emblazoned with a red lion rampant,
+bearing in his paws a sword and seven arrows.  The bowsprit bears a
+small flag of orange, white, and blue, while from the stern flies the
+Dutch East India Company's {4} special banner.  It is no wonder that
+such an apparition causes the simple natives ashore to believe first
+that some marvelous bird has swept in from the sea, and then that a
+mysterious messenger from the Great Spirit has appeared in all his
+celestial robes.
+
+If Hudson's object had been stage-setting for the benefit of the
+natives, he could not have arranged his effects better.  The next day,
+when the ship had moved to a good harbor, the people of the country
+were allowed to come aboard to barter "greene Tabacco" for knives and
+beads.  Hudson probably thought that the savages might learn a lesson
+in regard to the power of the newcomers by an inspection of the
+interior of the ship.  The cannon which protruded their black noses
+amidships held their threat of destruction even when they were not
+belching thunder and lightning.  The forecastle with its neatly
+arranged berths must have seemed a strange contrast to the bare ground
+on which the savages were accustomed to sleep, and the brightness of
+polished and engraved brass tablets caught the untutored eyes which
+could not decipher the inscriptions.  There were three of these
+tablets, the mottoes of which, being translated, read: _Honor thy
+father and thy mother_!  _Do {5} not fight without cause_!  _Good
+advice makes the wheels run smoothly_!
+
+Perhaps the thing which interested the Indians most was the great
+wooden block fastened to the deck behind the mainmast.  This strange
+object was fashioned in the shape of a man's head, and through it
+passed the ropes used to hoist the yards.  It was called sometimes "the
+silent servant," sometimes "the knighthead."  To the Indians it must
+have seemed the final touch of necromancy, and they were prepared to
+bow down in awe before a race of beings who could thus make blocks of
+wood serve them.
+
+Trusting, no doubt, to the impression which he had made on the minds of
+the natives, Hudson decided to go ashore.  The Indians crowded around
+him and "sang in their fashion"--a motley horde, as strange to the
+ship's crew as the _Half Moon_ and its company seemed marvelous to the
+aborigines.  Men, women, and children, dressed in fur or tricked out
+with feathers, stood about or floated in their boats hewn from solid
+logs, the men carrying pipes of red copper in which they smoked that
+precious product, tobacco--the consolation prize offered by the New
+World to the Old in lieu of the hoped-for passage to Cathay.
+
+{6}
+
+Everything seemed to breathe assurance of peaceful relations between
+the red man and the white; but if the newcomers did not at the moment
+realize the nature of the Indians, their eyes were opened to
+possibilities of treachery by the happenings of the next day.  John
+Colman and a boat's crew were sent out to take further soundings before
+the _Half Moon_ should proceed on her journey.  As the boat was
+returning to report a safe course ahead, the crew, only five in number,
+were set upon by two war-canoes filled with Indians, whose volley of
+arrows struck terror to their hearts.  Colman was mortally wounded in
+the throat by an arrow, and two of his companions were seriously,
+though not fatally, hurt.  Keeping up a running fight, the survivors
+escaped under cover of darkness.  During the night, as they crouched
+with their dead comrade in the boat, the sailors must have thought the
+minutes hours and the hours days.  To add to their discomfort rain was
+falling, and they drifted forlornly at the mercy of the current.  When
+at last dawn came, they could make out the ship at a great distance;
+but it was ten o'clock in the morning before they reached her safe
+shelter.  So ended the brief dream of ideal friendship and confidence
+between the red men and the whites.
+
+{7}
+
+After Colman had been buried in a grave by the side of the beautiful
+sheet of water which he had known for so short a time, the _Half Moon_
+worked her way cautiously from the Lower Bay through the Narrows to the
+inner harbor and reached the tip of the island which stands at its
+head.  What is now a bewildering mass of towers and palaces of
+industry, looking down upon a far-extended fleet of steam and sailing
+vessels, was then a point, wooded to the water's edge, with a scattered
+Indian village nestling among the trees.
+
+A Moravian missionary, writing at the beginning of the nineteenth
+century, set down an account from the red man's point of view of the
+arrival of the _Half Moon_.  This account he claimed to have received
+from old Indians who held it as part of their tribal traditions.  As
+such it is worth noting and quoting, although as history it is of more
+than doubtful authenticity.  The tradition runs that the chiefs of the
+different tribes on sighting the _Half Moon_ supposed it to be a
+supernatural visitor and assembled on "York Island" to deliberate on
+the manner in which they should receive this Manito on his arrival.
+Plenty of meat was provided for a sacrifice, a grand dance was
+arranged, and the medicine-men were set to work to determine the {8}
+meaning of this phenomenon.  The runners sent out to observe and report
+declared it certain that it was the Great Manito, "but other runners
+soon after arriving, declare it a large house of various colors, full
+of people yet of quite a different color than they [the Indians] are
+of.  That they were also dressed in a different manner from them and
+that one in particular appeared altogether red, which must be the
+Mannitto himself."
+
+The strange craft stopped and a smaller boat drew near.  While some
+stayed behind to guard the boat, the red-clothed man with two others
+advanced into a large circle formed by the Indian chiefs and wise men.
+He saluted them and they returned the salute.
+
+
+A large hock-hack [Indian for gourd or bottle] is brought forward by
+the supposed Mannitto's servants and from this a substance is poured
+out into a small cup or glass and handed to the Mannitto.  The expected
+Mannitto drinks, has the glass filled again and hands it to the chief
+next him to drink.  The chief receives the glass but only smelleth at
+it and passes it on to the next chief who does the same.  The glass
+then passes through the circle without the contents being tasted by
+anyone, and is upon the point of being returned again to the
+red-clothed man when one of their number, a spirited man and a great
+warrior jumps up and harangues the assembly on the impropriety of
+returning the glass with {9} the contents in it--that the same was
+handed them by the Mannitto in order that they should drink it as he
+himself had done before them--that this would please him; but that to
+return it might provoke him and be the cause of their being destroyed
+by him.  He then took the glass and bidding the assembly a farewell,
+drank it up.  Every eye was fixed on their resolute companion to see
+what an effect this would have upon him and he soon beginning to
+stagger about and at last dropping to the ground they bemoan him.  He
+falls into a sleep and they saw him as expiring.  He awakes again,
+jumps up and declares that he never felt himself before so happy as
+after he had drank the cup.  Wishes for more.  His wish is granted and
+the whole assembly soon join him and become intoxicated.
+
+
+The Delawares, as the missionary points out further, call New York
+Island "Mannahattanik," "the place where we were all drunk."  With this
+picturesque account let us contrast the curt statement of Robert Juet:
+"This morning at our first rode in the River there came eight and
+twenty canoes full of men, women and children to betray us; but we saw
+their intent and suffered none of them to come aboord of us.  At twelve
+of the clocke they departed.  They brought with them oysters and beanes
+whereof we bought some."  If there had been any such striking scene as
+the missionary's chronicle reports, Juet would probably {10} have
+recorded it; but in addition to his silence in the matter we must
+recall the fact that this love-feast is supposed to have occurred only
+a few days after the killing of Colman and the return of the
+terror-stricken crew.  This makes it seem extremely improbable that
+Hudson would have taken the risk of going ashore among hostile natives
+and proffering the hospitalities which had been so ill requited on his
+previous landing.  Let us therefore pass by the Reverend John
+Heckwelder's account as "well found, but not well founded," and
+continue to follow the cruise of the _Half Moon_ up the great river.
+
+The days now were fair and warm, and Hudson, looking around him when
+the autumn sun had swept away the haze from the face of the water,
+declared it as fair a land as could be trodden by the foot of man.  He
+left Manhattan Island behind, passed the site of Yonkers, and was
+carried by a southeasterly wind beyond the Highlands till he reached
+what is now West Point.  In this region of the Catskills the Dutch
+found the natives friendly, and, having apparently recovered from their
+first suspicious attitude, the explorers began to open barter and
+exchange with such as wished to come aboard.  On at least one occasion
+Hudson {11} himself went ashore.  The early Dutch writer, De Laet, who
+used Hudson's last journal, quotes at length Hudson's description of
+this landing, and the quotation, if genuine, is probably the longest
+description of his travels that we have from the pen of the great
+navigator.  He says that he sailed to the shore in one of their canoes,
+with an old man who was chief of a tribe.  There he found a house of
+oak bark, circular in shape, apparently well built, and with an arched
+roof.
+
+
+On our coming near the house, two mats were spread to sit upon and
+immediately some food was served in well-made red wooden bowls; two men
+were also dispatched at once with bows and arrows in quest of game, who
+soon after brought a pair of pigeons which they had shot.  They
+likewise killed at once a fat dog and skinned it in great haste, with
+shells which they get out of the water....  The natives are a very good
+people, for when they saw that I would not remain, they supposed that I
+was afraid of their bows, and taking the arrows they broke them in
+pieces and threw them into the fire.
+
+
+So the _Half Moon_ drifted along "_the River of the Steep Hills_,"
+through the golden autumnal weather, now under frowning cliffs, now
+skirting low sloping shores and fertile valleys, till at length the
+shoaling water warned Hudson that he could not penetrate much farther.
+He knew now that he had failed to {12} find the northwest passage to
+Cathay which had been the object of his expedition; but he had explored
+one of the world's noblest rivers from its mouth to the head of its
+navigable waters.
+
+It is a matter of regret to all students that so little is known of
+this great adventurer.  Sober history tells us that no authentic
+portrait of him is extant; but I like to figure him to myself as drawn
+by that mythical chronicler, Diedrich Knickerbocker, who was always
+ready to help out fact with fiction and both with humor.  He pictures
+Henry Hudson as "a short, brawny old gentleman with a double chin, a
+mastiff mouth and a broad copper nose which was supposed in those days
+to have acquired its fiery hue from the constant neighborhood of his
+tobacco pipe.  He wore a true Andrea Ferrara, tucked in a leathern
+belt, and a commodore's cocked hat on one side of his head.  He was
+remarkable for always jerking up his breeches when he gave his orders
+and his voice sounded not unlike the brattling of a tin trumpet, owing
+to the number of hard northwesters which he had swallowed in the course
+of his sea-faring."
+
+This account accords with our idea of this doughty navigator far better
+than the popular picture of the forlorn white-bearded old gentleman
+{13} amid the arctic ice-floes.  The cause of the fiery nose seems more
+likely to have been spirits than tobacco, for Hudson was well
+acquainted with the effects of strong waters.  At one stage of his
+journey he was responsible for an incident which may perhaps have given
+rise to the Indian legend of the mysterious potations attending the
+first landing of the white men.  Hudson invited certain native chiefs
+to the ship and so successfully plied them with brandy that they were
+completely intoxicated.  One fell asleep and was deserted by his
+comrades, who, however, returned next day and were rejoiced to find the
+victim professing great satisfaction over his experience.
+
+[Illustration: The Hudson River Region, 1609-1770]
+
+The ship had now reached the northernmost bounds of her exploration and
+anchored at a point not exactly determined but not far below Albany.
+Hudson sent an exploring boat a little farther, and on its return he
+put the helm of the _Half Moon_ about and headed the red lion with the
+golden mane southward.  On this homeward course, the adventurers met
+with even more exciting experiences than had marked their progress up
+the river.  At a place near the mouth of Haverstraw Bay at Stony Point
+the _Half Moon_ was becalmed and a party of Mountain Indians came off
+in canoes to {14} visit the ship.  Here they showed the cunning and the
+thieving propensities of which Hudson accused them, for while some
+engaged the attention of the crew on deck, one of their number ran his
+canoe under the stern and contrived to climb by the aid of the
+rudder-post into the cabin.
+
+To understand how this theft was carried out it is necessary to
+remember the build of the seventeenth century Dutch sailing-vessels in
+which the forecastle and poop rose high above the waist of the ship.
+In the poop were situated the cabins of the captain and the mate.  Of
+Hudson's cabin we have a detailed description.  Its height was five
+feet three inches.  It was provided with lockers, a berth, a table, and
+a bench with four divisions, a most desirable addition when the vessel
+lurched suddenly.  Under the berth were a box of books and a
+medicine-chest, besides such other equipment as a globe, a compass, a
+silver sun-dial, a cross staff, a brass tinder-box, pewter plates,
+spoons, a mortar and pestle, and the half-hour glass which marked the
+different watches on deck.
+
+Doubtless the savage intruder would have been glad to capture some of
+this rich booty; but it must have been the mate's cabin into which he
+stumbled, for he obtained only a pillow and a couple of shirts, {15}
+for which he sold his life.  The window in the stern projecting over
+the water was evidently standing open in order to admit the soft
+September air, and the Indian saw his chance.  Into this window he
+crept and from it started to make off with the stolen goods; but the
+mate saw the thief, shot, and killed him.  Then all was a scene of wild
+confusion.  The savages scattered from the ship, some taking to their
+canoes, some plunging into the river.  The small boat was sent in
+pursuit of the stolen goods, which were soon recovered; but, as the
+boat returned, a red hand reached up from the water to upset it,
+whereupon the ship's cook, seizing a sword, cut off the hand as it
+gripped the gunwale, and the wretched owner sank never to reappear.
+
+On the following day Hudson and his men came into conflict with more
+than a hundred savages, who let loose a flight of arrows.  But one of
+the ship's cannon was trained upon them, and one shot followed by a
+discharge of musketry quickly ended the battle.  The mariners thereupon
+made their way without molestation to the mouth of the river, whence
+they put to sea on a day in early October, only a month after their
+entrance into the bay.
+
+Hudson was destined never again to see the {16} country from which he
+set out on this quest, never again to enter the river which he had
+explored.  But he had achieved immortal fame for himself and had
+secured a new empire for the Netherlands.  The Cabots possibly, and
+Verrazano almost certainly, had visited the locality of "the Great
+River" before him; but Hudson was in the truest sense its discoverer,
+and history has accorded him his rights.  Today the replica of the
+_Half Moon_ lies in a quiet backwater of the Hudson River at the foot
+of Bear Mountain--stripped of her gilding, her sails, and her gay
+pennants.  She still makes a unique appeal to our imagination as we
+fancy the tiny original buffeting the ocean waves and feeling her way
+along uncharted waters to the head of navigation.  To see even the copy
+is to feel the thrill of adventure and to realize the boldness of those
+early mariners whom savages could not affright nor any form of danger
+daunt.[1]
+
+
+
+[1] For further details of the appearance of the _Half Moon_, see E. H.
+Hall's paper on _Henry Hudson and the Discovery of the Hudson River_,
+published by the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society
+(1910).
+
+
+
+
+{17}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+TRADERS AND SETTLERS
+
+As he was returning to Holland from his voyage to America, Hudson was
+held with his ship at the port of Dartmouth, on the ground that, being
+an Englishman by birth, he owed his services to his country.  He did
+not again reach the Netherlands, but he forwarded to the Dutch East
+India Company a report of his discoveries.  Immediately the enthusiasm
+of the Dutch was aroused by the prospect of a lucrative fur trade, as
+Spain had been set aflame by the first rumors of gold in Mexico and
+Peru; and the United Provinces, whose independence had just been
+acknowledged, thereupon laid claim to the new country.
+
+To a seafaring people like the Dutch, the ocean which lay between them
+and their American possessions had no terrors, and the twelve-year
+truce just concluded with Spain set free a vast energy to be applied to
+commerce and oversea {18} trading.  Within a year after the return of
+the _Half Moon_, Dutch merchants sent out a second ship, the crew of
+which included several sailors who had served under Hudson and of which
+the command was given, in all probability, to Hudson's former mate.
+The vessel was soon followed by the _Fortune_, the _Tiger_, the _Little
+Fox_, and the _Nightingale_.  By this time the procession of vessels
+plying between the Netherlands Old and New was fairly set in motion.
+But the aim of all these voyages was commerce rather than colonization.
+Shiploads of tobacco and furs were demanded by the promoters, and to
+obtain these traders and not farmers were needed.
+
+The chronicle of these years is melancholy reading for lovers of
+animals, for never before in the history of the continent was there
+such a wholesale, organized slaughter of the unoffending creatures of
+the forest.  Beavers were the greatest sufferers.  Their skins became a
+medium of currency, and some of the salaries in the early days of the
+colony were paid in so many "beavers."  The manifest of one cargo
+mentions 7246 beavers, 675 otters, 48 minks, and 36 wildcats.
+
+In establishing this fur trade with the savages, the newcomers
+primarily required trading-posts {19} guarded by forts.  Late in 1614
+or early in 1615, therefore, Fort Nassau was planted on a small island
+a little below the site of Albany.  Here the natives brought their
+peltries and the traders unpacked their stores of glittering trinkets,
+knives, and various implements of which the Indians had not yet learned
+the use.  In 1617 Fort Nassau was so badly damaged by a freshet that it
+was allowed to fall into ruin, and later a new stronghold and
+trading-post known as Fort Orange was set up where the city of Albany
+now stands.
+
+Meanwhile in 1614 the States-General of the United Netherlands had
+granted a charter to a company of merchants of the city of Amsterdam,
+authorizing their vessels "exclusively to visit and navigate" the newly
+discovered region lying in America between New France and Virginia, now
+first called New Netherland.  This monopoly was limited to four
+voyages, commencing on the first of January, 1615, or sooner.  If any
+one else traded in this territory, his ship and cargo were liable to
+confiscation and the owners were subject to a heavy fine to be paid to
+the New Netherland Company.  The Company was chartered for only three
+years, and at the expiration of the time a renewal of the charter was
+refused, although the {20} Company was licensed to trade in the
+territory from year to year.
+
+In 1621 this haphazard system was changed by the granting of a charter
+which superseded all private agreements and smaller enterprises by the
+incorporation of "that great armed commercial association," the Dutch
+West India Company.  By the terms of the charter the States-General
+engaged to secure to the Company freedom of traffic and navigation
+within prescribed limits, which included not only the coast and
+countries of Africa from the Tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope
+but also the coasts of America.  Within these vague and very extended
+bounds the Company was empowered to make contracts and alliances, to
+build forts, to establish government, to advance the peopling of
+fruitful and unsettled parts, and to "do all that the service of those
+countries and the profit and increase of trade shall require."
+
+For these services the States-General agreed to grant a subsidy of a
+million guilders, or about half a million dollars, "provided that we
+with half the aforesaid million of guilders, shall receive and bear
+profit and risk in the same manner as the other members of this
+Company."  In case of war, which {21} was far from improbable at this
+time, when the twelve years' truce with Spain was at an end, the
+Company was to be assisted, if the situation of the country would in
+any wise admit of it, "with sixteen warships and four yachts, fully
+armed and equipped, properly mounted, and provided in all respects both
+with brass and other cannon and a proper quantity of ammunition,
+together with double suits of running and standing rigging, sails,
+cables, anchors, and other things thereto belonging, such as are proper
+to be used in all great expeditions."  These ships were to be manned,
+victualed, and maintained at the expense of the Company, which in its
+turn was to contribute and maintain sixteen like ships of war and four
+yachts.
+
+The object of forming this great company with almost unlimited power
+was twofold, at once political and commercial.  Its creators planned
+the summoning of additional military resources to confront the hostile
+power of Spain and also the more thorough colonization and development
+of New Netherland.  In these purposes they were giving expression to
+the motto of the House of Nassau: "I will maintain."
+
+Two years elapsed between the promulgation of the charter and the first
+active operations of the {22} West India Company; but throughout this
+period the air was electric with plans for occupying and settling the
+new land beyond the sea.  Finally in March, 1623, the ship _Nieu
+Nederlandt_ sailed for the colony whose name it bore, under the command
+of Cornelis Jacobsen May, of Hoorn, the first Director-General.  With
+him embarked some thirty families of Walloons, who were descendants of
+Protestant refugees from the southern provinces of the Netherlands,
+which, being in general attached to the Roman Catholic Church, had
+declined to join the confederation of northern provinces in 1579.
+Sturdy and industrious artisans of vigorous Protestant stock, the
+Walloons were a valuable element in the colonization of New Nether
+land.  After a two months' voyage the ship _Nieu Nederlandt_ reached
+the mouth of the Hudson, then called the Mauritius in honor of the
+Stadholder, Prince Maurice, and the leaders began at once to distribute
+settlers with a view to covering as much country as was defensible.
+Some were left in Manhattan, several families were sent to the South
+River, now the Delaware, others to Fresh River, later called the
+Connecticut, and others to the western shore of Long Island.  The
+remaining colonists, led by Adriaen Joris, voyaged up the {23} length
+of the Mauritius, landed at Fort Orange, and made their home there.
+Thus the era of settlement as distinguished from trade had begun.
+
+The description of the first settlers at Wiltwyck, on the western shore
+of the great river, may be applied to all the pioneer Dutch colonists.
+"Most of them could neither read nor write.  They were a wild, uncouth,
+rough, and most of the time a drunken crowd.  They lived in small log
+huts, thatched with straw.  They wore rough clothes, and in the winter
+were dressed in skins.  They subsisted on a little corn, game, and
+fish.  They were afraid of neither man, God, nor the Devil.  They were
+laying deep the foundation of the Empire State."[1]
+
+The costume of the wife of a typical settler usually consisted of a
+single garment, reaching from neck to ankles.  In the summer time she
+went bareheaded and barefooted.  She was rough, coarse, ignorant,
+uncultivated.  She helped her husband to build their log hut, to plant
+his grain, and to gather his crops.  If Indians appeared in her
+husband's absence, she grasped the rifle, gathered her children about
+her, and with a {24} dauntless courage defended them even unto death.
+This may not be a romantic presentation of the forefathers and
+foremothers of the State, but it bears the marks of truth and shows us
+a stalwart race strong to hold their own in the struggle for existence
+and in the establishment of a permanent community.
+
+From the time of the founding of settlements, outward-bound ships from
+the Netherlands brought supplies for the colonists and carried back
+cargoes of furs, tobacco, and maize.  In April, 1625, there was shipped
+to the new settlements a valuable load made up of one hundred and three
+head of live stock--stallions, mares, bulls, and cows--besides hogs and
+sheep, all distributed in two ships with a third vessel as convoy.  The
+chronicler, Nicholaes Janszoon Van Wassenaer, gives a detailed account
+of their disposal which illustrates the traditional Dutch orderliness
+and cleanliness.  He tells us that each animal had its own stall, and
+that the floor of each stall was covered with three feet of sand, which
+served as ballast for the ship.  Each animal also had its respective
+servant, who knew what his reward was to be if he delivered his charge
+alive.  Beneath the cattle-deck were stowed three hundred tuns of {25}
+fresh water, which was pumped up for the live stock.  In addition to
+the load of cattle, the ship carried agricultural implements and "all
+furniture proper for the dairy," as well as a number of settlers.
+
+The year 1625 marked an important event, the birth of a little daughter
+in the household of Jan Joris Rapaelje, the "first-born Christian
+daughter in New Netherland."  Her advent was followed by the appearance
+of a steadily increasing group of native citizens, and Dutch cradles
+multiplied in the cabins of the various settlements from Fort Orange to
+New Amsterdam.  The latter place was established as a fortified post
+and the seat of government for the colony in 1626 by Peter Minuit, the
+third Director-General, who in this year purchased Manhattan Island
+from the Indians.
+
+The colony was now thriving, with the whole settlement "bravely
+advanced" and grain growing as high as a man.  But across this bright
+picture fell the dark shadow of negro slavery, which, it is said, the
+Dutch were the first to introduce upon the mainland of North America in
+1625 or 1626.  Among the first slaves were Simon Congo, Anthony
+Portuguese, John Francisco, Paul d'Angola--names {26} evidently drawn
+from their native countries--and seven others.  Two years later came
+three slave women.  In a letter dated August 11, 1628, and addressed to
+his "Kind Friend and Well Beloved Brother in Christ the Reverend,
+learned and pious Mr. Adrianus Smoutius," we learn with regret that
+Domine Michaelius, having two small motherless daughters, finds himself
+much hindered and distressed because he can find no competent maid
+servants "and the Angola slave women are thievish, lazy, and useless
+trash."  Let us leave it to those who have the heart and the nerves to
+dwell upon the horrors of the middle passage and the sufferings of the
+poor negroes as set down in the log-books of the slavers, the _St.
+John_ and the _Arms of Amsterdam_.  It is comforting to the more
+soft-hearted of us to feel that after reaching the shores of New
+Netherland, the blacks were treated in the main with humanity.  The
+negro slave was of course a chattel, but his fate was not without hope.
+Several negroes with their wives were manumitted on the ground of long
+and faithful service.  They received a grant of land; but they were
+obliged to pay for it annually twenty-two and a half bushels of corn,
+wheat, pease, or beans, and a hog worth eight dollars in {27} modern
+currency.  If they failed in this payment they lost their recently
+acquired liberty and returned to the status of slaves.  Meanwhile,
+their children, already born or yet to be born, remained under
+obligation to serve the Company.
+
+Apparently the Dutch were conscious of no sense of wrong-doing in the
+importation of the blacks.  A chief justice of the King's Bench in
+England expressed the opinion that it was right that pagans should be
+slaves to Christians, because the former were bondsmen of Satan while
+the latter were servants of God.  Even this casuist, however, found
+difficulty in explaining why it was just that one born of free and
+Christian parents should remain enslaved.  But granting that the
+problems which the settlers were creating in these early days were
+bound to cause much trouble later both to themselves and to the whole
+country, there is no doubt that slave labor contributed to the
+advancement of agriculture and the other enterprises of the colony.
+Free labor was scarce and expensive, owing both to the cost of
+importing it from Europe and to the allurements of the fur trade, which
+drew off the _boer-knecht_ from farming.  Slave labor was therefore of
+the highest value in exploiting the resources of the new country.
+
+{28}
+
+These resources were indeed abundant.  The climate was temperate, with
+a long season of crops and harvests.  Grape-vines produced an abundant
+supply of wines.  The forests contained a vast variety of animals.
+Innumerable birds made the wilderness vocal.  Turkeys and wild fowl
+offered a variety of food.  The rivers produced fish of every kind and
+oysters which the letters of the colonists describe as a foot long,
+though this is somewhat staggering to the credulity of a later age.  De
+Vries, one of the patroons, or proprietors, whose imagination was
+certainly of a lively type, tells us that he had seen a New
+Netherlander kill eighty-four thrushes or maize-birds at one shot.  He
+adds that he has noticed crabs of excellent flavor on the flat shores
+of the bay.  "Their claws," he says naively, "are of the color of our
+Prince's flag, orange, white and blue, so that the crabs show clearly
+enough that we ought to people the country and that it belongs to us."
+When the very crabs thus beckoned to empire, how could the Netherlander
+fail to respond to their invitation?
+
+The newly discovered river soon began to be alive with sail,
+high-pooped vessels from over sea, and smaller _vlie booten_
+(Anglicized into "flyboats"), {29} which plied between New Amsterdam
+and Fort Orange, loaded with supplies and household goods.  Tying the
+prow of his boat to a tree at the water's edge, the enterprising
+skipper turned pedler and opened his packs of beguiling wares for the
+housewife at the farm beside the river.  Together with the goods in his
+pack, he doubtless also opened his budget of news from the other
+settlements and told the farmer's wife how the houses about the fort at
+Manhattan had increased to thirty, how the new Director was
+strengthening the fort, and how all promised well for the future of New
+Netherland.
+
+For the understanding of these folk, who, with their descendants, have
+left an indelible impression on New York as we know it today, we must
+leave the thread of narrative in America, abandon the sequence of
+dates, and turn back to the Holland of some years earlier.  Remembering
+that those who cross the sea change their skies but not their hearts,
+we may be sure that the same qualities which marked the inhabitants of
+the Netherlands showed themselves in the emigrants to the colony on the
+banks of the Mauritius.
+
+When the truce with Spain was announced, a few months before Hudson set
+sail for America, {30} it was celebrated throughout Holland by the
+ringing of bells, the discharge of artillery, the illumination of the
+houses, and the singing of hymns of thanksgiving in all the churches.
+The devout people knelt in every cathedral and village _Kerk_ to thank
+their God that the period of butchery and persecution was over.  But no
+sooner had the joy-bells ceased ringing and the illuminations faded
+than the King of Spain began plotting to regain by diplomacy what he
+had been unable to hold by force.  The Dutch, however, showed
+themselves as keenly alive as the Spanish to the value of treaties and
+alliances.  They met cunning with caution, as they had met tyranny with
+defiance, and at last, as the end of the truce drew near, they flung
+into the impending conflict the weight of the Dutch West India Company.
+They were shrewd and sincere people, ready to try all things by the
+test of practical experience.  One of their great statesmen at this
+period described his fellow-countrymen as having neither the wish nor
+the skill to deceive others, but on the other hand as not being easy to
+be deceived themselves.
+
+Motley says of the Dutch Republic that "it had courage, enterprise,
+intelligence, faith in itself, the instinct of self-government and
+self-help, {31} hatred of tyranny, the disposition to _domine_er,
+aggressiveness, greediness, inquisitiveness, insolence, the love of
+science, of liberty, and of money."  As the state is only a sum of
+component parts, its qualities must be those of its citizens, and of
+these citizens our colonists were undoubtedly typical.  We may
+therefore accept this description as picturing their mental and
+spiritual qualities in the pioneer days of their venture in the New
+World.
+
+
+
+[1] See the monograph by Augustus H. Van Buren in the _Proceedings of
+the New York Historical Society_, vol. xi, p. 133.
+
+
+
+
+{32}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+PATROONS AND LORDS OF THE MANOR
+
+Their High Mightinesses, the States-General of the United Netherlands,
+as we have seen, granted to the Dutch West India Company a charter
+conveying powers nearly equaling and often overlapping those of the
+States themselves.  The West India Company in turn, with a view to
+stimulating colonization, granted to certain members known as patroons
+manorial rights frequently in conflict with the authority of the
+Company.  And for a time it seemed as though the patroonship would be
+the prevailing form of grant in New Netherland.
+
+The system of patroonships seems to have been suggested by Kiliaen Van
+Rensselaer, one of the directors of the West India Company and a
+lapidary of Amsterdam, who later became the most successful of the
+patroons.  A shrewd, keen, far-seeing man, he was one of the first of
+the West India Company to perceive that the building up of {33} New
+Netherland could not be carried on without labor, and that labor could
+not be procured without permanent settlers.  "Open up the country with
+agriculture: that must be our first step," was his urgent advice; but
+the dwellers in the Netherlands, finding themselves prosperous in their
+old homes, saw no reason for emigrating, and few offered themselves for
+the overseas settlements.  The West India Company was not inclined to
+involve itself in further expense for colonization, and matters
+threatened to come to a halt, when someone, very likely the shrewd
+Kiliaen himself, evolved the plan of granting large estates to men
+willing to pay the cost of settling and operating them.  From this
+suggestion the scheme of patroonship was developed.
+
+The list of "Privileges and Exemptions" published by the West India
+Company in 1629 declared that all should be acknowledged patroons of
+New Netherland who should, within the space of four years, plant there
+a colony of fifty souls upwards of fifteen years old.  "The island of
+the Manhattes" was reserved for the Company.  The patroons, it was
+stipulated, must make known the situation of their proposed
+settlements, but they were allowed to change should their first
+location prove {34} unsatisfactory.  The lands were to extend sixteen
+miles along the shore on one side of a navigable river, or eight miles
+on both sides of a river, and so far into the country as the situation
+of the colonies and their settlers permitted.  The patroons were
+entitled to dispose of their grants by will, and they were free to
+traffic along the coast of New Netherland for all goods except furs,
+which were to be the special perquisite of the West India Company.
+They were forbidden to allow the weaving of linen, woolen, or cotton
+cloth on their estates, the looms in Holland being hungry for raw
+material.
+
+The Company agreed that it would not take any one from the service of
+the patroon during the years for which the servant was bound, and any
+colonist who should without written permission enter the service of
+another patroon or "betake himself to freedom" was to be proceeded
+against with all the available force of the law.  The escaped servant
+would fare ill if his case came before the courts, since it was one of
+the prerogatives of a patroon to administer high, middle, and low
+justice--that is, to appoint magistrates and erect courts which should
+deal with all grades of crimes committed within the limits of the manor
+and also with breaches of the civil law.  In civil cases, {35} disputes
+over contracts, titles, and such matters, where the amount in
+litigation exceeded twenty dollars, as well as in criminal cases
+affecting life and limb, it was possible to appeal to the Director and
+Council at Fort Amsterdam; but the local authorities craftily evaded
+this provision by compelling their colonists to promise not to appeal
+from the tribunal of the manor.
+
+The _scherprechter_, or hangman, was included with the superintendent,
+the _schout fiscaal_, or sheriff, and the magistrates as part of the
+manorial court system.  One such _scherprechter_ named Jan de Neger,
+perhaps a freed negro, is named among the dwellers at Rensselaerswyck
+and we find him presenting a claim for thirty-eight florins ($15.00)
+for executing Wolf Nysen.
+
+No man in the manorial colony was to be deprived of life or property
+except by sentence of a court composed of five people, and all accused
+persons were entitled to a speedy and impartial trial.  As we find
+little complaint of the administration of justice in all the records of
+disputes, reproaches, and recriminations which mark the records of
+those old manors, we must assume that the processes of law were carried
+on in harmony with the spirit of fairness prevailing in the home
+country.
+
+{36}
+
+Even before the West India Company had promulgated its charter, a
+number of rich merchants had availed themselves of the opportunity to
+secure lands under the offered privileges and exemptions.  Godyn and
+Blommaert, in association with Captain David de Vries and others, took
+up a large territory on Delaware Bay, and here they established a
+colony called "Swannendael," which was destroyed by the Indians in
+1632.  Myndert Myndertsen established his settlement on the mainland
+behind Staten Island, and his manor extended from Achter Kul, or Newark
+Bay, to the Tappan Zee.
+
+One of the first patents recorded was granted to Michiel Pauw in 1630.
+In the documentary record the Director and Council of New Netherland,
+under the authority of their High Mightinesses, the Lords
+States-General and the West India Company Department of Amsterdam,
+testify to the bargain made with the natives, who are treated
+throughout with legal ceremony as if they were high contracting parties
+and fully capable of understanding the transaction in which they were
+engaged.  These original owners of the soil appeared before the Council
+and declared that in consideration of {37} certain merchandise, they
+agreed to "transfer, cede, convey and deliver for the benefit of the
+Honorable Mr. Michiel Paauw" as true and lawful freehold, the land at
+Hobocan Hackingh, opposite Manhattan, so that "he or his heirs may take
+possession of the aforesaid land, live on it in peace, inhabit, own and
+use it ... without that they, the conveying party shall have or retain
+the least pretension, right, power or authority either concerning
+ownership or sovereignty; but herewith they desist, abandon, withdraw
+and renounce in behalf of aforesaid now and forever totally and
+finally."
+
+It must have been a pathetic and yet a diverting spectacle when the
+simple red men thus swore away their title to the broad acres of their
+fathers for a consideration of beads, shells, blankets, and trinkets;
+but, when they listened to the subtleties of Dutch law as expounded by
+the Dogberrys at Fort Amsterdam, they may have been persuaded that
+their simple minds could never contend with such masters of language
+and that they were on the whole fortunate to secure something in
+exchange for their land, which they were bound to lose in any event.
+
+It has been the custom to ascribe to the Dutch and Quakers the system
+of paying for lands taken {38} from the Indians.  But Fiske points out
+that this conception is a mistake and he goes on to state that it was a
+general custom among the English and that not a rood of ground in New
+England was taken from the savages without recompense, except when the
+Pequots began a war and were exterminated.  The "payment" in all cases,
+however, was a mere farce and of value only in creating good feeling
+between savages and settlers.  As to the ethics of the transaction,
+much might be said on both sides.  The red men would be justified in
+feeling that they had been kept in ignorance of the relative importance
+of what they gave and what they received, while the whites might
+maintain that they created the values which ensued upon their purchase
+and that, if they had not come, lands along the Great River would have
+remained of little account.  In any case the recorded transaction did
+not prove a financial triumph for the purchaser, as the enterprise cost
+much in trouble and outlay and did not meet expenses.  The property was
+resold to the Company seven years later--at a price, however, of
+twenty-six thousand guilders, which represented a fair margin of profit
+over the "certain merchandise" paid to the original owners eight years
+earlier.
+
+{39}
+
+Very soon after the purchase of the land on the west shore of the North
+River, Pauw bought, under the same elaborate legal forms, the whole of
+Staten Island, so called in honor of the Staaten or States-General.  To
+the estate he gave the title of Pavonia, a Latinized form of his own
+name.  Staten Island was subsequently purchased from Pauw by the
+Company and transferred (with the exception of the _bouwerie_ of
+Captain De Vries) to Cornelis Melyn, who was thus added to the list of
+patroons.  Other regions also were erected into patroonships; but
+almost all were either unsuccessful from the beginning or short-lived.
+
+The patroonship most successful, most permanent, and most typical was
+Rensselaerswyck, which offers the best opportunity for a study of the
+Dutch colonial system.  Van Rensselaer, though he did not apparently
+intend to make a home for himself in New Netherland, was one of the
+first to ask for a grant of land.  He received, subject to payment to
+the Indians, a tract of country to the north and south of Fort Orange,
+but not including that trading-post, which like the island of Manhattan
+remained under the control of the West India Company.  By virtue of
+this grant and later purchases Van Rensselaer acquired a {40} tract
+comprising what are now the counties of Albany and Rensselaer with part
+of Columbia.  Of this tract, called Rensselaerswyck, Van Rensselaer was
+named patroon, and five other men, Godyn, Blommaert, De Laet, Bissels,
+and Moussart, whom he had been forced to conciliate by taking into
+partnership, were named codirectors.  Later the claims of these five
+associates were bought out by the Van Rensselaer family.
+
+In 1630 the first group of emigrants for this new colony sailed on the
+ship _Eendragt_ and reached Fort Orange at the beginning of June.  How
+crude was the settlement which they established we may judge from the
+report made some years later by Father Jogues, a Jesuit missionary, who
+visited Rensselaerswyck in 1643.  He speaks of a miserable little fort
+built of logs and having four or five pieces of Breteuil cannon.  He
+describes also the colony as composed of about a hundred persons, "who
+reside in some twenty-five or thirty houses built along the river as
+each found most convenient."  The patroon's agent was established in
+the principal house, while in another, which served also as a church,
+was domiciled the _domine_, the Reverend Johannes Megapolensis, Jr. The
+houses he describes as built of boards and roofed with {41} thatch,
+having no mason-work except in the chimneys.  The settlers had found
+some ground already cleared by the natives and had planted it with
+wheat and oats in order to provide beer and horse-fodder; but being
+hemmed in by somewhat barren hills, they had been obliged to separate
+in order to obtain arable land.  The settlements, therefore, spread
+over two or three leagues.
+
+The fear of raids from the savages prompted the patroon to advise that,
+with the exception of the brewers and tobacco planters who were obliged
+to live on their plantations, no other settlers should establish
+themselves at any distance from the church, which was the village
+center; for, says the prudent Van Rensselaer, "every one residing where
+he thinks fit, separated far from others, would be unfortunately in
+danger of their lives in the same manner as sorrowful experience has
+taught around the Manhattans."  Our sympathy goes out to those early
+settlers who lived almost as serfs under their patroon, the women
+forbidden to spin or weave, the men prohibited from trading in the furs
+which they saw building up fortunes around them.  They sat by their
+lonely hearths in a little clearing of the forest, listening to the
+howl of wolves and fearing to see a savage face at the {42} window.
+This existence was a tragic change indeed from the lively social
+existence along the canals of Amsterdam or on the stoops of Rotterdam.
+
+Nor can we feel that these tenants were likely to be greatly cheered by
+the library established at Rensselaerswyck, unless there were hidden
+away a list of more interesting books than those described in the
+patroon's invoice as sent in an _oosterse_, or oriental, box.  These
+volumes include a Scripture concordance, the works of Calvin, of Livy,
+and of Ursinus, the friend of Melanchthon, _A Treatise on Arithmetic_
+by Adrian Metius, _The History of the Holy Land_, and a work on natural
+theology.  As all the titles are in Latin, it is to be presumed that
+the body of the text was written in the same language, and we may
+imagine the light and cheerful mood which they inspired in their
+readers after a day of manual toil.
+
+I suspect, however, that the evening hours of these tenants at
+Rensselaerswyck were spent in anxious keeping of accounts with a
+wholesome fear of the patroon before the eyes of the accountants.  Life
+on the _bouweries_ was by no means inexpensive, even according to
+modern standards.  Bearing in mind that a stiver was equivalent to two
+cents of {43} our currency and a florin to forty cents, it is easy to
+calculate the cost of living in the decade between 1630 and 1640 as set
+down in the accounts of Rensselaerswyck.  A blanket cost eight florins,
+a hat ten florins, an iron anvil one hundred florins, a musket and
+cartouche box nineteen florins, a copper sheep's bell one florin and
+six stivers.  On the other hand all domestic produce was cheap, because
+the tenant and patroon preferred to dispose of it in the settlements
+rather than by transporting it to New Amsterdam.  We learn with envy
+that butter was only eight stivers or sixteen cents per pound, a pair
+of fowl two florins, a beaver twenty-five florins.
+
+How hard were the terms on which the tenants held their leases is
+apparent from a report written by the guardians and tutors of Jan Van
+Rensselaer, a later patroon of Rensselaerswyck.  The patroon reserved
+to himself the tenth of all grains, fruits, and other products raised
+on the _bouwerie_.  The tenant was bound, in addition to his rent of
+five hundred guilders or two hundred dollars, to keep up the roads,
+repair the buildings, cut ten pieces of oak or fir wood, and bring the
+same to the shore; he must also every year give to the patroon three
+days' service with his horses and wagon; {44} each year he was to cut,
+split, and bring to the waterside two fathoms of firewood; and he was
+further to deliver yearly to the Director as quit-rent two bushels of
+wheat, twenty-five pounds of butter, and two pairs of fowls.
+
+It was the difficult task of the agent of the colony to harmonize the
+constant hostilities between the patroon and his "people."  Van
+Curler's letter to Kiliaen Van Rensselaer begins: "Laus Deo!  At the
+Manhattans this 16th June, 1643, Most honorable, wise, powerful, and
+right discreet Lord, my Lord Patroon--."  After which propitiatory
+beginning it embarks at once on a reply to the reproaches which the
+honorable, wise, and powerful Lord has heaped upon his obedient
+servant.  Van Curler admits that the accounts and books have not been
+forwarded to Holland as they should have been; but he pleads the
+difficulty of securing returns from the tenants, whom he finds slippery
+in their accounting.  "Everything they have laid out on account of the
+Lord Patroon they well know how to specify for what was expended.  But
+what has been laid out for their private use, that they know nothing
+about."
+
+If the patroon's relations with his tenants were thorny, he had no less
+trouble in his dealings with {45} the Director-General at New
+Amsterdam.  It is true, Peter Minuit, the first important Director, was
+removed in 1632 by the Company for unduly favoring the patroons, and
+Van Twiller, another Director and a nephew of Van Rensselaer by
+marriage, was not disposed to antagonize his relative; but when Van
+Twiller was replaced by Kieft, and he in turn by Stuyvesant, the
+horizon at Rensselaerswyck grew stormy.  In 1643 the patroon ordered
+Nicholas Coorn to fortify Beeren or Bears Island, and to demand a toll
+of each ship, except those of the West India Company, that passed up
+and down the river.  He also required that the colors on every ship be
+lowered in passing Rensselaer's Stein or Castle Rensselaer, as the fort
+on the steep little island was named.
+
+Govert Loockermans, sailing down the river one day on the ship _Good
+Hope_, failed to salute the flag, whereupon a lively dialogue ensued to
+the following effect, and not, we may be assured, carried on in low or
+amicable tones:
+
+_Coorn_: "Lower your colors!"
+
+_Loockermans_: "For whom should I?"
+
+_Coorn_: "For the staple-right of Rensselaerswyck."
+
+_Loockermans_: "I lower my colors for no one {46} except the Prince of
+Orange and the Lords my masters."
+
+The practical result of this interchange of amenities was a shot which
+tore the mainsail of the _Good Hope_, "perforated the princely flag,"
+and so enraged the skipper that on his arrival at New Amsterdam he
+hastened to lay his grievance before the Council, who thereupon ordered
+Coorn to behave with more civility.
+
+
+The patroon system was from the beginning doomed to failure.  As we
+study the old documents we find a sullen tenantry, an obsequious and
+careworn agent, a dissatisfied patroon, an impatient company, a
+bewildered government--and all this in a new and promising country
+where the natives were friendly, the transportation easy, the land
+fertile, the conditions favorable to that conservation of human
+happiness which is and should be the aim of civilization.  The reason
+for the discontent which prevailed is not far to seek, and all classes
+were responsible for it, for they combined in planting an anachronistic
+feudalism in a new country, which was dedicated by its very physical
+conditions to liberty and democracy.  The settlers came from a nation
+which had battled {47} through long years in the cause of freedom.
+They found themselves in a colony adjoining those of Englishmen who had
+braved the perils of the wilderness to establish the same principles of
+liberty and democracy.  No sane mind could have expected the Dutch
+colonists to return without protest to a medieval system of government.
+
+When the English took possession of New Netherland in 1664, the old
+patroonships were confirmed as manorial grants from England.  As time
+went on, many new manors were erected until, when the province was
+finally added to England in 1674, "The Lords of the Manor" along the
+Hudson had taken on the proportions of a landed aristocracy.  On the
+lower reaches of the river lay the Van Cortlandt and Philipse Manors,
+the first containing 85,000 acres and a house so firmly built that it
+is still standing with its walls of freestone, three feet thick.  The
+Philipse Manor, at Tarrytown, represented the remarkable achievement of
+a self-made man, born in the Old World and a carpenter by trade, who
+rose in the New World to fortune and eminence.  By dint of business
+acumen and by marrying two heiresses in succession he achieved wealth,
+and built "Castle Philipse" and the picturesque little church at Sleepy
+Hollow, {48} still in use.  Farther up the river lay the Livingston
+Manor.  In 1685 Robert Livingston was granted by Governor Dongan a
+patent of a tract half way between New York and Rensselaerswyck, across
+the river from the Catskills and covering many thousand acres.
+
+But the estate of which we know most, thanks to the records left by
+Mrs. Grant of Laggan in her _Memoirs of an American Lady_, written in
+the middle of the eighteenth century, is that belonging to the
+Schuylers at "the Flats" near Albany, which runs along the western bank
+of the Hudson for two miles and is bordered with sweeping elm trees.
+The mansion consisted of two stories and an attic.  Through the middle
+of the house ran a wide passage from the front to the back door.  At
+the front door was a large _stoep_, open at the sides and with seats
+around it.  One room was open for company.  The other apartments were
+bedrooms, a drawing-room being an unheard-of luxury.  "The house
+fronted the river, on the brink of which, under shades of elm and
+sycamore, ran the great road toward Saratoga, Stillwater, and the
+northern lakes."  Adjoining the orchard was a huge barn raised from the
+ground by beams which rested on stone and held up a massive oak {49}
+floor.  On one side ran a manger.  Cattle and horses stood in rows with
+their heads toward the threshing-floor.  "There was a prodigious large
+box or open chest in one side built up, for holding the corn after it
+was threshed, and the roof which was very lofty and spacious was
+supported by large cross beams.  From one to the other of these was
+stretched a great number of long poles so as to form a sort of open
+loft, on which the whole rich crop was laid up."
+
+Altogether it is an attractive picture of peace and plenty, of
+hospitality and simple luxury, that is drawn by this visitor to the
+Schuyler homestead.  We see through her eyes its carpeted winter rooms,
+its hall covered with tiled oilcloth and hung with family portraits,
+its vine-covered _stoeps_, provided with ledges for the birds, and
+affording "pleasant views of the winding river and the distant hills."
+Such a picture relieves pleasantly the arid waste of historical
+statistics.
+
+But the reader who dwells too long on the picturesque aspects of manors
+and patroonships is likely to forget that New Netherland was peopled
+for the most part by colonists who were neither patroons nor lords of
+manors.  It was the small proprietors who eventually predominated on
+western {50} Long Island, on Staten Island, and along the Hudson.  "In
+the end," it has been well said, "this form of grant played a more
+important part in the development of the province than did the larger
+fiefs for which such detailed provision was made."
+
+
+
+
+{51}
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE DIRECTORS
+
+The first Director-General of the colony, Captain Cornelis May, was
+removed by only a generation from those "Beggars of the Sea" whom the
+Spaniard held in such contempt; but this mendicant had begged to such
+advantage that the sea granted him a noble river to explore and a cape
+at its mouth to preserve his name to posterity.  It is upon his
+discoveries along the South River, later called the Delaware, and not
+upon his record as Director of New Netherland, that his title to fame
+must rest.  Associated with him was Tienpont, who appears to have been
+assigned to the North River while May assumed personal supervision of
+the South.  May acted as the agent of the West India Company for one
+year only (1624-1625), and was followed in office by Verhulst
+(1625-1626), who bequeathed his name to Verhulsten Island, in the
+Delaware River, and then quietly passed out of history.
+
+{52}
+
+Neither of these officials left any permanent impress on the history of
+the colony.  It was therefore a day of vast importance to the dwellers
+on the North River, and especially to the little group of settlers on
+Manhattan Island, when the _Meeuwken_ dropped her anchor in the harbor
+in May, 1626, and her small boat landed Peter Minuit, Director-General
+of New Netherland, a Governor who had come to govern.  Minuit, though
+registered as "of Wesel," Germany, was of Huguenot ancestry, and is
+reported to have spoken French, Dutch, German, and English.  He proved
+a tactful and efficient ruler, and the new system of government took
+form under the Director and Council, the _koopman_, who was commercial
+agent and secretary, and a _schout_ who performed the duties of sheriff
+and public prosecutor.
+
+Van Wassenaer, the son of a _domine_ in Amsterdam, gives us a report of
+the colony as it existed under Minuit.  He writes of a counting-house
+built of stone and thatched with reeds, of thirty ordinary houses on
+the east side of the river, and a horse-mill yet unfinished over which
+is to be constructed a spacious room to serve as a temporary church and
+to be decorated with bells captured at the sack of San Juan de Porto
+Rico in 1625 by the Dutch fleet.  {53} According to this chronicler,
+every one in New Netherland who fills no public office is busy with his
+own affairs.  One trades, one builds houses, another plants farms.
+Each farmer pastures the cows under his charge on the _bouwerie_ of the
+Company, which also owns the cattle; but the milk is the property of
+the farmer, who sells it to the settlers.  "The houses of settlers," he
+says, "are now outside the fort; but when that is finished they will
+all remove within, in order to garrison it and be safe from sudden
+attack."
+
+One of Minuit's first acts as Director was the purchase of Manhattan
+Island, covering some twenty-two thousand acres, for merchandise valued
+at sixty guilders or twenty-four dollars.  He thus secured the land at
+the rate of approximately ten acres for one cent.  A good bargain,
+Peter Minuit!  The transaction was doubly effective in placating the
+savages, or the _wilden_, as the settlers called them, and in
+establishing the Dutch claim as against the English by urging rights
+both of discovery and of purchase.
+
+In spite of the goodwill manifested by the natives, the settlers were
+constantly anxious lest some conspiracy might suddenly break out.  Van
+Wassenaer, reporting the news from the colony as {54} it reached him in
+Amsterdam, wrote in 1626 that Pieter Barentsen was to be sent to
+command Fort Orange, and that the families were to be brought down the
+river, sixteen men without women being left to garrison the fort.  Two
+years later he wrote that there were no families at Fort Orange, all
+having been brought down the river.  Only twenty-five or twenty-six
+traders remained and Krol, who had been vice-director there since 1626.
+
+Minuit showed true statesmanship by following conciliation with a show
+of strength against hostile powers on every hand.  He had brought with
+him a competent engineer, Kryn Frederycke, or Fredericksen, who had
+been an officer in the army of Prince Maurice.  With his help Minuit
+laid out Fort Amsterdam on what was then the tip of Manhattan Island,
+the green park which forms the end of the island today being then under
+water.  Fredericksen found material and labor so scarce that he could
+plan at first only a blockhouse surrounded by palisades of red cedar
+strengthened with earthworks.  The fort was completed in 1626, and at
+the close of the year a settlement called New Amsterdam had grown up
+around it and had been made the capital of New Netherland.
+
+During the building of the fort there occurred {55} an episode fraught
+with serious consequences.  A friendly Indian of the Weckquaesgeeck
+tribe came with his nephew to traffic at Fort Amsterdam.  Three
+servants of Minuit fell upon the Indian, robbed him, and murdered him.
+The nephew, then but a boy, escaped to his tribe and vowed a vengeance
+which he wreaked in blood nearly a score of years later.
+
+Minuit's preparations for war were not confined to land fortification.
+In 1627 the hearts of the colonists were gladdened by a great victory
+of the Dutch over the Spanish, when, in a battle off San Salvador,
+Peter Heyn demolished twenty-six Spanish warships.  On the 5th of
+September the same bold sailor captured the whole of the Spanish
+silver-fleet with spoils amounting to twelve million guilders.  In the
+following year the gallant commander, then a lieutenant-admiral, died
+in battle on the deck of his ship.  The States-General sent to his old
+peasant mother a message of condolence, to which she replied: "Ay, I
+thought that would be the end of him.  He was always a vagabond; but I
+did my best to correct him.  He got no more than he deserved."
+
+It was perhaps the echo of naval victories like these which prompted
+Minuit to embark upon a {56} shipbuilding project of great magnitude
+for that time.  Two Belgian shipbuilders arrived in New Amsterdam and
+asked the help of the Director in constructing a large vessel.  Minuit,
+seeing the opportunity to advertise the resources of the colony, agreed
+to give his assistance and the result was that the _New Netherland_, a
+ship of eight hundred tons carrying thirty guns, was built and launched.
+
+This enterprise cost more than had been expected and the bills were
+severely criticized by the West India Company, already dissatisfied
+with Minuit on the ground that he had favored the interests of the
+patroons, who claimed the right of unrestricted trade within their
+estates, as against the interests of the Company.  Urged by many
+complaints, the States-General set on foot an investigation of the
+Director, the patroons, and the West India Company itself, with the
+result that in 1632 Minuit was recalled and the power of the patroons
+was limited.  New Netherland had not yet seen the last of Peter Minuit,
+however.  Angry and embittered, he entered the service of Sweden and
+returned later to vex the Dutch colony.
+
+In the interval between Minuit's departure and the arrival of Van
+Twiller, the reins of authority {57} were held by Sebastian Krol, whose
+name is memorable chiefly for the fact that he had been influential in
+purchasing the domain of Rensselaerswyck for its patroon (1630) and the
+tradition that the cruller, _crolyer_ or _krolyer_, was so called in
+his honor.  The Company's selection of a permanent successor to Minuit
+was not happy.  Wouter Van Twiller, nephew of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer,
+must have owed his appointment as Director to family influence, since
+neither his career nor his reputation justified the choice.
+
+David de Vries, writing on April 16, 1633, notes that on arriving about
+noon before Fort Amsterdam he found there a ship called the _Soutbergh_
+which had brought over the new Governor, Wouter Van Twiller, a former
+clerk in the West India House at Amsterdam.  De Vries gives his opinion
+of Van Twiller in no uncertain terms.  He expressed his own surprise
+that the West India Company should send fools into this country who
+knew nothing except how to drink, and quotes an Englishman as saying
+that he could not understand the unruliness among the officers of the
+Company and that a governor should have no more control over them.
+
+For the personal appearance of this "Walter {58} the Doubter," we must
+turn again to the testimony of Knickerbocker, whose mocking
+descriptions have obtained a quasi-historical authority:
+
+
+This renowned old gentleman arrived at New Amsterdam in the merry month
+of June....  He was exactly five feet six inches in height and six feet
+five inches in circumference.  His head was a perfect sphere and of
+such stupendous dimensions that Dame Nature, with all her sex's
+ingenuity would have been puzzled to construct a neck capable of
+supporting it: Wherefore she wisely declined the attempt and settled it
+firmly on the top of his backbone just between the shoulders....  His
+legs were short but sturdy in proportion to the weight they had to
+sustain so that when erect he had not a little the appearance of a beer
+barrel on skids.  His face, that infallible index of the mind,
+presented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of those lines which
+disfigure the human countenance with what is termed expression....  His
+habits were regular.  He daily took his four stated meals,
+appropriating exactly an hour to each; he smoked and doubted eight
+hours, and he slept the remaining twelve of the four-and-twenty.
+
+
+A later historian, taking up the cudgels in behalf of the Director,
+resents Knickerbocker's impeachment and protests that "so far from
+being the aged, fat and overgrown person represented in caricature Van
+Twiller was youthful and inexperienced, and his faults were those of a
+young {59} man unused to authority and hampered by his instructions."[1]
+
+In his new office Van Twiller was confronted with questions dealing
+with the encroachment of the patroons from within and of the English
+from without, the unwelcome visit of Eelkens, of whom we shall hear
+later, and massacres by the Indians on the South River.  Such problems
+might well have puzzled a wiser head and a more determined character
+than Van Twiller's.  We cannot hold him wholly blameworthy if he dealt
+with them in a spirit of doubt and hesitation.  What we find harder to
+excuse is his shrewd advancement of his own interests and his lavish
+expenditure of the Company's money.  The cost of building the fort {60}
+was more than justifiable.  To have neglected the defenses would have
+been culpable; and the barracks built for the hundred and four soldiers
+whom he had brought over from the Fatherland may also be set down as
+necessary.  But when the Company was groaning under the expenses of the
+colony, it was, to say the least, lacking in tact to build for himself
+the most elaborate house in New Netherland, besides erecting on one of
+the Company's _bouweries_ a house, a barn, a boathouse, and a brewery,
+to say nothing of planting another farm with tobacco, working it with
+slave labor at the Company's expense, and appropriating the profits.
+In the year 1688, after he had been five years in office, the outcry
+against Van Twiller for misfeasance, malfeasance, and especially
+nonfeasance, grew too loud to be ignored, and he was recalled; but
+before he left New Netherland he bought Nooten or Nut Island, since
+called Governor's Island, and also two other islands in the East River.
+At the time of his marriage in 1643, Van Twiller was in command of a
+competence attained at the expense of the West India Company, and there
+is much excuse for the feeling of his employers that he had been more
+active in his own affairs than in theirs.
+
+{61}
+
+The principal service which he had rendered to the Company in his term
+of office was the establishment of "staple right" at New Amsterdam,
+compelling all ships trading on the coast or the North River to pay
+tolls or unload their cargoes on the Company's property.  But on the
+reverse side of the account we must remember that he allowed the fort
+to fall into such decay that when Kieft arrived in 1638 he found the
+defenses, which had been finished only three years before, already in a
+shamefully neglected condition, the guns dismounted, the public
+buildings inside the walls in ruins, and the walls of the fort itself
+so beaten down that any one might enter at will, "save at the stone
+point."
+
+The hopes of the colonists rose again with the coming of a new
+governor; but the appointment of Kieft reflected as little credit as
+that of Van Twiller upon the sagacity of the West India Company.  The
+man now chosen to rule New Netherland was a narrow-minded busybody,
+eager to interfere in small matters and without the statesmanship
+required to conduct large affairs.  Some of his activities, it is true,
+had practical value.  He fixed the hours at which the colonists should
+go to bed and ordered the curfew to be rung at nine o'clock; {62} he
+established two annual fairs to be held on the present Bowling Green,
+one in October for cattle and one in November for hogs; and he built a
+new stone church within the fort, operated a brewery, founded a
+hostelry, and planted orchards and gardens.  But on the other side of
+the account he was responsible for a bloody war with the Indians which
+came near to wrecking the colony.
+
+His previous record held scant promise for his success as a governor.
+He had failed as a merchant in Rochelle, for which offense his portrait
+had been affixed to a gallows.  Such a man was a poor person to be put
+in control of the complicated finances of New Netherland and of the
+delicate relations between the colonists and the Indians--relations
+calling for infinite tact, wisdom, firmness, and forbearance.
+
+The natives in the region of New Amsterdam were increasingly irritated
+by the encroachments of the whites.  They complained that stray cows
+spoiled their unfenced cornfields and that various other depredations
+endangered their crops.  To add to this irritation Kieft proposed to
+tax the natives for the protection afforded them by the Fort, which was
+now being repaired at large expense.  The situation, already bad
+enough, was {63} further complicated by Kieft's clumsy handling of an
+altercation on Staten Island.  Some pigs were stolen, by servants of
+the Company as appeared later; but the offense was charged to the
+Raritan Indians.  Without waiting to make investigations Kieft sent out
+a punitive expedition of seventy men, who attacked the innocent
+natives, killed a number of them, and laid waste their crops.  This
+stupid and wicked attack still further exasperated the Indians, who in
+the high tide of mid-summer saw their lands laid bare and their homes
+desolated by the wanton hand of the intruders.
+
+Some months later the trouble between the whites and the red men was
+brought to a head by an unforeseen tragedy.  A savage came to Claes
+Smits, _radenmaker_ or wheelwright, to trade beaver for duffel cloth.
+As Claes stooped down to take out the duffel from a chest, the Indian
+seized an axe which chanced to stand near by and struck the wheelwright
+on the neck, killing him instantly.  The murderer then stole the goods
+from the chest and fled to the forest.
+
+When Kieft sent to the tribe of the Weckquaesgeecks to inquire the
+cause of this murder and to demand the slayer, the Indian told the
+chief that he had seen his uncle robbed and killed at the fort {64}
+while it was being built; that he himself had escaped and had vowed
+revenge; and that the unlucky Claes was the first white man upon whom
+he had a chance to wreak vengeance.  The chief then replied to the
+Director that he was sorry that twenty Christians had not been killed
+and that the Indian had done only a pious duty in avenging his uncle.
+
+In this emergency Kieft called a meeting at which the prominent
+burghers chose a committee of twelve to advise the Director.  This took
+place in 1641.  The Council was headed by Captain David de Vries, whose
+portrait with its pointed chin, high forehead, and keen eyes, justifies
+his reputation as the ablest man in New Netherland.  He insisted that
+it was inadvisable to attack the Indians--not to say hazardous.
+Besides, the Company had warned them to keep peace.  It is interesting
+to speculate on what would have been the effect on the colony if the
+Company's choice had fallen upon De Vries instead of on Kieft as
+Director.
+
+Although restrained for the time, Kieft never relinquished his purpose.
+On February 24, 1643, he again announced his intention of making a raid
+upon the Indians, and in spite of further {65} remonstrance from De
+Vries he sent out his soldiers, who returned after a massacre which
+disgraced the Director, enraged the natives, and endangered the colony.
+Kieft was at first proud of his treachery; but as soon as it was known
+every Algonquin tribe around New Amsterdam started on the warpath.
+From New Jersey to the Connecticut every farm was in peril.  The famous
+and much-persecuted Anne Hutchinson perished with her family; towns
+were burned; and men, women, and children fled in panic.
+
+On the approach of spring, when the Indians had to plant their corn or
+face famine, sachems of the Long Island Indians sought a parley with
+the Dutch.  De Vries and Olfertsen volunteered to meet the savages.  In
+the woods near Rockaway they found nearly three hundred Indians
+assembled.  The chiefs placed the envoys in the center of the circle,
+and one among them, who had a bundle of sticks, laid down one stick at
+a time as he recounted the wrongs of his tribe.  This orator told how
+the red men had given food to the settlers and were rewarded by the
+murder of their people, how they had protected and cherished the
+traders, and how they had been abused in return.  At length De Vries,
+like the practical man that he was, {66} suggested that they all
+adjourn to the Fort, promising them presents from the Director.
+
+The chiefs consented to meet the Director and eventually were persuaded
+to make a treaty of peace; but Kieft's gifts were so niggardly that the
+savages went away with rancor still in their hearts, and the war of the
+races continued its bloody course.  It is no wonder that when De Vries
+left the Governor on this occasion, he told Kieft in plain terms of his
+guilt and predicted that the shedding of so much innocent blood would
+yet be avenged upon his own head.  This prophecy proved a strangely
+true one.  When recalled by the States-General in 1647, Kieft set out
+for Holland on the ship _Princess_, carrying with him the sum of four
+hundred thousand guilders.  The ship was wrecked in the Bristol channel
+and Kieft was drowned.
+
+The evil that Kieft did lived after him and the good, if interred with
+his bones, would not have occupied much space in the tomb.  The only
+positive advance during his rule--and that was carried through against
+his will--was the appointment of an advisory committee of the twelve
+men, representing the householders of the colony, who were called
+together in the emergency following {67} the murder of Claes Smits, and
+in 1643 of a similar board of eight men, who protested against his
+arbitrary measures and later procured his recall.
+
+After the departure of Kieft the most picturesque figure of the period
+of Dutch rule in America appeared at New Amsterdam, Petrus or Pieter
+Stuyvesant.  We have an authentic portrait in which the whole
+personality of the man is writ large.  The dominant nose, the small,
+obstinate eyes, the close-set, autocratic mouth, tell the character of
+the man who was come to be the new and the last Director-General of New
+Netherland.  As Director of the West India Company's colony at Curacao,
+Stuyvesant had undertaken the task of reducing the Portuguese island of
+St. Martin and had lost a leg in the fight.  This loss he repaired with
+a wooden leg, of which he professed himself prouder than of all his
+other limbs together and which he had decorated with silver bands and
+nails, thus earning for him the sobriquet of "Old Silver Nails."
+Still, so the legend runs, Peter Stuyvesant's ghost at night "stumps to
+and fro with a shadowy wooden leg through the aisles of St. Mark's
+Church near the spot where his bones lie buried."  But many events were
+to happen {68} before those bones were laid in the family vault of the
+chapel on his _bouwerie_.
+
+When Stuyvesant reached the country over which he was to rule, it was
+noted by the colonists that his bearing was that of a prince.  "I shall
+be as a father over his children," he told the burghers of New
+Amsterdam, and in this patriarchal capacity he kept the people standing
+with their heads uncovered for more than an hour, while he wore his
+hat.  How he bore out this first impression we may gather from _The
+Representation of New Netherland_, an arraignment of the Director,
+drawn up and solemnly attested in 1650 by eleven responsible burghers
+headed by Adrian Van der Donck, and supplemented by much detailed
+evidence.  The witnesses express the earnest wish that Stuyvesant's
+administration were at an end, for they have suffered from it and know
+themselves powerless.  Whoever opposes the Director "hath as much as
+the sun and moon against him."  In the council he writes an opinion
+covering several pages and then adds orally: "This is my opinion.  If
+any one have aught to object to it, let him express it!"  If any one
+ventures to make any objection, his Honor flies into a passion and
+rails in language better fitted to the fish-market than to the
+council-hall.
+
+{69}
+
+When two burghers, Kuyter and Melyn, who had been leaders of the
+opposition to Kieft, petitioned Stuyvesant to investigate his conduct,
+Stuyvesant supported his predecessor on the ground that one Director
+should uphold another.  At Kieft's instigation he even prosecuted and
+convicted Kuyter and Melyn for seditious attack on the government.
+When Melyn asked for grace till his case could be presented in the
+Fatherland, he was threatened, according to his own testimony, in
+language like this: "If I knew, Melyn, that you would divulge our
+sentence [that of fine and banishment] or bring it before Their High
+Mightinesses, I would cause you to be hanged at once on the highest
+tree in New Netherland."  In another case the Director said: "It may
+during my administration be contemplated to appeal; but if anyone
+should do it, I will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to
+Holland and let him appeal in that way."
+
+An answer to this arraignment by the burghers of New Netherland was
+written by Van Tienhoven, who was sent over to the Netherlands to
+defend Stuyvesant; but its value is impaired by the fact that he was
+_schout fiscaal_ and interested in the acquittal of Stuyvesant, whose
+tool he was, {70} and also by the fact that he was the subject of
+bitter attack in the _Representation_ by Adrian Van der Donck, who
+accused Van Tienhoven of continually shifting from one side to another
+and asserted that he was notoriously profligate and untrustworthy.  One
+passage in his reply amounted to a confession.  Who, he asks, are they
+who have complained about the haughtiness of the Director, and he
+answers that they are "such as seek to live without law or rule."  "No
+one," he goes on to say, "can prove that Director Stuyvesant has used
+foul language to or railed at as clowns any respectable persons who
+have treated him decently.  It may be that some profligate person has
+given the Director, _if he has used any bad words to him_, cause to do
+so."
+
+It has been the fashion in popular histories to allude to Stuyvesant as
+a doughty knight of somewhat choleric temper, "a valiant, weather
+beaten, leathern-sided, lion-hearted, generous-spirited, old governor";
+but I do not so read his history.  I find him a brutal tyrant, as we
+have seen in the affair of Kieft _versus_ Melyn; a narrow-minded bigot,
+as we shall see later in his dealing with the Quakers at Flushing; a
+bully when his victims were completely in his power; and a loser {71}
+in any quarrel when he was met with blustering comparable to his own.
+
+In support of the last indictment let us take his conduct in a conflict
+with the authorities at Rensselaerswyck.  In 1646 Stuyvesant had
+ordered that no building should be erected within cannon-shot of Fort
+Orange.  The superintendent of the settlement denied Stuyvesant's right
+to give such an order and pointed to the fact that his trading-house
+had been for a long time on the border of the fort.  To the claim that
+a clear space was necessary to the fort's efficiency, Van
+Slichtenhorst, Van Rensselaer's agent, replied that he had spent more
+than six months in the colony and had never seen a single person
+carrying a sword, musket, or pike, nor had he heard a drum-beat except
+on the occasion of a visit from the Director and his soldiers in the
+summer.  Stuyvesant rejoined by sending soldiers and sailors to tear
+down the house which Van Slichtenhorst was building near Fort Orange,
+and the commissary was ordered to arrest the builder if he resisted;
+but the commissary wrote that it would be impossible to carry out the
+order, as the settlers at Rensselaerswyck, reenforced by the Indians,
+outnumbered his troops.  Stuyvesant then recalled his soldiers and
+ordered Van {72} Slichtenhorst to appear before him, which the agent
+refused to do.
+
+In 1652 Stuyvesant ordered Dyckman, then in command at Fort Orange, not
+to allow any one to build a house near the fort or to remain in any
+house already built.  In spite of proclamations and other bluster this
+order proved fruitless and on April 1, 1653, Stuyvesant came in person
+to Fort Orange and sent a sergeant to lower the patroon's flag.  The
+agent refusing to strike the patroon's colors, the soldiers entered,
+lowered the flag, and discharged their guns.  Stuyvesant declared that
+the region staked out by posts should be known as Beverwyck and
+instituted a court there.  Van Slichtenhorst tore down the
+proclamation, whereupon Stuyvesant ordered him to be imprisoned in the
+fort.  Later the Director transported the agent under guard to New
+Amsterdam.
+
+Stuyvesant's arbitrary character also appears in his overriding of the
+measure of local self-government decreed by the States-General in 1653.
+Van der Donck and his fellows had asked three things of their High
+Mightinesses, the States-General: first, that they take over the
+government of New Netherland; second, that they establish a better city
+government in New Amsterdam; and third, {73} that they clearly define
+the boundaries of New Netherland.  The first of these requests, owing
+to the deeply intrenched interest of the West India Company, could not
+be granted, the last still less.  But the States-General urged that
+municipal rights should be given to New Amsterdam, and in 1652 the
+Company yielded.  The charter limited the number of _schepens_ or
+aldermen to five and the number of burgomasters to two, and also
+ordained that they as well as the _schout_ should be elected by the
+citizens; but Stuyvesant ignored this provision and proceeded to
+appoint men of his own choosing.  The Stone Tavern built by Kieft at
+the head of Coenties Slip was set apart as a _Stadt-Huys_, or City
+Hall, and here Stuyvesant's appointees, supposed to represent the
+popular will, held their meetings.  It was something that they did hold
+meetings and nominally at least in the interest of the people.  Another
+concession followed.  In 1658 Stuyvesant yielded so far to the
+principles of popular government as to concede to the _schepens_ and
+burgomasters of New Amsterdam the right to nominate double the number
+of candidates for office, from whom the Director was to make a choice.
+
+In 1655, during the absence of Stuyvesant on the South River, the
+Indians around Manhattan {74} appeared with a fleet of sixty-four war
+canoes, attacked and looted New Amsterdam, then crossed to Hoboken and
+continued their bloody work in Pavonia and on Staten Island.  In three
+days a hundred men, women, and children were slain, and a hundred and
+fifty-two were taken captive, and the damage to property was estimated
+at two hundred thousand guilders--approximately eighty thousand
+dollars.  As usual the Dutch had been the aggressors, for Van Dyck,
+formerly _schout fiscaal_, had shot and killed an old Indian woman who
+was picking peaches in his orchard.
+
+It must be set down to Stuyvesant's credit that on his return he acted
+toward the Indians in a manner that was kind and conciliating, and at
+the same time provided against a repetition of the recent disaster by
+erecting blockhouses at various points and by concentrating the
+settlers for mutual defense.  By this policy of mingled diplomacy and
+preparation against attack Stuyvesant preserved peace for a period of
+three years.  But trouble with the Indians continued to disturb the
+colonies on the river and centered at Esopus, where slaughters of both
+white and red men occurred.  Eight white men were burned at the stake
+in revenge for shots fired by Dutch soldiers, and an Indian chief was
+{75} killed with his own tomahawk.  In 1660 a treaty of peace was
+framed; but three years later we find the two races again embroiled.
+Thus Indian wars continued down to the close of Dutch rule.
+
+In spite of these troubles in the more outlying districts, New
+Amsterdam continued to grow and thrive.  In Stuyvesant's time the
+thoroughfares of New Amsterdam were laid out as streets and were named.
+The line of houses facing the fort on the eastern side was called the
+Marckveldt, or Marketfield, taking its name from the green opposite,
+which had been the site of the city market.  De Heere Straat, the
+principal street, ran north from the fort through the gate at the city
+wall.  De Hoogh Straat ran parallel with the East River from the city
+bridge to the water gate and on its line stood the _Stadt-Huys_.  'T
+Water ran in a semi-circular line from the point of the island and was
+bordered by the East River.  De Brouwer Straat took its name from the
+breweries situated on it and was probably the first street in the town
+to be regulated and paved.  De Brugh Straat, as the name implies, led
+to the bridge crossing.  De Heere Graft, the principal canal, was a
+creek running deep into the island from the East River and protected
+{76} by a siding of boards.  An official was appointed for the care of
+this canal with orders to see "that the newly made _graft_ was kept in
+order, that no filth was cast into it, and that the boats, canoes, and
+other vessels were laid in order."
+
+The new city was by this time thoroughly cosmopolitan.  One traveler
+speaks of the use of eighteen different languages, and the forms of
+faith were as varied as the tongues spoken.  Seven or eight large ships
+came every year from Amsterdam.  The Director occupied a fine house on
+the point of the island.  On the east side of the town stood the
+_Stadt-Huys_ protected by a half-moon of stone mounted with three small
+brass cannon.  In the fort stood the Governor's house, the church, the
+barracks, the house for munitions, and the long-armed windmills.
+Everything was prospering except the foundation on which all depended.
+There was no adequate defense for all this property.  Here we must
+acquit Stuyvesant from responsibility, since again and again he had
+warned the Company against the weakness of the colony; but they would
+not heed the warnings, and the consequences which might have been
+averted suddenly overtook the Dutch possessions.
+
+The war which broke out in 1652 between {77} England and the
+Netherlands, once leagued against Catholic Spain but now parted by
+commercial rivalries, found an immediate echo on the shores of the
+Hudson.  With feverish haste the inhabitants of New Amsterdam began to
+fortify.  Across the island at the northern limit of the town, on the
+line of what is now Wall Street, they built a wall with stout palisades
+backed by earthworks.  They hastily repaired the fort, organized the
+citizens as far as possible to resist attack, and also strengthened
+Fort Orange.  The New England Colonies likewise began warlike
+preparations; but, perhaps owing to the prudence of Stuyvesant in
+accepting the Treaty of Hartford, peace between the Dutch and English
+in the New World continued for the present, though on precarious terms;
+and, the immediate threat of danger being removed by the treaty between
+England and Holland in 1654, the New Netherlander relaxed their
+vigilance and curtailed the expense of fortifications.
+
+Meanwhile Stuyvesant had alienated popular sympathy and lessened united
+support by his treatment of a convention of delegates from New
+Amsterdam, Flushing, Breuckelen, Hempstead, Amersfort, Middleburgh,
+Flatbush, and Gravesend who had gathered to consider the defense and
+{78} welfare of the colonies.  The English of the Long Island towns
+were the prime movers in this significant gathering.  There is an
+unmistakable English flavor in the contention of _The Humble
+Remonstrance_ adopted by the Convention, that "'tis contrary to the
+first intentions and genuine principles of every well regulated
+government, that one or more men should arrogate to themselves the
+exclusive power to dispose, at will, of the life and property of any
+individual."  As a people "not conquered or subjugated, but settled
+here on a mutual covenant and contract entered into with the Lord
+Patroons, with the consent of the Natives," they protested against the
+enactment of laws and the appointment of magistrates without their
+consent or that of their representatives.
+
+Stuyvesant replied with his usual bigotry and in a rage at being
+contradicted.  He asserted that there was little wisdom to be expected
+from popular election when naturally "each would vote for one of his
+own stamp, the thief for a thief, the rogue, the tippler and the
+smuggler for his brother in iniquity, so that he may enjoy more
+latitude in vice and fraud."  Finally Stuyvesant ordered the delegates
+to disperse, declaring: "We derive our authority from God and the
+Company, not from a {79} few ignorant subjects, and we alone can call
+the inhabitants together."
+
+With popular support thus alienated and with appeals for financial and
+military aid from the States-General and the West India Company denied
+or ignored, the end of New Netherland was clearly in sight.  In 1663
+Stuyvesant wrote to the Company begging them to send him
+reenforcements.  "Otherwise," he said, "it is wholly out of our power
+to keep the sinking ship afloat any longer."
+
+This year was full of omens.  The valley of the Hudson was shaken by an
+earthquake followed by an overflow of the river, which ruined the
+crops.  Smallpox visited the colony, and on top of all these calamities
+came the appalling Indian massacre at Esopus.  The following year,
+1664, brought the arrival of the English fleet, the declaration of war,
+and the surrender of the Dutch Province.  For many years the English
+had protested against the Dutch claims to the territory on the North
+and South rivers.  Their navigators had tried to contest the trade in
+furs, and their Government at home had interfered with vessels sailing
+to and from New Amsterdam.  Now at length Charles II was ready to
+appropriate the Dutch possessions.  He did not {80} trouble himself
+with questions of international law, still less with international
+ethics; but, armed with the flimsy pretense that Cabot's visit
+established England's claim to the territory, he stealthily made
+preparations to seize the defenseless colony on the river which had
+begun to be known as the Hudson.  Five hundred veteran troops were
+embarked on four ships, under command of Colonel Richard Nicolls, and
+sailed on their expedition of conquest.  Stuyvesant's suspicions,
+aroused by rumors of invasion, were so far lulled by dispatches from
+Holland that he allowed several ships at New Amsterdam to sail for
+Curacao ladened with provisions, while he himself journeyed to
+Rensselaerswyck to quell an Indian outbreak.  While he was occupied in
+this task, a messenger arrived to inform him that the English fleet was
+hourly expected in the harbor of New Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant made haste
+down the river; but on the day after he arrived at Manhattan Island, he
+saw ships flying the flag of England in the lower harbor, where they
+anchored below the Narrows.  Colonel Nicolls demanded the surrender of
+the "towns situate on the island commonly known by the name of
+Manhattoes, with all the forts thereunto belonging."
+
+{81}
+
+Although the case of New Amsterdam was now hopeless, Stuyvesant yet
+strove for delay.  He sent a deputation to Nicolls to carry on a
+parley; but Nicolls was firm.  "When may we visit you again?" the
+deputation asked.  Nicolls replied with grim humor that he would speak
+with them at Manhattan.  "Friends are welcome there," answered
+Stuyvesant's representative diplomatically; but Nicolls told them
+bluntly that he was coming with ships and soldiers.  "Hoist a white
+flag at the fort," he said, "and I may consider your proposals."
+
+Colonel Nicolls was as good as his word and, to the consternation of
+the dwellers in New Amsterdam, the fleet of English frigates, under
+full sail and with all guns loaded, appeared before the walls of the
+useless old Fort Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant stood on one of the angles of
+the fort and the gunners with lighted matches awaited his command to
+fire.  The people entreated him to yield.  "Resistance is not
+soldiership," said one of them.  "It is sheer madness."  Stuyvesant,
+who with all his faults was a brave soldier, felt to the quick the
+humiliation; but he saw also that resistance meant only useless
+bloodshed.  At last he submitted, and the English vessels sailed on
+their way unmolested, {82} while Stuyvesant groaned, "I would much
+rather be carried to my grave."
+
+Without firing a shot the English thus took possession of the rich
+country which the States-General had not thought worth defending, and
+New Netherland became New York.
+
+
+
+[1] Van Twiller's advocate, W. E. Griffis, quotes the Nijkerk records
+in proof that Van Twiller was born on May 22, 1606, which would fix his
+age at twenty-seven when he was sent out to the colony.  The editor of
+the Van Rensselaer-Bowier manuscript states that Kiliaen Van Rensselaer
+was born in 1580, that his sister, Maria, married Richard, or Ryckaert,
+Van Twiller and that the Wouter of our chronicles was their son and
+therefore Van Rensselaer's nephew.  We are the more inclined to accept
+the year 1606 as the true date of Van Twiller's birth because the year
+1580, previously accepted by historians, would have been the same as
+that of the birth of Kiliaen Van Rensselaer himself, and because,
+according to the author of the _Story of New Netherland_, Maria Van
+Rensselaer was betrothed in 1605.  Otherwise we should find it almost
+beyond credence that a youth of twenty-seven should have been so
+suddenly promoted from the counting-house at Amsterdam to the
+responsible post of Director of New Netherland.
+
+
+
+
+{83}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+DOMINES AND SCHOOL-TEACHERS
+
+Because the Netherlander were not, like the New Englanders, fugitives
+from persecution at the hands of their fellow-countrymen, the Dutch
+colonization in America is often spoken of as a purely commercial
+venture; but in reality the founding of New Netherland marked a
+momentous epoch in the struggle for the freedom of conscience.
+Established between the long contest with the Inquisition in Spain and
+the Thirty Years' War for religious liberty in Germany, this plantation
+along the Hudson offered protection in America to those rights of free
+conscience for which so much blood had been shed and so much treasure
+spent in Europe.
+
+The Dutch colonists were deeply religious, with no more bigotry than
+was inseparable from the ideas of the seventeenth century.  They were
+determined to uphold the right to worship God in {84} their own way;
+and to say that their own way of worship was as dear to them as their
+beliefs is not strikingly to differentiate them from the rest of
+mankind.  They brought with them from the home country a tenacious
+reverence for their fathers' method of worship and for the Calvinistic
+polity of the Dutch Reformed Church.  They looked with awe upon the
+_synod_, the final tribunal in Holland for ecclesiastical disputes.
+They regarded with respect the _classis_, composed of ministers and
+elders in a certain district; but their hearts went out in a special
+affection to the _consistory_, which was made up of the ministers and
+elders of the single local _kerk_.  This at least they could reproduce
+in the crude conditions under which they labored, and it seemed a link
+with the home which they had left so far behind them.
+
+They had no intention, however, of forcing this church discipline on
+those who could not conscientiously accept it.  The devout wish of
+William the Silent that all his countrymen might dwell together in
+amity regardless of religious differences was fulfilled among the early
+settlers in New Netherland.  Their reputation for tolerance was spread
+abroad early in the history of the colony, and Huguenots, Lutherans,
+Presbyterians, {85} Moravians, and Anabaptists lived unmolested in New
+Netherland till the coming of Director Peter Stuyvesant in 1647.
+
+The religious tyranny which marked Stuyvesant's rule must be set down
+to his personal discredit, for almost every instance of persecution was
+met by protest from the settlers themselves, including his
+coreligionists.  He deported to Holland a Lutheran preacher; he revived
+and enforced a dormant rule of the West India Company which forbade the
+establishment of any church other than the Dutch Reformed; and he
+imprisoned parents who refused to have their children baptized in that
+faith.  But it was in his dealings with the Quakers that his bigotry
+showed itself in its most despotic form.  Robert Hodgson, a young
+Quaker, was arrested in Hempstead, Long Island, and was brought to New
+Amsterdam.  After he had been kept in prison for several days, the
+magistrate condemned him either to pay a fine of a hundred guilders or
+to work with a wheelbarrow for two years in company with negroes.  He
+declined to do either.  After two or three days he was whipped on his
+bare back and warned that the punishment would be repeated if he
+persisted in his obstinacy.  This treatment is recorded by the {86}
+Domines Megapolensis and Drisius in a letter to the _classis_ of
+Amsterdam, not only without protest but with every sign of approbation.
+Yet in the end public opinion made itself felt and Mrs. Bayard,
+Stuyvesant's sister (or sister-in-law, as some authorities say)
+procured the release of his victim.
+
+In another case, a resident of Flushing ventured to hold Quaker
+meetings at his home.  He was sentenced to pay a fine or submit to be
+flogged and banished; but the town officers refused to carry out the
+decree.  A letter, signed by a number of prominent townsfolk of
+Flushing, declared that the law of love, peace, and liberty was the
+true glory of Holland, that they desired not to offend one of Christ's
+little ones under whatever name he appeared, whether Presbyterian,
+Independent, Baptist, or Quaker.  "Should any of these people come in
+love among us therefore," said they, "we cannot in conscience lay
+violent hands upon them."  This letter immediately brought down upon
+the writers the despotic rage of Stuyvesant.  The sheriff of Flushing
+was cashiered and fined; the town clerk was imprisoned; and penalties
+of varying degree were imposed on all the signers.
+
+When accounts of Stuyvesant's proceedings {87} reached Amsterdam,
+however, he received from the Chamber a letter of stinging rebuke,
+informing him that "the consciences of men ought to be free and
+unshackled, so long as they continue moderate, inoffensive, and not
+hostile to government."  The Chamber, after reminding the Director that
+toleration in old Amsterdam had brought the oppressed and persecuted of
+all countries to that city as to an asylum, recommended Stuyvesant to
+follow in the same course.  Herewith ended the brief period of
+religious persecution in New Netherland.
+
+The amiable Domine Megapolensis who acquiesced in these persecutions
+came over to the colony of Rensselaerswyck in 1642 in the service of
+Kiliaen Van Rensselaer.  He was to have a salary of forty guilders per
+month and a fit dwelling that was to be provided for him.  So the
+"Reverend, Pious, and learned Dr. Johannes Megapolensis, junior," set
+sail for America "to proclaim Christ to Christians and heathens in such
+distant lands."  His name, by the way, like that of Erasmus,
+Melanchthon, AEcolampadius, Dryander, and other worthies of the
+Reformation, was a classical form of the homely Dutch patronymic to
+which he had been born.
+
+Apparently the Reverend Johannes was more {88} successful in his
+mission to the heathen than in that to the Christians, for he learned
+the Mohawk language, wrote a valuable account of the tribe, and
+understood them better than he understood the Lutherans and Quakers of
+New Amsterdam and Long Island.  In 1664 when Stuyvesant was in the mood
+to fire on the British fleet and take the consequences, Megapolensis,
+so tradition runs, dissuaded him with the argument: "Of what avail are
+our poor guns against that broadside of more than sixty?  It is wrong
+to shed innocent blood."  One wonders if the _domine_ had any room in
+his mind for thoughts of the useless sufferings which had been
+inflicted on Hodgson and Townsend and the Lutheran preachers while he
+stood by consenting.
+
+When Megapolensis arrived at New Netherland he found the Reverend
+Everardus Bogardus already installed as minister of the Gospel at Fort
+Amsterdam, his predecessor Michaelius having returned to Holland.  From
+the beginning Bogardus proved a thorn in the side of the Government.
+He came to blows with Van Twiller and wrote a letter to the Director in
+which he called him a child of the Devil, a villain whose bucks were
+better than he, to whom he should give such a {89} shake from the
+pulpit the following Sabbath as would make him shudder.
+
+The difficulties which Bogardus had with Van Twiller, however, were as
+the breath of May zephyrs compared to his stormy quarrels with Kieft.
+This Director had taken Bogardus to task for having gone into the
+pulpit intoxicated, and had also accused him of defending the greatest
+criminals in the country and of writing in their defense.  The fighting
+parson promptly countered on this attack.  "What," he asked from the
+pulpit, "are the great men of the country but receptacles of wrath,
+fountains of woe and trouble?  Nothing is thought of but to plunder
+other people's property--to dismiss--to banish--to transport to
+Holland."  Kieft, realizing that he had raised up a fighter more
+unsparing than himself and, unable to endure these harangues from the
+pulpit, ceased to attend the _kerk_; but the warlike _domine_ continued
+to belabor him till Kieft prepared an indictment, beginning: "Whereas
+your conduct stirs the people to mutiny and rebellion when they are
+already too much divided, causes schisms and abuses in the church, and
+makes us a scorn and a laughing stock to our neighbors, all which
+cannot be tolerated in a country where justice is {90} maintained,
+therefore our sacred duty imperatively requires us to prosecute you in
+a court of justice."  The quarrel was never fought to a finish but was
+allowed to die out, and the episode ended without credit to either
+party.
+
+Like everything else in the colony of New Netherland, the original
+meeting-places for worship were of the simplest type.  Domine
+Megapolensis held services in his own house, and Bogardus conducted
+worship in the upper part of the horse-mill at Fort Amsterdam, where
+before his arrival Sebastian Jansen Krol and Jan Huyck had read from
+the Scriptures on Sunday.  These men had been appointed
+_ziekentroosters_ or _krankenbesoeckers_ (_i.e._, consolers of the
+sick), whose business it was, in addition to their consolatory
+functions, to hold Sunday services in the absence of a regularly
+ordained clergyman.  In time these rude gathering-places gave way to
+buildings of wood or stone, modeled, as one would expect, on similar
+buildings in the old country, with a pulpit built high above the
+congregation, perhaps with intent to emphasize the authority of the
+church.
+
+The clerk, or _voorleser_, standing in the baptistery below the pulpit,
+opened the services by reading from the Bible and leading in the
+singing of {91} a psalm.  The _domine_, who had stood in silent prayer
+during the psalm, afterward entered the pulpit, and then laid out his
+text and its connection with the sermon to follow--a part of the
+service known as the _exordium remotum_.  During this address the
+deacons stood facing the pulpit, alms-bag in hand.  The deacons
+collected the contribution by thrusting in front of each row of seats
+the _kerk sacjes_ of cloth or velvet suspended from the end of a long
+pole.  Sometimes a bell hung at the bottom of the bag to call the
+attention of the slothful or the niggardly to the contribution, and
+while the bags were passed the _domine_ was wont to dwell upon the
+necessities of the poor and to invoke blessings upon those who gave
+liberally to their support.  When the sermon commenced, the
+_voorsinger_ turned the hour-glass which marked the length of the
+discourse.  The sermon ended, the _voorleser_ rose and, with the aid of
+a long rod cleft in the end, handed to the _domine_ in the pulpit the
+requests for prayers or thanksgiving offered by members of the
+congregation.  When these had been read aloud, another psalm was sung
+and the people then filed out in an orderly procession.
+
+The principle of competitive giving for the church was evidently well
+understood in New {92} Amsterdam.  De Vries has left us an account of a
+conversation held in 1642 between himself and Kieft in which he told
+the Director that there was great need of a church, that it was a
+scandal when the English came that they should see only a mean barn for
+public worship, that the first thing built in New England after the
+dwellings was a church, and that there was the less excuse for the
+Dutch as they had fine wood, good stone, and lime made from oyster
+shells, close at hand.  The Director admitted the justice of the plea
+but asked who would undertake the work.  "Those who love the Reformed
+Religion," De Vries answered.  Kieft replied adroitly that De Vries
+must be one of them, as he had proposed the plan, and that he should
+give a hundred guilders.  De Vries craftily observed that Kieft as
+commander must be the first giver.  Kieft bethought himself that he
+could use several thousand guilders from the Company's funds.  Not only
+was he as good as his word, but later he contrived to extort private
+subscriptions on the occasion of the marriage of Bogardus's
+step-daughter.  As usual when the _domine_ was present, the wine flowed
+freely.  "The Director thought this a good time for his purpose, and
+set to work after the fourth or fifth drink; and he himself {93}
+setting a liberal example, let the wedding-guests sign whatever they
+were disposed to give towards the church.  Each, then, with a light
+head, subscribed away at a handsome rate, one competing with the other;
+and although some heartily repented it when their senses came back,
+they were obliged nevertheless to pay."
+
+In view of this story it was perhaps a fine irony which inspired the
+inscription placed on the church when it was finished: "Ao. Do.
+MDCXLII.  W. Kieft Dr. Gr. _Heeft de Gemeente desen Tempel doen
+Bouwen_," _i.e._, "William Kieft, the Director-General, has caused the
+congregation to build this church."  The correct interpretation,
+however, probably read: "William Kieft being Director-General, the
+congregation has caused this church to be built."[1]
+
+Evidently religion prospered better than education in the colony, for
+the same lively witness who reports the Bogardus affair and the
+generosity stimulated by the flowing wine says also: "The bowl has been
+passed around a long time for a common school which has been built with
+words, for as yet the first stone is not laid; some materials only have
+been provided.  However the money {94} given for the purpose has all
+disappeared and is mostly spent, so that it falls somewhat short; and
+nothing permanent has as yet been effected for this purpose."
+
+The first schoolmaster sent to New Netherland arrived in 1633 at the
+same time as Bogardus, and represented the cause of education even less
+creditably than did the bibulous _domine_ that of religion.  Adam
+Roelantsen was twenty-seven years old when he took up his duties as
+instructor of youth in the colony, and he was as precious a scoundrel
+as ever was set to teach the young.  He eked out his slender income in
+the early days by taking in washing or by establishing a bleachery,
+which must be noted as one of the most creditable items in his
+scandalous career.  He was constantly before the local courts of New
+Amsterdam, sometimes as plaintiff, sometimes as defendant, and finally
+he appeared as a malefactor charged with so grave an offense that the
+court declared that, as such deeds could not be tolerated, "therefore
+we condemn the said Roelantsen to be brought to the place of execution
+and there flogged and banished forever out of this country."
+Apparently, on the plea of having four motherless children, he escaped
+the infliction of punishment and continued alternately {95} to amuse
+and to outrage the respectable burghers of New Amsterdam.  He was
+succeeded in order by Jan Stevensen, Jan Cornelissen, William Verstius,
+sometimes written Vestens, Johannes Morice de la Montagne, Harmanus Van
+Hoboocken, and Evert Pietersen.  In addition to these there were two
+teachers of a Latin school and several unofficial instructors.
+
+The duties of these early teachers were by no means light, especially
+in proportion to their scanty wage.  We learn in one case that school
+began at eight in the morning and lasted until eleven, when there was a
+two-hour recess, after which it began again at one and closed at four
+o'clock.  It was the duty of the teacher to instruct the children in
+the catechism and common prayer.  The teacher was ordered to appear at
+the church on Wednesdays with the children entrusted to his care, to
+examine his scholars "in the presence of the Reverend Ministers and
+Elders who may be present, what they in the course of the week, do
+remember of the Christian commands and catechism, and what progress
+they have made; after which the children shall be allowed a decent
+recreation."
+
+Besides his duties as instructor, the official schoolmaster was pledged
+"to promote religious {96} worship, to read a portion of the word of
+God to the people, to endeavor, as much as possible to bring them up in
+the ways of the Lord, to console them in their sickness, and to conduct
+himself with all diligence and fidelity in his calling, so as to give
+others a good example as becometh a devout, pious and worthy consoler
+of the sick, church-clerk, Precenter and School master."
+
+Throughout the history of New Netherland we find the church and school
+closely knit together.  Frequently the same building served for secular
+instruction on week-days and for religious service on Sundays.  In a
+letter written by Van Curler to his patroon, he says: "As for the
+Church it is not yet contracted for, nor even begun....  That which I
+intend to build this summer in the pine grove (or green wood) will be
+thirty-four feet long by nineteen wide.  It will be large enough for
+the first three or four years to preach in and can afterwards always
+serve for the residence of the sexton or for a school."
+
+How small were the assemblies of the faithful in the early days we may
+gather from a letter of Michaelius, the first _domine_ of the colony,
+incidentally also one of the most lovable and spiritually minded of
+these men.  In his account of the {97} condition of the church at
+Manhattan he observes that at the first communion fifty were present.
+The number of Walloons and French-speaking settlers was so small that
+the _domine_ did not think it worth while to hold a special service for
+them, but once in four months he contented himself with administering
+the communion and preaching a sermon in French.  This discourse he
+found it necessary to commit to writing, as he could not trust himself
+to speak extemporaneously in that language.  There is something
+beautiful and pathetic in the picture of this little group of half a
+hundred settlers in the wilderness, gathered in the upper room of the
+grist-mill, surrounded by the sacks of grain, and drinking from the
+_avondmaalsbeker_, or communion cup, while the rafters echoed to the
+solemn sounds of the liturgy which had been familiar in their old homes
+across the sea.
+
+There is the true ring of a devout and simple piety in all the
+utterances of the settlers on the subject of their church.  The
+pioneers were ready to spend and be spent in its service and they gave
+freely out of their scanty resources for its support.  In the matter of
+education their enthusiasm, as we have seen, was far less glowing, and
+the reasons for this coolness are a subject for curious {98}
+consideration.  The Dutch in Europe were a highly cultivated people,
+devoted to learning and reverencing the printed book.  Why then were
+their countrymen in the New World willing to leave the education of
+their children in the hands of inferior teachers and to delay so long
+the building of suitable schoolhouses?
+
+We must remember that the colonists in the early days were drawn from a
+very simple class.  Their church was important to them as a social
+center as well as a spiritual guide.  For this church they were willing
+to make any sacrifice; but that done, they must pause and consider the
+needs of their daily life.  Children old enough to attend school were
+old enough to lend a helping hand on the _bouwerie_, in the dairy, or
+by the side of the cradle.  Money if plentiful might well be spent on
+salaries and schoolhouses; but if scarce, it must be saved for bread
+and butter, clothing, warmth, and shelter.  In short, reading, writing,
+and figuring could wait; but souls must be saved first; and after that
+eating and drinking were matters of pressing urgency.  Fortunately,
+however, not all education is bound up in books, and, in the making of
+sturdy and efficient colonists, the rude training of hardships and
+privation when combined with a {99} first-hand knowledge of nature and
+of the essential industries provided a fair substitute for learning.
+
+On the other side of the picture we must consider what type of men
+would naturally be drawn to cross the sea and settle in the new colony
+as schoolmasters.  Many of the clergymen came urged by the same zeal
+for the conversion of the savages which fired John Eliot in New England
+and the Jesuit Fathers in the Canadian missions.  For the schoolmasters
+there was not this incentive, and they naturally looked upon the
+question of emigration as a business enterprise or a chance of
+professional advancement.  As a first consideration they must have
+realized that they were leaving a country where education and educators
+were held in high respect.  "There was hardly a Netherlander," says
+Motley, "man, woman or child, that could not read and write.  The
+school was the common property of the people, paid for among the
+municipal expenses in the cities as well as in the rural districts.
+There were not only common schools but classical schools.  In the
+burgher families it was rare to find boys who had not been taught Latin
+or girls unacquainted with French."  From this atmosphere of scholastic
+enthusiasm, from the opportunities of the libraries {100} and contact
+with the universities, the pedagogue was invited to turn to a rude
+settlement in the primeval forest, where the Bible, the catechism, and
+the concordance formed the greater part of the literary wealth at his
+disposal, and to take up the multiple duties of sexton, bell-ringer,
+precentor, schoolmaster, consoler of the sick, and general understudy
+for the _domine_.  In return for this he was to receive scanty wages in
+either cash or public esteem.
+
+What hardships were experienced by these early schoolmasters in New
+Netherland we may understand by reading the _Reverential Request_
+written by Harmanus Van Hoboocken to the burgomasters and _schepens_
+that he may be allowed the use of the hall and side-chamber of the
+_Stadt-Huys_ to accommodate his school and as a residence for his
+family, as he has no place to keep school in or to live in during the
+winter, for it is necessary that the rooms should be made warm, and
+that cannot be done in his own house.  The burgomasters and _schepens_
+replied that "whereas the room which petitioner asks for his use as a
+dwelling and schoolroom is out of repair and moreover is wanted for
+other uses it cannot be allowed to him.  But as the town youth are
+doing so uncommon well now, it is thought {101} proper to find a
+convenient place for their accommodation and for that purpose
+petitioner is granted one hundred guilders yearly."
+
+Can we wonder that New Netherland did not secure a particularly learned
+and distinguished type of pedagogue in the early days?  In 1658 the
+burgomasters and _schepens_ of New Amsterdam with a view to founding an
+academy petitioned the West India Company for a teacher of Latin, and
+Alexander Carolus Curtius was sent over to be the classical teacher in
+the new academy; but he was so disheartened by the smallness of his
+salary and by the roughness of the youthful burghers that he shortly
+returned to Holland, and his place was taken by AEgidius Luyck, who,
+though only twenty-two years old, established such discipline and
+taught so well that the reputation of the academy spread far and wide,
+and Dutch boys were no longer sent to New England to learn their
+classics.
+
+
+
+[1] Brodhead, _History of the State of New York_, vol. 1, p. 337 (note).
+
+
+
+
+{102}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE BURGHERS
+
+In the earliest days of New Netherland there were no burgers because,
+as the name implies, burghers are town-dwellers, and for a number of
+years after the coming of the Dutch nothing worthy to be called a town
+existed in the colony.  In the middle of the seventeenth century a
+traveler wrote from New Netherland that there were only three towns on
+the Hudson--Fort Orange, Rondout, and New Amsterdam--and that the rest
+were mere villages or settlements.
+
+These centers were at first trading-posts, and it is as idle to judge
+of the manners, customs, and dress prevailing in them by those of
+Holland at the same epoch, as to judge San Francisco in the mining days
+of 1849 by Boston and New York at the same date.  These early traders
+and settlers brought with them the character and traditions of home;
+but their way of life was perforce modified by the {103} crude
+conditions into which they plunged.  The picturesque farmhouses of Long
+Island and the crow-gables of New Amsterdam were not built in a day.
+Savages must be subdued and land cleared and planted before the
+evolution of the dwelling could fairly begin.  Primitive community life
+lingered long even on Manhattan Island.  As late as 1649 the farmers
+petitioned for a free pasturage between their plantation of Schepmoes
+and the fence of the Great Bowerie Number One.  The City Hall Park
+region bounded by Broadway, Nassau, Ann, and Chambers Streets continued
+very late to be recognized as village commons where the cattle were
+pastured.  The cowherd drove the cows afield and home again at
+milking-time, and it was his business to sound his horn at every gate
+announcing the safe return of the cows.  Correspondingly in the morning
+the harsh summons called the cattle from every yard to join the
+procession toward the meadows.
+
+When Tienhoven, Stuyvesant's secretary, sent out information for the
+benefit of those planning to take up land in New Netherland, he
+suggested that those who had not means to build at first might shelter
+themselves by digging a pit six or seven feet deep as large as needed,
+covering the {104} floor and walls with timber and placing over it a
+roof of spars covered with bark or green sods.  Even with this rude
+housing he suggests planting at once a garden with all sorts of
+pot-herbs and maize, or Indian corn, which might serve as food for man
+and beast alike.  Naturally these pioneer conditions of living lasted
+longer in the farming region than at New Amsterdam, where as early as
+1640 we see simple but comfortable little houses clustered in the
+shelter of the fort, and gathered close about the stone tavern, the
+West India Company's stores, and the Church of St. Nicholas.  The
+gallows and pillory, in full view, seemed to serve notice that law and
+order had asserted themselves and that settlers might safely solidify
+their houses and holdings.
+
+In 1648 the building of wooden chimneys was forbidden, and roofs of
+reed were replaced with more solid and less inflammable material.  The
+constant threat of fire led to drastic regulations for the cleaning of
+chimneys.  It was ordered that "if anyone prove negligent he shall,
+whenever the Firewardens find the chimneys foul, forthwith without any
+contradiction, pay them a fine of three guilders for every flue found
+on examination to be dirty, to be expended for fire ladders, hooks and
+{105} buckets, which shall be procured and provided at the earliest and
+most convenient opportunity."
+
+The early settlers found much difficulty in enforcing public
+sanitation, for, in spite of the world-wide reputation of the Dutch for
+indoor cleanliness, we find the burghers in 1658 bitterly reproached
+for throwing their rubbish, filth, dead animals, and the like into the
+streets "to the great inconvenience of the community and dangers
+arising from it."  The burgomasters and _schepens_ ordained that all
+such refuse be brought to dumping-grounds near the City Hall and the
+gallows or to other designated places.  Failure to observe this rule
+was punishable by fines or severer penalties.
+
+As prosperity increased, all conditions of living improved.  Many ships
+from Holland brought loads of brick and tiles as ballast, and the
+houses began to assume the typical Dutch aspect.  They were still built
+chiefly of wood, but with a gable end of brick facing the street.  The
+steep roofs seldom had eave-troughs, at least in the early days, and
+mention is made in deeds of "free-drip."
+
+The house was supplied, as the chronicler tells us, with "an abundance
+of large doors and small windows on every floor, the date of its
+erection was curiously designated by iron figures on the front, {106}
+and on the top of the roof was perched a fierce little weather-cock to
+let the family into the important secret which way the wind blew."  The
+front doors were usually divided, as in the old houses in Holland, into
+an upper and lower half hung on heavy hinges.  The door opened with a
+latch, and bore a brass knocker wrought frequently in the device of an
+animal's head.
+
+Only on formal occasions was this door thrown open or the fore-room to
+which it gave access used, for the life of the family, as in all
+primitive communities, was centered in the kitchen.  Here in winter
+roared the great fires up the wide-throated chimneys.  Here children
+and negro servants gathered in groups and told stories of the old home
+and the new.  Here the women knit their stockings and here the burghers
+smoked when the day's work was done.  But the fore-room, or _voorhuis_,
+though seldom occupied, was dear to the soul of the vrouw of New
+Netherland.  Here stood all the treasures too valuable or too fragile
+for daily use: the least, or chest, stored with household linen, the
+cabinet filled with Delft plates from Holland, and generally the carved
+four-poster covered with feather beds of prime goose-feathers and hung
+with gay chintz.
+
+{107}
+
+A shrewd observer has said that luxury implies waste while comfort
+lives in thrift.  We are safe in assuming that comfort rather than
+luxury prevailed in New Netherland and that the highly colored pictures
+of elegant life on the shores of the Hudson represent a very late
+phase, when the Dutch influence still prevailed under English
+protection.  The earlier settlers were a far simpler people, whose
+floors were scrubbed and sanded instead of carpeted, who used
+hour-glasses instead of clocks, and who set their four-poster beds in
+the rooms where visitors were formally received.
+
+It was of course the "great burghers" who set the social as well as the
+official tone in New Amsterdam.[1]  It was they who owned the finest
+houses, {108} who imported tables and chests of ebony inlaid with
+ivory.  It was they whose wives were bravely fitted out with
+petticoats, over which an upper garment was looped to display the
+velvet, cloth, silk, or satin which marked the social position and
+material wealth of the wearer.  The burgher himself went clad,
+according to his wealth, in cloaks of cloth or velvet, embroidered or
+silk-lined; but he always wore wide boots and wide breeches and a coat
+adorned with an abundance of buttons, the whole topped by a
+broad-brimmed hat adorned with buckles and feathers and seldom removed
+in the house.  The dress of the farmers was simpler than that of the
+town-dwellers or burghers.  It consisted generally of wide breeches, a
+_hemdrok_ or shirt-coat made of wool or cotton, an overfrock called a
+_paltsrok_, a low flat collar, the usual wide-brimmed hat, and shoes of
+leather on Sundays, and of wood on week-days for work on the
+_bouwerie_.  The children of burghers and farmers alike were clad in
+miniature copies of the garb of their elders, doubtless in many cases
+wearing the same garments {109} made over by removing the outworn
+portions.  It was a question of warmth rather than fashion which
+confronted the settlers and their children.
+
+To those of us who believe that the state exists for the protection of
+the home and the home for the protection of the child, it is neither
+futile nor frivolous to consider at some length what life had to offer
+to the small colonists.  Little Sarah Rapaelje, "the first-born
+Christian daughter in New Netherland," was soon surrounded by a circle
+of boys and girls.  Cornelis Maasen and his wife came over in 1631, and
+their first child was born on the voyage.  Following this little
+Hendrick came Martin, Maas, Steyntje, and Tobias.  We have already
+noted the two little motherless daughters of Domine Michaelius who were
+so hard put to it for a nurse.  A little later came Domine Megapolensis
+with his children Hellegond, Dirrick, Jan, and Samuel, running from
+eight to fourteen years in age.  The patroon had directed that they be
+furnished with clothing "in such small and compact parcels as can be
+properly stowed away on the ship."
+
+With the era of permanent settlers in New Netherland, cradles came to
+be in demand.  In the region of New Amsterdam the familiar hooded
+variety was brought from Holland, while farther {110} up the river and
+especially among the poorer folk birch bark was fashioned into a
+sleeping-place for the babies.  For the older children trundle-beds
+fitting under the big four-posters of the elders and rolled out at
+night were much in use, since the difficulty of heating made economy of
+bedroom-space a necessity.  This _treke-bed_ and its protecting
+four-poster, however, probably came later than the built-in
+_sloep-bank_, little more than a bunk in the side of the wall concealed
+by a curtain and softened by thick feather-beds.
+
+However rude the sleeping-place of the babies, the old home lullabies
+soothed them to slumber.  Dearest and most familiar was the following:
+
+  Trip a trop a tronjes,
+  De varken in de boonjes,
+  De koejes in de klaver,
+  De paaden in de haver,
+  De eenjes in de water plas,
+  De kalver in de lang gras,
+  So goed myn klein poppetje was.
+
+Thus to pictures of pigs in the bean patch and cows in the clover,
+ducks in the water and calves in the meadow, the little ones fell
+peacefully to sleep, oblivious of the wild beasts and wilder men
+lurking in the primeval forests around the little {111} clearing where
+the pioneers were making a home for themselves and their children.
+
+When the babies' eyelids unclosed in the morning they opened on a busy
+scene, for whatever anxious vigils the father and mother might have
+kept through the night, toil began with the dawn.  The boys were set to
+gathering firewood and drawing water, while the _goede vrouw_ was
+busily preparing a substantial morning meal of suppawn and sausage
+before her husband began the day's work of loading beaver-skins or
+tilling the ground or hewing timber.  A pioneer life means hard work
+for children as well as for their elders, and in the early years there
+was little time for play on the part of the youthful New Netherlander.
+As prosperity advanced and as negro servants were introduced, the
+privileges of childhood were extended and we find accounts of their
+sliding on their _slees_ or sleds down the hills of Fort Orange and
+skating at New Amsterdam on the Collect Pond, which took its name from
+the Dutch _kalk_, or lime, and was so called from the heaps of
+oyster-shells accumulated by the Indians.  The skates were of the type
+used in Holland, very long with curves at the front and rear, and, when
+metal could not be obtained, formed of ox-bone.
+
+{112}
+
+With an appetite bred of out-of-door work and play, and a breakfast
+hour at five or six in the morning, the children were hungry for the
+homely and substantial dinner when it eventually appeared at early
+noon.  Whatever social visits were planned took place at the supper,
+which occurred between three o'clock and six.  The tea-table, the
+chronicler tells us,
+
+
+was crowned with a huge earthen dish, well stored with slices of fat
+pork and fried trout, cut up into morsels and swimming in gravy.  The
+company, being seated round the genial board and each furnished with a
+fork, evinced their dexterity in launching at the fattest pieces in
+this mighty dish in much the same manner as sailors harpoon porpoises
+at sea, or our Indians spear salmon in the lakes.
+
+Sometimes the table was graced with immense apple pies, or saucers full
+of preserved peaches or pears; but it was always sure to boast an
+enormous dish of balls of sweetened dough, fried in hog's fat and
+called doughnuts or _olykoeks_....  The tea was served out of a
+majestic Delft tea-pot ornamented with paintings of fat little Dutch
+shepherds and shepherdesses tending pigs, with boats sailing in the air
+and houses built in the clouds....  To sweeten the beverage a lump of
+sugar was laid beside each cup and the company alternately nibbled and
+sipped with great decorum.
+
+
+In the houses of the richer colonists, as prosperity advanced,
+shell-shaped silver boxes for sugar, called {113} "bite and stir"
+boxes, were set on the table and, according to one authority, the lumps
+of sugar were of the nature of toffy with molasses added to the sugar.
+
+The feast ended, the young folk went their homeward way lighted by the
+moon, or, late in the century, on dark nights by a lantern hung on a
+pole from every seventh house.  When the curfew rang from the belfry
+"eight o'clock," lights were put out and all was made fast for the
+night, while the children's minds were set at rest by the tramp of the
+_klopperman_, who shook his rattle at each door as he passed from house
+to house through the dark hours, assuring the burghers that all was
+well and that no marauders were about.
+
+If winter offered sports and pastimes, spring, summer, and autumn had
+each its own pleasures, fishing and clam digging, shooting and
+trapping, games with ball and slings, berry picking, and the gathering
+of peaches which fell so thickly that the very hogs refused them.  The
+market days in New Amsterdam offered a long procession of delights to
+the young colonists.  But merriest of all were the holidays which were
+observed in New Netherland after much the same fashion as in the old
+home.
+
+{114}
+
+I do not know how to account for the fact that while the struggle of
+the Dutch people with the Papacy had been as bitter as that of England
+and the throwing off of the yoke by the Dutch fully as decided, they
+still retained the holidays which the Puritans eschewed as dangerous
+remnants of superstition.  Perhaps it was on the principle of robbing
+Satan of his hoofs and horns but keeping his cheerful scarlet costume,
+or perhaps they thought, as Rowland Hill remarked, that "it was poor
+policy to leave all the good times to the Devil."  In any case it was
+all grist to the children's mill.
+
+On the 1st of January all was arranged for the greeting of the New
+Year.  Mighty bowls of punch were brewed, cordials prepared from
+long-cherished family recipes were brought out, and the women, in their
+best apparel, seated themselves in the seldom-used _ontvangkamer_,
+where wine was handed to their callers to be received with the wish of
+a "Happy New Year!"  While these stately ceremonies were in progress
+the young people amused themselves with turkey-shooting, sleigh-riding,
+skating, and dancing.
+
+After New Year's Day the most characteristic national and local holiday
+was _Pinkster_, coming in the seventh week after _Paasch_, or Easter,
+and {115} falling generally in late May or early June.  The orchards
+were then white with blossoms and the grass thick with dandelions and
+spring flowers.  Children set out early to gather boughs from the green
+woods.  These boughs they sprinkled with water and left over the doors
+of late sleepers that the sluggards might be drenched on opening the
+door.  At first all was innocent merriment, gathering of Pinkster
+flowers, and picnicking; but for some unexplained reason this festival
+was gradually relegated to the negroes.  Apple-jack was freely
+consumed, barbaric dances began, and fun so far degenerated into
+license that the white people and their children shunned the festivity.
+
+The _Kermis_, an Old World festival, was one of those early introduced
+at New Amsterdam.  It originated centuries before and had taken its
+name from the _kerk mis_ or church mass.  In the olden days it was
+celebrated with pomp and solemnity, but it early developed a more
+festive character.  Booths and stalls were erected for a market, and
+dances and processions were organized.  The first stroke of the clock
+at noon opened at the same moment the market and the first dance.  The
+last stroke saw white crosses nailed on all the bridges across the
+canal and on the market place.  It was {116} indeed a festive
+appearance that the market presented, with its double stalls filled
+with eggs and gherkins, its booths hung with dried fish, its
+_poffertjeskraam_ dispensing the tempting batter-cakes, and its
+_wafelkraamen_ offering the more costly and aristocratic waffles.  The
+youths and maidens were given full license to parade arm in arm along
+the streets singing "Hossen, hossen, hossen!" and making the town ring
+with their mirth and laughter.  The first _Kermis_ held at New
+Amsterdam was in October, 1659.  Booths were arranged on the parade
+ground, and barter and sale and merrymaking went on gaily for six
+weeks, to the unspeakable joy of the little Hendricks and Jans and
+Annetjes who wandered from booth to booth.
+
+But keen as the delight of the Dutch children may have been, there was
+in their minds the hope of even better things to come a few weeks
+later, at their own especial, particular, undisputed feast of St.
+Nicholas, the beloved Santa Claus, patron saint of children in general
+and of young Netherlanders in particular.  The 6th of December was the
+day dedicated to this genial benefactor, and on the eventful night a
+white sheet was spread on the floor.  Around this stood the children
+singing {117} songs of welcome, of which the most popular was the
+familiar
+
+  Saint Nicholaes, goed heilig man,
+  Trekt uw'besten tabbard aan,
+  En reist daamee naar Amsterdam,
+  Von Amsterdam naar Spanje.
+
+
+If the Saint would ride forth thus accoutered and if he would do what
+they asked of him, the children explained that they would be his good
+friends, as for that matter they always had been, and would serve him
+as long as they lived.  At last the fateful moment arrived.  A shower
+of sweets was hurled through the open door and amid the general
+scramble appeared the Saint in full vestments attended by a servant
+known as _Knecht Ruprecht_, and, after the Dutch settlements in
+America, a black man, who added much to the fascination and excitement
+of the occasion.  He held in one hand an open sack into which to put
+particularly ill-behaved children, while in the other hand he carried a
+bunch of rods, which he shook vigorously from time to time.  The good
+Saint meanwhile smilingly distributed to the children the parcels that
+he had brought, and, after these had all been opened and the presents
+had been sufficiently {118} admired, the children dropped into their
+trundle-beds to dream of all the glories of the day.
+
+When the dust-sheet and litter of wrappings had been removed, the older
+people gathered around a table spread with a white cloth and set out
+with chocolate punch and a dish of steaming hot chestnuts, while the
+inevitable pipe, ornamented with a head of St. Nicholas, made its
+appearance and the evening ended with dancing and song in honor of the
+"goed heilig man."
+
+Besides these stated anniversaries, home life had its more intimate
+festivities such as those celebrating the birth of a child, whose
+christening was made quite a solemn event.  Every church owned its
+_doop-becken_ or dipping bowl from which the water was taken to be
+dropped on the baby's head.  One beautiful bowl of silver dating from
+the year 1695 is still in existence in a New York church.  About a week
+after the birth of the little New Netherlander, the neighbors were
+summoned to rejoice with the proud father and mother.  In the early
+days of the colony and in the farming region, these gatherings were as
+rude and simple as they were under similar conditions in Holland.  The
+men were invited at noon to partake of a long pipe and a bottle of gin
+and bitters.  The women arrived {119} later to find spread for their
+entertainment dishes of rusks spread with aniseed and known as muisjes
+or mice, accompanied by eggnog.  As society grew more sophisticated in
+the colony, these simple gatherings gave place to the elaborate caudle
+parties, where the caudle was served in silver bowls hung about with
+spoons that each guest might ladle out for himself into a china cup the
+rich compound of lemons, raisins, and spiced wine.  It is evident that
+there was no lack of material good cheer among the colonists of New
+Netherland, and we may be sure that the boys and girls secured their
+share of substantials and dainties.  I fear they were rather rough and
+rude, these young burghers, for all the reports which we have of them
+show them always in conflict with law and order.  The boys especially,
+owing to deficient schooling facilities, were quite out of hand.  They
+set dogs upon the night watchman at New Amsterdam and shouted
+"Indians!" to frighten him in his rounds.  They tore the clothes from
+each other's backs in the schoolroom where the unfortunate master was
+striving to keep order.  In Fort Orange sliding became so fast and
+furious that the legislators were obliged to threaten the confiscation
+of the _slees_, and it was no doubt with a keen realization of the
+{120} behavior of their offspring that the inhabitants of Flatbush
+inserted these words in the articles of agreement with the new
+schoolmaster: "He shall demean himself patient and friendly towards the
+children and be active and attentive to their improvement."
+
+However little learning from books entered into the lives of the young
+colonists, much that was stimulating to the imagination came to them by
+word of mouth from the _wilden_, from the negroes, and from their
+elders as they sat about the blazing fire in the twilight, or
+_schemerlicht_.  Then the tales were told of phantom ships, of ghosts
+walking on the cliffs of the Highlands, and of the unlucky wight who
+found his death in the river where he had sworn to plunge in spite of
+the Devil, a spot which still bears the name of Spuyten Duyvil in
+memory of the rash boast.
+
+We may find it hard to reconcile the reputation of the Dutch as a
+phlegmatic and unimaginative people with the fact that they and their
+children endowed the Hudson with more glamour, more of the supernatural
+and of elfin lore than haunts any other waterway in America.  Does the
+explanation perhaps lie in the fact that the Dutch colonists, coming
+from a small country situated on a level {121} plain where the
+landscape was open as far as the eye could see, and left no room for
+mystery, were suddenly transplanted to a region shut in between
+overhanging cliffs where lightning flashed and thunder rolled from
+mountain wall to mountain wall, where thick forests obscured the view,
+and strange aboriginal savages hid in the underbrush?  Was it not the
+sense of wonder springing from this change in their accustomed
+surroundings that peopled the dim depths of the _hinterland_ with
+shapes of elf and goblin, of demons and super-human presences?
+
+At any rate the spirit of mystery lurked on the outskirts of the Dutch
+settlements, and the youthful burghers along the Hudson were fed full
+on tales, mostly of a terrifying nature, drawn from the folklore of
+three races, the Dutch, the Indians, and the Africans, with some few
+strands interwoven from local legend and tradition that had already
+grown up along the banks of the Hudson.
+
+It was a simple but by no means a pitiable life that was led in those
+days by burghers and farmers alike on the shores of this great river.
+Never does the esteemed Diedrich Knickerbocker come nearer the truth
+than when he says: "Happy would it have been for New Amsterdam could it
+always {122} have existed in this state of blissful ignorance and lowly
+simplicity; but alas! the days of childhood are too sweet to last.
+Cities, like men, grow out of them in time and are doomed alike to grow
+into the bustle, the cares and the miseries of the world."
+
+
+
+[1] In 1657 the burgomasters and _schepens_ were authorized to create a
+great _burger-recht_ the members of which should be in a sense a
+privileged class.  It was set forth that "whereas in all beginnings
+some thing or person must be the first so that afterward a distinction
+may take place, in like manner it must be in establishing the great and
+small citizenship."  For which reason the line of great burghers was
+drawn as follows: first, those who had been members of the supreme
+government; second, the burgomasters and _schepens_ of the city past
+and present; third, ministers of the gospel; fourth, officers of the
+militia from the staff to the ensign included.  The privileges of this
+caste were open to the male descendants of each class; but as they
+could be secured by others outside the sacred circle on payment of
+fifty guilders it is difficult to understand wherein the exclusiveness
+lay.  The small burghers were decreed to be those who had lived in the
+city for a year and six weeks and had kept fire and light, those born
+within the town, and those who had married the daughters of citizens.
+A payment of twenty guilders was exacted of all such.  This effort to
+promote class distinctions was soon abandoned.  In 1668 the distinction
+was abolished and every burgher, on payment of fifty guilders, was
+declared entitled to all burgher privileges.
+
+
+
+
+{123}
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+THE NEIGHBORS OF NEW NETHERLAND
+
+Machiavelli observed that to the wise ruler only two courses were
+open--to conciliate or to crush.  The history of the Dutch in America
+illustrates by application the truth of this view.  The settlers at
+Fort Orange conciliated the Indians and by this means not only lived in
+peace with the native tribes but established a bulwark between
+themselves and the French.  Under Stuyvesant the settlers at Fort
+Amsterdam took a determined stand against the Swedes and crushed their
+power in America.  Toward the English, however, the Dutch adopted a
+course of feeble aggression unbacked by force.  Because they met
+English encroachments with that most fatal of all policies, protest
+without action, the Empire of the United Netherlands in America was
+blotted from the map.
+
+The neighbors of the Dutch in America were the Indians, the French, the
+Swedes, and the English.  {124} The earliest, most intimate, and most
+continuous relations of the Dutch settlers were with the Indians.
+These people were divided into a number of independent tribes or
+nations.  The valley of the North River was shared by the Mohawks, who
+inhabited the region along the west side of its upper waters, and the
+Mohegans, or Mahicans, as the Dutch called them, who lived on either
+side of the banks of its lower reaches, with various smaller tribes
+scattered between.  The warlike Manhattans occupied the island called
+by their name, while the Mohegans raised their wigwams also on the
+eastern shore of the upper river opposite the Mohawks, and ranged over
+the land reaching to the Connecticut River.
+
+The Mohawks, with the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the
+Senecas, formed the famous Five Nations, generally known as the
+Iroquois.  Their territory was bounded on the north by Lake Ontario and
+the St. Lawrence River, on the east by Lake Champlain and the North
+River, on the west by Lake Erie and the Niagara River, and on the south
+by the region occupied by the Lenni Lenape, or Delaware tribes.  But
+their power extended far beyond these limits over dependent tribes.
+They were in a constant state of warfare {125} with their Algonquin
+neighbors on the north and east, who had been enabled to offer a
+formidable resistance by the use of firearms furnished them by the
+French.
+
+When, therefore, the white men appeared among the Mohawks, bearing
+these strange weapons which had been used with such dire effect against
+the Iroquois by the Algonquins, the Mohawks eagerly sought the
+friendship of the newcomers, hoping to secure the same power which had
+made their enemies triumphant.  The Dutch were intelligent enough to
+make instant use of these friendly sentiments on the part of the
+natives and hastened to make a treaty with the Iroquois, the Mohegans,
+and the Lenni Lenapes.
+
+This treaty, which is said to have been signed on the banks of Norman's
+Kill in the neighborhood of Albany, was concluded with all formalities.
+Each tribe was represented by its chief.  The calumet was smoked, the
+hatchet was buried, and everlasting friendship was sworn between the
+old inhabitants and the new.  By this agreement the Dutch secured not
+only peace with the neighboring Indians--a peace never broken in the
+north, whatever broils disturbed the lower waters of the river--but at
+the same time a guard between {126} them and any encroachments of the
+French and Algonquins in Canada.
+
+On the other boundaries and outskirts of their possessions, the Dutch
+were less fortunate.  They had always claimed all the territory from
+the South or Delaware River to the Fresh or Connecticut River, but
+their pretensions were early challenged by the English on the ground of
+prior discovery and by the Swedes on the argument of non-occupation of
+the land.
+
+The reports of the wealth to be acquired from the fur trade had quickly
+spread from Holland to Sweden, and as early as 1624, Gustavus Adolphus,
+encouraged by William Usselinx, a Dutchman and promoter of the Dutch
+West India Company, was planning expeditions to the New World.  But the
+entrance of Sweden into the Thirty Years' War in 1630 put a stop to
+this plan, and the funds were applied to war purposes.  Gustavus
+Adolphus fell at Luetzen in 1632, leaving the kingdom to his little
+daughter Christina.  Her Government was conducted by Oxenstiern, a
+statesman trained in the great traditions of Gustavus, who felt with
+him that an American colony would be "the jewel of his kingdom."  An
+instrument for his purpose presented itself in Peter Minuit, who had
+returned {127} to Holland in 1632, smarting under his dismissal as
+Director of New Netherland.  He offered his services to Sweden for the
+establishment of a new colony, and they were accepted.  In the opening
+of 1638, he arrived in what is now Delaware Bay with two ships, the
+_Griffin_ and the _Key of Kalmar_.  From the Indians he bought large
+tracts of land in what is now the State of Delaware, and on the site of
+the present city of Wilmington he planted a fort named Christina.
+
+When news was brought to Kieft that Minuit had sailed up the South
+River and planned to raise the Swedish flag on a fort upon its shores,
+the Director promptly dispatched the following letter:
+
+
+I, Willem Kieft, Director-General of New Netherland, residing in the
+island of Manhattan, in the Fort Amsterdam, under the government of the
+High and Mighty States-General of the United Netherlands and the West
+India Company, privileged by the Senate Chamber in Amsterdam, make
+known to thee, Peter Minuit, who stylest thyself commander in the
+service of Her Majesty, the Queen of Sweden, that the whole South River
+of New Netherland, both upper and lower, has been our property for many
+years, occupied with our forts, and sealed by our blood, which also was
+done when thou wast in the service of New Netherland, and is therefore
+well known to thee.  But as thou art come between our forts to erect a
+fort to our damage and injury, which we {128} will never permit, as we
+also believe Her Swedish Majesty hath not empowered thee to erect
+fortifications on our coasts and rivers, or to settle people on the
+lands adjoining or to undertake any other thing to our prejudice; now
+therefore we protest against all such encroachments and all the evil
+consequences from the same, as bloodshed, sedition and whatever injury
+our trading company may suffer, and declare that we shall protect our
+rights in every manner that may be advisable.
+
+
+This blustering protest Minuit treated with contempt and continued
+building his fort.  The Swedish colony soon grew so rapidly as to be a
+serious menace to the Dutch in spite of their stronger fortifications.
+
+In 1642 Johan Printz, a lieutenant-colonel of cavalry, was sent over as
+Governor of New Sweden with instructions to maintain friendly relations
+with the Dutch, but to yield no foot of ground.  He established several
+other settlements on the South or Delaware River.  So tactlessly,
+however, did he perform his duties, that conflicts with the Dutch grew
+more and more frequent.  He built two forts on opposite sides of the
+river and ordered that every ship entering the waters should strike her
+colors and await permission to pass.  The first vessel on which the new
+orders were tried carried {129} as a passenger David de Vries.  The
+skipper asked his advice about lowering his colors.  "If it were my
+ship," De Vries asserts that he answered, "I would not lower to these
+intruders."  But peace at any price prevailed, the skipper lowered his
+colors, and the ship passed on to New Gottenburg, the capital of the
+colony.  Here De Vries was welcomed by Governor Printz, whom the
+traveler describes as "a brave man of brave size."  The evening was
+spent in talk over a jug of Rhenish wine.  Such friendly intercourse
+and the aggressions of the English against both Dutch and Swedes led to
+the temporary alliance of these latter in 1651.  Indians called in
+council confirmed the Dutch title to all lands except the site of the
+Swedish fort planted by Minuit, and a peace which lasted for three
+years was declared between the Dutch and the Swedes.
+
+In endeavoring to understand the relations between the settlements of
+the different nations in America in the seventeenth century we must
+realize that the colonies were only pawns in the great game being
+played in Europe between Spain and the Papacy on the one hand and the
+Protestant countries, England, Sweden, and the United Netherlands on
+the other.  Once apprehending {130} this, we can easily understand why
+the governor of each colony, though instructed to seize and hold every
+foot of land which could be occupied, was advised not to antagonize the
+other friendly nations and thus weaken the alliance against the common
+enemy.  As the power of Spain declined, however, and the estimate of
+the value of the American colonies increased, the friction in the New
+World became more acute and the instructions from the home governments
+grew imperative.
+
+Affairs then came to an open rupture between New Netherland and New
+Sweden.  In 1651 Governor Stuyvesant inaugurated a more aggressive
+policy against the Swedes by building Fort Casimir near what is now New
+Castle, Delaware, not far from the Swedish fort.  Three years later
+Fort Casimir fell into the hands of the Swedes.  The Dutch Government
+now commanded Stuyvesant to drive the Swedes from the river or compel
+their submission.  As a result the Director and his fleet sailed into
+the Delaware in September, 1655, and captured one fort after another,
+till Rysing, the last of the Swedish governors, was completely
+defeated.  Though the colonists were promised security in possession of
+their lands, the power of {131} New Sweden was ended, and the
+jurisdiction of the Dutch was for a time established.
+
+New Netherland had, however, other neighbors more powerful, more
+persistent, and with more at stake than the French, the Indians, and
+the Swedes.  These were the English colonists, pressing northward from
+the Virginias and southward from New England.  From the beginning of
+the Dutch colonization, England had looked askance at the wedge thus
+driven between her own settlements.  She had stubbornly refused to
+recognize the sovereignty of the States-General in the region of New
+Netherland while at the same time she vainly sought a pretext for the
+establishment of her own.  England put forward the apocryphal claim of
+discovery by Cabot; but here she was stopped by the doctrine announced
+in a previous century that in order to give title to a new country,
+discovery must be followed by occupation.  When England maintained
+that, since Hudson was an Englishman, the title to his discovery must
+pass to his native land, she was reminded that Cabot was a Genoese, and
+that Genoa might as well claim title to Virginia as England to New
+Netherland.
+
+The Plymouth Company particularly was concerned at the Dutch occupation
+of this middle {132} region to which the charter granted by King James
+gave it a claim.  It formally protested in 1621 against these "Dutch
+intruders."  Whereupon King James I directed Sir Dudley Carleton, his
+ambassador at The Hague, to protest against the Dutch settlements; but
+nothing was accomplished, both parties having their hands too full with
+European quarrels to carry these transatlantic matters to extremities.
+The tension, however, was constantly increased on both sides by a
+series of encroachments and provocations.
+
+In April, 1633, for example, the ship _William_ arrived at Fort
+Amsterdam under command of Captain Trevor, with Jacob Eelkens as
+supercargo.  Eelkens had been dismissed by the West India Company from
+the post of Commissary at Fort Orange, and was now in the service of
+some London merchants, in whose behalf he had come, as he told the
+Director, to buy furs on Henry Hudson's River.
+
+"Don't talk to me of Henry Hudson's River!" replied Van Twiller, "it is
+the River Mauritius."  He then called for the commission of Eelkens,
+who refused to show it, saying that he was within the dominions of the
+English King, and a servant of His Majesty, and asking the Dutch
+Council what {133} commission they themselves had to plant in the
+English dominion.  Whereupon Van Twiller replied that it was not
+fitting that Eelkens should proceed up the river, as the whole of that
+country belonged to the Prince of Orange and not to the King of England.
+
+After this exchange of amenities, Eelkens returned to his ship, which
+remained at anchor for several days.  At the end of the time, he
+presented himself again at the fort to ask if the Director would
+consent in a friendly way to his going up the river; otherwise, he
+would proceed if it cost his life.  In reply, Van Twiller ordered the
+Dutch flag to be run up at the fort and three pieces of ordnance fired
+in honor of the Prince of Orange.  Eelkens on his part ordered the
+English flag to be hoisted on the _William_ and a salute fired in honor
+of King Charles.  Van Twiller warned Eelkens that the course which he
+was pursuing might cost him his neck; but the supercargo weighed anchor
+and proceeded calmly on his way.
+
+Van Twiller then assembled all his forces before his door, brought out
+a cask of wine, filled a bumper, and cried out that those who loved the
+Prince of Orange and him should follow his example and protect him from
+the outrages of the Englishman; {134} Eelkens, by this time, was out of
+sight sailing up the river.  The people drank, but only laughed at
+their governor, and De Vries told him that he had been very foolish.
+"If it were my affair," he said, "I would have helped him away from the
+fort with beans from the eight-pounders."
+
+The _William_, meanwhile, journeyed up the river and Eelkens, who knew
+the country well, landed with his crew about a mile below Fort Orange
+and set up a tent where he displayed the wares which he hoped to
+exchange with the natives for beaver-skins.  Very soon reports of this
+exploit reached the ears of the commissary at Fort Orange, who at once
+embarked with a trumpeter on a shallop decorated with green boughs.
+The Dutch landed close beside the English and set up a rival tent; but
+the Indians preferred to deal with Eelkens, whom they had known years
+before and who spoke their language.
+
+In the high tide of success, however, Eelkens was rudely ordered to
+depart by a Dutch officer who had come up the river in charge of three
+vessels, a pinnace, a caravel, and a hoy.  To enforce the commands came
+soldiery from both Dutch forts, armed with muskets, half-pikes, swords,
+and other weapons, and ordered Eelkens {135} to strike his flag.  They
+pulled down the tent, sent the goods on board ship, and sounded their
+trumpets in the boat "in disgrace of the English."  The Dutch boarded
+the _William_, weighed her anchor, and convoyed her down the river with
+their fleet, and finally dismissed her at the mouth of the river.
+
+The troubles of the Dutch with their English neighbors, however, did
+not end with these aggressions on the Hudson and similar acts on the
+Delaware.  In the year 1614, Adriaen Block, a great navigator whose
+name deserves to rank with that of Hudson, had sailed through the East
+River, and putting boldly across Long Island Sound, had discovered the
+Housatonic and Connecticut rivers.  He also discovered and gave his own
+name to Block Island and explored Narragansett Bay, whence he took his
+course to Cape Cod.  These discoveries reported to the States-General
+of the United Netherlands caused their High Mightinesses at once to lay
+claim to the new lands; but before they could secure enough colonists
+to occupy the country, restless pioneers of English stock planted towns
+in the Connecticut valley, along the Sound, and on the shore of Long
+Island.  These were uncomfortable neighbors with aggressive {136}
+manners which quite upset the placid Dutch of New Amsterdam.
+Inevitable boundary disputes followed, which reached no adjustment
+until, in 1650, Stuyvesant went to Hartford to engage in a conference
+with commissioners of the United Colonies of New England.
+
+The Director began as usual with bravado; but presently he consented to
+leave the question of boundaries to a board of four arbitrators.  This
+board decided that the boundary between the Dutch and English
+possessions should run on Long Island from Oyster Bay south to the
+Atlantic, and that on the mainland it should run north from Greenwich
+Bay, but never approach within ten miles of the Hudson River.  The
+Dutch in New Netherland were amazed and disgusted at the decision; but
+though Stuyvesant is said to have exclaimed in dramatic fashion that he
+had been betrayed, he found it hopeless to struggle against the
+superior force arrayed against him.
+
+
+
+
+{137}
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE EARLY ENGLISH GOVERNORS
+
+The English Government was fortunate in its first representative after
+the surrender of Stuyvesant.  Colonel Richard Nicolls, who had enforced
+the surrender with all the energy of a soldier, afterward displayed all
+the tact and wisdom of a statesman.  It is true that the towns and
+forts were rechristened, and New Amsterdam, Fort Amsterdam, and Fort
+Orange became respectively New York, Fort James, and Albany in honor of
+the King's brother, James, Duke of York and Albany, to whom as Lord
+Proprietor the new English province was now granted; but the Dutch were
+not interfered with in their homes, their holdings, or their religion,
+and for nearly a year the city government at New Amsterdam went on as
+of old under the control of burgomasters, _schepens_, and _schouts_.
+
+In the following year Nicolls, according to instructions from the Duke
+of York, abolished "the {138} form of government late in practice,"
+appointed a mayor, aldermen, and a sheriff to rule New York, and
+directed the new officials to swear allegiance to the Duke.  He
+continued the commercial rights of the freeman who represented the
+burghers of the Dutch period, and he also introduced trial by jury,
+which placated the dwellers at New York and along the Hudson.
+
+On Long Island and in Westchester where New Englanders had settled,
+Nicolls proceeded with greater vigor.  This section together with
+Staten Island was erected into the district of Yorkshire, where "the
+Duke's Laws" were proclaimed and the machinery of English county
+government was put in operation.  With its three ridings, its courts of
+sessions, and its court of assizes, Yorkshire soon had an unmistakable
+English character even though Dutch inhabitants were numerous in
+western Long Island and in Staten Island.  The Duke's Laws were
+compiled mainly from the laws of the New England colonies, though they
+departed in many particulars from New England traditions.  In the Dutch
+towns _schouts_ and _schepens_ gave place to overseers and constables.
+The characteristic form of town government in the province was that in
+which freeholders elected {139} a board of eight overseers and a
+constable for one year.  Little by little English law and English
+institutions were to crowd out Dutch law and Dutch political
+institutions in the conquered province.
+
+By his wise policy, his magnetic personality, his scholarly tastes, and
+his social geniality, Nicolls seems to have won all hearts.  Maverick,
+his colleague, wrote Lord Arlington that it was wonderful how this man
+could harmonize things in a world so full of strife.  Entrusted by the
+Duke of York with practically unlimited power, he used it with the
+utmost discretion and for the good of the province.  When he resigned
+his post after four years of service, New York was deeply regretful
+over his departure and Cornelis Steenwyck, the Dutch mayor of the city,
+gave a farewell banquet in his honor.
+
+His successor, Colonel Francis Lovelace, was a favorite at court and a
+gallant cavalier who had been loyal to the King throughout his
+adversity.  With far less ability than Nicolls, Lovelace was at one
+with him in desire to benefit and unify the colony.  He established a
+club where English, French, and Dutch were spoken, and he offered
+prizes to be run for on the Long Island race-course.  Under his rule
+shipping increased and trade {140} flourished.  Merchants began to hold
+weekly meetings, thus laying the foundations of The Merchants'
+Exchange.  But his most notable achievement was the establishment of
+the first mail service on the American continent.
+
+In spite of all the sea commerce and trading up and down the river by
+sloops, pinks, flyboats, ketches, and canoes, the colonies of New York
+and New England demanded swifter and more frequent means of
+communication, and Governor Lovelace began to consider how the bonds
+could be drawn closer.  In 1671 one John Archer bought part of Van der
+Donck's old estate and built a village "near unto the passage commonly
+called Spiting Devil" on "the road for passengers to go to and fro from
+the main as well as for mutual intercourse with the neighboring
+colony."  Lovelace consented to make the village an enfranchised town
+by the name of Fordham Manor, provided its inhabitants should forward
+to the next town all public packets and letters coming to or going from
+New York.  The scheme evidently proved a success, for Lovelace shortly
+decided on a wider extension of communication, and the year 1673 was
+celebrated by the setting out of the first post between New York and
+New England.  It was to have started on New {141} Year's Day, but was
+delayed by waiting for news from Albany.  On the arrival of
+communications from Albany the carrier was sworn into office,
+instructed "to behave civily," to inquire of the New England
+authorities as to the best post-road, and to mark it for the benefit of
+other travelers.  The message which Lovelace sent to Governor Winthrop
+of Massachusetts on this occasion ran as follows:
+
+
+I here present you with two rarities, a pacquett of the latest
+intelligence I could meet withal, and a Post.  By the first, you will
+see what has been acted on the stage of Europe; by the latter you will
+meet with a monthly fresh supply; so that if it receive but the same
+ardent inclinations from you as at first it hath from myself, by our
+monthly advises all publique occurrences may be transmitted between us,
+together with severall other great conveniencys of publique importance,
+consonant to the commands laid upon us by His sacred Majestie, who
+strictly injoins all his American subjects to enter into a close
+correspondency with each other.  This I look upon as the most
+compendious means to beget a mutual understanding; and that it may
+receive all the countenance from you for its future duration, I shall
+acquaint you with the model I have proposed; and if you please but to
+make an addition to it, or subtraction, or any other alteration, I
+shall be ready to comply with you.  This person that has undertaken the
+imployment I conceaved most proper, being both active, stout, and {142}
+indefatigable.  He is sworne as to his fidelity.  I have affixt an
+annuall sallery on him, which, together with the advantage of his
+letters and other small portable packes, may afford him a handsome
+livelyhood.  Hartford is the first stage I have designed him to change
+his horse, where constantly I expect he should have a fresh one lye.
+All the letters outward shall be delivered gratis with a signification
+of _Post Payd_ on the superscription; and reciprocally, we expect all
+to us free.  Each first Monday of the month he sets out from New York,
+and is to return within the month from Boston to us againe.  The maile
+has divers baggs, according to the townes the letters are designed to,
+which are all sealed up till their arrivement, with the scale of the
+Secretarie's Office, whose care it is on Saturday night to seale them
+up.  Only by-letters are in an open bag, to dispense by the wayes.
+Thus you see the scheme I have drawne to promote a happy
+correspondence.  I shall only beg of you your furtherance to so
+universall a good work.
+
+
+By trail, road, and waterway the colonists were thus drawing nearer to
+each other and steadily increasing their facilities for trade, when all
+was interrupted by the reassertion of Dutch sovereignty and the
+reconquest of the English colony by the Dutch under much the same
+circumstances as had marked the surrender of Stuyvesant in 1664.  The
+old habit of unpreparedness survived under the English as under the
+Dutch; and the third war between England and Holland, begun in 1672 and
+{143} ended in 1674, found the strategic points on the Hudson again
+unprotected.  One August day in 1673 a powerful Dutch fleet appeared
+off Staten Island.  On the next day it sailed up through the Narrows,
+and Manhattan saw a repetition, with a difference, of the scene of
+1664.  After a brief exchange of volleys between the strong fleet and
+the weak fortress, the garrison recognized that resistance was
+hopeless, New York surrendered to Admiral Evertsen, and the flag of the
+Dutch Republic floated once more over the fortress, which changed its
+name to Fort Willem Hendrick while New York became New Orange.
+Governor Lovelace was absent from the city at the moment, and the blame
+of the surrender fell upon Manning, a subordinate, who was tried for
+neglect of duty, cowardice, and treachery.  His sword was broken over
+his head and he was pronounced ineligible for any office of trust.  But
+no governor could have saved the situation, as nothing was ready for
+defense.  When the Dutch took possession, Captain Anthony Colve was
+appointed Governor.  He proceeded with energy to put the fort into
+condition for defense, and for a time it seemed as if the Dutch might
+at last hold their rich heritage along the Hudson.  At the close of
+hostilities, however, a {144} treaty which was signed at Westminster in
+February, 1674, and proclaimed at the City Hall of New Orange in July
+of the same year, stipulated that New Netherland should again become an
+English province.  Thus for the third time, a national flag was lowered
+at the fort on Manhattan Island without serious effort at opposition.
+
+The treaty did not restore New York to the Duke whose name it bore but
+handed it over directly to Charles II, who, however, again granted it
+to his brother James.  Edmund Andros, a major in Prince Rupert's
+regiment of dragoons, was sent out to take control of the province,
+which had now changed hands for the last time.  His character was
+probably neither so white nor so black as it has been painted; but it
+is certain that he lacked the tact of Nicolls, and he brought to his
+task the habits of a soldier rather than an administrator.  He never
+succeeded in winning the complete confidence of the people.
+
+From the beginning Andros showed himself hostile to popular liberty and
+loyal to the interests of his patron as he saw them.  But the
+difficulties of his position, it must be admitted, were very great.
+James, Duke of York, brother of Charles II, and, in the absence of
+legitimate children of {145} the King, the heir to the throne, had, as
+we have seen, been granted all rights in the conquered territory of New
+Netherland in 1664.  Part of this territory he promptly gave to two
+court favorites, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.  The sagacious
+Nicolls protested that this partition which surrendered to a divided
+ownership the rich lands of New Jersey--so called in honor of
+Carteret's gallant defense of the Island of Jersey during the Civil
+Wars--was a menace to the well-being of New York.  His warning, which
+might not have been heeded in any case, did not reach England until the
+transfer was completed.
+
+With the Dutch occupation all titles were canceled, but under the new
+treaty, James, although by this time thoroughly informed of the
+complications involved, with the usual fatuity of the Stuarts now made
+a grant of the eastern part of New Jersey to Carteret in severally,
+taking no notice of the western part, which Berkeley had already sold
+for the sum of a thousand pounds.  By this grant to Carteret many
+questions were at once raised.  Was Sir George Carteret a lord
+proprietor like the Duke himself, responsible only to the King, or was
+he only a lord of the manor responsible to his master the Duke?  Was
+East Jersey a {146} part of New York, or was it an independent
+province?  As usual the importance of the questions was based on
+commercial considerations.  If New Jersey were a separate entity then
+it might trade directly with England; if it were dependent on New York
+it could trade only by permission of the Duke's representative.
+
+Philip Carteret, a kinsman of Sir George, whom the latter had appointed
+Governor of his share of New Jersey, and who went to America in the
+same ship as Andros in 1674, determined to test the matter by declaring
+Elizabethtown a free port, while Andros demanded that all ships bound
+to or from any port in the original New Netherland must enter and clear
+at New York.  With equal pertinacity Andros asserted the Duke's
+authority in West Jersey, haling Fenwick, one of the claimants under
+the original grant of 1674, to court in New York.  Fenwick's land
+titles, however, were sustained, and Andros then released him upon his
+explicit promise that he would not meddle with the government of West
+Jersey.  Taking advantage of the death of Sir George Carteret in 1680,
+Andros next arrested and imprisoned Governor Philip Carteret on the
+ground that he now had no authority, and then himself assumed the {147}
+governorship of East Jersey.  But Carteret was acquitted, the Assembly
+of East Jersey sustained their Governor, and the towns refused to
+submit.  Meanwhile, charges of corruption had been brought against
+Andros in New York, where his imperious manner and arbitrary conduct
+had made enemies.  He was recalled to England in 1681 to answer these
+charges, and in consequence of the disaffection which he had stirred up
+he was removed from office.
+
+Colonel Thomas Dongan, the Governor chosen to succeed Andros, was a
+younger son of an Irish Baronet and a Roman Catholic.  The laws of
+England forbade a Catholic to hold office in that country; but there
+was not the same barrier in the province subject to a Lord Proprietor.
+James, being of the Catholic faith, was therefore glad to appoint
+people of that religion in the New World.  Realizing, however, that the
+feeling against Catholicism was strong in the colony, the Duke gilded
+the pill by granting more liberal laws and a more popular form of
+government than had previously been permitted.  At the time of his
+appointment Dongan received instructions from the Duke of York to call
+a representative Assembly of not more than eighteen members to be
+chosen by the {148} freeholders of the province.  This Assembly met in
+October, 1683, and passed some fifteen laws, the first and most
+memorable of which was the so-called _Charter of Liberties and
+Privileges_.  The most notable provisions of the charter were those
+establishing the principles of popular representation and religious
+liberty, and those reciting the guarantees of civil rights familiar to
+all Englishmen.
+
+Before this charter could be finally ratified by the Duke of York,
+Charles II died from a stroke of apoplexy, and James became King.
+After fifteen minutes in his closet, where he had retired to give "full
+scope to his tears," he emerged to work for three years his bigoted
+will on the affairs of the realm.  James the King took a different view
+of many things from James the Duke.  The status of New York was
+similarly changed from a ducal proprietorship to a royal province.  The
+new charter recognized a Lord Proprietor.  But that Lord Proprietor had
+now become King of England, and this King found some of the enactments
+of the charter so objectionable to His Majesty that he disallowed the
+charter.  Moreover, James did away with the Assembly which he had
+previously allowed to be summoned.  But the seed of popular government
+had been planted in the Western {149} Hemisphere and within the next
+century it was ripe for the harvesting.
+
+In 1688 New York and New Jersey were united with the Eastern colonies
+under title of "The Dominion of New England," and Sir Edmund Andros was
+appointed Governor-General of a territory of imperial dimensions.  But
+the year of his arrival in New York marked the departure of his royal
+master from England.  Bigotry and tyranny had overshot the mark and the
+English people had determined to dethrone James.
+
+On the invitation of the Protestant nobility, James's son-in-law,
+William of Orange, landed at Torbay in November, 1688, and rapidly won
+popular support.  After beginning negotiations with him, James became
+alarmed and took flight to France at the close of the year.  William of
+Orange and his wife, James's daughter Mary, then became King and Queen
+of England (February 13, 1689) and New York once more passed under the
+control of a Dutch sovereign.
+
+
+
+
+{150}
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+LEISLER
+
+The story of the so-called Leisler Rebellion illustrates the difficulty
+of sifting conflicting historical testimony.  Among the earlier
+chroniclers of New Netherland there is the widest difference of opinion
+about the chief actor in the drama.  Leisler was "an illiterate
+German," says one authority.  Another says: "He was the son of a French
+clergyman driven into exile, and making his home in Frankfort where the
+little Jacob was born.  The boy was taught to write and speak Dutch,
+French, and German; but being unskilled in the English tongue he was
+unjustly charged with illiteracy."  By one party he was branded as a
+vulgar demagogue ready to ally himself with the mob against the
+conservative citizenry.  By another he was acclaimed as the champion of
+the people's rights and religion when they were threatened with
+invasion by the minions of the perfidious Stuarts.
+
+{151}
+
+In regard to the main events of this troubled time there is,
+fortunately, little dispute, although they are so complicated that they
+require close attention.  When James II fled from England at the end of
+the year 1688 and was succeeded by William and Mary, the affairs of the
+American provinces were thrown into a state of chaos.  The change of
+government was not known in Massachusetts until March, 1689.  The
+immediate result of the news was to fan the popular wrath against Sir
+Edmund Andros, then in Boston, into such a flame that the Governor was
+seized and thrown into prison before he was able to make his escape to
+New York.  His imprisonment left Lieutenant-Governor Nicholson,
+Andros's deputy at New York, in a difficult position.  Andros was still
+Governor and Nicholson was unable to communicate with him.  Some people
+held that Nicholson thus became acting Governor; others claimed that
+the whole existing machinery of government was swept away by the
+abdication of James and that the provinces were free to govern
+themselves till they could learn the will of the new sovereigns.
+
+Nicholson was a weak man, and his vacillation produced the impression
+that he might be engaged in a conspiracy to bring back the rule of
+James.  {152} Three years before, in the King's camp, he had knelt when
+Mass was celebrated.  Who knew what Catholic designs might lurk behind
+this significant act?  Rumor grew into suspicion, and suspicion turned
+to panic.  At length Nicholson fell into an altercation with an officer
+on guard at Fort James who asserted his authority.  In the course of
+the argument the Lieutenant-Governor remarked angrily: "I would rather
+see the city on fire than commanded by an impudent fellow like him."
+Next morning word had spread far and wide through the town that
+Nicholson had threatened to burn New York, and all was in an uproar.  A
+crowd of citizens appeared at the house of Leisler, who was an officer
+in the train-band, a citizen well known for honesty, a stanch, even
+bigoted Protestant, and withal a man of firm purpose, and they begged
+him to act as their leader in a determined effort to preserve their
+liberties and hold New York for William and Mary.  It is easy to see on
+looking back over two centuries that the dangers of conspiracy were
+greatly exaggerated; but we must remember that these men really
+believed that they themselves and all that they held sacred were in
+jeopardy.  The possibility of war with France was indeed not remote;
+and fear {153} of an invasion from Canada with all the horrors of an
+Indian war haunted the minds of every frontier family.
+
+Leisler invited the people of the towns and counties of New York to
+choose delegates to a convention to be held at Fort James on June 25,
+1689, to consider what was best to be done under existing conditions.
+Ulster, Albany, and most of the towns in Queens County refused to send
+delegates.  The others responded, however, and the delegates formed
+themselves into a committee of safety.  They appointed Leisler "Captain
+of the fort at New York until orders shall be received from their
+Majesties," and Leisler accepted the responsibilities of government.
+
+Massachusetts and Connecticut congratulated him on his conduct, and in
+the province of New York he was generally approved; but he had the
+misfortune to be opposed by the Roman Catholics and the landed gentry.
+The former were few in number and, after the establishment of the
+Protestant succession, a negligible danger, though in view of the
+assertion made by James to the Pope that "it was his full purpose to
+have set up Roman Catholic Religion in the English Plantations of
+America," we can scarcely call it bigotry on {154} Leisler's part to
+fear their influence.  Unfortunately for the Leislerians "the gentry"
+made common cause with the Catholics against the new Government.
+Albany, which was preeminently Dutch and held the Reformed Church in
+reverence, was also aristocratic in sympathy and resented the rule of
+Leisler as the representative of the common people.  Even so, had
+Leisler shown more tact and less obstinacy there might still have been
+a chance to placate the opposing factions; but by his fanatical attacks
+on all Catholics and his open defiance of such prominent citizens as
+Nicholas Bayard, Stephanus Van Cortlandt, Frederick Philipse, Peter
+Schuyler, and Robert Livingston, he fomented the strife until
+conciliation became impossible.
+
+In the beginning of January, 1689, Leisler committed a grievous
+strategical error in permitting Nicholson to leave for England to
+render an account of the state of affairs, while the Leislerians
+depended upon communications written in dubious English and carried by
+a bearer who was of inferior social standing.
+
+Meanwhile Leisler won a temporary victory over his opponents.  In
+December dispatches arrived from the Privy Council and the King and
+Queen of England, addressed to "Our Lieutenant-Governor {155} and
+Commander-in-Chief of our Province of New York, or in his absence to
+such as for the time being take care to keep the peace and administer
+the laws," and authorizing him to take the reins of government, calling
+to his assistance "in the administration thereof the principal
+freeholders and inhabitants of the same, or so many of them as you
+shall think fit."  Nicholson having departed for England, the messenger
+was in some doubt as to the proper recipient of the message.  Bayard
+and his faction strove to obtain possession of it; but it was finally
+delivered to Leisler.  He appointed a council of eight men, all
+reputable citizens and by no means representing the rabble, as his
+enemies charged.  In this procedure he was acting in strict conformity
+with the letter from the Privy Council.
+
+Leisler assumed the title of Lieutenant-Governor and, much to the
+chagrin of his foes, took his seat in the Governor's pew at church.  It
+was his moment of triumph; but troubles were already darkening the
+horizon.  In November Leisler sent to Albany his deputy, an Englishman
+named Milborne, to demand the recognition of his Government; but the
+mandate being opposed by Schuyler, Livingston, and Bayard, all well
+known and highly {156} esteemed in Albany and representing the
+aristocratic faction, that town refused entrance to Milborne and his
+escort and refused likewise to recognize Leisler as Governor.
+
+The Albany Records for November, 1689, describe the incident as
+follows: "Three sloops neared Albany bearing troops under Jacob
+Milborne and immediately Captain Wendell and Blucker, Johannes Cuyler
+and Reymier Barents go aboard to learn the object of his visit.  Jacob
+Milborne asks: 'Is the fort open to receive me and my men?'  The reply
+is: 'No, the Mayor is in command and will hold it.'"
+
+On the receipt of this inhospitable message, reenforced by military
+demonstrations, Milborne wisely withdrew his inadequate force and
+returned to New York to report the failure of his mission.  Three
+months after Milborne's rejection, in the bitter February weather of
+1690, the village of Schenectady, at that time a western frontier post,
+was burned and its inhabitants were massacred in a French and Indian
+raid.  Once more Leisler sent his deputy at the head of a body of
+troops to the assistance of the Albanians, and this time Milborne was
+not denied entrance to the town.  Having thus gained control of the
+province, Leisler summoned {157} a convention of delegates from
+Massachusetts and Connecticut to meet at New York on May 1, 1690, in
+order to discuss the defense of the colonies.
+
+Meanwhile the Leislerians and their opponents were bombarding the new
+King and Queen with their conflicting claims.  In 1690, Captain Blagge,
+congratulating their Majesties on "the late Happy Revolution in
+England" asked their Majesties' approbation for Leisler on the ground
+that "Nicholson, like Col. Dongan, had neglected to repair the
+fortifications of the city, which excited suspicions against his
+loyalty, and he was disaffected towards the late happy revolution in
+England."  Hence Jacob Leisler had been chosen, "with a committee, to
+make such repairs and to administer the government until William's
+pleasure could be known."  The memorial goes on to say:
+
+
+Shortly after, their Majesties' Proclamation arrived by which William
+and Mary were to be proclaimed King and Queen of England.  Notice was
+given to the late Council of Nicholson, and to the Mayor and Aldermen
+to assist, with proper ceremonies, in this Proclamation.  They desired
+an hour's time for considering it, and then refused.  Leisler and his
+Committee and most of the inhabitants did then celebrate the event with
+many demonstrations of joy and affection.
+
+The Mayor and Aldermen were then suspended from {158} office, and
+certain opponents of the Revolution and their Majesties' interests,
+were imprisoned.  Shortly after their Majesties' letters arrived,
+directed to Lieutenant Governor Nicholson, or, "in his absence to such
+as for the time being do take care for the preservation of their
+Majesties' Peace, and administering the Lawes in that their Majesties'
+Province; ordering such to take upon them the place of Lieutenant
+Governor and Commander in Chief of the said Province and to proclaim
+King William and Queen Mary, King and Queen of England, Scotland,
+France and Ireland, and supream Lord and Lady of the Province of New
+York, if not already done"; which was accordingly done.
+
+The Inhabitants generally were satisfied therewith, and Leisler's
+committee was dismissed, and a Council chosen to assist him in the
+government; but the members of the old government opposed all this and
+created a faction.  This excited fear lest the Province should yet be
+delivered up to the French in Canada, which fear greatly agitated the
+Protestant population.  The said faction also surrounded Captain
+Leisler and abused him with ill language and threats, and would have
+done violence to him, if they had not feared the people, who rescued
+him out of their hands, and imprisoned the ringleaders of the
+opposition.  Multitudes also flocked into the city from the country, to
+defend the existing government, and it was with great difficulty that
+their zeal could be restrained.  The prisoners were ultimately fined
+and discharged upon their own recognizance to keep the peace.
+
+The Fort and City were therefore, now in a good condition, excepting a
+lack of ammunition.  The Commission of all military men who had acted
+under Governors {159} Dongan and Andros, had been called in, and other
+Commissions issued in the name of their present Majesties, and only to
+those who were well affected thereto.  But our efforts thus to secure
+their Majesties interests have been greatly misrepresented, and we have
+been loaded with reproaches; our actions have been called a Dutch plot,
+although three quarters of the inhabitants are of Dutch descent, and
+speak Dutch; and our ruin is threatened, if the government ever falls
+into the hands of our opponents.
+
+
+To this lengthy defense Bayard and Nicolls made response as follows:
+
+
+Jacob Leisler a man of desperate fortune, ambitiously did assume unto
+himselfe the title of Lieutenant-Governor of this Province of New York,
+and chose a councel of ye meanest and most abject common people; made
+to himself a Broad Seale, which he called ye Seale of ye Province, with
+ye usuall armes of Kings of England; and affixed the same to some
+unlawful graunts of land within this Province; and commissionated under
+ye same Justices of ye Peace, in whose hartes were mischiefe.  He
+constituted Courts of Oyer and Terminer, and tryed severall subjects
+for pretended treason, murther and other crimes.  He taxed and levied
+monney upon their Majesties subjects to their grievous oppression and
+great impoverishment.  When he wanted more money for his occasions, he
+forcebly robbed and spoiled, broke open doors and locx were he guissed
+it was to be found, and carried away to ye vallue of some thousands of
+pounds in money or goods; and all this against the {160} best
+Protestant subjects in the Province.  He imprisoned whom he feared,
+without any other cause than that their integrity to ye Protestant
+interest, and fidelity to their Majesties, became a terroire to him;
+some of them after a tedious confignment, without collour of law, he
+whipt and branded; and some he kept in duresse so long as he held ye
+fort.
+
+
+Upon one point, both the followers and opponents of Leisler agreed:
+there was no Dutch plot behind this revolution.  "The notion of a Dutch
+plott cannot be applicable to Leisler and his adherents," said Bayard;
+"the much greater part of Albany which wholly consists of Dutch people,
+and all the men of best repute for religion, estatte, and integrity of
+the Dutch nacon, throughout the whole Province, having alwaies been
+manifestly against Leisler and his society, in all their illegall and
+irregular proceedings."  To these representations their Majesties'
+advisers made no reply, but the appointment of Governor of New York was
+given to Colonel Henry Sloughter, "a profligate, needy, and narrow
+minded adventurer," the selection of whom did little credit to the
+wisdom of William of Orange.  All the papers from both factions were
+committed to this inefficient officer with instructions to examine the
+allegations strictly and impartially and to make a true report.
+
+{161}
+
+In December, 1690, Sloughter set sail with several ships and a body of
+troops.  By some accident the vessels were separated, and the ship
+bearing Major Richard Ingoldesby, "a rash, hot-headed man" who had
+served in Holland and recently returned from service in Ireland,
+arrived in the _Beaver_ two months before Sloughter's ship reached New
+York.  His commission required him to obey the royal Governor, but did
+not give him authority to act as commander-in-chief in case of
+Sloughter's absence or death.  Nevertheless Ingoldesby at once
+announced the appointment of Sloughter and demanded the surrender of
+the fort.  Leisler replied by offering quarters for Ingoldesby's
+soldiers; but refused to surrender the fort till he saw the Major's
+commission.
+
+Ingoldesby had no credentials whatever, but he issued a proclamation
+calling on the people and magistrates to aid him in enforcing the royal
+commission.  Leisler issued a counter proclamation warning him at his
+peril not to attempt hostilities against the city or the fort; but on
+receiving assurances that Ingoldesby had no intention of using force
+against the people of New York, he permitted the troops to land.  The
+fort, however, he would not yield.  With rival forces in the town,
+{162} peace was difficult to maintain.  Neither commander trusted the
+other.  Recrimination followed protest.  Finally, on the 17th of March,
+Leisler fired on Ingoldesby's troops, killing two and wounding others.
+
+At length on March 19, 1691, Sloughter entered the harbor of New York.
+Representative anti-Leislerians hastened to board his ship and escorted
+him to the City Hall, where he took the oath of office at eleven
+o'clock at night.  He immediately dispatched Ingoldesby to demand the
+surrender of the fort.  Again Leisler's bigotry and obstinacy overcame
+his prudence.  Instead of surrendering at once he dispatched a
+messenger bearing letters and warning him to look well at Sloughter and
+be sure he was no counterfeit.  Sloughter informed Leisler's messenger
+that he intended to make himself known in New York as well as in
+England and ordered Ingoldesby for the second time to demand possession
+of the fort and to release from their prison Colonel Bayard and Mr.
+Nicolls, that they might attend the council to which they had been
+appointed members.
+
+Leisler refused either to surrender the fort or to release the
+prisoners but sent Milborne and De la Noy to endeavor to make terms.
+Sloughter {163} imprisoned both envoys and ordered his frigate to hold
+itself in readiness to fire on the fort.  Leisler, at length and too
+late realizing that resistance was useless, sent a letter to the
+Governor offering submission.  For the third time Ingoldesby was
+ordered to demand the possession of the fort.  This time the garrison
+yielded and Leisler was put under arrest.
+
+With Milborne, now his son-in-law, and eight others, Leisler was
+arraigned before a court having inveterate royalists as judges.  Two
+insurgents were acquitted.  Six made their defense, were convicted of
+high treason, and were reprieved.  Leisler and Milborne declined to
+plead and appealed to the King.  They were, however, condemned and
+sentenced to death.  Sloughter was reluctant to sign the
+death-warrants; but his associates, more particularly Bayard, who had
+been imprisoned by Leisler, were determined on the execution.  It is
+maintained that the Governor's signature was obtained at a banquet when
+he was under the influence of liquor, and that an officer stole with
+the warrant to the prison and ordered the victims led out for immediate
+execution.  Be this as it may, Sloughter's compunctions were overcome
+and the death-warrants signed.
+
+{164}
+
+The scaffold was erected at the lower end of the park and weeping
+people thronged about the victims.  Leisler's dying speech, which was
+marked by neither anger nor bitterness, affirmed that he had no other
+aim than "to maintain against Popery or any schism or heresy whatever
+the interest of our Sovereign Lord and Lady and the Reformed Protestant
+Churches" in these parts.  The drop fell, the populace rushed up to
+claim some relics of their leader, the bodies were taken down,
+beheaded, and buried, and so the worthless Sloughter thought to make an
+end of "a troublesome fellow."
+
+But the Leisler blood still flowed in the veins of the dead man's son,
+who never ceased fighting till in 1695 the attainder on the estate was
+removed.  This action of the English Parliament was tantamount to a
+confession that Leisler had been unjustly accused, tried, and hanged,
+and that these, the only people ever put to death for political reasons
+on the soil of New York, died as misguided martyrs, not as criminal
+conspirators.
+
+
+
+
+{165}
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PRIVATEERS AND PIRATES
+
+Sloughter did not live long to enjoy his triumph over Leisler, and his
+death came so suddenly that the anti-Leislerites raised their eyebrows
+and whispered "poison," while the Leislerites shrugged their shoulders
+and sneered "delirium tremens."  Neither faction seemed particularly
+reluctant to part with him.
+
+Colonel Benjamin Fletcher, who was sent over from England as the next
+Governor, arrived in New York in the summer of 1692.  His rule is
+chiefly memorable for the founding of Trinity Church and for the
+encouragement which he gave to piracy.  These strangely differing
+activities were both obnoxious to the Dutch burghers, who were almost
+as strongly opposed to the Church of England as to that of Rome, and
+who suspected the Governor of conniving at the practice of piracy or at
+least of closing his eyes to the source of the {166} doubloons of
+Spain, the louis d'or of France, and other strange coin which at this
+epoch had begun to circulate together with ivory and sandalwood in the
+little town at the tip of Manhattan Island.
+
+In one sense Fletcher cannot be held responsible for the existence of
+piracy in the colony or on the high seas.  The institution was as old
+as navigation.  Moreover the issuance of letters of marque in the war
+with Spain had legalized privateering, which was so near akin to piracy
+that it was often hard to distinguish between the two.  Even royalty
+was not above accepting a share in the questionable spoils of the sea,
+as in the well-known case of Queen Elizabeth and the booty which Drake
+brought home.
+
+It is easy, therefore, to guess the source of the Eastern rugs, the
+carved teakwood furniture, and stuffs from India looms which adorned
+the houses of the rich men of New York.  On the streets pirate captains
+were pointed out as celebrities.  One of them, Edward Coates, presented
+Madam Fletcher with jewels, silks, and cashmere shawls.  Thomas Tew,
+another "filibustier," is described by a contemporary as a slight, dark
+man about forty years of age, who wore a uniform consisting of a blue
+jacket bordered with gold lace and short {167} trousers of white linen
+covering his legs to the knee, below which came embroidered stockings.
+Around his neck he wore a chain of beaten gold and from his belt
+protruded a dagger's hilt set with sparkling jewels.
+
+These picturesque pirates and privateers swaggered about the taverns in
+the shadow of the _Stadt-Huys_ or lounged along the wharves at the
+harbor.  Everywhere they were the center of attention, and their tales
+of adventure were listened to with the most eager interest.  But these
+adventurers in the end pushed things so far that the Government in
+England found itself obliged to take vigorous action against them.
+James expressly instructed the provincial Governors Andros and Dongan
+to suppress "all pirates and sea rovers," for they had become so bold
+in their activities along the Spanish Main that lawful trading was
+languishing and merchants were in terror.
+
+Many of the adventurers in the West Indies having been originally
+engaged in the honest business of _boucanning_, or smoking fish and
+meat after the manner of the Carib savages, they and their piratical
+comrades were generally known in Europe as "buchaniers" or
+"buccaneers."  By the Hollanders they were named "_zee rovers_"; by the
+{168} French "_flibustiers_," which was only the Frenchman's way of
+pronouncing "freebooter."  In 1652 Samuel Sewall established in Boston
+a free mint, which attracted the pirates to that town, where they could
+bring their booty in gold and silver and have it safely dropped into
+the melting-pot beyond the reach of either discovery or recovery.  In
+1687 Sir Robert Holmes was sent with a squadron to the West Indies to
+put a stop to the nefarious trade of the freebooters, and in the next
+year Nicholson imprisoned at Boston several pirates whose leader was
+"one Petersen."  These activities on the part of the authorities had
+the effect of driving the "_zee rovers_" from the Caribbean to the East
+Indies for their enterprises and from Boston to New York for their
+market.
+
+Sea commerce at this time had so far outstripped a naval power adequate
+to protect it that piracy grew more and more profitable, and many a
+respected merchant held private stock in some more than dubious sea
+venture.  The coast of Madagascar was a meeting place for pirates and
+merchantmen, and there Oriental stuffs, gold, and jewels were exchanged
+for rum or firearms, and the merchant vessel returned to New York,
+where her {169} goods were sold cheaply and no questions were asked.
+One ship sailing from New York laden with Jamaica rum, Madeira wine,
+and gunpowder returned with a cargo of slaves and East India goods, and
+the voyage was reported to have cleared a net profit of thirty thousand
+pounds.
+
+The scandal of "adventuring" continued to grow, and in 1695 Peter De la
+Noy wrote thus to the home government:
+
+
+We have a parcell of pirates in these parts which (people) call the Red
+Sea men, who often get great booty of Arabian Gold.  His Excellency
+gives all due encouragement to these men, because they make all due
+acknowledgements to him; one Coats, a captain of this honorable order
+presented his Excellency with his ship, which his Excellency sold for
+eight hundred pounds and every one of the crew made him a suitable
+present of Arabian Gold for his protection; one Captain Twoo who is
+gone to the Red Sea upon the same errand was before his departure
+highly caressed by His Excellency in his coach and six horses, and
+presented with a gold watch to engage him to make New York his port at
+his return.  Twoo retaliated the kindnesse with a present of Jewells;
+but I can't learn how much further the bargain proceeded; time must
+shew that....  After this all you will perhaps wonder when I tell you
+that this man's bell rings twice a day for prayers and that he appears
+with a great affectation of piety; but this is true, and it is as true
+that it makes him only more ridiculous, not more respected.
+
+{170} Not only were the buccaneers terrorizing the West Indies, the Red
+Sea, and the Madagascar coast, but according to the Albany Records of
+1696 "pirates in great numbers infest the Hudson River at its mouth and
+waylay vessels on their way to Albany, speeding out from covers and
+from behind islands and again returning to the rocky shores, or
+ascending the mountains along the river to conceal their plunder."
+
+The Government in England now prepared to take vigorous measures.  It
+desired to fit out an armed force to suppress the buccaneers; but as
+all the regular navy was needed in the war with France it was decided
+to organize a stock company in which the King, the Duke of Shrewsbury,
+Lord Chancellor Somers, the Earls of Bellomont, Oxford, and Romney,
+Robert Livingston, and others took shares, for the purpose of fitting
+out a privateer vessel to fight the pirates and at the same time to win
+some profit for themselves.
+
+The _Adventure-Galley_, carrying thirty guns and manned by over one
+hundred sailors, was fitted out and entrusted to the command of William
+Kidd, a sea-captain of New York who chanced to be in London at the time
+and who was warmly recommended by Robert Livingston to Lord Bellomont,
+{171} who had been appointed to succeed Fletcher as Governor of New
+York.  He was well known as a bold and skillful sailor, and a man of
+wealth and repute in New York, and in his marriage certificate he was
+called "Captain William Kidd, Gentleman."
+
+The plan finally formed was that Kidd with a privateer furnished with a
+letter of marque and a special commission from the King should cruise
+about in search of the pirates and capture them.  In pursuance of the
+scheme Kidd set sail on the _Adventure-Galley_ and reached New York in
+the spring of 1696.  He set up placards all over the town asking for
+recruits, with the result that a motley crew of adventurers rushed to
+take ship in this strange new enterprise.  At this time Kidd was living
+in one of the handsomest houses in New York, on what is now Liberty
+Street.  Before this, in 1691, he had married the widow of a fellow
+sea-captain, a woman of great respectability, by whom he had one
+daughter, and he was known far and wide as a solid and trustworthy
+merchant.
+
+His venture seemed bulwarked by every guarantee; but even at that epoch
+there were not wanting those who predicted strange things for the
+_Adventure-Galley_.  Few, however, foresaw any events as strange as
+those which actually occurred.  After {172} cruising along the American
+coast without achieving the capture of any pirate ships Kidd set sail
+for the Red Sea and reached the coast of Madagascar in the fall of
+1697.  Here again he found no trace of the corsairs, who had probably
+been forewarned of his coming.
+
+Kidd then took on water and provisions and proceeded to the coast of
+Madagascar.  Still no pirates.  Water and provisions were running low,
+and the crew threatened mutiny unless they were allowed to take up the
+business of piracy on their own account.  Kidd thereupon decided to
+yield, and the _Adventure-Galley_ began by capturing several vessels
+owned by the Great Mogul, as well as some ships sailing under French
+colors.  In December, 1698, Kidd captured an East India ship named the
+_Quedagh Merchant_.  The _Adventure-Galley_ being in bad condition,
+Kidd set the crew of the _Quedagh Merchant_ on shore, took possession
+of the ship, burned his old one, and set sail in his new vessel for
+Madagascar.
+
+In spite of their rich spoils, the mutineers remained sullen, and many
+deserted.  The men's discontent led to an altercation with William
+Moore, a gunner, in the course of which Kidd hit him on the head with a
+bucket.  The resulting {173} injury proved fatal to Moore and
+ultimately resulted in disaster for Kidd.  After leaving Madagascar the
+pirate captain sailed for the West Indies, and it must have been with a
+sinking heart that he received the news which awaited him there.  The
+piracy of the _Adventure-Galley_ was already known in England, and a
+committee of Parliament had been appointed to inquire into the whole
+affair.  Free pardon for acts committed before May 1, 1699, was offered
+by royal proclamation to all pirates who would surrender.  But an
+ominous exception was made in this proclamation of mercy: Avery, a
+notorious buccaneer, and William Kidd were not included.
+
+The cause of this exclusion from grace is not far to seek.  It was not
+that Kidd was a sinner above all others; but that he had involved great
+personages from the King down, and that the Tories were making capital
+out of the connection between prominent Whig statesmen and the misdeeds
+of Captain Kidd.  The outlaw now determined on a course which in a
+righteous cause might well have been called bold but which under the
+circumstances could only be described as brazen.  He bought at the
+island of Hispaniola a small sloop which he loaded with gold coin, gold
+dust, gems, {174} and other booty and, with what remained of his crew,
+he set sail for New York.  Thus at San Domingo the _Quedagh Merchant_,
+with her fifty guns and her valuable cargo, was abandoned.  Her fate
+has continued a mystery to this day, and from time to time the search
+for the lost booty is still suggested and inaugurated by enthusiasts
+for adventure or seekers for gold.
+
+When Kidd drew near New York he found that the Earl of Bellomont had
+gone to Boston, and he resolved to follow the Governor to
+Massachusetts.  Much uncertainty surrounds his course at this time.  It
+is said that he sailed up Long Island Sound, stopped at Gardiner's
+Island, and buried a chest of treasure there, that he presented Mrs.
+Gardiner with brocades embroidered with gold threads and dropped jewels
+into his wine.  It is said that he succeeded in reaching his wife by a
+letter, asking her to meet him at Block Island.  Rumor has it that from
+Narragansett Bay he communicated with Bellomont and informed his
+lordship that he, William Kidd, was on board a sloop with ten thousand
+pounds' worth of goods and that he was entirely guiltless of the piracy
+with which he was charged.  It is said that Bellomont replied that, if
+Kidd could establish his {175} innocence, he might count on the
+Governor's protection.[1]
+
+Amid all these rumors there seems good evidence that Kidd landed in
+Boston in July and had the effrontery to offer the Governor a gift of
+jewels for Lady Bellomont.  With the approval of the Council Bellomont
+accepted the gift and handed the gems to a trustee as evidence in the
+case against Kidd.  The Earl of Bellomont, being a man of sterling
+integrity, was naturally sensitive as to his apparent complicity in the
+Kidd piracy, refused any further parley, and sent the buccaneer to
+England to stand his trial there.
+
+Kidd was held in London for several months pending the collection of
+evidence against him, and his trial for piracy and the murder of
+William Moore finally began at the Old Bailey in the spring of 1701.
+From this point we have the original documents of the state trials and
+a complete record of the evidence for and against Kidd.  Bellomont is
+eliminated as a factor, and it becomes a case of the Crown against
+Captain William Kidd and a number of others, for murder and piracy upon
+the high seas.
+
+{176}
+
+However we may feel as to Kidd's guilt in the matter of piracy, we can
+but realize that, according to the standards of modern times, he was
+not given a fighting chance for his life.  He was detained in Newgate
+Prison and denied all counsel until he had pleaded "guilty" or "not
+guilty."  In spite of all his protests he was brought to trial on the
+first indictment for murder, incidentally the least certain of his
+offenses.  The jury being sworn, the clerk proceeded with the first
+indictment for murder and declared that "the jurors of our sovereign
+Lord the King do upon their oath present that William Kidd, late of
+London, married, not having the fear of God before his eyes; but being
+moved and seduced by the Devil ... did make assault in and upon one
+William Moore ... and that the aforesaid William Kidd with a certain
+wooden bucket, bound with iron hoops, of the value of eight pence,
+which he the said William Kidd then and there held in his right hand,
+did violently, feloniously, voluntarily, and of his malice aforethought
+beat and strike the aforesaid William Moore in and upon the right part
+of the head of him, the said William Moore then and there upon the high
+sea in the ship aforesaid and within the jurisdiction of England."
+
+{177}
+
+Several sailors testified to the circumstances of the murder, that Kidd
+had called the gunner "a lousy dog" and Moore had replied: "If I am a
+lousy dog you have made me so.  You have brought me to ruin and many
+more."  At this, Kidd's temper being roused, he struck Moore with the
+bucket, and the gunner died the next day as a result of the blow.
+Considering the severity of treatment of mutinous sailors permitted to
+ships' officers at that time, there is little reason to think that
+under ordinary circumstances Kidd would have been adjudged guilty of
+murder for a blow struck in hot blood and under provocation; but the
+verdict was certain before the trial had begun.  The jury after an
+hour's consultation brought in a verdict of guilty, and Kidd was
+remanded to Newgate Prison to await trial for piracy.
+
+This second trial took place in May, 1701, and included, beside the
+Captain, nine other mariners charged with piracy, in that "they
+feloniously did steal, take and carry away the said merchant ship
+_Quedagh Merchant_ and the apparel and tackle of the same ship of the
+value of four hundred pounds of lawful money of England, seventy chests
+of opium, besides twenty bales of raw silk, a hundred bales of calico,
+two hundred bales of {178} muslins, two hundred and fifty bales of
+sugar and three bales of romels."
+
+Kidd's defense was that the ships captured were sailing under French
+passes and therefore lawful prizes according to the terms of his
+commission.  These passes, he said, had been delivered into Bellomont's
+hands.  But the Court made no effort to procure these passes or to
+inquire further into the matter.  The jury was out for a short time
+only and brought in their verdict against or for the mariners
+separately.  All but three were found guilty.  In addressing them the
+Court said: "You have been tried by the laws of the land and convicted
+and nothing now remains but that sentence be passed according to the
+law.  And the sentence of the law is this: You shall be taken from the
+place where you are and be carried to the place from whence you came
+and from thence to the place of execution and there be severally hanged
+by your necks until you be dead.  And may the Lord have mercy on your
+souls!"
+
+Captain Kidd was hanged at Execution Dock on May 23, 1701.  Thus ended
+the most famous pirate of the age.  His career so impressed the popular
+imagination that a host of legends sprang up concerning him and his
+treasure ship, while {179} innumerable doleful ballads were written
+setting forth his incredible depravity.  Yet it is curious to consider
+that, had he died a few years earlier, he would have passed away as an
+honored citizen of New York and would have been buried with pomp and
+circumstance and the usual laudatory funeral oration.
+
+
+
+[1] Bellomont was commissioned Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, as well as of New York.
+
+
+
+
+{180}
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+COLONIAL GOVERNMENT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
+
+While Captain Kidd was still on the high seas and pirates were still
+infesting the lower Hudson, the Earl of Bellomont arrived in New York
+(in April, 1698), accompanied by his wife and his cousin, John Nanfan,
+who had been appointed Lieutenant-Governor.  The citizens greeted the
+new Governor with every demonstration of delight.  The corporation gave
+a public banquet and offered a eulogistic address.  Bellomont on his
+part entered into his task with enthusiasm.  In the new Assembly called
+in 1699, he spoke of the disorder prevailing in the province, left as
+it was with a divided people, an empty treasury, ruined fortifications,
+and a few half-naked soldiers.  He spoke of the ill repute of New York
+as a rendezvous for pirates and said: "It would be hard if I who come
+before you with an honest heart and a resolution {181} to be just to
+your interests, should meet with greater difficulties in the discharge
+of His Majesty's service than those who have gone before me."  He
+declared it his firm intention that there should be no more
+misapplication of the public money, a veiled attack upon Fletcher's
+grants of land and privileges which had become a public scandal.  He
+would, he said, pocket none of the money himself nor permit any
+embezzlement of it by others and promised exact accounts to be laid
+before the Assembly "when and as often as you require."  The Assembly
+passed a vote of thanks and voted a six years' revenue.  Apparently
+everything was auspicious; but the seed of discord was already sown by
+Bellomont's early espousal of the Leislerian cause, which was in effect
+the cause of the common people.
+
+In the Ecclesiastical Records of the State an account of the
+disinterment and reburial of the mutilated remains of Leisler and of
+his son-in-law Milborne shows the determination of Bellomont to make
+what reparation was possible, in addition to the removal of attainder,
+for the injustice done.  The document closes with these words:
+
+
+Yesterday, October 20, [1698] the remains of Commander Jacob Leisler
+and of Jacob Milborne [eight years and {182} five months after their
+execution and burial] were exhumed, and interred again with great pomp
+under our [new] Dutch Church [in Garden Street].  Their weapons and
+armorial ensigns of honor were there [in the Church] hung up, and thus,
+as far as it was possible, their honor was restored to them.  Special
+permission to do this had been received by his Honor's son, Jacob
+Leisler, from his Majesty.  This gave unutterable joy to their families
+and to those people who, under him, had taken up arms for our blessed
+King William.  With this circumstance we trust that the dissensions
+which have so long harassed us, will also be buried.  To this end our
+Right Honorable Governor, my lord the Earl of Bellomont, long wished
+for by us, is exerting his good offices.  He tries to deal impartially
+with all, acting with great fairness and moderation.  He has begun [his
+administration] by remembering the Lord God; for he has ordered a day
+of solemn fasting and prayer throughout the whole land.  In a
+proclamation of great seriousness, he has exhorted the inhabitants
+earnestly to pray for these things [peace among the people] to the
+Divine Majesty.  We hope the Lord will bestow his gracious blessings
+and grace, upon your Reverences, with all our hearts.
+
+
+This proceeding on the part of Bellomont, combined with the appointment
+to office of prominent Leislerians and the dismissal of some of their
+opponents, arrayed at once a formidable body of important citizens
+against him.  Their numbers were augmented by the people who had
+profited by {183} unlawful privileges won from Fletcher and now
+stripped from them by Bellomont; but the Governor pursued his course
+undaunted either by the threats or by the taunts cast against him as a
+partner of the pirate, Captain Kidd.  So beloved was Bellomont by the
+people and so strongly intrenched by influence in the Government at
+home that he could probably have carried through the reforms which he
+had at heart; but his untimely death in 1701, after a brief rule of
+three years, put an end to all his far-reaching schemes for the good of
+the colonies.
+
+His death was followed by a condition approaching civil war between the
+followers of Leisler and their foes.  In 1702 Queen Anne, who had
+recently ascended the throne, appointed as Governor her relative,
+Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury.  He suppressed the Leislerians and exalted
+the aristocratic party, thereby restoring order but at the same time
+bringing odium upon his cause by his personal vices.  Cornbury was a
+type of everything that a colonial governor should not be, a scamp, a
+spendthrift, and a drunkard.  Relying upon his relationship to Queen
+Anne, he felt himself superior to the ordinary restraints of
+civilization.  He took bribes under guise of gifts, was addicted to all
+{184} forms of debauchery, and incidentally proved as foolish as he was
+wicked, one of his amusements, it is said, being that of parading the
+streets of New York in the evening, clad in woman's attire.  His lady
+was as unpopular as he and it is said that when the wheels of her coach
+were heard approaching the house of any of the wealthy citizens of New
+York, the family was hastily set to work hiding the attractive
+ornaments to which her ladyship might take a fancy, as she had no
+compunction in asking for them as a gift.  In an expedition to Albany
+in 1702, Cornbury's vanity led him to decorate his barge with brilliant
+colors, to provide new uniforms for the crew, and generally to play the
+peacock at the expense of the colony.  Rumor placed the sum of his
+debts at L7000.  Moreover he was charged with the embezzlement of L1500
+of government money.
+
+A long-suffering community finally demanded the recall of Lord Cornbury
+and demanded it with the same insistence which was to make itself felt
+in revolution in the last half of the century.  As is usual with
+sovereigns when any right is demanded with sufficient firmness, Queen
+Anne was graciously pleased to withdraw Lord Cornbury in 1708.  On the
+arrival of his successor, Cornbury was placed {185} by indignant
+creditors in the charge of the sheriff, and was held in custody until
+the news of his succession to the earldom of Clarendon reached the
+colony.  The library, furniture, and pictures of the Queen's cousin
+were sold at auction, while the ex-Governor skulked back to England to
+make the best possible showing as to his appropriation of public moneys
+to private uses.  We can picture him wiping his eyes in pathetic
+deprecation, as he exclaimed: "If the Queen is not pleased to pay me,
+the having the Government of New Jersey, which I am persuaded the Queen
+intended for my benefit, will prove my ruin!"
+
+Lord Lovelace, Cornbury's successor, demanded a permanent revenue.  But
+recent experience had taught the colonists to hold the financial power
+in their own hands and they consented only to an annual appropriation,
+thus making the salary of the Governor dependent on his good conduct.
+What would have been the result of this clash of interests will never
+be known, since Lord Lovelace died on May 5, 1709, the same day on
+which the act was passed.
+
+Major Richard Ingoldesby, Leisler's old enemy, now came into power and
+held the reins for a few months, until mismanagement of an expedition
+{186} against Canada caused such indignation that he was withdrawn and
+Robert Hunter became Governor in 1710.  Although of humble Scotch
+parentage he had risen to prominence in English society, numbering
+Swift and Addison among his friends and being married to Lady Hay,
+whose influence had procured for him successive positions of importance
+which culminated in this appointment.
+
+With a view to encouraging the production of naval stores and obtaining
+a profit for the English Government, Hunter brought over at the expense
+of the Crown several thousand Palatines, German inhabitants of the
+Rhine valley harried by the French, thereby adding another alien
+element to the cosmopolitan population.  The British Government
+appropriated the sum of L10,000 for the project and agreed not only to
+transport the emigrants but to maintain them for a time in return for
+their labor.  These Palatines settled on both banks of the Hudson in
+four villages on lands belonging to Robert Livingston, and in three on
+those belonging to the Crown and situated on the west side of the river.
+
+Authorities differ so widely in respect to the treatment of these
+German immigrants that it seems only fair to present both sides.  One
+shows {187} Hunter working in the interest of the English Government
+against that of the colony and represents the movement as a clever plan
+on the part of the Governor to stimulate the production of tar and
+turpentine, to contribute to the government income, and to prevent the
+manufacture of wool, linen, and cotton goods, which at that time were
+largely bought in England.  When Hunter found that the income did not
+meet the outlay, it is said, he notified the newcomers that they "must
+shift for themselves but not outside the province."
+
+On the other hand, the Governor asserted that dwellers in the lower
+Palatinate of the Rhine, when driven from their homes by the French,
+begged the English Government to give them homes in America; that Queen
+Anne graciously agreed that the Palatines should be transported to New
+York at the expense of the English with the understanding that they
+were to work out the advance payment and also the food and lodgings
+provided by the State and by Livingston; but that the Palatines proved
+lazy and failed to carry out their contract.
+
+All accounts agree, however, in describing the hard lot of these
+unfortunate exiles.  Their ocean voyage was long and stormy with much
+fatal {188} illness.  The sites selected for their settlements were not
+desirable.  The native pine was found unsuited to the production of tar
+in large quantities.  They soon discovered that they would never be
+able to pay for their maintenance by such unprofitable labor.
+Moreover, the provisions given them were of inferior quality; and they
+were forced to furnish men for an expedition against Canada while their
+women and children were left either to starvation or to practical
+servitude.  In this desperate situation some of the Palatines turned
+from their fellow Christians to the native savages, and their appeal
+was not in vain.  The Indians gave them permission to settle at
+Schoharie, and many families removed thither in defiance of the
+Governor, who was still bent on manufacturing tar and pitch.  But the
+great majority remained in the Hudson valley and eventually built homes
+on lands which they purchased.
+
+The climate of New York disagreed with Hunter, and his mental
+depression kept pace with his physical debility.  After six years of
+hopeless effort, he was obliged to admit the failure of his plans to
+produce naval stores.  In 1710 he reported of the locality that it "had
+the finest air to live upon; but not for me"; again he says that {189}
+Sancho Panza is a type for him, since that in spite of every effort to
+do his duty no dog could be worse treated.  It is easy to understand
+that a member of the Pope-Swift-Bolingbroke circle in England should
+have found the social atmosphere of early New York far from
+exhilarating; and it is equally easy to comprehend that the pioneers of
+the New World resented his mismanagement of the campaign of 1711
+against Canada and his assertion of the English Government's right to
+tax the colonists without the consent of the colonial Governments.  But
+perhaps Hunter and the people appreciated each other more than either
+realized, for when he took leave in 1719 his words were warmly
+affectionate and his address embodied the exhortation: "May no strife
+ever happen amongst you but that laudable emulation who shall approve
+himself the most zealous servant and most dutiful subject of the best
+of Princes."  And in response to this farewell address the colony of
+New York assured Governor Hunter that he had governed well and wisely,
+"like a prudent magistrate, like an affectionate parent," and that the
+good wishes of his countrymen followed him wherever he went.
+
+It would be pleasant to dwell on this picture of {190} mutual
+confidence and regard, but the rude facts of history hurry us on to
+quite different scenes.  William Burnet, son of the Bishop of
+Salisbury, continued the policy of his predecessor, it is true, and
+lived on unusually amicable terms with the Assembly.  He identified
+himself with the interests of the province by marrying the daughter of
+a prosperous Dutch merchant and by prohibiting the fur trade between
+Albany and Canada; yet even Burnet clashed with the Assembly on
+occasion.  And when after an interval William Cosby became Governor,
+the worst abuses of executive power returned, fomenting quarrels which
+reached a climax in the famous Zenger trial.
+
+The truth was that no matter how popular a governor might be, clashes
+were bound to occur between him and the representatives of the people
+whom he governed, because they represented divergent interests.  The
+question of revenue was an ever-recurring cause of trouble.  Without
+adequate funds from the home Government, the Governor looked to the
+Assembly for his salary as well as for grants to carry on the
+administration of the province.  No matter how absolute the authority
+conferred by his commission and his instructions, the Governor must bow
+to the lower {191} house of the provincial Legislature, which held the
+purse strings.
+
+Under Sloughter, Fletcher, Bellomont, and Cornbury the Assembly had
+voted revenues for a term of years.  But when Cornbury appropriated to
+his own uses L1000 out of the L1800 granted for the defense of the
+frontiers and when in addition he pocketed L1500 of the funds
+appropriated for the protection of the mouth of the Hudson, the
+Assembly grew wary.  Thereafter for four successive years it made only
+annual appropriations, and, wiser still by 1739, it voted supplies only
+in definite amounts for special purposes.  Short-sighted the Assembly
+often was, sometimes in its parsimony leaving the borders unprotected
+and showing a disposition to take as much and to give as little as
+possible--a policy that was fraught with grave peril as the French and
+Indian War drew on apace.
+
+The growing insubordination of the province gave more than one governor
+anxious thought.  Governor Hunter wrote warningly to friends in
+England: "The colonies are infants at their mother's breasts and will
+wean themselves when they become of age."  And Governor Clinton was so
+incensed by the contumacy of the Assembly that he said bluntly: "Every
+branch of this {192} legislature may be criminal in the eyes of the
+law, and there is a power able to punish you and that will punish you
+if you provoke that power to do it by your behaviour.  _Otherwise you
+must think yourselves independent of the crown of Great Britain!_"
+
+
+
+
+{193}
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE ZENGER TRIAL
+
+Among the children of the Palatines imported by Governor Hunter in 1710
+was a lad of thirteen by the name of John Peter Zenger.  Instead of
+proceeding to the Palatine colony, his widowed mother and her little
+family remained in New York.  There Peter was bound apprentice to
+William Bradford, then a well-known printer, for a term of eight years,
+at the end of which time he set up an office of his own.  He evidently
+found himself hard pressed for the means of living, since one finds him
+in 1732 applying to the consistory of the Dutch Church of New York and
+proposing that, since he had so long played the organ without
+recompense, he might take up a voluntary subscription from the
+congregation and that the members of the consistory should head the
+paper as an example to others.  The consistory agreed to allow him
+provisionally the sum of six pounds, New York {194} currency, to be
+paid by the church masters and promised that they would speak with him
+further on the subject of his seeking subscriptions in the
+congregation, a favor for which John Peter was duly grateful.
+
+Governor William Cosby, as he drove in his coach on a Sunday to Trinity
+Church, or as he walked in stately raiment, attended by a negro servant
+who carried his prayer-book on a velvet cushion, could have little
+dreamed that the young printer striding past him on his way to play the
+organ in the old Dutch Church was destined to be the instrument of His
+Excellency's downfall; but the time was not far off when this David,
+armed only with a blackened type of his printer's form, was to set
+forth against this Goliath.  All flaming convictions have a tendency to
+cool into cant, and "the Freedom of the Press" has so long been a
+vote-catching phrase that it is hard nowadays to realize that it was
+once an expression of an ideal for which men were willing to die but
+which they scarcely hoped to achieve.
+
+When Colonel Cosby, former Governor of Minorca, came over the seas in
+1732, to become Governor of New York, he brought with him a none too
+savory reputation.  All that he seemed {195} to have learned in his
+former executive post was the art of conveying public funds to private
+uses.  His government in New York sustained his reputation: it was as
+high-handed as it was corrupt.  He burned deeds and strove to overthrow
+old land-patents, in order that fees for new ones might find their way
+into his pocket.  "Cosby's Manor," a vast tract of land in the Mohawk
+Valley, bore testimony to the success of his methods in acquiring
+wealth.
+
+Upon the death of Cosby's predecessor, John Montgomerie, in 1731, Rip
+van Dam, as president of the Council, had assumed control of the
+affairs of the province until the arrival of the new Governor.  At the
+close of his term, which had lasted a little more than a year, the
+Council passed warrants giving Rip van Dam the salary and the fees of
+the office for the time of his service.  When Cosby appeared he
+produced an order from the King commanding that the perquisites of the
+Governor during the interregnum be equally divided between him and Van
+Dam.  On the authority of this document, Cosby demanded half of the
+salary which Van Dam had received.  "Very well," answered the stalwart
+Dutchman, "but always provided that you share with me on the same {196}
+authority the half of the emoluments which you have received during the
+same period."
+
+The greedy Governor maintained that this was a very different matter.
+Nevertheless he was somewhat puzzled as to how to proceed legally with
+a view to filling his purse.  Since he was himself Chancellor, he could
+not sue in chancery.  He did not dare to bring a suit at common law, as
+he feared that a jury would give a verdict against him.  Under these
+circumstances Cosby took advantage of a clause in the commissions of
+the judges of the Supreme Court which seemed to constitute them Barons
+of the Exchequer, and he therefore directed that an action against Van
+Dam be brought in the name of the King before that court.  The Chief
+Justice, who had held office for eighteen years, was Lewis Morris.  Van
+Dam's counsel promptly took exception to the jurisdiction of the court
+and Morris sustained their plea, whereupon Cosby removed Morris as
+Chief Justice.  Cosby's party included De Lancey, Philipse, Bradley,
+and Harrison, while Alexander, Stuyvesant, Livingston, Cadwallader
+Golden, and most of the prominent citizens, supported Van Dam.  The
+people of New York were now awakening to the fact that this was no
+petty quarrel between two men as to which {197} should receive the
+larger share of government moneys, but that it involved the much larger
+question of whether citizens were to be denied recourse to impartial
+courts in the defense of their rights.
+
+The only paper published in the province, the _New York Weekly
+Gazette_, established in 1725, was entirely in Cosby's interest, and
+the Van Dam party seemed powerless.  They determined, however, to
+strike at least one blow for freedom, and as a first step they
+established in 1733 a paper known as the _New York Weekly Journal_, to
+be published by John Peter Zenger, but to be under the control of far
+abler men.  Morris, Alexander, Smith, and Golden were the principal
+contributors to the new paper, and in a series of articles they
+vigorously criticized the Governor's administration, particularly his
+treatment of Van Dam.  The Governor and Council in high dudgeon at once
+demanded the punishment of the publisher.  They asked the Assembly to
+join them in prosecuting Zenger, but the request was laid upon the
+table.  The Council then ordered the hangman to make a public bonfire
+of four numbers of the _Weekly Journal_; but the mayor and the aldermen
+declared the order illegal and refused to allow it to {198} be carried
+out.  Accordingly the offending numbers of the _Journal_ were burned by
+a negro slave of the sheriff in the presence of Francis Harrison, the
+recorder, and some other partizans of Cosby, the magistrates declining
+to be present at the ceremony.  Whatever satisfaction the Governor and
+his adherents could gain from the burning of these copies of the
+_Journal_ was theirs; but their action served only to make them both
+more ridiculous and more despicable in the eyes of the people.
+
+Not long after this episode Zenger was arrested upon order of the
+Council and thrown into the jail, which was at that time in the City
+Hall on the site of the present United States Sub-Treasury building on
+Wall Street.  Zenger was denied the use of pens, ink, or paper.  The
+grand jury refused to indict him.  But Cosby's attorney-general filed
+an "information" against Zenger for "false, scandalous, malicious and
+seditious libels."
+
+Public interest was now transferred from Van Dam to Zenger, and the
+people saw him as their representative, robbed of his right of free
+speech and imprisoned on an "information" which was in form and
+substance an indictment without action of a grand jury.  Months elapsed
+while Zenger was kept in prison.  His counsel, Smith and Alexander,
+{199} attacked two judges of the court before which he was to be tried,
+on the ground that they were irregularly appointed, the commissions of
+two of them, Chief Justice De Lancey and Judge Philipse, running
+"during pleasure" instead of "during good behavior" and having been
+granted by the Governor without the advice or consent of his Council.
+The anger of the judges thus assailed was expressed by De Lancey, who
+replied: "You have brought it to that point, gentlemen, that either we
+must go from the bench or you from the bar," wherewith he summarily
+ordered the names of the two distinguished lawyers stricken from the
+list of attorneys.
+
+This was obviously a heavy blow to Zenger, as the only other lawyer of
+note in New York was retained in the interests of Cosby and his
+faction.  But Zenger's friends never ceased their determined efforts in
+his behalf, and Smith and Alexander remained active in counsel if not
+in court.  Meanwhile the judges appointed an insignificant attorney,
+John Chambers by name, to act for Zenger and fancied that their
+intrigue was sure of success.
+
+The trial came on before the Supreme Court sitting on August 4, 1735,
+De Lancey acting as Chief Justice, Philipse as second judge, and {200}
+Bradley as attorney-general.  Chambers pleaded "not guilty" on behalf
+of his client; but to the throng who crowded the court-room to
+suffocation, Zenger's case must have looked black indeed.  There was no
+question that he had published the objectionable articles, and
+according to the English law of the day the truth of a libel could not
+be set up as a defense.  It was even some years later that Lord
+Mansfield upheld the amazing doctrine that "the greater the truth the
+greater the libel."  A part of the importance of the Zenger trial lies
+in its sweeping away in this part of the world the possibility of so
+monstrous a theory.
+
+A great and overwhelming surprise, however, awaited the prosecutors of
+Zenger.  The secret had been well kept and apparently every one was
+amazed when there appeared for the defense one Andrew Hamilton, a
+citizen of Philadelphia, of venerable age and the most noted and able
+lawyer in the colonies.  From this moment he became the central figure
+of the trial and his address was followed with breathless interest.  He
+touched upon his own age and feebleness with consummate tact and
+dramatic effect:
+
+
+You see that I labour under the weight of years, and am borne down with
+great infirmities of body; yet, old and {201} weak as I am, I should
+think it my duty, if required, to go to the utmost part of the land,
+where my service could be of use in assisting to quench the flame of
+prosecutions upon _information_ set on foot by the government, to
+deprive a people of the right of remonstrating (and complaining too) of
+the arbitrary attempts of men in power.  Men who injure and oppress the
+people under their administration provoke them to cry out and complain,
+and then make that very complaint the foundation for new oppressions
+and prosecutions.  I wish I could say there were no instances of this
+kind.  But to conclude: the question before the court, and you,
+gentlemen of the jury, is not of small nor private concern; it is not
+the cause of a poor printer, nor of New York alone, which you are now
+trying.  No!  It may in its consequence affect every freeman that lives
+under a British government on the main of America!  It is the best
+cause.  It is the cause of liberty, and I make no doubt but your
+upright conduct this day will not only entitle you to the love and
+esteem of your fellow-citizens, but every man who prefers freedom to a
+life of slavery will bless and honour you, as men who have baffled the
+attempt of tyranny, and by an impartial and uncorrupt verdict have laid
+a noble foundation for securing to ourselves, our posterity, and our
+neighbors, that to which nature and the laws of our country have given
+us a right--the liberty both of exposing and opposing arbitrary power
+... by speaking and writing _truth_!
+
+
+With scathing irony he fell upon the theory that truth was no defense
+for libel:
+
+
+{202} If a libel is understood in the large and unlimited sense urged
+by Mr. Attorney, there is scarce a writing I know that may not be
+called a libel, or scarce any person safe from being called to account
+as a libeller; for Moses, meek as he was, libelled Cain, and who is it
+that has not libelled the devil?  For according to Mr. Attorney, it is
+no justification to say that one has a bad name.  Echard has libelled
+our good King William; Burnet has libelled among others, King Charles
+and King James; and Rapin has libelled them all.  How must a man speak
+or write, or what must he hear, read, or sing?  Or when must he laugh,
+so as to be secure from being taken up as a libeller?  I sincerely
+believe that were some persons to go through the streets of New York
+nowadays and read a part of the Bible, if it were not known to be such,
+Mr. Attorney, with the help of his innuendoes, would easily turn it
+into a libel.  As for instance, the sixteenth verse of the ninth
+chapter of Isaiah: _The leaders of the people cause them to err, and
+they that are led by them are destroyed_.  But should Mr. Attorney go
+about to make this a libel, he would treat it thus: "The leaders of the
+people (innuendo, the governor and council of New York) cause them
+(innuendo, the people of this province) to err, and they (meaning the
+people of the province) are destroyed (innuendo, are deceived into the
+loss of their liberty)," which is the worst kind of destruction.  Or,
+if some person should publicly repeat, in a manner not pleasing to his
+betters, the tenth and eleventh verses of the fifty-sixth chapter of
+the same book, there Mr. Attorney would have a large field to display
+his skill in the artful application of his innuendoes.  The words are,
+"His watchmen are all blind, they are ignorant; yes, they are greedy
+dogs, that {203} can never have enough."  But to make them a libel,
+there is according to Mr. Attorney's doctrine, no more wanting but the
+aid of his skill in the right adapting of his innuendoes.  As for
+instance, "His watchmen (innuendo, the governor's council and Assembly)
+are blind; they are ignorant (innuendo, will not see the dangerous
+designs of His Excellency); yea they (meaning the governor and council)
+are greedy dogs which can never have enough (innuendo, enough of riches
+and power)."
+
+
+Thus Hamilton skillfully appealed to the independent principles of the
+jury.  There was no note, satiric, pathetic, or patriotic, which he did
+not strike.  Overwhelmed by the torrent of his eloquence, Bradley, the
+Attorney-General, scarcely attempted a reply.  The Chief Justice stated
+that the jury might bring in a verdict on the fact of publication and
+leave it to the Court to decide whether it were libelous.  But Hamilton
+was far too wary to be caught thus.  "I know, may it please your
+Honor," said he, "the jury may do so; but I do likewise know that they
+may do otherwise.  I know they have the right, beyond all dispute, to
+determine both the law and the fact, and where they do not doubt the
+law, they ought to do so."  Nevertheless the Chief Justice charged the
+jury:
+
+
+Gentlemen of the Jury: The great pains Mr. Hamilton has taken, to show
+you how little regard juries are {204} to pay to the opinion of the
+judges, and his insisting so much upon the conduct of some judges in
+trials of this kind, is done, no doubt, with a design that you should
+take but very little notice of what I might say upon this occasion.  I
+shall, therefore, only observe to you that, as the facts or words in
+the information are confessed; the only thing that can come in question
+before you is whether the words set forth in the information, make a
+libel.  And that is a matter of law, no doubt, and which you may leave
+to the Court.
+
+
+But the show of authority and the attempt at allurement were all in
+vain.  The jury took but a few moments to deliberate and returned with
+the verdict of "not guilty."  The roar of applause which shook the
+court-room was more than a tribute to the eloquence of the aged counsel
+who had accepted an unpopular case without fees because he felt that he
+was working for the cause of freedom.  It was more than a tribute to
+the poor printer who had risked everything in the same cause.  It was
+the spirit of the barons at Runnymede, of the Long Parliament, of the
+Revolution of 1688, of Patrick Henry of Virginia when he cried: "Give
+me liberty or give me death!"
+
+The Court, divided between wrath and surprise, strove to check the wave
+of applause and threatened with imprisonment the leader of the cheers;
+{205} but a son-in-law of ex-Chief Justice Lewis Morris succeeded in
+making himself heard, and declared that cheers were as lawful there as
+in Westminster Hall, where they had been loud enough over the acquittal
+of the seven bishops in 1688.  Upon this the applause broke out again,
+and Hamilton was acclaimed the people's champion.  A dinner was given
+in his honor and the freedom of the city was bestowed upon him.  When
+he entered his barge for the return journey to Philadelphia, flags
+waved, cannon boomed, and hurrahs resounded from all quarters.
+
+
+
+
+{206}
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+THE NEGRO PLOTS
+
+As early as the eighteenth century New York had become a cosmopolitan
+town.  Its population contained not only Dutch and English in nearly
+equal numbers, but also French, Swedes, Jews, Negroes, and sailors,
+travelers from every land.  The settled portion of the city, according
+to a map of 1729, extended as far north as Beekman Street on the East
+Side and as far as Trinity Church on the West Side.  A few blocks
+beyond the church lay Old Wind Mill Lane touching King's Farm, which
+was still open country.  Here Broadway shook off all semblance to a
+town thoroughfare and became a dusty country road, meeting the
+post-road to Boston near the lower end of the rope walk.  "The cittie
+of New York is a pleasant, well-compacted place," wrote Madam Knight,
+who journeyed on horseback from Boston over this post-road and who
+recorded her experiences in an entertaining {207} journal.  "The
+buildings brick generally, very stately and high, though not altogether
+like ours in Boston.  The bricks in some of the houses are of divers
+coullers and laid in checkers, being glazed look very agreeable.  The
+inside of them are neat to admiration."
+
+Besides its welcoming houses set among spreading trees, New York
+possessed public buildings of dignity and distinction.  There was
+Trinity Church, whose tall steeple was one of the first landmarks to
+catch the traveler's eye as he journeyed down the river from Albany.
+The new City Hall, dating from Bellomont's time and standing on a site
+at the corner of Wall and Broad Streets, given by Colonel Abraham de
+Peyster, was also a source of pride.  With its substantial wings and
+arched colonnade in the center it was quite imposing.  Here the
+Assembly, Council, and Court sat.  Here, too, were offices and a
+library.  But the cellar was used as a dungeon and the attic as a
+common prison.
+
+New markets and wharves told of the growing commerce of the city and
+province.  On every hand were evidences of luxurious living.  There
+were taverns and coffee-houses where gold flowed in abundant streams
+from the pockets of pirates and smugglers, and in the streets
+crest-emblazoned {208} family coaches, while sedan chairs were borne by
+negro slaves along the narrow brick pathways in the center of the town.
+The dress of the people told the same story of prosperity.  The streets
+of the fashionable quarter around Trinity Church were fairly ablaze
+with gay costumes.  Men of fashion wore powdered wigs and cocked hats,
+cloth or velvet coats reaching to the knee, breeches, and low shoes
+with buckles.  They carried swords, sometimes studded with jewels, and
+in their gloved hands they held snuff-boxes of costly material and
+elaborate design.  The ladies who accompanied them were no less gaily
+dressed.  One is described as wearing a gown of purple and gold,
+opening over a black velvet petticoat and short enough to show green
+silk stockings and morocco shoes embroidered in red.  Another wore a
+flowered green and gold gown, over a scarlet and gold petticoat edged
+with silver.  Everywhere were seen strange fabrics of oriental design
+coming from the holds of mysterious ships which unloaded
+surreptitiously along the water front.
+
+The members of one class alone looked on all this prosperous life with
+sullen discontent--the negro slaves whose toil made possible the
+leisure of their owners.  These strange, uncouth Africans seemed {209}
+out of place in New York, and from early times they had exhibited
+resentment and hatred toward the governing classes, who in turn looked
+upon them with distrust.  This smoldering discontent of the blacks
+aroused no little uneasiness and led to the adoption of laws which,
+especially in the cities, were marked by a brutality quite out of
+keeping with the usual moderation of the colony.  When Mrs. Grant wrote
+later of negro servitude in Albany as "slavery softened into a smile,"
+she spoke in the first place from a narrow observation of life in a
+cultivated family, and in the second place from scant knowledge of the
+events which had preceded the kind treatment of the negroes.
+
+In 1684 an ordinance was passed declaring that no negroes or Indian
+slaves above the number of four should meet together on the Lord's Day
+or at any other time or at any place except on their master's service.
+They were not to go armed with guns, swords, clubs, or stones on
+penalty of ten lashes at the whipping-post.  An act provided that no
+slave should go about the streets after nightfall anywhere south of the
+Collect without a lighted lantern "so as the light thereof could be
+plainly seen."  A few years later Governor Cornbury ordered the
+justices of the peace in King's County to seize and {210} apprehend all
+negroes who had assembled themselves in a riotous manner or had
+absconded from their masters.
+
+In 1712, during the Administration of Governor Robert Hunter, a group
+of negroes, perhaps forty in number, formed a plot which justified the
+terror of their masters, though it was so mad that it could have
+originated only in savage minds.  These blacks planned to destroy all
+the white people of the city, then numbering over six thousand.
+Meeting in an orchard the negroes set fire to a shed and then lurked
+about in the shadows, armed with every kind of weapon on which they
+could lay hands.
+
+As the negroes had expected, all the citizens of the neighborhood,
+seeing the conflagration, came running to the spot to fight the flames.
+The blacks succeeded in killing nine men and wounding many more before
+the alarm reached the fort.  Then of course the affair ended.  The
+slaves fled to the forests at the northern end of the island; but the
+soldiers stationed sentries and then hunted down the negroes, beating
+the woods to be sure that none escaped.  Six of the negroes, seeing
+that their doom was sealed, killed themselves, and the fate of the
+captives showed that they well knew what mercy {211} to expect at the
+hands of the enraged whites.  Twenty-one were put to death, one being
+broken on the wheel and several burned at the stake, while the rest
+were hanged.
+
+After this experience of the danger attending the holding of slaves,
+the restrictions upon the negroes grew even more irksome and the
+treatment they received more that of outcasts.  For instance, a slave
+must be buried by daylight, without pallbearers and with not more than
+a dozen negroes present as mourners.
+
+In spite of bright spots in the picture the outlook grew constantly
+darker; a mistrust ready to develop on slight provocation into terror
+perturbed the whites; and every rumor was magnified till there reigned
+a panic as widespread as that caused by the reports of witchcraft in
+New England.  At length in 1741 the storm burst.  One March night,
+while a gale was sweeping the city, a fire was discovered on the roof
+of the Governor's house in the fort.  Church bells sounded the alarm
+and firemen and engines hurried to the spot; but it was hopeless to try
+to extinguish the flames, which spread to the chapel and to the office
+of the secretary over the fort gate, where the records of the colony
+were stored.  The barracks then caught fire, and in a {212} little over
+an hour everything in the fort was destroyed, the hand-grenades
+exploding as they caught fire and spreading destruction in every
+direction.
+
+A month later a fire broke out at night near the Vlei Market.  A bucket
+brigade was formed and the fire was extinguished.  On the same night
+the loft in a house on the west side of the town was found to be in
+flames, and coals were discovered between two straw beds occupied by a
+negro.  The next day coals were found under the coach-house of John
+Murray on Broadway, and on the day following a fire broke out again
+near the Vlei Market.  Thus the townsfolk were made certain that an
+incendiary plot was on foot.  Of course every one's thoughts flew to
+the negro slaves as the conspirators, especially when a Mrs. Earle
+announced that she had overheard three negroes threatening to burn the
+town.
+
+The authorities were as much alarmed as the populace and at once leaped
+to the conclusion that the blame for the incendiarism, of which they
+scarcely paused to investigate the evidence, was to be divided between
+the Roman Catholics and the negroes, who without reasonable grounds had
+so long constituted their chief terror.
+
+{213}
+
+The Common Council offered pardon and a reward of one hundred pounds to
+any conspirator who would reveal the story of the plot and the names of
+the criminals involved.  Under the influence of this offer one Mary
+Burton, a servant in the employ of Hughson, the tavern-keeper, accused
+her master, her mistress, their daughter, and a woman of evil
+reputation known as Peggy Carey, or Kerry, as well as a number of
+negroes, of being implicated in the plot.  She said that the negroes
+brought stolen goods to the tavern and were protected by Hughson, who
+had planned with them the burning and plundering of the city and the
+liberation of the slaves.  On this unsupported evidence Peggy Carey and
+a number of negroes were condemned to execution, and under terror of
+death, or encouraged by the hope of pardon, these prisoners made
+numerous confessions implicating one another, until by the end of
+August twenty-four whites and one hundred and fifty-four negroes had
+been imprisoned.  Four whites, including Hughson and Peggy Carey, were
+executed; fourteen negroes were burned at the stake; eighteen were
+hanged, seventy-one transported, and the remainder pardoned or
+discharged.
+
+Accusations were also made that the Roman {214} Catholics had stirred
+up the plot; and persons of reputation and standing were accused of
+complicity.  The effect of the popular panic, which rendered impossible
+the calm weighing of evidence and extinguished any sense of proportion,
+is seen in the letters of Governor George Clarke.  On June 20, 1741, he
+writes to the Lords of Trade as follows:
+
+
+The fatal fire that consumed the buildings in the fort and great part
+of my substance (for my loss is not less than two thousand pounds), did
+not happen by accident as I at first apprehended, but was kindled by
+design, in the execution of a horrid Conspiracy to burn it and the
+whole town, and to Massacre the people; as appears evidently not only
+by the Confession of the Negro who set fire to it, in some part of the
+same gutter where the Plumber was to work, but also by the testimony of
+several witnesses.  How many Conspirators there were we do not yet
+know; every day produces new discoveries, and I apprehend that in the
+town, if the truth were known, there are not many innocent Negro
+men....  I do myself the honor to send your Lordships the minutes taken
+at the tryal of Quack who burned the fort, and of another Negro, who
+was tryed with him, and their confession at the stake; with some
+examinations, whereby your Lordships will see their designs; it was
+ridiculous to suppose that they could keep possession of the town, if
+they had destroyed the white people, yet the mischief they would have
+done in pursuit of their intention would nevertheless have been {215}
+great....  Whether, or how far, the hand of popery has been in this
+hellish conspiracy, I cannot yet discover; but there is room to suspect
+it, by what two of the Negroes have confessed, viz: that soon after
+they were spoke to, and had consented to be parties to it, they had
+some checks of conscience, which they said, would not suffer them to
+burn houses and kill the White people; whereupon those who drew them
+into the conspiracy told them, there was no sin or wickedness in it,
+and that if they would go to Huson's [Hughson's] house, they should
+find a man who would satisfy them; but they say they would not, nor did
+go.  Margaret Keny [Kerry] was supposed to be a papist, and it is
+suspected that Huson and his wife were brought over to it.  There was
+in town some time ago a man who is said to be a Romish Priest, who used
+to be at Huson's but has disappeared ever since the discovery of the
+conspiracy and is not now to be found.
+
+
+Later in the summer the Governor recorded his suspicions as follows:
+
+
+We then thought it [the] Plot was projected only by Huson [Hughson] and
+the Negroes; but it is now apparent that the hand of popery is in it,
+for a Romish Priest having been tryed, was upon full and clear evidence
+convicted of having a deep share in it....  Where, by whom, or in what
+shape this plot was first projected is yet undiscovered; that which at
+present seems most probable is that Huson, an indigent fellow of a vile
+character, casting in his thoughts how to mend his circumstances,
+inticed some Negroes to rob their Masters and to bring the stolen
+[goods] to him on {216} promise of reward when they were sold; but
+seeing that by this pilfering trade riches did not flow into him fast
+enough, and finding the Negroes fit instruments for any villainy, he
+then fell upon the schemes of burning the fort and town, and murdering
+the people, as the speediest way to enrich himself and them, and to
+gain their freedom, for that was the Negroes main inducement....  The
+conspirators had hopes given them that the Spaniards would come hither
+and join with them early in the Spring; but if they failed of coming,
+then the business was to be done by the Conspirators without them; many
+of them were christen'd by the Priest, absolved from all their past
+sins and whatever they should do in the Plott; many of them sworn by
+him (others by Huson) to burn and destroy, and to be secret; wherein
+they were but too punctual; how weak soever the scheme may appear, it
+was plausible and strong enough to engage and hold the Negroes, and
+that was all that the Priest and Huson wanted; for had the fort taken
+fire in the night, as it was intended, the town was then to have been
+fired in several places at once; in which confusion much rich plunder
+might have been got and concealed; and if they had it in view too, to
+serve the enemy, they could not have done it more effectually; for this
+town being laid in ashes his Majesties forces in the West Indies might
+have suffered much for want of provisions, and perhaps been unable to
+proceed upon any expedition or piece of service from whence they might
+promise themselves great rewards; I doubt the business is pretty nigh
+at an end, for since the Priest has been apprehended, and some more
+white men named, great industry has been used throughout the town to
+discredit the witnesses and prejudice the people {217} against them;
+and I am told it has had in a great measure its intended effect; I am
+sorry for it, for I do not think we are yet got near the bottom of it,
+where I doubt the principal conspirators lie concealed.
+
+
+With the collapse of the excitement through its own excess, ends the
+history of the great negro "plot."  Whether it had any shadow of
+reality has never been determined.  Judge Horsmanden, who sat as one of
+the justices during the trials growing out of the so-called plots,
+compiled later a record of examinations and alleged confessions whereby
+he sought to justify the course of both judges and juries; but the
+impression left by his report is that panic had paralyzed the judgment
+of even the most honest white men, while among the negroes a still
+greater terror, combined with a wave of hysteria, led to boundless
+falsification and to numberless unjustified accusations.
+
+
+
+
+{218}
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON
+
+The story of the French and Indian wars on our border does not fall
+within the scope of this chronicle; but in order to understand the
+development of New York we must know something of the conditions which
+prevailed in the province during that troubled epoch.  The penurious
+policy pursued by the Dutch and continued by the English left the
+colony without defenses on either the northern or southern boundaries.
+For a long time the settlers found themselves bulwarked against the
+French on the north by the steadfast friendship of the "Six Nations,"
+comprising the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, the
+Senecas, and the Tuscaroras; but at last these trusty allies began to
+feel that the English were not doing their share in the war.  The lack
+of military preparation in New York was inexcusable.  The niggardliness
+of the Assembly alienated successive governors and {219} justified
+Clinton's assertion: "If you deny me the necessary supplies all my
+endeavors must become fruitless.  I must wash my own hands and leave at
+your doors the blood of innocent people."
+
+When the Indians under the leadership of the French actually took the
+warpath, the colonists at last awoke to their peril.  Upon call of
+Lieutenant-Governor De Lancey, acting under instructions of the Lords
+of Trade, all the colonies north of the Potomac except New Jersey sent
+commissioners to a congress at Albany in June, 1754, to plan measures
+of defense and of alliance with the Six Nations.
+
+Albany was still a placid little Dutch town.  Mrs. Grant of Laggan in
+Scotland, who visited Albany in her girlhood, wrote of it afterward
+with a gentle suavity which lent glamour to the scenes which she
+described.  She pictures for us a little town in which every house had
+its garden at the rear and in front a shaded stoop with seats on either
+side where the family gathered to enjoy the twilight.  "Each family had
+a cow, fed in a common pasture at the end of the town.  In the evening
+they returned all together, of their own accord, with their tinkling
+bells hung at their necks, along the wide and grassy street, to their
+wonted {220} sheltering trees, to be milked.  At one door were young
+matrons, at another the elders of the people, at a third the youths and
+maidens, gaily chatting or singing together, while the children played
+around the trees, or waited by the cows for the chief ingredient of
+their frugal supper, which they generally ate sitting on the steps in
+the open air."
+
+The court-house of Albany to which the commissioners journeyed by boat
+up the Hudson, is described by Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveler and
+scientist, as a fine stone building by the riverside, three stories
+high with a small steeple containing a bell, and topped by a gilt ball
+and weather-vane.  From the engraved print which has come down to us,
+it seems a barren barrack of a building with an entrance quite
+inadequate for the men of distinction who thronged its halls on this
+memorable occasion.
+
+In this congress at Albany, Benjamin Franklin from Pennsylvania and
+William Johnson of New York were the dominating figures.  The famous
+plan of union which Franklin presented has sometimes made historians
+forget the services rendered by this redoubtable Colonel Johnson at a
+moment when the friendship of the Six Nations was hanging in the
+balance.  Though gifts had been {221} prepared and a general invitation
+had been sent, only a hundred and fifty warriors appeared at Albany and
+they held themselves aloof with a distrust that was almost contempt.
+"Look at the French!" exclaimed Hendrick, the great chief of the
+Mohawks.  "They are men.  They are fortifying everywhere; but, we are
+ashamed to say it, you are all like women--bare and open without any
+fortifications."  In this crisis all the commissioners deferred to
+William Johnson as the one man who enjoyed the complete confidence of
+the Six Nations.  It was he who formulated the Indian policy of the
+congress.
+
+He had been born in Ireland.  His mother was Anne Warren, sister to
+Captain Peter Warren, who "served with reputation" in the Royal Navy
+and afterward became Knight of the Bath and Vice-Admiral of the Red
+Squadron of the British Fleet.  Captain Warren was less than a dozen
+years older than his nephew, whom he regarded with affectionate
+interest.  He described him as "a spritely boy well grown of good parts
+and keen wit but most onruly and streperous," and the sailor added: "I
+see the making of a strong man.  I shall keep my weather eye on the
+lad."
+
+The result of this observation was so favorable {222} that the captain,
+who was on station in America, sent for William Johnson to come out and
+aid him in the development of a real estate venture.  A large tract of
+land near the Mohawk River had come into Warren's possession, and as a
+sailor Warren naturally found difficulty in superintending land at what
+was then a week's journey from the seacoast.  "Billy" was his choice as
+an assistant, and the boy, who was then twenty-three years old, left
+the Old World and in 1738 reached the new plantation where his
+life-work lay before him.  For this he was admirably equipped by his
+Irish inheritance of courage, tact, and humor, by his study of English
+law, and by a facility in acquiring languages which enabled him to
+master the Mohawk tongue in two years after his arrival in New York.
+
+The business arrangement between Captain Warren and his nephew provided
+that Johnson should form a settlement on his uncle's land known as
+Warrensbush, at the juncture of Schoharie Kill and the Mohawk, that he
+should sell farms, oversee settlers, clear and hedge fields, "girdle"
+trees (in order to kill them and let in the sun), purchase supplies,
+and in partnership with Warren establish a village store to meet the
+necessities {223} of the new colonists and to serve as a
+trading-station with the Indians.  In compensation for his services he
+was to be allowed to cultivate a part of the land for himself, though
+it is hard to imagine what time or strength could have been left for
+further exertions after the fulfillment of the onerous duties marked
+out for him.
+
+A few years after his arrival at Warrensbush he married a young Dutch
+or German woman named Catherine Weisenberg, perhaps an indentured
+servant whose passage had been prepaid on condition of service in
+America.  Little is known of the date or circumstances of this
+marriage.  It is certain only that after a few years Catherine died,
+leaving three children, to whom Johnson proved a kind and considerate
+father, in spite of an erratic domestic career which involved his
+taking as the next head of his household Caroline, niece of the Mohawk
+chief Hendrick, and later Molly Brant, sister of the Indian, Joseph
+Brant.
+
+Molly Brant, by whom Johnson had eight children, was recognized as his
+wife by the Indians, while among Johnson's English friends she was
+known euphemistically as "the brown Lady Johnson."  She presided over
+his anomalous household with dignity and discretion; but it is
+noticeable {224} that Johnson, who was so willing to defy public
+opinion in certain matters, was sufficiently conventional in others, as
+we learn from a description of the daily life of the legitimate
+daughters of the house.  While Mohawk chiefs, Oneida braves, Englishmen
+of title, and distinguished guests of every kind thronged the mansion,
+and while the little half-breed children played about the lawns and
+disported themselves on the shores of Kayaderosseras Creek close at
+hand, "the young ladies" lived in almost conventual seclusion.
+
+The grim baronial mansion where this mixed household made its dwelling
+for many years, was called variously Mount Johnson, Castle Johnson, and
+Fort Johnson.  It was built in 1742 with such massive walls that the
+house is still standing in the town of Amsterdam.  In 1755, when the
+Indian peril loomed large on the horizon, the original defenses were
+strengthened, a stockade was built as a further protection, and from
+this time on it was called Fort Johnson.
+
+Owing perhaps to Johnson's precautions and the Indian's knowledge of
+his character, the fort was not attacked and its owner continued to
+dwell in the house until 1762, when, having become one of the richest
+men in the colony, he built on a tract {225} of land in Johnstown a
+more ambitious, and, it is to be hoped, a more cheerful mansion known
+as Johnson Hall.  This house was built of wood with wings of stone,
+pierced at the top for muskets.  On one side of the house lay a garden
+and nursery described as the pride of the surrounding country.  Here
+Johnson lived with an opulence which must have amazed the simple
+settlers around him, especially those who remembered his coming to the
+colony as a poor youth less than thirty years earlier.  He had in his
+service a secretary, a physician, a musician who played the violin for
+the entertainment of guests, a gardener, a butler, a waiter named
+Pontiach, of mixed negro and Indian blood, a pair of white dwarfs to
+attend upon himself and his friends, an overseer, and ten or fifteen
+slaves.
+
+This retinue of servants was none too large to cope with the unbounded
+hospitality which Johnson dispensed.  A visitor reports having seen at
+the Hall from sixty to eighty Indians at one time lodging under tents
+on the lawn and taking their meals from tables made of pine boards
+spread under the trees.  On another occasion, when Sir William called a
+council of the Iroquois at Fort Johnson, a thousand natives gathered,
+and Johnson's {226} neighbors within a circuit of twenty miles were
+invited to assist in the rationing of this horde of visitors.  The
+landholders along the Mohawk might well have been glad to share the
+burden of Sir William's tribal hospitality, since its purpose was as
+much political as social and its results were of endless benefit to the
+entire colony.
+
+At last the Indians had found a friend, a white man who understood them
+and whom they could understand.  He was honest with them and therefore
+they trusted him.  He was sympathetic and therefore they were ready to
+discuss their troubles freely with him.  As an Indian of mixed blood
+declared to the Governor at Albany in speaking of Sir William: "His
+knowledge of our affairs, our laws, and our language made us think he
+was not like any other white but an Indian like ourselves.  Not only
+that; but in his house is an Indian woman, and his little children are
+half-breed as I am."
+
+The English therefore were peculiarly fortunate in finding at the most
+critical stage of their political dealings with the Indians a
+representative endowed with the wisdom and insight of Sir William
+Johnson.  Unlike the French, he did not strive to force an alien form
+of worship upon this primitive people.  Unlike the Dutch, he insisted
+{227} that business should be carried on as honestly with the natives
+as with the white men.  Unlike his fellow-countrymen, he constantly
+urged adequate preparation for war on the part of the English and
+demanded that they should bear their share of the burden.  In a written
+report at the Albany congress he strongly recommended that inasmuch as
+the Six Nations, owing to their wars with the French, had fallen short
+both in hunting and planting, they should be provided with food from
+the English supplies.  Finally he testified to the sincerity of his
+convictions by going to the war himself and rendering valuable service
+first as colonel and later as major-general.  After the Battle of Lake
+George, Johnson was knighted by the King and received a grant of L5000
+from Parliament.  In the same year he was appointed by the Crown "Agent
+and Sole Superintendent of the Six Nations and other northern Indians"
+inhabiting British territory north of the Carolinas and the Ohio River.
+
+Johnson is described by one who saw him about this time or somewhat
+earlier as a man of commanding presence, only a little short of six
+feet in height, "neck massive, broad chest and large limbs, great
+physical strength, the head large and shapely, {228} countenance open
+and beaming with good nature, eyes grayish black, hair brown with tinge
+of auburn."  His activity took every form and was exerted in every
+direction.  His documents and correspondence number over six thousand
+and fill twenty-six volumes preserved in the State Library.  Nor did
+these represent his chief activities.  He was constantly holding
+councils with the native tribes either at Fort Johnson or at the Indian
+camps.  It was he who kept the Mohawks from joining in Pontiac's
+conspiracy which swept the western border; it was he who negotiated the
+famous treaty at Fort Stanwix in 1768.  In the midsummer of 1774 he
+succumbed to an old malady after an impassioned address to six hundred
+Iroquois gathered at Johnson Hall.
+
+He was one of the fortunate few whose characters and careers fit
+exactly.  He found scope for every power that he possessed and he won
+great rewards.  His tireless energy expressed itself in cultivating
+thousands of acres and in building houses, forts, and churches.  He
+dipped a lavish hand into his abundant wealth and scattered his gold
+where it was of the greatest service.  He loved hospitality and
+gathered hundreds round his board.  He was a benevolent autocrat and
+nations bowed {229} to his will.  He paid homage to his King, and died
+cherishing the illusion of the value of prerogative.  He was fortunate
+in his death as in his life, for he was spared the throes of the mighty
+changes already under way, when the King's statue should be pulled down
+to be melted into bullets, when New York should merge her identity in
+the Union of States, and when the dwellers along the banks of the
+Hudson and its tributaries should call themselves no longer Dutch or
+English but Americans.
+
+
+
+
+{231}
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
+
+The student who has the courage to delve in the _Documents relative to
+the Colonial History of the State of New York_, the _Documentary
+History of the State of New York_, the ecclesiastical records, the
+pioneer journals, and the minutes of early city councils, will not only
+reach the fundamental authorities on the history of the settlers on the
+Hudson, but will find many interesting incidents of which the dull
+titles give no promise.
+
+If the reader prefer to follow a blazed trail, he will find a path
+marked out for him in reliable works such as _The History of New
+Netherland_ by E. B. O'Callaghan, 2 vols. (1855), _The History of the
+State of New York_ by J. R. Brodhead, 2 vols. (1871), _The Narratives
+of New Netherland_, admirably edited by J. F. Jameson (1909), _New
+York_, a condensed history by E. H. Roberts (1904), John Fiske's _Dutch
+and Quaker Colonies in America_, 2 vols. (1899), and William Smith's
+_History of the Late Province of New York_ (first published in 1757 and
+still valuable).
+
+Many histories of New York City have been written to satisfy the
+general reader.  Among the larger works are Mrs. M. J. Lamb's _History
+of the City of New York_, 2 vols. (1877; revised edition, 1915, in 3
+vols.), Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer's _History of the City of New York
+in the Seventeenth Century_, 2 vols. (1909), {232} James G. Wilson's
+_Memorial History of the City of New York_, 4 vols. (1892), and
+_Historic New York_, 2 vols. (edited by M. W. Goodwin, A. C. Royce, and
+Ruth Putnam, 1912).  Theodore Roosevelt has written a single volume on
+New York for the _Historic Towns_ series (1910).  In his _New Amsterdam
+and its People_ (1902), J. H. Innes has brought together valuable
+studies of the social and topographical features of the town under
+Dutch and early English rule.  I. N. P. Stokes's _Iconography of
+Manhattan Island_ (1915) is calculated to delight the soul of the
+antiquarian.
+
+One who wishes to turn to the lighter side of provincial life will find
+it set forth in attractive volumes such as _Colonial Days in Old New
+York_ by A. M. Earle (1915), _The Story of New Netherland_ by W. E.
+Griffis (1909), _In Old New York_ by T. A. Janvier (1894), and the
+_Goede Vrouw of Mana-ha-ta_ by M. K. Van Rensselaer (1898).
+
+Most rewarding perhaps of all sources are those dealing with the
+biographies of the prominent figures in the history of the State, since
+in them we find the life of the times illustrated and personalized.  E.
+M. Bacon in his _Henry Hudson_ (1907) gives us a picture of the great
+mariner and the difficulties against which he strove.  The _Van
+Rensselaer-Bowier Manuscripts_, edited by A. J. F. Van Laer (1908) show
+us through his personal letters the Patroon of the upper Hudson and
+make us familiar with life on his estates.  J. K. Paulding in _Affairs
+and Men of New Amsterdam in the Time of Governor Peter Stuyvesant_
+(1843) makes the town-dwellers equally real to us, while W. L. Stone's
+_Life and Times of Sir William Johnson_, 2 vols. (1865), shows us the
+pioneer struggles in the Mohawk Valley.  In the English _State Trials_
+{233} compiled by T. B. Howells, 34 vols. (1828), we read the story of
+the famous pirate Captain Kidd, and find it more interesting than many
+a work of fiction.
+
+Among the autobiographical accounts of colonial life the most
+entertaining are _The Memoirs of an American Lady_ by A. M. Grant
+(1809), _A Two Years' Journal in New York, etc._ by Charles Wolley
+(1902), and _The Private Journal of Sarah Kemble Knight_, the record of
+a journey from Boston to New York in 1704 (1901).
+
+Further bibliographical references will be found appended to the
+articles on _Hudson River_, _New York_, and _New York_ (_City_), in
+_The Encyclopaedia Britannica_, 11th edition.
+
+
+
+
+{235}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+_Adventure-Galley_, The (ship), 170, 171, 172, 173
+
+Albany, name of Fort Orange changed to, 137; refuses to send delegates
+to Fort James, 153; preeminently Dutch, 154; refuses to recognize
+Leisler, 154, 156; Leisler sends troops to assistance of, 156; congress
+(1754), 219, 220-21; court-house, 220; _see also_ Orange, Fort
+
+Alexander, James, supports Van Dam, 196; contributes to _New York
+Weekly Journal_, 197; counsel for Zenger, 198-99
+
+Amersfort, 77
+
+Amsterdam, Fort, established, 54; condition in 1638, 61; becomes Fort
+James, 137; _see also_ James, Fort
+
+Andros, Sir Edmund, Governor of New York, 144; asserts authority in New
+Jersey, 146-147; recalled, 147; appointed Governor-General of "Dominion
+of New England" (1688), 149; imprisoned in Boston, 151; instructed to
+suppress piracy, 167
+
+Angola, Paul d', one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Archer, John, 140
+
+Arlington, Lord, 139
+
+_Arms of Amsterdam_, The (ship), 26
+
+Avery, buccaneer, 173
+
+
+Barents, Reymier, 156
+
+Barentsen, Pieter, 54
+
+Bayard, Mrs., sister of Stuyvesant, 86
+
+Bayard, Nicholas, 154, 155, 159, 160, 163
+
+Bear Mountain, replica of _Half Moon_ at foot of, 16
+
+Bears Island fortified, 45
+
+_Beaver_, The (ship), 161
+
+Beeren (Bears) Island fortified, 45
+
+Bellomont, Earl of, in stock company to fit out privateer, 170;
+succeeds Fletcher as Governor of New York, 170-71, 180-181; Captain
+Kidd communicates with, 174; royal Governor of Massachusetts and New
+Hampshire, 175 (note); uprightness, 181; espouses Leislerian cause,
+181-83; death (1701), 183; revenues under, 191
+
+Berkeley, Lord, 145
+
+Beverwyck, 72
+
+Birds of Hudson region, 28
+
+Bissels, associate of Van Rensselaer, 40
+
+Blagge, Captain, defense of Leisler, 157-59
+
+Block, Adriaen, 135
+
+Block Island, 135, 174
+
+Blommaert, Samuel, 36, 40
+
+Blucker, of Albany, 156
+
+Bogardug, Rev. Everardus, 88-90
+
+Boston, 151, 168
+
+Bradford, William, printer, 193
+
+Bradley supports Cosby, 196
+
+Brant, Molly, 223
+
+Breuckelen (now Brooklyn), 77
+
+Burnet, William, Governor of New York, 190
+
+Burton, Mary, 213
+
+
+Cabots, The, explorations in Hudson region, 16
+
+Canada, expeditions against, 185-86, 188
+
+Carey (Kerry), Peggy, 213
+
+Carleton, Sir Dudley, English ambassador at The Hague, 132
+
+Caroline, niece of Mohawk chief Hendrick, 223
+
+Carteret, Sir George, part of New Jersey granted to, 145; death (1680),
+146
+
+Carteret, Philip, Governor of New Jersey, 146, 147
+
+Casimir, Fort, 130
+
+Catholics, Roman, oppose Leisler, 153-154; accused of inciting negro
+plots, 212, 213-17
+
+Chambers, John, 199
+
+_Charter of Liberties and Privileges_, 148
+
+Christina, Fort, 127
+
+Clarke, George, Governor of New York, letter on negro plots, 214-15;
+suspicions of, 215-17
+
+Clinton, George, Governor of New York, quoted, 191-92, 219
+
+Coates, Edward, 166
+
+Cod, Cape, 135
+
+Colden, Cadwallader, 196, 197
+
+Colman, John, 6-7
+
+Colve, Captain Anthony, Dutch Governor of New York, 143
+
+Commerce, aim of Dutch in America, 18; with Holland, 24; dubious sea
+ventures, 168-169
+
+Congo, Simon, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Connecticut River, 22, 65, 135
+
+Coorn, Nicholas, 45-46
+
+Cornbury, Edward Hyde, Lord, Governor of New York, 183-185; revenues
+under, 191
+
+Cornelissen, Jan, 95
+
+Cosby, William, Governor of New York, 190, 194-96
+
+"Cosby's Manor," 195
+
+Curtius, Alexander Carolus, 101
+
+Cuyler, Johannes, of Albany, 156
+
+
+De Laet, Johan, 11, 40
+
+De Lancey, James, supports Cosby, 196; Chief Justice, 199;
+Lieutenant-Governor, 219
+
+De la Montagne, J. M., 95
+
+De la Noy, Peter, 162, 169
+
+Delaware, Swedish colony in, 127-28; _see also_ New Sweden
+
+Delaware Bay, 36
+
+Delaware (or South) River, 22, 51, 59
+
+De Neger, Jan, 35
+
+De Peyster, Colonel Abraham, 207
+
+De Vries, Captain David, quoted, 28; takes up territory on Delaware
+Bay, 36; _bouwerie_ of, 39; opinion of Van Twilier, 57; head of
+committee of twelve, 64; appearance, 64; treats with Indians, 65-66;
+account of building of church, 92-93; visits Governor Printz, 129;
+opinion of Eelkens incident, 134
+
+Dongan, Colonel Thomas, Governor of New York, 48, 147, 157; instructed
+to suppress piracy, 167
+
+Drisius, Domine Samuel, 86
+
+"Duke's Laws," 138
+
+Dutch East India Company, 17
+
+Dutch West India Company, 20-22, 30, 32, 33-34, 38, 51, 56, 60, 73
+
+Dyckman, 72
+
+
+Earle, Mrs., overhears negroes plotting, 212
+
+East Indies, pirates in, 168
+
+Education in New Netherland, 93-101
+
+Eelkens, Jacob, 59, 132-35
+
+_Eendragt_, The (ship), 40
+
+Elizabethtown declared a free port, 146
+
+England, war with Holland (1652), 76-77; treaty (1654), 77; sends fleet
+to New Netherland, 79-82; war with Holland (1672), 142-43; treaty
+(1674), 143-44; takes steps against buccaneers, 170
+
+Esopus, Indian troubles at, 74, 79
+
+Evertsen, Admiral Cornells, 143
+
+
+Fenwick, land claimant in West Jersey, 146
+
+Flatbush, 77
+
+Fletcher, Colonel Benjamin, Governor of New York, 165; encourages
+piracy, 165-66; revenues under, 191
+
+Flushing, 77; religious toleration in, 86
+
+Food resources, 28
+
+Fordham Manor, 140
+
+_Fortune_, The (ship), 18
+
+Francisco, John, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, at Albany congress, 220
+
+Frederycke (Fredericksen), Kryn, 54
+
+Fur trade, 17, 18-19, 27, 41
+
+
+Gardiner's Island, Captain Kidd at, 174
+
+Godyn, Samuel, 36, 40
+
+_Good Hope_, The (ship), 45-46
+
+Governor's Island, 60
+
+Grant, Mrs., of Laggan, _Memoirs of an American Lady_, 48; on negro
+servitude in Albany, 209; describes Albany, 219-220
+
+Gravesend, 77
+
+_Griffin_, The (ship), 127
+
+Griffis, W. E., defends Van Twiller, 58-59
+
+Gustavus Adolphus, 126
+
+
+_Half Moon_, The (_Halve Maene_) (ship), anchors in New York harbor,
+1-2; description of, 2-5; effect on Indians, 4-5, 7-10; journeys up
+Hudson, 10-12; homeward course, 13; Hudson's cabin, 14; puts to sea,
+15; replica, 16
+
+Hamilton, Andrew, defends Zenger, 200-05
+
+Harrison, Francis, 196, 198
+
+Hartford, Treaty of, 77
+
+Heckwelder, Rev. John, Moravian missionary, account of arrival of _Half
+Moon_, 7-9, 10
+
+Hempstead, 77
+
+Heyn, Peter, 55
+
+Hill, Rowland, quoted, 114
+
+Hobocan Hackingh, 37
+
+Hoboken, 74
+
+Hodgson, Robert, 85
+
+Holland, _see_ United Netherlands
+
+Holmes, Sir Robert, 168
+
+Horsmanden, Judge, 217
+
+Housatonic River discovered, 135
+
+Hudson, Captain Henry, explores Hudson River in _Half Moon_, 1-16;
+barters with Indians, 4-5, 10; entertains Indians, 4-5, 8-10, 13-14; at
+West Point, 10-11; Irving's description of, 12; fights with Indians,
+15; held at Dartmouth, 17
+
+Hudson River, explored, 1-16; "the River of the Steep Hills," 11;
+called Mauritius, 22, 23, 29, 132; commerce on, 28-29; overflows, 79;
+pirates on, 180
+
+Hughson, tavern-keeper, 213, 215-16
+
+Hunter, Robert, Governor of New York, 186; brings Palatines to New
+York, 186-88; resigns, 189; quoted, 191
+
+Hutchiuson, Anne, 65
+
+Huyck, Jan, 90
+
+
+Indians, effect of _Half Moon_ on, 4-5, 7-10; attack Colman, 6;
+friendly at West Point, 10; on _Half Moon_, 13; attempt theft, 14-15;
+conflict with, 15, 62-66, 74-75; legal ceremony toward, 36; paid for
+lands, 37-38, 53; servants of Minuit kill friendly Indian, 55; Kieft's
+troubles with, 62-66; attack New Amsterdam, 74; as neighbors of Dutch,
+124-26; treaty signed on Norman's Kill, 125; friendship of the "Six
+Nations," 218; take warpath, 219; Sir William Johnson as friend of,
+226-27
+
+Ingoldesby, Major Richard, 161, 185-86
+
+Irving, Washington, _see_ Knickerbocker, Diedrich
+
+
+James, Duke of York and Albany, Lord Proprietor of New York, 137,
+144-45; becomes King of England, 148
+
+James, Fort, 137, 143, 153; _see also_ Amsterdam, Fort; Willem
+Hendrick, Fort
+
+Jogues, Isaac, Jesuit missionary, describes Rensselaerswyck, 40-41
+
+Johnson, Sir William, at Albany congress, 220; formulates Indian
+policy, 221; born in Ireland, 221; described by his uncle, 221; life,
+222-24; home, 224-25; hospitality, 225-26; in French and Indian War,
+227; knighted, 227; appearance, 227-28; activities, 228; personal
+characteristics, 228-29
+
+Johnson, Fort, 224, 228
+
+Joris, Adriaen, 22
+
+Juet, Robert, of Limehouse, quoted, 2, 9
+
+
+Kalm, Peter, describes courthouse at Albany, 220
+
+_Key of Kalmar_, The (ship), 127
+
+Kidd, Captain William, 170-179
+
+Kieft, William, succeeds Van Twiller, 45; as Governor of New
+Netherland, 61-67; character, 61; activities, 61-62; relations with
+Indians, 62-66; recalled (1647), 66; drowned, 66; Kuyter and Melyn
+against, 69; upheld by Stuyvesant, 69; opposed by Bogardus, 89-90;
+raises money for church, 92-93; letter to Minuit, 127-128
+
+Knickerbocker, Diedrich (Irving), description of Henry Hudson, 12;
+description of Van Twiller, 58; quoted, 121-122
+
+Knight, Sarah Kemble, quoted, 206-07
+
+Krol, Sebastian, 54, 56-57, 90
+
+Kuyter, Jochem Pietersen, 69
+
+
+Labor in New Netherland, 27
+
+Leisler, Jacob, 150; calls convention at Fort James, 153; appointed
+"Captain of the fort at New York...", 153; Catholics and aristocracy
+oppose, 153-54; temporary victory, 154-55; assumes title of
+Lieutenant-Governor, 155; demands recognition, 155-56; calls convention
+to discuss defense, 156-57; controversy about, 157-60; refuses
+surrender of fort, 161-63; finally yields, 163; sentenced to death,
+163-64; attainder removed, 164; Bellomont causes reburial, 181-82
+
+_Little Fox_, The (ship), 18
+
+Livingston, Robert, 48, 154, 155, 170, 186, 196
+
+Livingston Manor, 48
+
+Long Island, SO; Dutch on, 22; English on, 78, 135-36; becomes county
+of Yorkshire, 138
+
+Loockermans, Govert, 45-46
+
+Lovelace, Colonel Francis, succeeds Nicolls as Governor of New York,
+139-40; establishes first mail service, 140-42
+
+Lovelace, Lord, Governor of New York, 185
+
+Luyck, AEgidius, 101
+
+
+Maasen, Cornelis, 109
+
+Madagascar, meeting place for pirates and merchants, 168-169, 170; Kidd
+reaches, 172
+
+Manhattan Island, 29; Hudson leaves, 10; settlers in, 22; purchased
+from Indians, 25, 53; reserved for Dutch West Indian Company, 33;
+surrendered to England, 80-82; life on, 103
+
+"Mannahattanik," 9
+
+Manors in New York, 32, 34-35, 47-49
+
+Mauritius, (Hudson) River, 22, 23, 29, 132
+
+Maverick, Samuel, 139
+
+May, Cornelis Jacobsen, of Hoorn, 22; first Director-General of New
+Netherland, 51
+
+_Meeuwken_, The (ship), 52
+
+Megapolensis, Rev. Johannes, Jr., 40, 86, 87-88, 90, 109
+
+Melyn, Cornelis, 39, 69
+
+Michaelius, Domine Jonas, 26, 88, 96-97, 109
+
+Middleburgh, 77
+
+Milborne, Jacob, 155-56, 162, 163, 181-82
+
+Minuit, Peter, Director-General of New Netherland, 25, 52; recalled
+(1632), 45, 56; buys Manhattan Island, 53; builds Fort Amsterdam, 54;
+preparations for war, 55; shipbuilding, 66; enters service of Sweden,
+56, 126-27; establishes Swedish colony in Delaware, 127-28
+
+Montgomerie, John, Governor of New York, 195
+
+Moore, William, 172-73
+
+Morris, Lewis, Chief Justice, 196, 197
+
+Motley, J. L., quoted, 30-31, 99
+
+Moussart, associate of Van Rensselaer, 40
+
+Murray, John, 212
+
+Myndertsen, Myndert, 36
+
+
+Nanfan, John, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, 180
+
+Narragansett Bay, 135
+
+Nassau, Fort, 19
+
+Navesink Heights, Hudson passes, 1
+
+Neger, Jan de, 35
+
+Negroes, plot of 1712, 210-11; alleged plots of 1741, 211-17; _see
+also_ Slavery
+
+Netherlands, _see_ United Netherlands
+
+New Amsterdam, established (1626), 25, 54; growth of, 29; "staple
+right" established at, 61; Indian troubles at, 62-66, 74; municipal
+rights given to, 73; in Stuyvesant's time, 75-76; fortification of, 77;
+church building in, 91-93; in seventeenth century, 102, 103;
+development of, 104-06; class distinction in, 107-08 (note); becomes
+New York, 137; _see also_ New York City
+
+New Castle (Del.), 130
+
+New Gottenburg, 129
+
+New Jersey, 65; granted to Berkeley and Carteret, 145-46; enters "the
+Dominion of New England," 149
+
+New Netherland, Dutch claim, 17; commerce, 18-19; New Netherland
+Company, 19-20; Dutch West India Company, 20-22, 30, 32, 33-34;
+colonization, 21-23; settlers, 23-24; supplies from Holland, 24-25;
+slavery, 25-27; resources, 28; patroonship, 32-47; "Privileges and
+Exemptions," 33-35; English take possession of (1664), 47; small
+proprietors in, 49-50; demands made to States General, 72-73;
+convention to consider defense, 77-79; _The Humble Remonstrance_, 78;
+becomes New York, 82; religion in, 83-93; religious liberty in, 83-85;
+religious tyranny, 85-87; education, 93-101; burghers in, 102-22;
+pioneer living conditions, 103-04; fire protection, 104-05; public
+sanitation, 105; improvement in living conditions, 105-06; "great
+burghers," 107-08; dress, 108; children, 109-20; holidays, 114-18;
+christenings, 118; spirit of mystery, 120-21; neighbors, 123 _et seq._;
+relations with New Sweden, 128-31; relations with English, 131-36;
+question of boundaries, 136; bibliography, 231-33; _see also_ New York
+
+_New Netherland_, The (ship), 56
+
+New Netherland Company, 19-20
+
+_New Netherland, The Representation of_, 68, 70
+
+New Orange, 143
+
+New Sweden, established, 127-128; relations with Dutch, 128-131
+
+New York, government changed, 137-38; surrenders to Dutch (1674), 143;
+name changed to New Orange, 143; returned by treaty to English, 144;
+_Charter of Liberties and Privileges_, 148; becomes royal province,
+148; enters "The Dominion of New England," 149; piracy, 165-79; _see
+also_ New Netherland
+
+New York City, market for pirates, 168; becomes cosmopolitan, 206; in
+1729, 206-07; public buildings, 207; luxury, 207-08; negro slaves,
+208-17; bibliography, 231-33; _see also_ New Amsterdam
+
+_New York Weekly Gazette_, 197
+
+_New York Weekly Journal_, 197-198
+
+Nicholson, Francis, Lieutenant-Governor of New York, 151-152, 157;
+leaves for England, 154; imprisons pirates, 168
+
+Nicolls, Colonel Richard, expedition against New Netherland, 80-81;
+first English Governor of New York, 137-138, 139, 144; warns against
+division of territory, 145
+
+Nicolls, William, 159
+
+_Nieu Nederlandt_, The (ship), 22
+
+_Nightingale_, The (ship), 18
+
+Nooten (Nut) Island, old name for Governor's Island, 60
+
+Norman's Kill, treaty with Indians at, 125
+
+Nysen, Wolf, 35
+
+
+Olfertsen treats with Indians, 65
+
+Orange, Fort, 39; established, 19; colonists, 23, 25, 40; supplies
+brought up Hudson to, 29; in 1626-28, 54; Stuyvesant's orders
+concerning, 71-72; strengthened, 77; town on Hudson, 102; Eelkens lands
+near, 134; becomes Albany, 137; _see also_ Albany
+
+Oxenstiern conducts government of Sweden, 126
+
+Oxford, Earl of, 170
+
+
+Palatines in New York, 186-88
+
+Patroons, 32 _et seq._
+
+Pauw, Michiel, 36-37, 39
+
+Pavonia, 39, 74
+
+Philipse, Judge Adolphe, 196, 199
+
+Philipse, Frederick, 184
+
+Philipse Manor, 47
+
+Pietersen, Evert, 95
+
+Piracy, 165-79
+
+Portuguese, Anthony, one of the first negro slaves, 25
+
+Postal service established, 140-42
+
+_Princess_, The (ship), 66
+
+Printz, Johan, Governor of New Sweden, 128-29
+
+
+Quakers, pay Indians for land, 37-38; Stuyvesant's dealings with, 70,
+85-86
+
+_Quedagh Merchant_, The (ship), 172, 174, 177
+
+
+Rapaelje, Sarah, 25, 109
+
+Raritan Indians, 63
+
+Religion in New Netherland, 83-93
+
+Rensselaer's Stein (Castle Rensselaer), 45
+
+Rensselaerswyck, typical patroonship, 39; settlement, 39-41; life in,
+41-46; library, 42; cost of living, 42-43; terms of leases, 43-44;
+hostility between patroon and tenants, 44; relation of patroon and
+Company, 45; Stuyvesant and, 71-72
+
+Roelantsen, Adam, 94
+
+Romney, Earl of, 170
+
+Rondout, 102
+
+Rysing, Governor of New Sweden, 130
+
+
+_St. John_, The (slaver), 26
+
+San Salvador, victory of Dutch over Spanish off (1627), 55
+
+Schenectady, massacre at, 156
+
+Schoharie, Palatines at, 188
+
+Schuyler, Peter, 154, 155
+
+Schuyler estate near Albany, 48-49
+
+Sewall, Samuel, 168
+
+Shipbuilding at New Amsterdam, 56
+
+Shrewsbury, Duke of, 170
+
+Slavery, Dutch introduce, 25-26; treatment of slaves in New Netherland,
+26-27; in New York, 208-09; ordinance regulating slaves (1684), 209-10;
+_see also_ Negroes
+
+Sleepy Hollow, church at, 47-48
+
+Sloughter, Colonel Henry, Governor of New York, 160, 161, 162, 163,
+165, 191
+
+Smith, William, 197, 198-99
+
+Smits, Claes, 63
+
+Somers, Lord Chancellor, 170
+
+_Soutbergh_, The (ship), 57
+
+South (now Delaware) River, 22, 51, 59
+
+Spain, truce with Holland, 17, 30; plots against Holland, 30; defeat by
+Holland, 55
+
+Spuyten Duyvil, 120
+
+Stanwix, Fort, Treaty of, 228
+
+"Staple right" at New Amsterdam, 61
+
+Staten Island, 36, 50, 63; purchased by Pauw, 39; transferred to Melyn,
+39; Indians attack, 74; becomes part of Yorkshire, 138; Dutch fleet
+off, 143
+
+Steenwyck, Cornelis, 139
+
+Stevensen, Jan, 95
+
+Stony Point, _Half Moon_ becalmed at, 13
+
+Stuyvesant, 196
+
+Stuyvesant, Petrus (Pieter), made Director-General, 45; appearance, 67;
+as Director-General, 68; upholds Kieft, 69; arraigned by burghers, 69;
+defense of, 69-70; character of, 70-71; contest with Van Slichtenhorst,
+71-72; arbitrariness, 72; opposes local self-government, 72-73;
+treatment of Indians, 74; warns Company of lack of defense, 76;
+treatment of Convention, 77-79; begs for reinforcements, 79; surrenders
+to English, 81-82; religious tyranny under, 85-87; builds Fort Casimir,
+130; tries to settle boundary disputes, 136
+
+Swannendael, 36
+
+Sweden, plans expedition to New World, 126; entrance into Thirty Years'
+War, 126; establishes colony in America, 127-28
+
+
+Tarrytown, 47
+
+Tew, Thomas, 166-67
+
+Thirty Years' War, 83, 126
+
+Tienpont, associate of May, 61
+
+_Tiger_, The (ship), 18
+
+Trevor, Captain of the _William_, 132
+
+Trinity Church founded, 165
+
+
+Ulster refuses to send delegates to Fort James, 153
+
+United Netherlands, gains foothold in America, 2, 17; colonists from,
+22-29; relations with Spain, 30, 55; character of people, 30-31;
+relations with England, 76-77, 79-82; takes possession of New York in
+1674, 143; _see also_ New Netherland
+
+Usselinx, William, 126
+
+
+Van Buren, A. H., cited, 23 (note)
+
+Van Cortlandt, Stephanus, 154
+
+Van Cortlandt Manor, 47
+
+Van Curler, Arendt, 44
+
+Van Dam, Rip, 195-97
+
+Van der Donck, Adrian, 68, 72; _Representation_, 68, 70
+
+Van Dyck, Hendrick, 74
+
+Van Hoboocken, Harmanus, 95; _Reverential Request_, 100
+
+Van Rensselaer, Jan, 43
+
+Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, system of patroonship suggested by, 32-33;
+establishes Rensselaerswyck, 39-40; born (1580), 59 (note)
+
+Van Rensselaer, Maria, 59 (note)
+
+Van Slichtenhorst, Brandt, 71
+
+Van Tienhoven, Cornelis, 69-70, 103
+
+Van Twiller, Wouter, Governor of New Netherland, 45, 56, 57-61; nephew
+of Van Rensselaer, 45, 59 (note); De Vries's opinion of, 57; Irving's
+description of, 58; Griffis defends, 58-59; birth, 59 (note); lavish
+expenditure of, 59-60; Eelkens incident, 59, 132-35; recalled, 60
+
+Van Wassenaer, Nicholas Janszoon, account of shipment of live stock,
+24; of colony under Minuit, 52-53; of settlement of Fort Orange, 53-54
+
+Verhulst, William, Director-General of New Netherland (1625-1626), 51
+
+Verhulsten Island, 51
+
+Verrazano visits Hudson River region, 16
+
+Verstius (Vestens), William, 95
+
+
+Walloons, 22, 97
+
+Warren, Anne, mother of Sir William Johnson, 221
+
+Warren, Captain Peter, 221
+
+Warrensbush, 222
+
+Weckquaesgeecks, 55, 63-66
+
+Wendell, Captain, 156
+
+Westchester, New Englanders in, 138; becomes part of Yorkshire, 138
+
+West Point, Hudson reaches, 10
+
+Willem Hendrick, Fort, 143
+
+William of Orange and Mary, sovereigns of England, 149 _et seq._
+
+_William_, The (ship), 132, 133, 134, 135
+
+Wiltwyck, 23
+
+Wisenberg, Catherine, wife of Sir William Johnson, 223
+
+
+Yorkshire, 138
+
+
+Zenger, John Peter, apprentice to Bradford, 193; collects subscription
+for playing organ, 193-94; publisher of _New York Weekly Journal_, 197;
+arrested for libel, 198; trial, 199-205
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE OF THE PLAN OF THE CHRONICLES OF AMERICA
+
+
+The fifty titles of the Series fall into eight topical sequences or
+groups, each with a dominant theme of its own--
+
+I.  _The Morning of America_
+
+TIME: 1492-1763
+
+The theme of the first sequence is the struggle of nations for the
+possession of the New World.  The mariners of four European
+kingdoms--Spain, Portugal, France, and England--are intent upon the
+discovery of a new route to Asia.  They come upon the American
+continent which blocks the way.  Spain plants colonies in the south,
+lured by gold.  France, in pursuit of the fur trade, plants colonies in
+the north.  Englishmen, in search of homes and of a wider freedom,
+occupy the Atlantic seaboard.  These Englishmen come in time to need
+the land into which the French have penetrated by way of the St.
+Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and a mighty struggle between the two
+nations takes place in the wilderness, ending in the expulsion of the
+French.  This sequence comprises ten volumes:
+
+   1. THE RED MAN'S CONTINENT, by Ellsworth Huntington
+   2. THE SPANISH CONQUERORS, by Irving Berdine Richman
+   3. ELIZABETHAN SEA-DOGS, by William Wood
+   4. CRUSADERS OF NEW FRANCE, by William Bennett Munro
+   5. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTH, by Mary Johnston
+   6. THE FATHERS OF NEW ENGLAND, by Charles M. Andrews
+   7. DUTCH AND ENGLISH ON THE HUDSON, by Maud Wilder Goodwin
+   8. THE QUAKER COLONIES, by Sydney G. Fisher
+   9. COLONIAL FOLKWAYS, by Charles M. Andrews
+  10. THE CONQUEST OF NEW FRANCE, by George M. Wrong
+
+
+II.  _The Winning of Independence_
+
+TIME: 1763-1815
+
+The French peril has passed, and the great territory between the
+Alleghanies and the Mississippi is now open to the Englishmen on the
+seaboard, with no enemy to contest their right of way except the
+Indian.  But the question arises whether these Englishmen in the New
+World shall submit to political dictation from the King and Parliament
+of England.  To decide this question the War of the Revolution is
+fought; the Union is born: and the second war with England follows.
+Seven volumes:
+
+  11. THE EVE OF THE REVOLUTION, by Carl Becker
+  12. WASHINGTON AND HIS COMRADES IN ARMS, by George M. Wrong
+  13. THE FATHERS OF THE CONSTITUTION, by Max Farrand
+  14. WASHINGTON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Henry Jones Ford
+  15. JEFFERSON AND HIS COLLEAGUES, by Allen Johnson
+  16. JOHN MARSHALL AND THE CONSTITUTION, by Edward S. Corwin
+  17. THE FIGHT FOR A FREE SEA, by Ralph D. Paine
+
+
+III.  _The Vision of the West_
+
+TIME: 1750-1890
+
+The theme of the third sequence is the American frontier--the conquest
+of the continent from the Alleghanies to the Pacific Ocean.  The story
+covers nearly a century and a half, from the first crossing of the
+Alleghanies by the backwoodsmen of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and the
+Carolinas (about 1750) to the heyday of the cowboy on the Great Plains
+in the latter part of the nineteenth century.  This is the marvelous
+tale of the greatest migrations in history, told in nine volumes as
+follows:
+
+  18. PIONEERS OF THE OLD SOUTHWEST, by Constance Lindsay Skinner
+  19. THE OLD NORTHWEST, by Frederic Austin Ogg
+  20. THE REIGN OF ANDREW JACKSON, by Frederic Austin Ogg
+  21. THE PATHS OF INLAND COMMERCE, by Archer B. Hulbert
+  22. ADVENTURERS OF OREGON, by Constance Lindsay Skinner
+  23. THE SPANISH BORDERLANDS, by Herbert E. Bolton
+  24. TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  25. THE FORTY-NINERS, by Stewart Edward White
+  26. THE PASSING OF THE FRONTIER, by Emerson Hough
+
+
+IV.  _The Storm of Secession_
+
+TIME: 1830-1876
+
+The curtain rises on the gathering storm of secession.  The theme of
+the fourth sequence is the preservation of the Union, which carries
+with it the extermination of slavery.  Six volumes as follows:
+
+  27. THE COTTON KINGDOM, by William E. Dodd
+  28. THE ANTI-SLAVERY CRUSADE, by Jesse Macy
+  29. ABRAHAM LINCOLN AND THE UNION, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  30. THE DAY OF THE CONFEDERACY, by Nathaniel W. Stephenson
+  31. CAPTAINS OF THE CIVIL WAR, by William Wood
+  32. THE SEQUEL OF APPOMATTOX, by Walter Lynwood Fleming
+
+
+V.  _The Intellectual Life_
+
+Two volumes follow on the higher national life, telling of the nation's
+great teachers and interpreters:
+
+  33. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN EDUCATION, by Edwin E. Slosson
+  34. THE AMERICAN SPIRIT IN LITERATURE, by Bliss Perry
+
+
+VI.  _The Epic of Commerce and Industry_
+
+The sixth sequence is devoted to the romance of industry and business,
+and the dominant theme is the transformation caused by the inflow of
+immigrants and the development and utilization of mechanics on a great
+scale.  The long age of muscular power has passed, and the era of
+mechanical power has brought with it a new kind of civilization.  Eight
+volumes:
+
+  35. OUR FOREIGNERS, by Samuel P. Orth
+  36. THE OLD MERCHANT MARINE, by Ralph D. Paine
+  37. THE AGE OF INVENTION, by Holland Thompson
+  38. THE RAILROAD BUILDERS, by John Moody
+  39. THE AGE OF BIG BUSINESS, by Burton J. Hendrick
+  40. THE ARMIES OF LABOR, by Samuel P. Orth
+  41. THE MASTERS OF CAPITAL, by John Moody
+  42. THE NEW SOUTH, by Holland Thompson
+
+
+VII.  _The Era of World Power_
+
+The seventh sequence carries on the story of government and diplomacy
+and political expansion from the Reconstruction (1876) to the present
+day, in six volumes:
+
+  43. THE BOSS AND THE MACHINE, by Samuel P. Orth
+  44. THE CLEVELAND ERA, by Henry Jones Ford
+  45. THE AGRARIAN CRUSADE, by Solon J. Buck
+  46. THE PATH OF EMPIRE, by Carl Russell Fish
+  47. THEODORE ROOSEVELT AND HIS TIMES, by Harold Howland
+  48. WOODROW WILSON AND THE WORLD WAR, by Charles Seymour
+
+
+VIII.  _Our Neighbors_
+
+Now to round out the story of the continent, the Hispanic peoples on
+the south and the Canadians on the north are taken up where they were
+dropped further back in the Series, and these peoples are followed down
+to the present day:
+
+  49. THE CANADIAN DOMINION, by Oscar D. Skelton
+  50. THE HISPANIC NATIONS OF THE NEW WORLD, by William R. Shepherd
+
+
+_The Chronicles of America_ is thus a great synthesis, giving a new
+projection and a new interpretation of American History.  These
+narratives are works of real scholarship, for every one is written
+after an exhaustive examination of the sources.  Many of them contain
+new facts; some of them--such as those by Howland, Seymour, and
+Hough--are founded on intimate personal knowledge.  But the originality
+of the Series lies, not chiefly in new facts, but rather in new ideas
+and new combinations of old facts.
+
+The General Editor of the Series is Dr. Allen Johnson, Chairman of the
+Department of History of Yale University, and the entire work has been
+planned, prepared, and published under the control of the Council's
+Committee on Publications of Yale University.
+
+
+  YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS
+
+  143 ELM STREET, NEW HAVEN
+  522 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Dutch and English on the Hudson, by
+Maud Wilder Goodwin
+
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