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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:02:57 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 20:02:57 -0700 |
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diff --git a/35062-h/35062-h.htm b/35062-h/35062-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca3114e --- /dev/null +++ b/35062-h/35062-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4869 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Woodpeckers, by Fannie Hardy Eckstorm. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 65%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + img { width: 70% ; } + .widetiny { width: 10% ; } + .wide0 { width: 20% ; } + .wide1 { width: 40% ; } + .wide2 { width: 55% ; } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + dl { margin-bottom:0em; } + dd { margin-left:2em; text-align:justify; } + dd.range { margin-left:3em; } + dl.species dt { margin-top:1em; } + dl.subsp { margin-top:0em; } + dl.subsp dt { margin-left:1em; margin-top:0em; } + dl.key dt { margin-right:1em; text-align:right; } + dd.t0 { margin-left:3em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t1 { margin-left:4.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t2 { margin-left:5.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t3 { margin-left:6.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t4 { margin-left:7.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t5 { margin-left:8.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t6 { margin-left:9.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t7 { margin-left:10.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t8 { margin-left:11.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t9 { margin-left:12.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + dd.t10 { margin-left:13.5em; text-indent:-3em; } + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Woodpeckers, by Fannie Hardy Eckstorm + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Woodpeckers + +Author: Fannie Hardy Eckstorm + +Release Date: January 25, 2011 [EBook #35062] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WOODPECKERS *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Steve Read and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + + + + + +</pre> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="cover" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">cover</span> +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p> + +<h1>THE WOODPECKERS</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>FANNIE HARDY ECKSTORM</h2> + +<h4>WITH ILLUSTRATIONS</h4> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/t_page.jpg" class="wide0" alt="" title="" /> +</div> +<div class="center"> +BOSTON AND NEW YORK +<br />HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY +<br />The Riverside Press, Cambridge +<br />1901 +</div> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span> +</p> + + + +<hr /> +<h4>COPYRIGHT, 1900, BY FANNIE HARDY ECKSTORM</h4> + +<h4>ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</h4> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span></p> + +<h4><i>To</i><br /> +MY FATHER<br /> +MR. MANLY HARDY<br /> +<i>A Lifelong Naturalist</i><br /> +</h4> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v"> </a></span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"><small>CHAP.</small></td><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Foreword: the Riddlers</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How to know a Woodpecker</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How the Woodpecker catches a Grub</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How the Woodpecker courts his Mate</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How the Woodpecker makes a House</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How a Flicker feeds her Young</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Friend Downy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Persona non Grata. (Yellow-bellied Sapsucker)</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">El Carpintero. (Californian Woodpecker)</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Red-headed Cousin. (Red-headed Woodpecker)</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">A Study of Acquired Habits</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Woodpecker’s Tools: His Bill</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Woodpecker’s Tools: His Foot</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Woodpecker’s Tools: His Tail</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Woodpecker’s Tools: His Tongue</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">How each Woodpecker is fitted for his own Kind of Life</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">XVI.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">The Argument from Design</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left" colspan="2">APPENDIX</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">A.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Key to the Woodpeckers of North America</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">B.</td><td align="left"><span class="smcap">Descriptions of the Woodpeckers of North America</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii"> </a></span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[viii]</a></span></p> + +<hr /> +<h2><a name="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS" id="LIST_OF_ILLUSTRATIONS"></a>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<div class="center"> +<table border="0" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Flicker (colored)</td><td align="left"><i>Frontispiece</i></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Boring Larva</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Indian Spear</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Solomon Islander’s Spear</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Downy Woodpecker (colored)</td><td align="right"><i>facing </i><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Bark showing Work of Sapsucker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Yellow-bellied Sapsucker (colored)</td><td align="right"><i>facing </i><a href="#Page_34">34</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Trunk of Tree showing Work of Californian Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Californian Woodpecker (colored)</td><td align="right"><i>facing </i><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Red-headed Woodpecker (colored)</td><td align="right"><i>facing </i><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Head of the Lewis’s Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Head of Ivory-billed Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Foot of Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Diagram of Right Foot</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Foot of Three-toed Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tail of Hairy Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tails of Brown Creeper and Chimney Swift</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Middle Tail Feathers of Flicker, Ivory-billed Woodpecker, and +Hairy Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Diagram of Curvature of Tails of Woodpeckers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Patterns of Tails</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Under Side of Middle Tail Feather of Ivory-billed Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tongue of Hairy Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Tongue-bones of Flicker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Skull of Woodpecker, showing Bones of Tongue</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Hyoids of Sapsucker and Golden-fronted Woodpecker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="left">Diagram of Head of a Flicker</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><i>The colored illustrations are by Louis Agassiz Fuertes. The text +cuts are from drawings by John L. Ridgway.</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix"> </a></span></p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p> + +<hr /> +<h2>THE WOODPECKERS</h2> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>FOREWORD: THE RIDDLERS</h2> + + +<p>Long ago in Greece, the legend runs, a terrible +monster called the Sphinx used to waylay +travelers to ask them riddles: whoever could not +answer these she killed, but the man who did +answer them killed her and made an end of her +riddling.</p> + +<p>To-day there is no Sphinx to fear, yet the +world is full of unguessed riddles. No thoughtful +man can go far afield but some bird or +flower or stone bars his way with a question +demanding an answer; and though many men +have been diligently spelling out the answers +for many years, and we for the most part must +study the answers they have proved, and must +reply in their words, yet those shrewd old riddlers, +the birds and flowers and bees, are always +ready for a new victim, putting their heads together +over some new enigma to bar the road +to knowledge till that, too, shall be answered;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +so that other men’s learning does not always +suffice. So much of a man’s pleasure in life, so +much of his power, depends on his ability to +silence these persistent questioners, that this little +book was written with the hope of making +clearer the kind of questions Dame Nature asks, +and the way to get correct answers.</p> + +<p>This is purposely a <i>little</i> book, dealing only +with a single group of birds, treating particularly +only some of the commoner species of that +group, taking up only a few of the problems +that present themselves to the naturalist for solution, +and aiming rather to make the reader +<i>acquainted with</i> the birds than <i>learned about</i> +them.</p> + +<p>The woodpeckers were selected in preference +to any other family because they are patient +under observation, easily identified, resident in +all parts of the country both in summer and in +winter, and because more than any other birds +they leave behind them records of their work +which may be studied after the birds have +flown. The book provides ample means for identifying +every species and subspecies of woodpecker +known in North America, though only +five of the commonest and most interesting +species have been selected for special study. +At least three of these five should be found in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +almost every part of the country. The Californian +woodpecker is never seen in the East, nor +the red-headed in the far West, but the downy +and the hairy are resident nearly everywhere, +and some species of the flickers and sapsuckers, +if not always the ones chosen for special notice, +are visitors in most localities.</p> + +<p>Look for the woodpeckers in orchards and +along the edges of thickets, among tangles of +wild grapes and in patches of low, wild berries, +upon which they often feed, among dead trees +and in the track of forest fires. Wherever there +are boring larvæ, beetles, ants, grasshoppers, the +fruit of poison-ivy, dogwood, june-berry, wild +cherry or wild grapes, woodpeckers may be confidently +looked for if there are any in the neighborhood. +Be patient, persistent, wide-awake, sure +that you see what you think you see, careful to +remember what you have seen, studious to compare +your observations, and keen to hear the +questions propounded you. If you do this seven +years and a day, you will earn the name of Naturalist; +and if you travel the road of the naturalist +with curious patience, you may some day become +as famous a riddle-reader as was that OEdipus, the +king of Thebes, who slew the Sphinx.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>I</h2> + +<h3>HOW TO KNOW A WOODPECKER</h3> + + +<p>The woodpecker is the easiest of all birds to +recognize. Even if entirely new to you, you may +readily decide whether a bird is a woodpecker or +not.</p> + +<p>The woodpecker is always striking and is +often gay in color. He is usually noisy, and his +note is clear and characteristic. His shape and +habits are peculiar, so that whenever you see a +bird clinging to the side of a tree “as if he had +been thrown at it and stuck,” you may safely +call him a woodpecker. Not that all birds which +cling to the bark of trees are woodpeckers,—for +the chickadees, the crested titmice, the nuthatches, +the brown creepers, and a few others +like the kinglets and some wrens and wood-warblers +more or less habitually climb up and down +the tree-trunks; but these do it with a pretty +grace wholly unlike the woodpecker’s awkward, +cling-fast way of holding on. As the largest of +these is smaller than the smallest woodpecker, +and as none of them (excepting only the tiny<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +kinglets) ever shows the patch of yellow or scarlet +which always marks the head of the male +woodpecker, and which sometimes adorns his +mate, there is no danger of making mistakes.</p> + +<p>The nuthatches are the only birds likely to +be confused with woodpeckers, and these have +the peculiar habit of traveling down a tree-trunk +with their heads pointing to the ground. A +woodpecker never does this; he may move down +the trunk of the tree he is working on, but he +will do it by hopping backward. A still surer +sign of the woodpecker is the way he sits upon +his tail, using it to brace him. No other birds +except the chimney swift and the little brown +creeper ever do this. A sure mark, also, is his +feet, which have two toes turned forward and +two turned backward. We find this arrangement +in no other North American birds except +the cuckoos and our one native parroquet. However, +there is one small group of woodpeckers +which have but three toes, and these are the only +North American land-birds that do not have four +well-developed toes.</p> + +<p>In coloration the woodpeckers show a strong +family likeness. Except in some young birds, +the color is always brilliant and often is gaudy. +Usually it shows much clear black and white, +with dashes of scarlet or yellow about the head.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +Sometimes the colors are “solid,” as in the red-headed +woodpecker; sometimes they lie in close +bars, as in the red-bellied species; sometimes in +spots and stripes, as in the downy and hairy; +but there is always a <i>contrast</i>, never any blending +of hues. The red or yellow is laid on in +well-defined patches—square, oblong, or crescentic—upon +the crown, the nape, the jaws, or +the throat; or else in stripes or streaks down +the sides of the head and neck, as in the logcock, +or pileated woodpecker.</p> + +<p>There is no rule about the color markings of +the sexes, as in some families of birds. Usually +the female lacks all the bright markings of the +male; sometimes, as in the logcock, she has them +but in more restricted areas; sometimes, as in +the flickers, she has all but one of the male’s +color patches; and in a few species, as the red-headed +and Lewis’s woodpeckers, the two sexes +are precisely alike in color. In the black-breasted +woodpecker, sometimes called Williamson’s +sapsucker, the male and female are so +totally different that they were long described +and named as different birds. It sometimes +happens that a young female will show the color +marks of the male, but will retain them only the +first year.</p> + +<p>Though the woodpeckers cling to the trunks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +of trees, they are not exclusively climbing birds. +Some kinds, like the flickers, are quite as frequently +found on the ground, wading in the +grass like meadowlarks. Often we may frighten +them from the tangled vines of the frost grape +and the branches of wild cherry trees, or from +clumps of poison-ivy, whither they come to eat +the fruit. The red-headed woodpecker is fond +of sitting on fence posts and telegraph poles; +and both he and the flicker frequently alight on +the roofs of barns and houses and go pecking +and pattering over the shingles. The sapsuckers +and several other kinds will perch on dead limbs, +like a flycatcher, on the watch for insects; the +flickers, and more rarely other kinds, will sit +crosswise of a limb instead of crouching lengthwise +of it, as is the custom with woodpeckers.</p> + +<p>All these points you will soon learn. You +will become familiar with the form, the flight, +and the calls of the different woodpeckers; you +will learn not only to know them by name, but +to understand their characters; they will become +your acquaintances, and later on your friends.</p> + +<p>This heavy bird, with straight, chisel bill and +sharp-pointed tail-feathers; with his short legs +and wide, flapping wings, his unmusical but not +disagreeable voice, and his heavy, undulating, +business-like flight, is distinctly bourgeois, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span> +type of a bird devoted to business and enjoying +it. No other bird has so much work to do all +the year round, and none performs his task with +more energy and sense. The woodpecker makes +no aristocratic pretensions, puts on none of the +coy graces and affectations of the professional +singer; even his gay clothes fit him less jauntily +than they would another bird. He is artisan to +the backbone,—a plain, hard-working, useful +citizen, spending his life in hammering holes in +anything that appears to need a hole in it. Yet +he is neither morose nor unsocial. There is a +vein of humor in him, a large reserve of mirth +and jollity. We see little of it except in the +spring, and then for a time all the laughter in +him bubbles up; he becomes uproarious in his +glee, and the melody which he cannot vent in +song he works out in the channels of his trade, +filling the woodland with loud and harmonious +rappings. Above all other birds he is the friend +of man, and deserves to have the freedom of the +fields.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>II</h2> + +<h3>HOW THE WOODPECKER CATCHES A GRUB</h3> + + +<p>Did you ever see a hairy woodpecker strolling +about a tree for what he could pick up?</p> + +<p>There is a <i>whur-r-rp</i> of gay black and white +wings and the flash of a scarlet topknot as, with +a sharp cry, he dashes past you, strikes the +limb solidly with both feet, and instantly sidles +behind it, from which safe retreat he keeps a +sharp black eye fixed upon your motions. If +you make friends with him by keeping quiet, he +will presently forgive you for being there and +hop to your side of the limb, pursuing his ordinary +work in the usual way, turning his head +from side to side, inspecting every crevice, and +picking up whatever looks appetizing. Any +knot or little seam in the bark is twice scanned; +in such places moths and beetles lay their eggs. +Little cocoons are always dainty morsels, and +large cocoons contain a feast. The butterfly-hunter +who is hoping to hatch out some fine +cecropia moths knows well that a large proportion +of all the cocoons he discovers will be empty.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +The hairy woodpecker has been there before him, +and has torn the chrysalis out of its silken cradle. +For this the farmer should thank him +heartily, even if the butterfly-hunter does not, +for the cecropia caterpillar is destructive.</p> + +<p>But sometimes, on the fair bark of a smooth +limb, the woodpecker stops, listens, taps, and begins +to drill. He works with haste and energy, +laying open a deep hole. For what? An apple-tree +borer was there cutting out the life of +the tree. The farmer +could see no sign of +him; neither could +the woodpecker, but +he could hear the strong grub down in his little +chamber gnawing to make it longer, or, frightened +by the heavy footsteps on his roof, scrambling +out of the way.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_001.jpg" alt="Boring larva." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Boring larva.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is easy to hear the borer at work in the +tree. When a pine forest has been burned and +the trees are dead but still standing, there will +be such a crunching and grinding of borers eating +the dead wood that it can be heard on all +sides many yards away. Even a single borer +can sometimes be heard distinctly by putting the +ear to the tree. Sound travels much farther +through solids than it does through air; notice +how much farther you can hear a railroad train<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> +by the click of the rails than by the noise that +comes on the air. Even our dull ears can detect +the woodworm, but we cannot locate him. +How, then, is the woodpecker to do what we +cannot do?</p> + +<p>Doubtless experience teaches him much, but +one observer suggests that the woodpecker places +the grub by the sense of touch. He says he +has seen the red-headed woodpecker drop his +wings till they trailed along the branch, as if +to determine where the vibrations in the wood +were strongest, and thus to decide where the +grub was boring. But no one else appears to +have noticed that woodpeckers are in the habit +of trailing their wings as they drill for grubs. +It would be a capital study for one to attempt +to discover whether the woodpecker locates his +grub by feeling, or whether he does it by hearing +alone. Only one should be sure he is looking +for grubs and not for beetles’ eggs, nor for +ants, nor for caterpillars. By the energy with +which he drills, and the size of the hole left +after he has found his tidbit, one can decide +whether he was working for a borer.</p> + +<p>But when the borer has been located, he has +yet to be captured. There are many kinds of +borers. Some channel a groove just beneath the +bark and are easily taken; but others tunnel<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> +deep into the wood. I measured such a hole +the other day, and found it was more than eight +inches long and larger than a lead-pencil, bored +through solid rock-maple wood. The woodpecker +must sink a hole at right angles to this +channel and draw the big grub out through his +small, rough-sided hole. You would be surprised, +if you tried to do the same with a pair +of nippers the size of the woodpecker’s bill, to +find how strong the borer is, how he can buckle +and twist, how he braces himself against the +walls of his house. Were your strength no +greater than the woodpecker’s, the task would +be much harder. Indeed, a large grub would +stand a good chance of getting away but for +one thing, the woodpecker <i>spears</i> him, and +thereby saves many a dinner for himself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_002.jpg" alt="Indian spear." class="wide1" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Indian spear.</span> +</div> + +<p>Here is a primitive Indian fish-spear, such as +the Penobscots used. To the end of a long +pole two wooden jaws are tied loosely enough to +spring apart a little under pressure, and midway +between them, firmly driven into the end of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +pole, is a point of iron. When a fish +was struck, the jaws sprung apart under +the force of the blow, guiding the iron +through the body of the fish, which was +held securely in the hollow above, that +just fitted around his sides, and by the +point itself.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_003.jpg" class="widetiny" alt="Solomon Islander's spear." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Solomon Islander's spear.</span> +</div> + +<p>The tool with which the woodpecker +fishes for a grub is very much the same. +His mandibles correspond to the two movable +jaws. They are knife-edged, and the +lower fits exactly inside the upper, so that +they give a very firm grip. In addition, +the upper one is movable. All birds can +move the upper mandible, because it is +hinged to the skull. (Watch a parrot +some day, if you do not believe it.) A +medium-sized woodpecker, like the Lewis’s, +can elevate his upper mandible at least a +quarter of an inch without opening his +mouth at all. This enables him to draw +his prey through a smaller hole than +would be needed if he must open his +jaws along their whole length. Between +the mandibles is the sharp-pointed +tongue, which can be thrust entirely through a +grub, holding him impaled. Unlike the Indian’s +spear-point, the woodpecker’s tongue is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +barbed heavily on both sides, and it is extensile. +As a tool it resembles the Solomon Islander’s +spear. A medium-sized woodpecker can dart his +tongue out two inches or more beyond the tip of +his bill. A New Bedford boy might tell us, and +very correctly, that the woodpecker <i>harpoons</i> +his grub, just as a whaleman harpoons a whale. +If the grub tries to back off into his burrow, +out darts the long, barbed tongue and spears +him. Then it drags him along the crooked +tunnel and into the narrow shaft picked by the +woodpecker, where the strong jaws seize and +hold him firmly.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>III</h2> + +<h3>HOW THE WOODPECKER COURTS HIS MATE</h3> + + +<p>Other birds woo their mates with songs, but +the woodpecker has no voice for singing. He cannot +pour out his soul in melody and tell his love +his devotion in music. How do songless birds +express their emotions? Some by grotesque actions +and oglings, as the horned owl, and some +by frantic dances, as the sharp-tailed grouse, +woo and win their mates; but the amorous +woodpecker, not excepting the flickers, which +also woo by gestures, whacks a piece of seasoned +timber, and rattles off interminable messages +according to the signal code set down for +woodpeckers’ love affairs. He is the only instrumental +performer among the birds; for the +ruffed grouse, though he drums, has no drum.</p> + +<p>There is no cheerier spring sound, in our belated +Northern season, than the quick, melodious +rappings of the sapsucker from some dead ash +limb high above the meadow. It is the best +performance of its kind: he knows the capabilities +of his instrument, and gets out of it all the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +music there is in it. Most if not all woodpeckers +drum occasionally, but drumming is the special +accomplishment of the sapsucker. He is +easily first. In Maine, where they are abundant, +they make the woods in springtime resound +with their continual rapping. Early in +April, before the trees are green with leaf, or +the pussy-willows have lost their silky plumpness, +when the early round-leafed yellow violet +is cuddling among the brown, dead leaves, I +hear the yellow-bellied sapsucker along the +borders of the trout stream that winds down +between the mountains. The dead branch of +an elm-tree is his favorite perch, and there, elevated +high above all the lower growth, he sits +rolling forth a flood of sound like the tremolo +of a great organ. Now he plays staccato,—detached, +clear notes; and now, accelerating his +time, he dashes through a few bars of impetuous +hammerings. The woods reëcho with it; +the mountains give it faintly back. Beneath +him the ruffed grouse paces back and forth on +his favorite mossy log before he raises the palpitating +whirr of his drumming. A chickadee +digging in a rotten limb pauses to spit out +a mouthful of punky wood and the brown +<i>Vanessa</i>, edged with yellow, first butterfly of +the season, flutters by on rustling wings. So<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> +spring arrives in Maine, ushered in by the reveille +of the sapsucker.</p> + +<p>So ambitious is the sapsucker of the excellence +of his performance that no instrument but +the best will satisfy him. He is always experimenting, +and will change his anvil for another +as soon as he discovers one of superior resonance. +They say he tries the tin pails of the maple-sugar +makers to see if these will not give him a +clearer note; that he drums on tin roofs and +waterspouts till he loosens the solder and they +come tumbling down. But usually he finds nothing +so near his liking as a hard-wood branch, +dead and barkless, the drier, the harder, the +thinner, the finer grained, so much the better +for his uses.</p> + +<p>Deficient as they are in voice, the woodpeckers +do not lack a musical ear. Mr. Burroughs +tells us that a downy woodpecker of his acquaintance +used to change his key by tapping on a +knot an inch or two from his usual drumming +place, thereby obtaining a higher note. Alternating +between the two places, he gave to his +music the charm of greater variety. The woodpeckers +very quickly discover the superior conductivity +of metals. In parts of the country +where woodpeckers are more abundant than +good drumming trees, a tin roof proves an<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +almost irresistible attraction. A lightning-rod +will sometimes draw them farther than it would +an electric bolt; and a telegraph pole, with its +tinkling glasses and ringing wires, gives them +great satisfaction. If men did not put their +singing poles in such public places, their music +would be much more popular with the woodpeckers; +but even now the birds often venture +on the dangerous pastime and hammer you out a +concord of sweet sounds from the mellow wood-notes, +the clear peal of the glass, and the ringing +overtones of the wires.</p> + +<p>The flicker often telegraphs his love by tapping +either on a forest tree or on some loose +board of a barn or outhouse; but he has other +ways of courting his lady. On fine spring mornings, +late in April, I have seen them on a horizontal +bough, the lady sitting quietly while her +lover tried to win her approval by strange antics. +Quite often there are two males displaying their +charms in open rivalry, but once I saw them +when the field was clear. If fine clothes made +a gentleman, this brave wooer would have been +first in all the land: for his golden wings and +tail showed their glittering under side as he +spread them; his scarlet headdress glowed like +fire; his rump was radiantly white, not to speak +of the jetty black of his other ornaments and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +the beautiful ground-colors of his body. He +danced before his lady, showing her all these +beauties, and perhaps boasting a little of his own +good looks, though she was no less beautiful. +He spread his wings and tail for her inspection; +he bowed, to show his red crescent; he +bridled, he stepped forward and back and sidewise +with deep bows to his mistress, coaxing her +with the mellowest and most enticing <i>co-wee-tucks</i>, +which no doubt in his language meant +“Oh, promise me,” laughing now and then his +jovial <i>wick-a-wick-a-wick-a-wick-a</i>, either in glee +or nervousness. It was all so very silly—and +so very nice! I wonder how it all came out. +Did she promise him? Or did she find a gayer +suitor?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>IV</h2> + +<h3>HOW THE WOODPECKER MAKES A HOUSE</h3> + + +<p>All woodpeckers make their houses in the +wood of trees, either the trunk or one of the +branches. Almost the only exceptions to this +rule are those that live in the treeless countries +of the West. In the torrid deserts of Arizona +and the Southwest, some species are obliged to +build in the thorny branches of giant cacti, +which there grow to an enormous size. In the +treeless plains to the northward, a few individuals, +for lack of anything so suitable as the +cactus, dig holes in clay banks, or even lay their +eggs upon the surface of the prairie. In a country +where chimney swallows nest in deserted +houses, and sand martins burrow in the sides of +wells, who wonders at the flicker’s thinking that +the side of a haystack, the hollow of a wheel-hub, +or the cavity under an old ploughshare, +is an ideal home? But in wooded countries +the woodpeckers habitually nest in trees. The +only exceptions I know are a few flickers’ holes +in old posts, and a few instances where flickers<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +have pecked through the weatherboarding of a +house to nest in the space between the walls.</p> + +<p>But because a bird nests in a hole in a tree, +it is not necessarily a woodpecker. The sparrow-hawk, +the house sparrow, the tree swallow, the +bluebird, most species of wrens, and several of +the smaller species of owls nest either in natural +cavities in trees or in deserted woodpeckers’ holes. +The chickadees, the crested titmice, and the nuthatches +dig their own holes after the same pattern +as the woodpecker’s. However, the large, +round holes were all made by woodpeckers, and +of those under two inches in diameter, our friend +Downy made his full share. It is easy to tell +who made the hole, for the different birds have +different styles of housekeeping. The chickadees +and nuthatches always build a soft little +nest of grass, leaves, and feathers, while the +woodpeckers lay their eggs on a bed of chips, +and carry nothing in from outside.</p> + +<p>Soon after they have mated in the spring, the +woodpeckers begin to talk of housekeeping. +First, a tree must be chosen. It may be sound or +partly decayed, one of a clump or solitary; but +it is usually dead or hollow-hearted, and at least +partly surrounded by other trees. Sometimes a +limb is chosen, sometimes an upright trunk, and +the nest may be from two feet to one hundred<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +feet from the ground, though most frequently it +will be found not less than ten nor more than +thirty feet up. However odd the location finally +occupied, it is likely that it was not the first one +selected. A woodpecker will dig half a dozen +houses rather than occupy an undesirable tenement. +It is very common to find their unfinished +holes and the wider-mouthed, shallower +pockets which they dig for winter quarters; for +those that spend their winters in the cold North +make a hole to live in nights and cold and +stormy days.</p> + +<p>The first step in building is to strike out a +circle in the bark as large as the doorway is to +be; that is, from an inch and a half to three +or four inches in diameter according to the size +of the woodpecker. It is nearly always a perfect +circle. Try, if you please, to draw freehand a +circle of dots as accurate as that which the woodpecker +strikes out hurriedly with his bill, and see +whether it is easy to do as well as he does.</p> + +<p>If the size and shape of the doorway suit him, +the woodpecker scales off the bark inside his +circle of holes and begins his hard work. He +seems to take off his coat and work in his shirtsleeves, +so vigorously does he labor as he clings +with his stout toes, braced in position by his +pointed tail. The chips fly out past him, or if<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> +they lie in the hole, he sweeps them out with his +bill and pelts again at the same place. The +pair take turns at the work. Who knows how +long they work before resting? Do they take +turns of equal length? Does one work more +than the other? A pair of flickers will dig +about two inches in a day, the hole being nearly +two and a half inches in diameter. A week or +more is consumed in digging the nest, which, +among the flickers, is commonly from ten to +eighteen inches deep. The hole usually runs in +horizontally for a few inches and then curves +down, ending in a chamber large enough to +make a comfortable nest for the mother and her +babies.</p> + +<p>What a good time the little ones have in their +hole! Rain and frost cannot chill them; no +enemy but the red squirrel is likely to disturb +them. There they lie in their warm, dark chamber, +looking up at the ray of light that comes in +the doorway, until at last they hear the scratching +of their mother’s feet as she alights on the +outside of the tree and clambers up to feed them. +What a piping and calling they raise inside the +hole, and how they all scramble up the walls of +their chamber and thrust out their beaks to be +fed, till the old tree looks as if it were blossoming +with little woodpeckers’ hungry mouths!<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>V</h2> + +<h3>HOW A FLICKER FEEDS HER YOUNG<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Based upon the observations of Mr. William Brewster.</p></div> + +<p>As the house of the woodpecker has no windows +and the old bird very nearly fills the doorway +when she comes home, it is hard to find out +just how she feeds her little ones. But one of +our best naturalists has had the opportunity to +observe it, and has told what he saw.</p> + +<p>A flicker had built a nest in the trunk of a +rather small dead tree which, after the eggs were +hatched, was accidentally broken off just at +the entrance hole. This left the whole cavity +exposed to the weather; but it was too late to +desert the nest, and impossible to remove the +young birds to another nest.</p> + +<p>When first visited, the five little birds were +blind, naked, and helpless. They were motherless, +too. Some one must have killed their pretty +mother; for she never came to feed them, and +the father was taking all the care of his little +family. When disturbed the little birds hissed +like snakes, as is the habit of the callow young<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span> +of woodpeckers, chickadees, and other birds nesting +habitually in holes in trees. When they were +older and their eyes were open, they made a clatter +much like the noise of a mowing-machine, +and loud enough to be heard thirty yards away.</p> + +<p>The father came at intervals of from twenty +to sixty minutes to feed the little ones. He +was very shy, and came so quietly that he would +be first seen when he alighted close by with a +low little laugh or a subdued but anxious call +to the young. “Here I am again!” he laughed; +or “Are you all right, children?” he called to +them. “All right!” they would answer, clattering +in concert like a two-horse mower.</p> + +<p>As soon as they heard him scratching on the +tree-trunk, up they would all clamber to the edge +of the nest and hold out their gaping mouths to +be fed. Each one was anxious to be fed first, +because there never was enough to go round. +There was always one that, like the little pig of +the nursery tale, “got none.” When he came +to the nest, the father would look around a +moment, trying to choose the one he wanted to +feed first. Did he always pick out the poor little +one that had none the time before, I wonder?</p> + +<p>After the old bird had made his choice, he +would bend over the little bird and drive his +long bill down the youngster’s throat as if to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +run it through him. Then the little bird would +catch hold as tightly as he could and hang on +while his father jerked him up and down for a +second or a second and a half with great rapidity. +What was he doing? He was pumping +food from his own stomach into the little one’s. +Many birds feed their young in this way. They +do not hold the food in their own mouths, but +swallow and perhaps partially digest it, so that it +shall be fit for the tender little stomachs.</p> + +<p>While the woodpecker was pumping in this +manner his motions were much the same as when +he drummed, but his tail twitched as rapidly as +his head and his wings quivered. The motion +seemed to shake his whole body.</p> + +<p>In two weeks from the time when the little +birds were blind, naked, helpless nestlings they +became fully feathered and full grown, able to +climb up to the top of the nest, from which +they looked out with curiosity and interest. +At any noise they would slip silently back. A +day or two later they left the old nest and began +their journeys.</p> + +<p>No naturalist has been able to tell us whether +other woodpeckers than the golden-winged flicker +feed their young in this way; and little is known +of the number of kinds of birds that use this +method, but it is suspected that it is far more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +common than has ever been determined. If an +old bird is seen to put her bill down a young one’s +throat and keep it there even so short a time as +a second, it is probable that she is feeding the +little one by regurgitation, that is, by pumping +up food from her own stomach. Any bird seen +doing this should be carefully watched. It has +long been known that the domestic pigeon does +this, and the same has been observed a number +of times of the ruby-throated hummingbird. A +California lady has taken some remarkable photographs +of the Anna’s hummingbird in the act, +showing just how it is done.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>VI</h2> + +<h3>FRIEND DOWNY</h3> + + +<p>No better little bird comes to our orchards +than our friend the downy woodpecker. He is +the smallest and one of the most sociable of our +woodpeckers,—a little, spotted, black-and-white +fellow, precisely like his larger cousin the hairy, +except in having the outer tail-feathers barred +instead of plain. Nearly everything that can be +said of one is equally true of the other on a +smaller scale. They look alike, they act alike, +and their nests and eggs are alike in everything +but size.</p> + +<p>Downy is the most industrious of birds. He +is seldom idle and never in mischief. As he +does not fear men, but likes to live in orchards +and in the neighborhood of fields, he is a good +friend to us. On the farm he installs himself +as Inspector of Apple-trees. It is an old and an +honorable profession among birds. The pay is +small, consisting only of what can be picked up, +but, as cultivated trees are so infested with insects +that food is always plentiful, and as they have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>usually a dead branch suitable to nest in, Downy +asks no more. Summer and winter he works on +our orchards. At sunrise he begins, and he +patrols the branches till sunset. He taps on the +trunks to see whether he can hear any rascally +borers inside. He inspects every tree carefully +in a thorough and systematic way, beginning low +down and following up with a peek into every +crevice and a tap upon every spot that looks suspicious. +If he sees anything which ought not to +be there, he removes it at once.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_004.jpg" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>A moth had laid her eggs in a crack in the +bark, expecting to hatch out a fine brood of +caterpillars: but Downy ate them all, thus saving +a whole branch from being overrun with caterpillars +and left fruitless, leafless, and dying. A +beetle had just deposited her eggs here. Downy +saw her, and took not only the eggs but the beetle +herself. Those eggs would have hatched into +boring larvæ, which would have girdled and killed +some of the branches, or have burrowed under +the bark, causing it to fall off, or have bored +into the wood and, perhaps, have killed the tree. +Nor is the full-grown borer exempt. Downy +hears him, pecks a few strokes, and harpoons +him with unerring aim. When Downy has +made an arrest in this way, the prisoner does +not escape from the police. Here is a colony<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +of ants, running up the tree in one line and +down in another, touching each other with their +feelers as they pass. A feast for our friend! +He takes both columns, and leaves none to tell +the tale. This is a good deed, too, since ants +are of no benefit to fruit-trees and are very fond +of the dead-ripe fruit.</p> + +<p>And Downy is never too busy to listen for +borers. They are fine plump morsels much to +his taste, not so sour as ants, nor so hard-shelled +as beetles, nor so insipid as insects’ eggs. A +good borer is his preferred dainty. The work he +does in catching borers is of incalculable benefit, +for no other bird can take his place. The warblers, +the vireos, and some other birds in summer, +the chickadees and nuthatches all the year +round, are helping to eat up the eggs and +insects that lie near the surface, but the only +birds equipped for digging deep under the bark +and dragging forth the refractory grubs are the +woodpeckers.</p> + +<p>So Downy works at his self-appointed task in +our orchards summer and winter, as regular as a +policeman on his beat. But he is much more +than a policeman, for he acts as judge, jury, +jailer, and jail. All the evidence he asks against +any insect is to find him loafing about the premises. +“I swallow him first and find out afterwards<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> +whether he was guilty,” says Downy with +a wink and a nod.</p> + +<p>Most birds do not stay all the year, in the +North, at least, and most, in return for their +labors in the spring, demand some portion of +the fruit or grain of midsummer and autumn. +Not so Downy. His services are entirely gratuitous; +he works twice as long as most others. +He spends the year with us, no winter ever +too severe for him, no summer too hot; and +he never taxes the orchard, nor takes tribute +from the berry patch. Only a quarter of his +food is vegetable, the rest being made up of +injurious insects; and the vegetable portion +consists entirely of wild fruits and weed-seeds, +nothing that man eats or uses. Downy feeds +on the wild dogwood berries, a few pokeberries, +the fruit of the woodbine, and the seeds of the +poison-ivy,—whatever scanty and rather inferior +fare is to be had at Nature’s fall and winter +table. If in the cold winter weather we will take +pains to hang out a bone with some meat on it, +raw or cooked, or a piece of suet, taking care +that it is not salted,—for few wild birds except +the crossbills can eat salted food,—we may see +how he appreciates our thoughtfulness. Shall we +grudge him a bone from our own abundance, or +neglect to fasten it firmly out of reach of the cat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> +and dog? If his cousin the hairy and his neighbor +the chickadee come and eat with him, bid +them a hearty welcome. The feast is spread for +all the birds that help men, and friend Downy +shall be their host.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>VII</h2> + +<h3>PERSONA NON GRATA</h3> + + +<p>We shall not attempt to deny that Downy +has an unprincipled relative. While it is no discredit, +it is a great misfortune to Downy, who is +often murdered merely because he looks a little, +a very little, like this disreputable cousin of his. +The real offender is the sapsucker, that musical +genius of whom we have already spoken.</p> + +<p>The popular belief is that every woodpecker is +a sapsucker, and that every hole he digs in a +tree is an injury to the tree. We have seen that +every hole Downy digs is a benefit, and now we +wish to learn why it is that the sapsucker’s work +is any more injurious than other woodpeckers’ +holes; how we are to recognize the sapsucker’s +work; and how much damage he does. We will +do what the scientists often do,—examine the +bird’s work and make it tell us the story. There +is no danger of hurting the sapsucker’s reputation. +The farmer could have no worse opinion +of him; and, though the case has been appealed +to the higher courts of science more than once,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +where the sapsucker’s cause has been eloquently +and ably defended, the verdict has gone against +him. Scientists now do not deny that the sapsucker +does harm. But his worst injury is less +in the damage he does to the trees than in the ill-will +and suspicion he creates against woodpeckers +which do no harm at all. If you will study the +picture and the descriptions in the Key to the +Woodpeckers, you will be able +to recognize the sapsucker and +his nearest relatives, whether in +the East or in the West. But +all sapsuckers may be known by +their pale yellowish under parts, +and by the work they leave behind. +As the yellow-bellied sapsucker +is the only one found east +of the Rocky Mountains, we shall +speak only of him and his work.</p> + +<hr /> +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_005.jpg" class="wide1" alt="Work of Sapsucker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Work of Sapsucker.</span> +</div> + +<p>Here is a specimen of the +yellow-bellied sapsucker’s work +which I picked up under the +tree from which it had fallen. +We do not need to inquire whether the tree +was injured by its falling, for we know that +the loss of sound and healthy bark is always a +damage. Was this sound bark? Yes, because +it is still firm and new. The sap in it dried +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>quickly, showing that neither disease nor worms +caused it to fall; it is clean and hard on the +back, showing that it came from a live tree, not +from a dead, rotting log.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_006.jpg" class="wide2" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>How do I know that a bird caused it to fall? +The marks are precisely such as are always left +by a woodpecker’s bill. How do I know that +it was a sapsucker’s work? Because no other +woodpecker has the habit which characterizes +the sapsucker, of sinking holes in straight lines. +The sapsuckers drill lines of holes sometimes +around and sometimes up and down the tree-trunk, +but almost always in rings or belts about +the trunk or branches. A girdle may be but a +single line of holes, or it may consist of four or +five, or more, lines. Sometimes a band will be +two feet wide; and as many as eight hundred +holes have been counted on the trunk of a single +tree. Such extensive peckings, however, are to +be expected only on large forest trees. Most +fruit and ornamental trees are girdled a few +times about the trunk, and about the principal +branches just below the nodes, or forks.</p> + +<p>Why did the bird dig these holes? There are +three things that he might have obtained,—sap, +the inner bark, and boring larvæ. Some +naturalists have suggested a fourth as possible,—the +insects that would be attracted by the sap.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span></p> + +<p>We will see what the piece of bark tells us. +It is four and a half inches long, by an inch and +a half wide, and its area of six and three fourths +square inches has forty-four punctures. Does +this look as if the bird were digging grubs? +Do borers live in such straight little streets? +The number and arrangement of the holes show +that he was not seeking borers, while the naturalists +tell us that he never eats a borer unless +by accident. What did he get? Undoubtedly +he pecked away some of the inner bark. All +these holes are much larger on the back side of +the specimen than on the outer surface. While +the damp inner bark would shrink a little on +exposure to the air, we know that it could not +shrink as much as this; and investigation has +shown that the sapsucker feeds largely on just +such food, for it has been found in his stomach. +Two other possible food-substances remain,—sap +and insects. We know that the sapsucker +eats many insects, but it is impossible to prove +that he intended these holes for insect lures. +Sap he might have gotten from them, if he +wished it. We know that the white birch is full +of excellent sap, from which can be made a birch +candy, somewhat bitter, but nearly as good as +horehound candy. The rock and red maples +and the white canoe birch are the only trees in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +our Northern forests from which we make candy. +A strong probability that our bird wanted sap +is indicated by the arrangement of the holes. +Usually he drills his holes in rings around the +tree-trunk, but in this instance his longest lines +of holes are vertical. If our sapsucker was +drilling for sap, he arranged his holes so that it +would almost run into his mouth, lazy bird!</p> + +<p>Our piece of bark has taught us:—</p> + +<p>That the sapsucker injured this tree.</p> + +<p>That he was not after grubs.</p> + +<p>That he got, and undoubtedly ate, the soft +inner bark of the tree.</p> + +<p>That he got, and may have drunk, the sap.</p> + +<p>We could not infer any more from a single +instance, but the naturalists assure us that the +bird is in the habit of injuring trees, that he +never eats grubs intentionally, and that he eats +too much bark for it to be regarded as taken +accidentally with other food. About the sap +they cannot be so sure, as it digests very quickly. +There remain two points to prove: whether the +sapsucker drills his holes for the sake of the +sap, or for insects attracted by the sap, provided +that he eats anything but the inner bark.</p> + +<p>Our little specimen can tell us no more, but +two mountain ash trees which were intimate +acquaintances of mine from childhood can go on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> +with the story. Do not be surprised that I +speak of them as friends; the naturalist who +does not make <i>friends</i> of the creatures and +plants about will hear few stories from them. +These trees would not tell this tale to any one +but an intimate acquaintance. Let us hear what +they have to say about the sapsucker.</p> + +<p>There are in the garden of my old home two +mountain ash trees, thirty-six years of age, each +having grown from a sprout that sprang up beside +an older tree cut down in 1863. They stand +not more than two rods apart; have the same +soil, the same amount of sun and rain, the same +exposure to wind, and equal care. During all +the years of my childhood one was a perfectly +healthy tree, full of fruit in its season, while the +other bore only scanty crops, and was always +troubled with cracked and scaling bark. To-day +the unhealthy tree is more vigorous than +ever before, while its formerly stalwart brother +stands a mere wreck of its former life and beauty. +What should be the cause of such a remarkable +change when all conditions of growth have remained +the same?</p> + +<p>I admit that there is some internal difference +in the trees, for all the birds tell me of it. One +has always borne larger and more abundant fruit +than the other, but this is no reason why the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +birds should strip all the berries from that tree +before eating any from the other. When we +know that the favorite tree stands directly in +front of the windows of a much-used room and +overhangs a frequented garden path, the preference +becomes more marked. But robins, grosbeaks, +purple finches, and the whole berry-eating +tribe agree to choose one and neglect the other, +and even the spring migrants will leave the gay +red tassels of fruit still swinging on one tree, to +scratch over the leaves and eat the fallen berries +that lie beneath the other. My own taste is not +keen in choosing between bitter berries, but the +birds all agree that there is a decided difference +in these trees,—did agree, I should say, for their +favorite is the tree that is dying. Evidently +this is a question of taste. It is interesting to +observe that the sapsucker, which was never +seen to touch the fruit of the trees, agrees with +the fruit-eating birds. Nearly all his punctures +were in the tree now dying. Is there a difference +in the taste of the sap? Does the taste of +the sap affect the taste of the fruit? Or is it +merely a question of quantity? If he comes for +sap, he prefers one tree to the other on the score +either of better quality or greater quantity.</p> + +<p>We will discuss later whether it is sap that he +wishes: all that now concerns us is to note<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span> +that the internal difference, whatever it is, is in +favor of the tree that is dying; while the only +external difference appears to be the marks left +by the sapsucker. While one tree is sparingly +marked by him, the other is tattooed with his +punctures, placed in single rings and in belts +around trunk and branches beneath every fork. +It is a law of reasoning that, when every condition +but one is the same and the effects are different, +the one exceptional condition is the <i>cause</i> +of the difference. If these trees are alike in +everything except the work of the sapsucker (the +only internal difference apparently <i>offsetting</i> his +work in part), what inference do we draw as to +the effect of his work?</p> + +<p>We presume that he is killing the tree, without +as yet knowing how he does it. What is +his object? Good observers have stated that +he draws a little sap in order to attract flies and +wasps; that the sap is not drawn for its own +sake, but as a bait for insects. Is this theory +true?</p> + +<p>The first objection is that it is improbable. +The sapsucker is a retiring, woodland bird that +would hesitate to come into a town garden a +mile away from the nearest woods unless to get +something he could not find in the woods. Had +he wanted insects, he would have tapped a tree<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span> +in the woods, or else he would have caught them +in his usual flycatching fashion. There must +have been something about the mountain ash tree +that he craved. As it is a very rare tree in the +vicinity of my home, the sapsucker’s only chance +to satisfy his longing was by coming to some +town garden like our own.</p> + +<p>Not only is the theory improbable, but it fails +to explain the sapsucker’s actions in this instance. +In twenty years he was never seen to +catch an insect that was attracted by the sap he +drew. This does not deny that he may have +caught insects now and then, but it does deny +that he set the sap running for a lure. As he +was never far away, and was sometimes only +four and a half feet by measure from a chamber +window, all that he did could be seen. He +did not catch insects at his holes. He drank +sap and ate bark.</p> + +<p>Finally, the theory is not only improbable and +inadequate, but in this instance it is impossible. +I do not remember seeing a sapsucker in the tree +in the spring; if he came in the summer, it must +have been at rare intervals; but he was always +there in the fall, when the leaves were dropping. +At that season the insect hordes had been dispersed +by the autumnal frosts, so that we know +he did not come for insects.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span></p> + +<p>In the many years during which I watched +the sapsuckers—for there were undoubtedly a +number of different birds that came, although +never more than one at a time—there was such +a curious similarity in their actions that it is +entirely proper to speak as if the same bird +returned year after year. His visits, as I have +said, were usually made at the same season. He +would come silently and early, with the evident +intention of making this an all-day excursion. +By eight o’clock he would be seen clinging to +a branch and curiously observant of the dining-room +window, which at that hour probably excited +both his interest and his alarm. Early in +the day he showed considerable activity, flitting +from limb to limb and sinking a few holes, three +or four in a row, usually <i>above</i> the previous +upper girdle of the limbs he selected to work +upon. After he had tapped several limbs he +would sit waiting patiently for the sap to flow, +lapping it up quickly when the drop was large +enough. At first he would be nervous, taking +alarm at noises and wheeling away on his broad +wings till his fright was over, when he would +steal quietly back to his sap-holes. When not +alarmed, his only movement was from one row +of holes to another, and he tended them with +considerable regularity. As the day wore on<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> +he became less excitable, and clung cloddishly to +his tree-trunk with ever increasing torpidity, until +finally he hung motionless as if intoxicated, tippling +in sap, a disheveled, smutty, silent bird, +stupefied with drink, with none of that brilliancy +of plumage and light-hearted gayety which made +him the noisiest and most conspicuous bird of our +April woods.</p> + +<p>Our mountain ash trees have told us several +facts about the sapsucker:—</p> + +<p>That he did not come to eat insects.</p> + +<p>That he did come to drink sap, and that he +probably ate the inner bark also.</p> + +<p>That he drank the sap because he liked it, +not for some secondary object, as insects.</p> + +<p>That he could detect difference in the quality +or quantity of the sap, which caused him to +prefer a particular tree.</p> + +<p>That this difference apparently was in the +taste of the sap, and that the effects of a day’s +drinking of mountain ash sap seemed to indicate +some intoxicant or narcotic quality in the +sap of that particular tree.</p> + +<p>That the effect of his work upon the tree +was apparently injurious, as it is the only cause +assigned of a healthy tree’s dying before a less +healthy one of the same age and species, subject +all its life to the same conditions.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span></p> + +<p>So much we have learned about this sapsucker’s +habits, and now we should like to know why +his work is harmful, and why that of the other +woodpeckers is not. It is not because he drinks +the sap. All the sap he could eat or waste +would not harm the tree, if allowed to run out +of a few holes. Think how many gallons the +sugar-makers drain out of a single tree without +killing the tree. But the sugar-maker takes the +sap in the spring, when the crude sap is mounting +up in the tree, while the sapsucker does not +begin his work till midsummer or autumn, when +the tree is sending down its elaborated sap to +feed the trunk and make it grow. This accounts +for the woodpecker’s digging his pits +<i>above</i> the lines of the holes already in the tree. +The loss of this elaborated sap is a greater injury +than the waste of a far larger quantity of +crude sap, so that on the season of the year +when the sapsucker digs his holes depends in +large measure the amount of damage he does. +The injury that he does to the wood itself is +trivial. He is not a wood<i>pecker</i> except at time +of nesting, and most woodpeckers prefer to build +in a dead or dying branch, where their work +does no hurt. But we know very well that a +tree may be a wreck, riven from top to bottom +by lightning, split open to the heart by the tempest,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span> +entirely hollow the whole length of its +trunk, and yet may flourish and bear fruit. +The tree lives in its outer layers. It may be +crippled in almost any way, if the bark is left +uninjured; but if an inch of bark is cut out +entirely around the tree, it will die, for the sap +can no longer run up and down to nourish it.</p> + +<p>This is the sapsucker’s crime: he girdles the +tree,—not at his first coming, nor yet at his +second, not with one row of holes, nor yet +with two; but finally, after years perhaps, when +row after row of punctures, each checking a +little the flow of sap, have overlapped and offset +each other and narrowed the channels through +which it could mount and descend, until the flow +is stopped. Then the tree dies. It is not the +holes he makes, nor the sap he draws, but the +way he places his holes that makes the sapsucker +an unwelcome visitor. For an unacceptable +individual he is to the farmer,—<i>persona +non grata</i>, as kings say of ambassadors who do +not please their majesties. What shall we do +with him, the only black sheep in all the woodpecker +flock? Let him alone, unless we are positively +sure that we know him from every other +kind of woodpecker. The damage he does is +trifling compared with what we should do if we +made war upon other woodpeckers for some supposed +wrong-doing of the sapsucker.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>VIII</h2> + +<h3>EL CARPINTERO</h3> + + +<p>In California and along the southwestern +boundary of the United States lives a woodpecker +known among the Mexicans as El Carpintero, +the Carpenter.</p> + +<p>Carpentering is both his profession and his +pastime, and he seems really to enjoy the work. +When there is nothing more pressing to be done, +he spends his time tinkering around, fitting +acorns into holes in such great numbers and in +so workmanlike a fashion that we do not know +which is more remarkable, his patience or his +skill. Every acorn is fitted into a separate hole +made purposely for it, every one is placed butt +end out and is driven in flush with the surface, +so that a much frequented tree often appears as +if studded with ornamental nails. “What an +industrious bird!” we exclaim; but still it takes +some time to appreciate how enormous is the +labor of the Carpenter. Whole trees will sometimes +be covered with his work, until a single +tree has thousands of acorns bedded into its bark<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> +so neatly and tightly that no other creature can +remove them.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_007.jpg" alt="Work of Californian Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Work of Californian Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>We may take for examination, from specimens +of the Carpenter’s work, a piece of spruce bark +seven inches long by six wide, containing ten +acorns and two empty holes. As spruce bark +is so much harder and rougher than the pine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> +bark in which he usually stores his nuts,<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> this +specimen looks rough and unfinished, and even +shows some acorns driven in sidewise; but for +another reason I have preferred it to better-looking +examples of his work for study. As +we shall see later, it gives us a definite bit of +information about the bird.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> They often use white-oak bark, fence-posts, telegraph poles, +even the stalks of century-plants, when trees are not convenient. +(Merriam, <i>Auk</i>, viii. 117.)</p></div> + +<p>Think of the work of digging these twelve +holes. Think of the labor of carrying these ten +large acorns and driving them in so tightly that +after years of shrinking they cannot be removed +by a knife without injuring either the acorn or +the bark. Yet how small a part of the woodpecker’s +year’s work is here! How long could +he live on ten acorns? How many must he +gather for his winter’s needs? How many must +he lose by forgetting to come back to them? +We cannot calculate the work a single bird does +nor the nuts he eats, for several birds usually +work in company and may use the same tree; +but all the woodpeckers are large eaters, and the +Californian has been singled out for special +mention.</p> + +<p>Can we estimate the amount of work required +to lay up one day’s food? Judging by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span> +amount of nuts some other birds will eat, I +should think that all ten acorns contained in this +piece of bark could be eaten in one day without +surfeit. The estimate seems to me well inside +of his probable appetite. I have experimented +on this piece of bark, using a woodpecker’s bill +for a tool, and it takes me twenty minutes to +dig a hole as large but not as neat as these. +Doubtless it would not take the woodpecker as +long; but at my rate of working, four hours +were spent in digging these twelve holes. Then +each acorn had to be hunted up and brought to +the hole prepared for it. This entailed a journey, +it may have been only from one tree to +another, or it may have been, and very likely was, +a considerable flight. For these acorns grew on +oak-trees, and we find them driven into the bark +of pines and spruces.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_008.jpg" class="wide2" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>This it is which gives our specimen its particular +interest. While oaks and pines may be intermingled, +though they naturally prefer different +soils and situations, and in the Rocky Mountains +the pine-belt lies above the oak region, spruce +and oak trees do not grow in the same soil. +The spruce-belt stands higher up than the pine. +As these nuts are stored in the bark of a spruce-tree, +we have clear evidence that the bird must +have carried them some distance. For every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span> +nut he made the whole journey back and forth, +since he could carry but one at a time,—ten +long trips back and forth, certainly consuming +several minutes each.</p> + +<p>Then each acorn had to be fitted to its hole. +We have already spoken of the accuracy with +which this is done, so that the Carpenter’s work +is a standing taunt to the hungry jays and +squirrels which would gladly eat his nuts if +they could get them. A careful observer tells +us that when the hole is too small, the woodpecker +takes the acorn out and makes the hole +a little larger, working so cautiously, however, +that he sometimes makes several trials before the +acorn can be fitted and driven in flush with the +bark. Some of these acorns show cracks down +the sides, as if they had been split either in +forcibly pulling them out of a hole not deep +enough for them, or in driving them when +green and soft into a hole too small for them. +Of course after each trial the acorn must be +hunted up where it lies on the ground and +driven in again, and this takes considerable +time.</p> + +<p>As nearly as we can estimate it, not less than +half a day must have been spent in putting +these acorns where we find them. With smaller +acorns, stored in pine bark, less time would have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> +been required; but weeks, if not months, of +work are spent in laying up the winter’s stores.</p> + +<p>How the woodpecker’s back and jaws must +have ached! Surely he is human enough to get +tired with his work, and it is not play to do what +this bird has done. Some of the acorns measure +seven tenths of an inch in diameter by nine +tenths in length, and the bird that carried them +is smaller than a robin. How he must have +hurried to reach his tree when the acorn was +extra large! Yet he took time to drive every +one in point foremost. Even those that lie +upon their sides must have been forced into +position by tapping the butt. He knows very +well which end of an acorn is which, does our +Carpenter.</p> + +<p>But what is the use of all this work? Why, +if he wants acorns, does he not eat them as they +lie scattered under the oaks, instead of taking +pains to carry them away and put them into +holes for the fun of eating them out of the +holes afterward? The absurdity of this has +led some people to surmise that the Carpenter +chooses none but weevilly acorns, and stores +them that the grub inside may grow large and +fat and delicious. This would be very interesting, +if it were true. There must of course be +more weevilly acorns on the ground than he<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> +picks up, so that he could get as many grubs +without taking all this trouble, and there is no +reason why they should not be as large and +good as those hatched out in holes in trees. +When I wish to keep nuts sweet, I spread them +out on the attic floor in the sun and air, keeping +them where they will not touch each other. +The Carpenter does practically the same thing. +Is it probable that he tries to raise a fine crop +of grubs in this way? If so, one or the other +of us is doing just the wrong thing. But if weevils +are what the Carpenter wants, then the nuts +in the bark should be wormy; yet only two of +them show any sign of a weevil, and of these one +appears from its dull color and weather-beaten +look to be a nut deposited several years before +the others by some other woodpecker. Every +other acorn is as hard, shining, and bright colored +as when it fell from the tree. Evidently the +bird picked these nuts up while they were fresh +and good; perhaps he chose them <i>because</i> they +were good and fresh. The possibility becomes +almost a certainty when we observe that naturalists +agree that the Carpenter uses no acorns +but the sweet-tasting species. Now there are +likely to be as many grubs in one kind of an +acorn as in another, and he would scarcely refuse +any kind that contained them, if grubs<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> +were what he wanted. The fact that he takes +sweet acorns, and those only, shows that it is the +meat of the nut that he wants. And all good +naturalists agree that it is the kernel itself that +he eats.</p> + +<p>Why he stores them is not hard to decide +when we remember that the Californian woodpecker, +over a large part of his range, is a +mountain bird. Though we think of California +as the land of sunshine, it is not universal summer +there. The mountain ranges have a winter +as severe as that of New England, with a heavy +snowfall. When the snow lies several feet deep +among the pines and spruces of the uplands, the +Carpenter is not distressed for food: his pantry +is always above the level of the snow; he need +neither scratch a meagre living from the edges +of the snow-banks, nor go fasting. His fall’s +work has provided him not only with the necessities, +but with the luxuries of life.</p> + +<p>But why does he spend so much time in making +holes? He might tuck his nuts into some +natural crevice in the oak bark, or drop them +into cavities which all birds know so well where +to find. And leave them where any pilfering +jay would be able to pick them out at his ease? +Or put them in the track of every wandering +squirrel? Jays and squirrels are never too honest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +to refuse to steal, but they find it harder +to get the woodpecker’s stores out of his pine-tree +pantry than to pick up honest acorns of +their own. So, like the woodpecker, they lay +up their own stores of nuts, and feed on them +in winter, or go hungry.</p> + +<p>We have had very little aid from anything +except the piece of bark we were studying, +yet we have learned that the Californian woodpecker +is a good carpenter; that he works hard +at his trade; that he shows remarkable foresight +in collecting his food, much ingenuity in +housing it, good judgment in putting it where +his enemies cannot get it, and wisdom in the +plan he has adopted to give him a good supply +of fresh nuts at a season when the autumn’s +crop is buried under the deep snow.</p> + +<p>If I were a Californian boy, I think I should +spend my time in trying to find out more about +this wise woodpecker, concerning which much +remains to be discovered.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>IX</h2> + +<h3>A RED-HEADED COUSIN</h3> + + +<p>Besides his half-brothers, the narrow-fronted +and ant-eating woodpeckers, the Carpenter has +a numerous family of cousins,—the red-headed, +the red-bellied, the golden-fronted, the Gila,<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +and the Lewis’s woodpeckers. These all belong +to one genus, and are much alike in structure, +though totally different in color. Most of them +are Western or Southwestern birds, but one is +found in nearly all parts of the United States +lying between the Hudson River and the Rocky +Mountains, and is the most abundant woodpecker +of the middle West. This well-known cousin is +the red-headed woodpecker, the tricolored beauty +that sits on fence-posts and telegraph poles, and +sallies out, a blaze of white, steel-blue, and scarlet, +a gorgeous spectacle, whenever an insect +flits by. He is the one that raps so merrily on +your tin roofs when he feels musical.</p> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> So named from being found along the Gila River.</p></div> + +<p>In many ways the red-head, as he is familiarly +called, is like his carpenter cousin. Both<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span> +indulge in long-continued drumming; both catch +flies expertly on the wing; and both have the +curious habit of laying up stores of food for +future use. The Californian woodpecker not +only stores acorns, but insect food as well. But +though the Carpenter’s habits have long been +known, it is a comparatively short time since +the red-head was first detected laying up winter +supplies.</p> + +<p>The first to report this habit of the red-head +was a gentleman in South Dakota, who one +spring noticed that they were eating <i>young</i> +grasshoppers. At that season he supposed that +all the insects of the year previous would be +dead or torpid, and certainly full-grown, while +those of the coming summer would be still in +the egg. Where could the bird find half-grown +grasshoppers? Being interested to explain this, +he watched the red-heads until he saw that one +went frequently to a post, and appeared to get +something out of a crevice in its side. In that +post he found nearly a hundred grasshoppers, +still alive, but wedged in so tightly they could +not escape. He also found other hiding-places +all full of grasshoppers, and discovered that the +woodpeckers lived upon these stores nearly all +winter.</p> + +<p>But it is not grasshoppers only that the red-head +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span>hoards, though he is very fond of them. +In some parts of the country it is easier to find +nuts than to find grasshoppers, and they are +much less perishable food. The red-head is +very fond of both acorns and beechnuts. Probably +he eats chestnuts also. Who knows how +many kinds of nuts the red-head eats? You +might easily determine not only what he will +eat, but what he prefers, if a red-headed woodpecker +lives near you. Lay out different kinds +of nuts on different days, putting them on a +shed roof, or in some place where squirrels and +blue jays would not be likely to dare to steal +them, and see whether he takes all the kinds +you offer. Then lay out mixed nuts and notice +which ones he carries off first. If he takes all +of one kind before he takes any of the others, we +may be sure that he has discovered his favorite +nut. Such little experiments furnish just the +information which scientific men are glad to get.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_009.jpg" class="wide2" alt="" title="" /> +</div> + +<p>It is well known that the red-head is very +fond of beechnuts. Every other year we expect +a full crop of nuts, and close observation shows +that the red-heads come to the North in much +larger numbers and stay much later on these +years of plenty than on the years of scanty +crops. Lately it has been discovered that they +not only eat beechnuts all the fall, but store<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +them up for winter use. This time the observation +was made in Indiana. There, when the nuts +were abundant, the red-heads were seen busily +carrying them off. Their accumulations were +found in all sorts of places: cavities in old tree-trunks +contained nuts by the handful; knot-holes, +cracks, crevices, seams in the barns were +filled full of nuts. Nuts were tucked into the +cracks in fence-posts; they were driven into +railroad ties; they were pounded in between +the shingles on the roofs; if a board was sprung +out, the space behind it was filled with nuts, +and bark or wood was often brought to cover +over the gathered store. No doubt children +often found these hiding-places and ate the nuts, +thinking they were robbing some squirrel’s +hoard.</p> + +<p>In the South, where the beech-tree is replaced +by the oak, the red-heads eat acorns. I +should like to know whether they store acorns +as they do beechnuts. Are chestnuts ever laid +up for winter? How far south is the habit kept +up? Is it observed beyond the limits of a regular +and considerable snowfall? That is, do the +birds lay up their nuts in order to keep them +out of the snow, or for some other reason?</p> + +<p>It remains to be discovered if other woodpeckers +have hoarding-places. We know that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> +the sapsucker eats beechnuts, and the downy +and the hairy woodpeckers also; that the red-bellied +woodpecker and the golden-winged flicker +eat acorns; and I have seen the downy woodpecker +eating chestnuts, or the grubs in them, +hanging head downward at the very tip of the +branches like a chickadee. It may be possible +that some of these lay up winter stores.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_010.jpg" alt="Head of the Lewis's Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Head of the Lewis's Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>It is known that the Lewis’s woodpecker occasionally +shows signs of a hoarding instinct. It +was recently noted that in the San Bernardino +Mountains of California the Lewis’s woodpecker, +after driving away the smaller Californian woodpeckers, +tried to put acorns into the holes the +Carpenter had made, but, being unused to the +work, did it very clumsily. +Soon after this observation +was published, +a boy friend living near +Denver told me that a +short time before he had +seen a woodpecker that had a large quantity +of acorns shelled and broken into quarters, on +which he was feeding. This woodpecker was +identified beyond a doubt as the Lewis’s woodpecker. +So we begin to suspect that the habit +of storing up food is not an uncommon one +among the woodpeckers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>X</h2> + +<h3>A STUDY OF ACQUIRED HABITS</h3> + + +<p>Something interesting yet remains to be discovered +of the hoarding habit of the red-head. +How strange that so familiar a bird should have +a habit so easily detected, and yet that no one in +all these years should speak of it! Who does not +know how mice and chipmunks hide their food? +Who has not watched the blue jay skulking off to +hide an acorn where he will be sure to forget it? +Who does not remember the articles his pet Jim +Crow stole and lost to him forever? The hoarding +habit has long been observed of many dull-colored, +rare, or insignificant creatures. That +one so noisy, gay-colored, tame, and abundant +as our red-headed woodpecker should have the +same habit and escape observation is certainly +remarkable. But though it is over twenty years +since the storing of grasshoppers was recorded +and twelve since the practice of laying up beechnuts +was observed, very little seems to have been +learned of the habit since these records were +made.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p> + +<p>There are two points to be considered: the +habit long remained unknown; after it was discovered, +it was long in being reaffirmed. It +seems that, if it were a general habit, more +would be known about it. Now if it is not a +universal habit, it must be one of two alternatives, +either a custom falling into disuse, or a +new one just being acquired. That a habit so +remarkable and so advantageous should be discarded +after being universal is scarcely possible; +that a habit so noticeable, if it were general, +should remain unknown is improbable; that a +habit which made life in winter both secure and +easy should, if introduced by a few enterprising +birds, become a universal custom, is not without +a parallel. The probabilities point to the custom +of hoarding food as a recently <i>acquired habit</i>.</p> + +<p>Acquired habits are not rare among birds. +The chimney swift has learned to nest in chimneys +since the Pilgrims landed; for there were +no chimneys before that time. There is the evidence +of old writers to show that they acquired +the habit within fifty years of the time of the +first permanent settlements in New England. +The eaves swallow learned to transfer its nest +from the side of a cliff to the side of a barn +in less time. Most birds will change their food +as soon as a new dainty is procurable, and they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> +will even invent methods of getting it, if it is +much to their taste. The way the English sparrows +have learned to tear open corn husks so as +to eat the corn in the milk is a good example, for +our maize does not grow in England, and they +have had to learn about its good qualities in the +few years since they have become established outside +of the cities. Yet it is already a well-established +habit. So quickly does a habit spread from +one bird to another, until it becomes the rule instead +of the exception! Acquired habits always +show adaptability, and often much forethought +and reason. It is the shrewd bird that learns +new tricks.</p> + +<p>Now there is not known among birds any evidence +of greater forethought and reason than +working hard in pleasant weather, when food is +plentiful beyond all hope of ever exhausting it, +to lay up provision for winter. How does the +woodpecker know that winter will come this +year? That there was a winter last year and +the year before does not make it certain, but +only probable, that there will be one this year. +We cannot know ourselves that the seasons will +change until we learn enough of astronomy to +understand the proof. Nor does instinct explain +the habit, as some would declare: since not all +red-heads have the habit, though all must have<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +instinct. It would seem as if memory and reason +had devised this plan for outwitting winter, the +bird’s old enemy.</p> + +<p>The red-head is not a grub-eating woodpecker. +Though beetles make up a third of his food, +their larvæ do not form any part of it. Half his +food for the entire year is vegetable, and the +animal portion is composed principally of beetles, +ants, caterpillars, and grasshoppers, which in winter +time are hidden in snug places, or are dead +under the snow. There are few berries in winter. +The few seedy, weedy plants that stick up +above the snow give to the birds the little they +have; but the red-head’s vegetable fare is limited +at that season and his animal food almost lacking. +Winter in the North is all very well for the +hairy and downy cousins that like to hammer +frozen tree-trunks for frozen grubs; but our +red-headed friend does not eat grubs by preference. +Rather than change his habits he will +change his boarding-place. So he is a migratory +woodpecker, though the woodpeckers are naturally +home-loving birds, and do not migrate from +preference. If, however, he can lay up a store +of vegetable or animal food, he can winter in +any climate. Hoarding is thus an invention as +important to the woodpecker world as electric +cars and telephones are to men. The probabilities<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> +are that this is a recent improvement in +the red-head’s ways of living.</p> + +<p>Another set of facts increases the probabilities +of our supposition. It is a very delicate subject +to handle because it affects the reputation of a +family in good standing; but there is positive +proof that sometimes the red-head has been +guilty of crimes which would give a man a full +column in the newspapers with staring headlines. +If such deeds were not a thousand times +less common among woodpeckers than they are +among men the red-head would be declared an +outlaw. He has been proved to be a hen-roost +robber, a murderer, and a cannibal. In Florida +he has sucked hen’s eggs. In Iowa he has been +seen to kill a duckling. There is a record in +Ohio that he pecked holes in the walls of the +eaves swallow’s nest and stole all the eggs, and +that he was finally killed in the act of robbing +a setting hen’s nest. Within the space of fifteen +years, from Montana, Georgia, Colorado, +New York, and Ontario, in addition to the records +mentioned already from Florida, Ohio, and +Iowa, come accounts of his stealing birds’ eggs +and murdering and eating other birds. The +evidence is indisputable.</p> + +<p>It is charity to suppose that this is the work of +natural criminals, or of degenerate, under-witted,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> +or demented woodpeckers. Why should there not +be such individuals among birds? One point is +certain: so notable a habit could not long escape +detection, since it is a barnyard crime. He who +robs hen’s nests gets caught—if he is a bird. +Either these occurrences are very rare, not seen +because of their extreme rarity, or they indicate +a new custom just coming in. And the same is +true of the habit of hoarding food; it is rare, or +it is new.</p> + +<p>The frequency of such occurrences can be determined +only by observation; but the time of +their origin might be approximated in another +way. If we could fix the date when the bird +could not have done what he is now doing for +simple lack of opportunity, we might say that the +habit has been acquired since a certain date—as +we have said of the English sparrow eating +maize, of the chimney swift nesting in chimneys, +and the cliff swallow building under the eaves. +But we have no such help on the case of the red-head, +which never has been without opportunities +to get birds’ eggs and to kill other birds.</p> + +<p>But there is a parallel case in another species +where the date of an acquired habit can be +proved. In Florida the red-bellied woodpecker +has earned the names Orange Borer and Orange +Sapsucker because he eats oranges. It is true<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +that he is not charged with doing damage, because +he attacks only the over-ripe and unmarketable +fruit; it is known that the habit is not +general yet, for even where the birds are abundant +only a single bird or a pair will be found +eating oranges, and always the same pair, proving +that it is a habit not yet learned by all of +the species; close observers declare, too, that it is +but a few years since the bird took up the habit; +and, finally, we know that this must be the case, +for, though the wild orange was introduced by +the Spaniards, the sweet fruit was not extensively +cultivated until recently. Here is a habit +which undoubtedly has been acquired within +twenty years or so, which will in all probability +increase until instead of being the exception it +is the rule.</p> + +<p>Why may not the red-head’s occasional cannibalism, +unless this is mere individual degeneracy, +and his more common custom of hoarding +be habits that he is acquiring? Why, indeed, +may not the Californian woodpecker’s distinguishing +trait be a habit which began like these +among a few birds here and there, wiser or more +progressive than the rest, and which in time +became general and established? Why may not +the two observed instances of the Lewis’s woodpecker +be examples of a similar habit just beginning?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +The very differences in their methods +point to that explanation. The Lewis’s woodpecker +that had seen the Carpenter’s work tried +to imitate him; the one that lived outside his +range adopted a way of his own, unnoticed before +among woodpeckers, and shelled and quartered +his nuts before he stored them.</p> + +<p>It is remarkable that these four woodpeckers +are cousins; they belong to the same genus, +and they have essentially the same structure, +tastes, and habits. Why should it be strange if +their minds were alike too? if they had a natural +bent toward accumulativeness, and a natural +desire to try new wrinkles? We are sure that +one of them has acquired a new habit within a +few years. Why may we not suppose as a basis +and a spur to further investigation that the +others also are acquiring ways new and strange?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XI</h2> + +<h3>THE WOODPECKER’S TOOLS: HIS BILL</h3> + + +<p>There is an old saying, “You may know a +carpenter by his chips;” but, though chips are +seldom long absent when a woodpecker is about, +can we call the woodpecker a carpenter? Is he +not both in his works and ways of working—with +the one exception of the Californian woodpecker—more +of a miner?</p> + +<p>For the carpenter takes pieces of wood, bit +by bit, and joins them together till at last he +has built a lofty skeleton or framework for his +dwelling, which last of all he covers over and +closes in; and the tools he uses are saw and +hammer. With these alone he could build his +house, though it might be neither very large +nor very good. When a carpenter’s house is +finished, it is neither a cave nor a hole, but a +pavilion built in the open air after the model +of a spreading tree,—which frames a roof with +its branches and shingles it with overlapping +leaves. There is nothing in the woodpecker’s +way of building which corresponds to that.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> + +<p>Quite different are the miner’s methods. In the +West, where the barren mountain sides stretch +up into snowclad summits, on the face of slopes +as seamed and gray and verdureless as the +wrinkled trunk of an aged oak, I have seen +holes where human woodpeckers burrow. The +entrance to a mine half-way up a hillside looks +strikingly like a woodpecker’s hole and scarcely +larger. Nor does the likeness vanish as we +think how in their long tunnels inside their +mountains of gold and iron and silver the delving +miners are picking and prying and picking +to lengthen their burrows just as the woodpeckers +peck and pry and peck inside their wooden +mountain, the tree-trunk. Which shall we call +the woodpecker—a carpenter or a miner?</p> + +<p>What are the miner’s tools? Pick and drill, +are they not? What are the woodpecker’s? +The same. Certainly we shall see, if we stop to +think, that it is not a chisel that he uses, as we +sometimes say. A chisel is a knife driven by +blows of a hammer; like a knife its effectiveness +depends upon the sharpness and length of +its cutting edge. But a woodpecker’s bill is not +a cutting tool. It is a wedge, but a wedge working +on a different principle from a knife-edge. +Look at this one and observe that, though strong +and stout, it is not sharp and has no true cutting<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +edge. It is a tapering, square-ended, flat-sided +tool, rather six-sided at the base and +holding its bevel and angles to the tip. The +woodpecker’s bill is a pick, not a chisel. It is +used like a pick, being driven home with a heavy +blow and getting its efficiency from its own +weight and wedge-shape and from the force with +which it is impelled. Watch the downy woodpecker +at his work and see what sturdy blows +he delivers, pausing after each one to aim and +drive home another telling stroke. This is pick-axe +work. But sometimes he rattles off a succession +of taps so short and quick that they +blend together in one continuous drumming, too<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +light and quick to be likened to the ponderous +swing of the pick-axe. Now he is drilling. The +work of a drill is to cut out a small deep hole +either by twirling (as in drilling metals) or by +tapping (as in drilling stone). The woodpecker +drills by the latter method and there is a curious +likeness between his bill and the mason’s tools.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_011.jpg" alt="Head of Ivory-billed Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Head of Ivory-billed Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>Any one who has lived in a granite country +knows the deep round holes that stone masons +make when they split rock. Did you ever wonder +why they are as large at the bottom as at +the top? If you remember the shape of a mason’s +drill, you will recollect that it looks a little +like a stick of home-made molasses candy bitten +off when it was just soft enough to stretch a +little. The mason’s drill is a round iron rod +with a thin, flat end, sharpened on the edge and +a little pointed in the centre. In the flattening +of the sides and the width across the tip its +end resembles that of a typical woodpecker’s +bill. The woodpeckers that drill for grubs, especially +the largest, the logcock and the ivory-billed +woodpecker, have the tip remarkably flattened. +The likeness to the drill does not go +farther because the woodpecker’s bill is a combination +tool; but it is drill-pointed rather than +pick-pointed.</p> + +<p>What is the advantage of this compressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +tip? Can the bird pick as well as he could +with a sharp point? The bird and the mason +reap the same benefit from this form of tool. +A sharp-pointed drill would bind in the hole +and could neither be driven ahead nor removed +without difficulty, but the sharp-edged tool cuts +a hole as wide as the instrument. There is, of +course, some difference between working in stone +and in wood, but the principle is the same. The +mason strikes his drill with his hammer and cuts +a crease in the stone; then lifts and turns the +drill, cutting a crease in another direction; and +so by continually changing the direction of the +cuts until they radiate from a centre like the +spokes of a wheel, he finally reduces a little +circle of stone to a powder fine enough to be +blown out of the hole. In drilling for a grub +the woodpecker must do much the same thing. +He wishes to keep his hole small at the top so +as to save work, yet it must be large enough +at the bottom to admit the borer when nipped +between his mandibles; therefore he needs an +instrument that, like a drill or a chisel, will cut +a straight-sided hole. Indeed, we might call it +a chisel just as well if it were not a double-wedge +instead of a single wedge and if it did +not move when it is struck instead of being +held stationary beneath the blows.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + +<p>When he is digging his house the woodpecker +uses his bill as a pick-axe. When he is digging for +grubs he uses it as a drill. Now some species +drill very little and some a great deal, according +to the number of grubs they feed on; but +all dig holes to nest in,—that is, all use their +bills as picks but only a few employ them as +drills. The flickers, for example, seldom drill +for grubs, their food being picked up on the surface +or dug from the earth; yet they excavate +the deepest, roomiest holes made by any woodpeckers +of their size; they use their bills effectively +as pick-axes, but seldom, very seldom, as +drills. And what do we find? No drill-point—not +a truncate, compressed bill fit for drilling, +but a sharper, pointed, rounded, <i>curving</i> bill. +Notice the ordinary pick-axe and see how much +nearer the flicker’s bill than the logcock’s or the +ivory-billed woodpecker’s it is. Why is a flicker’s +bill better for being curved also? Why do the +drilling woodpeckers have a perfectly straight +bill? We should find by studying the birds +and their food that there is a direct relation +between the shape of the bill and the amount of +drilling a woodpecker does; that the grub-eating +or drilling woodpeckers have a straight bill, for +working in small deep holes, while the flickers +have a curved bill for prying out chips. And<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +we should note that the flicker’s bill is most like +the ordinary bill of perching birds, while the +drilling bill, as typified by the logcock’s and +the hairy woodpecker’s bills, is a more specialized +tool, limited to fewer uses, but more effective +within its limits.</p> + +<p>There is another detail of the woodpecker’s +bills which casts light upon their habits. The +species that drill most have their nostrils closely +covered by little tufts of stiff feathers, scarcely +more than bristles, which turn forward over the +nostril. The density and the length of these +tufts agree very well with the kind of work the +woodpecker does; for in the hairy and the downy, +which are continually drilling and raising a dust +in rotten wood, they are very thick and noticeable, +while in the red-head and the sapsucker they +show as scarcely more than a few loose bristles, +and in the flicker they barely cover the nostril. +This seems a plain provision to keep the dust +out of the bird’s lungs; and we might cite as +additional evidence the fact that the only other +birds of similar tree-pecking habits, the nuthatches +and the chickadees, have their nostrils +protected in the same way. But we must always +be cautious before drawing inferences of +this sort to see what may be said on the other +side. When we recollect that the crows and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +ravens and many kinds of finches, among other +birds, none of which dig in the bark of trees or +raise a dust, have their nostrils as completely +covered, we see that we have perhaps discovered +a <i>use</i> for these nasal tufts but not the <i>cause</i> of +their being there. We must be careful not to +mistake cause and accompaniment in our endeavor +to explain differences in structure.</p> + +<p>Let us see what we have learned and how to +interpret it:—</p> + +<p>That the woodpecker’s bill is a combination of +drill and pick-axe.</p> + +<p>That the shape varies with the use to which it +is most commonly put.</p> + +<p>That the use varies with the food principally +eaten; or, what is a step farther back, that the +different kinds of food must be sought in different +places and by different methods, and therefore +require different tools.</p> + +<p>Therefore the shape of the woodpecker’s bill +has a direct relation to the kind of food he eats. +Please notice that we do not assert that it <i>causes</i> +him to eat a certain kind of food nor that a certain +diet may not have affected the shape of the +bill, causing it to be what we now see. Both +may be at least partially true, but to prove +either or both would need profound study, and +all that we have observed is that the shape of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +the woodpecker’s bill is <i>adapted</i> to his food and +that it varies with the kind of food he eats, +or, to be more exact, with his ways of procuring +it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XII</h2> + +<h3>THE WOODPECKER’S TOOLS: HIS FOOT</h3> + + +<p>We have studied the woodpecker’s bill and +have found that it is a very serviceable tool. We +shall find that his feet are equally well adapted +to their work.</p> + +<p>Here is the foot of a woodpecker. Observe +how it differs from a chicken’s foot, +or a sparrow’s foot. What is it +that especially fits it for climbing? +Perhaps you will notice that the +tarsus is short, and you may be able +to explain why it would be a disadvantage +for a climbing bird to +have long legs, as well as why it is +a help for him to have long toes. Toes long +and legs short is the rule with the woodpeckers.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_012.jpg" class="wide1" alt="Foot of Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Foot of Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>I never see a woodpecker’s foot without thinking +of an iceman’s nippers with their short +handles and long, sharp-toothed jaws. They are +designed for similar uses,—to lift heavy weights +by laying hold of smooth, flat surfaces. The +iceman sets his nippers into the ice and lifts the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +block; but the bird sets his claws into the tree +and lifts his own body.</p> + +<p>Suppose the nippers had one short jaw and one +long one, would they then take as firm hold as +they do with jaws of equal length? In perching +birds the hind toe is much the shortest, but +they sit balanced upon a limb and have merely +to hold themselves in position. The woodpecker +climbing a tree-trunk is out of balance; +he would fall off unless he had a firm grip; +and he could not get this firm hold if his hind +toes were not long enough to give his foot a +nearly equal spread back and forward. Other +birds grasp a limb with the whole under surface +of their toes, but the woodpecker when on a +smooth, upright tree-trunk nips it only with his +toenails. Try with your own hand to hold a +stick as large and heavy as you can grasp, and +you will see that when you clasp your hand +around it as a perching bird takes hold of a +perch, it makes little difference that the thumb +is shorter than the fingers, but when you try to +nip it with your finger tips alone, you must bend +your fingers until they are not much longer than +your thumb,—that is, a pair of nippers must be +equal jawed.</p> + +<p>This simple illustration shows why the woodpecker’s +foot reaches as far backward as forward.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> +But a sensible objection may be raised, +namely, that as there are two hind toes of unequal +length, it is by no means certain which is +the more necessary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_013.jpg" class="wide1" alt="Diagram of right foot." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Diagram of right foot.</span> +</div> + +<p>Scientists tell us that a woodpecker’s foot, +though it looks so unlike a chicken’s, is really +very much the same. When we ask how one +of the front toes disappeared and +how the extra hind toe came to be +where it is, they tell us that there +has been no addition and no loss, +but the extra hind toe is only a +front toe turned backward. They +call it a <i>reversed fourth toe</i>. A +bird’s toes are numbered in order +starting with the hind toe and going +around the <i>inside</i> of the foot +to the outer or fourth toe. The hind toe is the +thumb, and the others are numbered in the same +order as the fingers of our hands. So we see +that the woodpecker’s real hind toe is rather +small, like that of most birds. It looks very +much as if it had been found <i>too</i> small and as if +another had turned back to help it do its work. +Do you say that a bird cannot turn his toes +about in this way? Most cannot, to be sure, +but all of the owls can do it. An owl will sit +either with two toes forward and two backward,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span> +or with three forward and one the other way. +The owls have a reversible outer toe, and perhaps +the woodpeckers did also before it became +permanently reversed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_014.jpg" alt="Foot of Three-toed Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Foot of Three-toed Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>That this is exactly what had happened is curiously +confirmed. There are a few woodpeckers +in this country which have but three toes. They +are the only North +American land birds +with less than four toes +(though many sea and +shore birds have but +three). Compare this +picture with a four-toed woodpecker’s foot. One +toe is gone completely, when or how no one can +tell. But in some way the <i>first</i> toe, the <i>thumb</i>, +the one we always begin to count from, has disappeared. +The one left is the reversed fourth +toe, as we know by the number of joints in it. +Undoubtedly this woodpecker needed a hind toe, +but he must have needed a longer, stronger one +than his natural first toe. A toe of the right +length was supplied by turning one of the front +toes back, and the short hind toe in some way +disappeared.</p> + +<p>This may seem a roundabout way to show +that a woodpecker’s foot is a pair of nippers. +First we studied nippers till we found out that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +they were not good nippers unless they were +nearly equal-limbed. Next we studied the woodpecker’s +foot to learn about that extra hind toe. +Then it occurred to us that four toes were not +necessary, since some of our best climbers have +but three. What was the essential point? +Might it not be a foot equally divided without +reference to the number of toes? But that is +the principle of a pair of nippers. Then came +the question, is there any similarity in their use? +Yes, the nippers are used to lift heavy weights, +and the woodpecker’s foot is used to lift his +heavy body in just the same way, by taking +hold of a flat, smooth surface. We conclude +that a wide-spread, equally divided, nipping foot +would be the best device possible for the woodpecker’s +way of living, and we find by examination +that every woodpecker shows this type of +foot.</p> + +<p>There is additional evidence that this is the +right explanation. Our only other North American +birds that climb on the bark of trees professionally, +as we may say, are the brown creepers +and the nuthatches. In both these the tarsus is +short, as we found it in the woodpeckers, and +the hind toe and its claw are fully equal to the +middle toe and claw, making an equally divided +foot. On the other hand, the foot with two toes<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +forward and two toes backward is confined neither +to woodpeckers nor to climbing birds. The +parrots, which climb after a fashion, have it; +but so do the cuckoos, which do not climb, some +of which, like our road-runner, or ground cuckoo +of the West, are strictly terrestrial. The “yoking” +of the toes may occur by the reversion of +the fourth toe, as ordinarily, or of the second +toe, as in the trogons; the arrangement appears +to be definitely related to the distribution of the +tendons that control the toes. But though accounting +for the structure may give a clue to its +descent, it does not justify its efficiency. The +yoke-toed foot is not exclusively a climbing foot. +All our families of climbers have at least one +representative with but one toe behind, and this +clearly proves that the yoke-toed structure is by +no means necessary even though it may be an +honorable inheritance among climbers. The +natural conclusion is that the important point in +climbing is not the number nor the arrangement +of the toes, but the length of at least one hind +toe so as to give an equally divided foot.</p> + +<p>There is an interesting point to notice about +the woodpeckers. This reversed fourth toe is +curiously variable in length. In the flickers, +with its claw, it is a little shorter than the middle +(third) toe with its claw; in the red-heads and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> +their friends it a little exceeds the middle toe +and claw; in the downy and the hairy it is much +the longest toe, and in the ivory-billed woodpecker +it is abnormally developed. We at once +judge that it is some indication of the bird’s +manner of life, and we look for it to be largest +in the species that live continually upon the +trunks of trees, obtaining most of their food by +drilling. We expect to see the finest development +of drilling bill accompany this enormously +developed toe, and we find them both in the +ivory-billed woodpecker. In imagination we +clearly see the use of it. The great bird, keen +in his quest of grubs, sidling hastily round the +tree, in an unsteady balance and unsupported by +his tail, throws one long hind toe downward +to steady himself, hooks the other into the bark +above him, and hangs between the two as firmly +supported as in his ordinary position. No doubt +he does do this, but does it prove the supposition +that the heaviest and most arboreal woodpeckers +have the greatest development of the +fourth toe? Not at all. There is our rare acquaintance +the logcock, or pileated woodpecker, +a bird nearly as large as the ivory-billed, one of +the most persistent of our tree-climbers and more +than any other woodpecker I ever observed given +to scratching rapidly round and round a tree-trunk,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> +clinging at ease in almost any position +except head-downward, and drilling incessantly +and at all seasons for grubs; he is a typical +woodpecker of the largest size, but his hind toe +and claw are, if anything, a trifle shorter than +his middle toe with its claw. He throws it out +and uses it as we have described, but it has not +that disproportion to the other toes which we +expected to find as the result of a strictly arboreal +life.</p> + +<p>What have we proved? We have not shown +that the long toe is <i>not</i> more useful than the +shorter one,—that is a matter of observation; +but we have failed entirely to show that it is so, +and this can be done only in one of two ways: +either by proving that the logcock’s habits are +not what all previous observers have believed +them to be,—which would be assuming a great +burden of proof; or by demonstrating that his +ancestry explains why his feet do not illustrate +our theory,—and this, though it is undoubtedly +the true solution, could be settled only by a very +learned man.</p> + +<p>But we have encountered one truth which +must always be held in mind in science—that +a theory is not proved while a single fact remains +rebellious and unsubdued. We might +have examined every other woodpecker in the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span> +continent but just one; we might have seen that +every other one agreed with our theory, as it +does; we might have supposed that the explanation +was good past doubting; but that one exception—if +it was a logcock—would still over-turn +the whole theory; and the very facts that +we relied upon to strengthen us—its resemblance +in size, habits, shape, and color to the +ivory-billed woodpecker—have been the strongest +possible means of totally demolishing our +fine theory. We have learned, if nothing more, +that all the facts must be examined and accounted +for before an explanation is accepted as +indisputable.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XIII</h2> + +<h3>THE WOODPECKER’S TOOLS: HIS TAIL</h3> + + +<p>If we study the woodpecker’s anatomy and +observe his broad, strong, highly-arched hip-bones +and the heavy, triangular “ploughshare” +bone in which the tail feathers are planted, as +well as the stiffness and strength of the tail itself, +we must conclude that it is not by accident +that he uses his tail as a prop. The whole +structure shows that the bird was intended “to +lean on his tail.” What we wish to discover is +how good a tail it is to lean on.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_015.jpg" alt="Tail of Hairy Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Tail of Hairy Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>Our first impression is that the woodpecker’s +tail might be improved. +Why are +not the tips of the +feathers stiffer? +Why is it so +rounded? Most of +the work seems to +fall on the middle +feathers, and in +some species, as the downy and the hairy woodpeckers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span> +these end in decurved tips so soft and +unresisting that they seem quite unfit to give +any support. Would it not be better if the +woodpecker’s tail had been cut square across +and made of feathers equally rigid and ending +in short stiff spines? For we see that the woodpecker’s +tail is not only weak in its inner feathers, +but weaker still in its outer ones, and it is +stiff, in most species, only in the upper three +fourths of its length.</p> + +<p>When we propose a change in nature it is +wise to inquire whether our improvement has +not been tried before and to learn how it worked. +How many kinds of birds have we that use +their tails for a support? What are their habits +and what sort of tails have they?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_016.jpg" alt="Tails of Brown Creeper (under surface) +and Chimney Swift (upper surface.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Tails of Brown Creeper (under surface) +and Chimney Swift (upper surface.)</span> +</div> + +<p>Besides the woodpeckers we have but two kinds +of land birds that prop themselves with their tails,—the +swifts and +the creepers. The +creeper has a tail +very much like the +woodpecker’s as it +is; while the chimney +swift’s is precisely +like the woodpecker’s +as we +thought it ought to be. But we observe that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +while the creeper’s habits are almost precisely +like the woodpecker’s,—so much so that when +we first make his acquaintance, some of us will +be sure we have discovered a new kind of woodpecker,—the +chimney swift has but one habit +in common with the woodpecker, that of clinging +to an upright surface and propping himself +by his tail. If the bird with the tail most like +the woodpecker’s has the woodpecker’s habits, +is it not a fair inference that this form of tail is +better fitted to this way of living than the other +would be?</p> + +<p>Next, what variations in shapes do we observe +among the woodpeckers themselves? The logcock +and the ivory-billed woodpecker have the +longest tails—because they are the largest +birds. When we compare the length of the +tails with the length of the birds we are surprised +at the results. On measuring sixteen species, +representing seven genera, I find that the tail is +from three tenths to thirty-five hundredths of the +entire length; that it is, in proportion, as long +in the flicker as in the ivory-bill, as long in the +downy as in the logcock, and longer (in the +specimens measured) in the almost wholly terrestrial +flicker than in the wholly arboreal logcock. +Without much more study all that we can safely +infer is that the woodpecker’s tail is not far from<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +one third the length of his whole body measured +from the tip of the bill to the tip of the tail. +Probably this is the proportion most convenient +for his work.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_017.jpg" alt="Middle tail feathers of Flicker, Ivory-billed +Woodpecker, and Hairy Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Middle tail feathers of Flicker, Ivory-billed +Woodpecker, and Hairy Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>All woodpeckers’ tails agree in one particular: +they are rounded at the end. At first sight we +would say that some are but slightly rounded +and others very deeply graduated; but as nearly +as I can determine this is at least partly an optical +illusion, explained by the great difference in the +shape of the feathers making up the tail, which +in some, as the flicker, are very broad and abruptly +pointed, and in others taper gradually to +the end and are very narrow for their length. +The larger birds naturally appear to have longer +tails, and the effect of narrow feathers is to +make the tails appear longer and more sharply +graduated than they really are. This diagram<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +shows the shape of the curve in six species, and +indicates that, while the curvature +is less than we might +expect, it bears some relation +to the bird’s way of living; +for we see that the strictly +arboreal woodpeckers have +more pointed tails than the +terrestrial species, and that +the amount of gradation +bears a direct relation to the +amount of time spent upon +the tree-trunks.</p> + +<p>There is a third difference, +the shape of the individual +feather, to which we shall refer +again; but now we wish to +examine the uses and meaning +of the curved end.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_018.jpg" class="wide1" alt="" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Diagram of curvature of +tails of Woodpeckers. +Drawn to scale.</span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +<i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, point of insertion in +rump.<br /> + +<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, outer tail feather.<br /> + +<i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, middle tail feather.<br /> +</p> + +<p>If the outer tail feather +were of the same length in +all cases, the curve at the end +of the tail would be represented +by the dotted lines.</p> + +<p> +1. Flicker.<br /> + +2. Red-headed Woodpecker.<br /> + +3. Downy Woodpecker.<br /> + +4. Logcock.<br /> + +5. Central American Ivory-billed +Woodpecker.<br /> + +6. North American Ivory-billed +Woodpecker.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p>I will show you how to +prove this point so that you +may be satisfied about it even +if you should never see a +woodpecker. We will make +a little experiment, so simple +that even a child can understand it.</p> + +<p>First, how many shapes can any bird’s tail +have? It may be one of three general patterns,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +and it can be nothing else unless we combine +those patterns. It may be square across the +end, it may have the middle feathers longest, +or it may have the outer feathers longest. To +one of these patterns every form of birds’ tails +may be referred; you can invent no other shape.</p> + +<p>Let us assume that you know nothing whatever +of a woodpecker’s tail except that it has +ten feathers, is used as a prop, and is held at +an angle of thirty or forty degrees with the tree-trunk. +Now, take three strips of paper of the +same width and length, and of any size not inconveniently +small. Fold them all down the +centre. Cut one square across; cut one with a +rounded end and the third with a forked end, +making them of any shape you please so long +as the three papers are of the same length. To +give our models +a fair test they +must be of the +same width and +length. Next, pin +a sheet of paper +of any size you +please into the +form of a cylinder and stand it on end to represent +a tree-trunk. Then fit the patterns to +the tree-trunk and see which is the form that +would give the most support.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_019.jpg" alt="Patterns of tails." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Patterns of tails.</span> +</div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span></p> + +<p>But first, in how many ways is it possible for +a bird to use his tail as a prop? He may of +course hold it open or closed; and the open tail +may be held in a single plane, “spread flat,” as +we say; or curved up at the edges, like a crow +blackbird’s; or curved down at the edges. And +the closed tail may be held in a single plane; +or, by dropping each pair of feathers a little, in +several planes. Thus we see there are five positions +in which each shape may be held against +the cylinder of paper. Try each one against it, +holding it first in the open positions and then +after folding the paper like a bird’s tail with +the outer feathers underneath, in the closed positions. +The size of the model tree-trunk and +the shape you cut your curves will make the results +vary a little, but you will be surprised to +observe, if your models are not too small, how +many times you will get the same answers. +Note the number and position of the pairs that +touch:</p> + +<table summary="Using a tail as a prop"> +<tr><td><i>Spread.</i></td><td><i>Square end.</i></td><td><i>Forked end.</i></td><td><i>Round end.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>one plane,</td><td>varies</td><td>varies</td><td>middle pair</td></tr> +<tr><td>curved up,</td><td>middle pair</td><td>middle pair</td><td>middle pair</td></tr> +<tr><td>curved down,</td><td>all</td><td>all</td><td>all</td></tr> +<tr><td><i>Closed.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td>one plane,</td><td>outer pair</td><td>outer pair</td><td>middle pair</td></tr> +<tr><td>different planes,</td><td>outer pair</td><td>outer pair</td><td>all</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>Which shape brings the most feathers into use +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +in all positions? Which positions bring most +feathers into use? We see at once that the +rounded end has a decided advantage, that the +middle pair of feathers is used in all possible +positions, that the pair next outside is the next +important, and that the spread tail curving +downward at the edges and the closed tail in different +planes are the two shapes which give the +best support. There is therefore a reason for the +rounded end which we said was the rule among +the woodpeckers.</p> + +<p>Our little experiment is what we call a <i>deduction</i>. +It shows us what we ought to expect +under certain imaginary conditions. But it does +not show us what actually exists, so there often +comes a time when our deductions are faulty because +Nature has done some unexpected thing, as +when we found the single exception of the logcock’s +foot upsetting a fine theory of ours. A +deduction must always be compared with facts, +and is worth little or nothing if a single fact of +the series we are studying is not explained by +it. This time all the facts do agree; for I had, +before we made our experiment, examined the +tails of every species of woodpecker ever found +in North America, and there was no exception to +the rounded end. I had already drawn my conclusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> +that this form was better adapted to life +on a tree-trunk than the square or the forked +tail would be, reasoning by a different process +called <i>induction</i>. An induction examines many, +and, if possible, all the facts before drawing any +conclusion; a deduction examines the facts after +the conclusion is reached. There is no hard-and-fast +line between the two kinds of reasoning, but +we may say that a <i>deduction is reasoning out a +guess and an induction is guessing out a reason</i>. +Deductions are easier and quicker; inductions +are surer, and in preparing them we often +make other discoveries.</p> + +<p>The rounded tail is no doubt the best; but +we have yet to decide whether the sharper curve +is more advantageous than the lesser curve, as +we thought probable from our observations. +And there is still another deduction from our +experiment which we did not make. If in the +rounded tail the middle pairs of feathers do most +of the work, and if use increases the size and +efficiency of a part, which is almost an axiom in +science, we should expect to find the middle tail +feathers not only strongest in all woodpeckers +but also strongest in increasing ratio in the +species that use them most. To determine this +we must study the use of the tail and the structure +and shape of the individual tail feathers.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span></p> + +<p>We should remark, perhaps, that the woodpecker’s +tail is always composed of twelve feathers—ten +pointed rectrices and two tiny abortive +feathers so short and so hidden that no attention +is paid to them. The ten principal feathers are +arranged in corresponding pairs numbered from +the outside to the centre as first, second, third, +fourth, and fifth pairs.</p> + +<p>In the flickers all ten feathers have wide vanes +and are similar in everything but the shape; all +are more or less pointed. The flicker’s tail looks +and feels very much like that of any other bird +except that the shafts are stiffer and the vanes +contract to an acuminate tip. But as we take +up the other species we notice a change, not only +in the shape of the feathers but much more in +their texture and in the difference between the +various pairs. While in the flicker four pairs +out of five are pointed and all are rigid, in +the downy and the hairy three pairs out of five +seem to be too soft to give any support, the +sharp points have disappeared, and the tail has +lost much of its stiffness. The two middle pairs +of feathers are the only ones capable of doing +much work and they are wavering and infirm at +the tips where we should expect them to be +strongest. In the logcock it is about the same,—two +pairs are apparently unfit for work, one<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +pair is infirm, and the two middle pairs are compelled +to give all the support, except the little +contributed by the third pair. In the ivory-billed +woodpecker the two outer pairs are of no +assistance and the three central ones do the +work, and here again we find the base of the +rectrices rigid and inflexible and the last fourth +of their length weak and yielding. But what a +difference in the individual feather! It is well +able to do all the work; for, except for that weak +tip which we cannot now explain, it is one of the +toughest and strongest feathers to be found. +The shaft is broad and flat, as elastic as a watch-spring; +it looks like a band of burnished steel +as it runs down between the vanes. And the +vanes themselves are of a very curious pattern. +They curl under at the edges so that we do not +see their whole width, and the barbs crowd so +thickly upon each other that they over-lie until +they present an edge three or four broad. Indeed, +the under side of one of these tail feathers +reminds one of nothing so much as of the under +side of a star-fish’s arm with its two long lines +of ambulacral suckers on each side of a central +groove, so thickly do the spiny vanes of these +strong rectrices over ride and crowd together. +These spines lay hold of the bark of the tree, +rank after rank, hundreds of bristling points<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +that cannot be dislodged except by a forward +motion of the bird or by lifting the tail. Compared +with this, the spiny points on the flicker’s +tail were a poor invention. This device, which +takes hold like a wool card, or a wire hair-brush, +cannot slip from place. We begin to see, too, the +use of that weak and flexible tip; it is to press +down upon the tree-trunk a flat surface sufficiently +large to hold hundreds of these little +spiny points against the bark. The ivory-bill +braces against this with the stiff upper part of +the shaft and has a support that will not slip. +The upper part of the shaft acts like a spring +also, and adds tremendous force to the blow +of the bill. Watch a hairy woodpecker when +hard at work and see how his legs and tail +form a triangular base by bracing against each +other, and how his blow is delivered, not with +the head alone, but with the whole body, swinging +from the hips, the apex of the triangle on +which he rests. He swings like a man wielding +a sledge hammer, and to the strength of his neck +adds the weight of his body, the spring of his<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> +tail, and the momentum of a blow delivered from +a greater height. When the little hairy woodpecker +does so much with his weak body, we can +imagine what great birds like the logcock and +the ivory-billed woodpecker, with their tremendous +beaks, their huge claws, their springy tails, +and their great physical strength can do. They +are magnificent birds, the terror of all the grubs +that hide in tree-trunks.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_020.jpg" alt="Under side of middle tail feather of +Ivory-billed Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Under side of middle tail feather of +Ivory-billed Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>One point we have left unexplained: What +is the advantage, if there is any, in the sharper +curve to the tails of the arboreal woodpeckers? +It is a simple question. The curve is caused by +the unequal length of the tail feathers; each +tail feather is a prop, and by their inequality +they become props of different lengths. Now +ask any carpenter which will best support a +tottering wall—props all of the same length +set at the same angle, or props of different +lengths set at different angles? His answer +will help you to solve the problem. But if a +little is good, why are not all the pairs used as +props? Partly, perhaps, because the woodpecker +is always crowded for houseroom, and while he +must have tail enough, he cannot afford to have +any which he does not use. Did you ever think +what an inconvenience any tail at all must be in +a woodpecker’s hole?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XIV</h2> + +<h3>THE WOODPECKER’S TOOLS: HIS TONGUE</h3> + + +<p>We have seen how the woodpecker spears his +grubs: now we will study his spear.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_021.jpg" class="wide0" alt="Tongue of Hairy Woodpecker. (After Lucas.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Tongue of Hairy Woodpecker. (After Lucas.)</span> +</div> + +<p>There are many interesting points +about a woodpecker’s tongue, and they +are not hard to understand. If a woodpecker +would kindly let us take hold of +his tongue and pull it out to its full extent +we should be afraid we were “spoiling +his machinery,” for the tongue can +be drawn out almost incredibly—between +two and three inches in a hairy +woodpecker and more in a flicker. A +strange-looking object it is, much resembling +an angle-worm in form, color, +and feeling; for it is round, soft, and +sticky, except at the flat, horny, bayonet-pointed +tip, and as it lies in the mouth it +is wrinkled like the wrist of a loose glove; +but it grows smaller and smoother the more we +pull it out. Evidently we are only drawing it +into its skin. But where does so much tongue<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +come from? Does it stretch like a piece of +elastic cord? Or is a part hidden somewhere? +And if so, where is it kept?</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_022.jpg" alt="Tongue-bones of Flicker. (After Lucas.)" title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Tongue-bones of Flicker. (After Lucas.)</span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p> +<i>a.</i> Cerato-hyals, fused and short.<br /> +<i>b.</i> Basi-hyal, long, slender.<br /> +<i>c.</i> Cerato-branchials.<br /> +<i>d.</i> Epibranchials.<br /> +Basi-branchial is wanting.<br /> +</p> +</div> + +<p>These questions are answered by studying the +bones of the tongue, for without bones it could +not be guided as swiftly and surely as it is. Indeed, +all tongues have bones in them, as you will +discover by cutting carefully the slices near the +root of an ox-tongue; but no other creature +has such long and elaborate tongue-bones as +some of the woodpeckers. They are the slenderest +and most delicate +little bony rods, +joined end to end, +but not really hinged +nor needing to be, +because they are so +elastic. Here are the +bones of a flicker’s +tongue. The little +knob at the end, +marked <i>a</i>, bore the +horny point of the +tongue and directed +it; the straight shaft +marked <i>b</i> was inside +the round part of the +tongue as it lay within the bird’s mouth; but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +what was done with these two long branches, +fully three quarters of the entire length of the +bones? They are too sharply curved to pass +down the bird’s throat, and, not being jointed, +they cannot be doubled back in his mouth. +They were +tucked away +very neatly +and curiously. +As the hyoid +or tongue-bone +lies in the +mouth its +branches diverge just in front of the gullet, and, +traveling along the inner sides of the fork of +the lower jaw, pass up over the top of the skull, +looking in their sheath of muscles like two tiny +whipcords. But still the bones are too long by +perhaps half an inch for the place they occupy, +and the ends must be neatly disposed of. Usually +both pass to the right nasal opening and +along the hollow of the upper mandible. Very +rarely they may curl down around the eyeball in +a spiral spring. So when the flicker thrusts out +his tongue he feels the pull in the end of his +nose, for the tip of the tongue being run out, the +long slender bones are drawn out of their hiding-places, +down over the skull until they lie flat<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +along the roof of his mouth. As soon as he +wishes to shut his bill, back fly the little bones +guided by their hollow sheaths of elastic muscle +into their hiding-place in the top of the bill. +The muscular covering is a part of the same soft +envelope that we saw lying in wrinkles at the +root of the tongue. It covers the whole length<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +of the little bones just as the woven outside +covers an elastic cord.</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_023.jpg" alt="Skull of Woodpecker, showing bones of tongue. +a. Upper end of windpipe and gullet." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Skull of Woodpecker, showing bones of tongue.</span> +</div> +<div class="blockquot"> +<p><i>a.</i> Upper end of windpipe and gullet.</p> +</div> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_024.jpg" class="wide2" alt="Hyoids of Sapsucker and Golden-fronted Woodpecker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Hyoids of Sapsucker and Golden-fronted Woodpecker.</span> +</div> + +<p>Not all woodpeckers have tongues precisely +like this. The sapsucker’s is the shortest of any, +and reaches barely beyond the hinge of the +jaws. In the Lewis’s woodpecker and others of +his genus the branches of the hyoid extend part-way +up the back of the skull but in the kinds +that live principally upon borers they are very +long and resemble the flicker’s in arrangement. +The only other North American birds that have +a tongue built upon this plan are the hummingbirds, +in which also it is extensile. The flicker, +in proportion to his size, has the longest tongue +of any bird known.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XV</h2> + +<h3>HOW EACH WOODPECKER IS FITTED FOR HIS +OWN KIND OF LIFE</h3> + + +<p>We have studied the woodpeckers at some +length: first, what all of them do; next, what +some that are peculiar in their ways do; lastly, +how each is fitted for a particular kind of life. +At first we were inclined to think they were all +alike; but now we begin to see that there are +very real differences between them,—in tails, +feet, bills, and tongues, and at the same time in +their food and habits.</p> + +<p>The flicker’s tail is less sharply curved than +that of any other woodpecker,—a sign that he +is probably not exclusively a tree-dweller; his +bill is curved and rounded, a pick-axe rather than +a drill,—an indication that he does not dig for +grubs; his feet do not tell us much; but his +long extensile tongue shows that, whatever he +feeds upon, he seeks it in holes. We find a +tongue like this in no other bird, but among +mammals the aard-vark, the ant-bear, and the +pangolins are all similarly equipped, and all live<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +on ants which they extract from their mounds and +burrows in hundreds by means of these round, +sticky, and extensile tongues. This is precisely +the way the flicker gets his living. He lives +principally upon the ground or near it, pecks +very little except when digging his nest, and +feeds largely upon ants, thrusting his head into +the ant-hills and drawing out the ants glued to +his tongue rather than speared by it. As he +has been known to eat three thousand ants for a +meal, we see how much easier this is than spearing +them one by one.</p> + +<p>The red-head is another type. The bill is +still nearly of the pick-axe model, the feet not +especially different from the flicker’s, the tail +rather better adapted to life on a tree-trunk, and +the tongue entirely unlike the flicker’s,—not +very extensile and heavily clothed near the tip +with long, thick, recurved bristles. We infer +that though he may climb well, he is not a drilling +woodpecker to any great extent, and that +his tongue is adapted neither to extracting borers +nor to eating ants from their burrows. His +habits bear out the inference. He is arboreal, +but his food is either vegetable or picked up +from the surface, rasped up rather than speared.</p> + +<p>The sapsucker presents still another variation. +The points to the tail feathers are more acuminate<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> +and the tail itself more resembles that of +the tree-dwelling woodpeckers in shape; the feet +are fitted for clinging to the trunk; the bill, +now perfectly straight and no longer smoothly +rounded but buttressed by strong angles that +spring from the base and run down toward the +tip, is the bill of a woodpecker that lives by +drilling; but the tongue is wholly unadapted +to catching grubs. What kind of food can an +arboreal woodpecker with a drilling bill find +upon a tree-trunk when his tongue can be extended +only a fifth of an inch, and is furnished +with a brush of bristles at the end? We have +answered that question before: he eats the inner +bark of trees and laps up the sap, for which +this brushy tip is excellently fitted. It has been +observed that the tongue much resembles the +tongues of insect-eating birds, which cannot be +extended beyond the end of the bill. It is true +that the sapsucker catches great numbers of insects, +taking them on the wing like a flycatcher. +But he also eats nearly as many ants as the +flicker, though their tongues are totally unlike. +We have made the mistake perhaps of thinking +that ants live only underground and can be +obtained only by tongues like those of the +flicker and the ant-bear, which hunt them there. +But ants are abundant on the surface of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +ground, and they excavate long tunnels in rotten +wood. The black bear is a famous ant-hunter, +yet his tongue is like a dog’s and he gets +his ants by lapping them up after he has torn +open the rotten logs in which they live. This +is the way that the sapsucker obtains his ants, +and the brush of stiff hairs is a help to him in +such work. We see, then, that it is not so +much the food as the manner of feeding that +explains the form of the tongue.</p> + +<p>The downy and the hairy are a step farther +along in their development. The fourth toe is +longer than the others, a condition that we do +not find in any of the woodpeckers not strictly +arboreal; the tail is of the improved pattern, +holding by a brush of bristles rather than by one +stiff point at the end of each feather; the bill is +heavier, broader at the base, more heavily ridged, +and in every way a stronger tool; and the tongue +is highly extensible and of the spear pattern, +sharp-pointed and barbed with recurved hooks. +Everything about these birds indicates that they +are fitted to live on tree-trunks and to dig for +borers. This, indeed, is what they do.</p> + +<p>But the great logcock and the ivory-billed +woodpecker, though of the same type as the +other larvæ-eating woodpeckers, are more highly +developed along the same line. We notice the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +great strength of the feet; the claws, as large +and as sharp as a cat’s; the enormous weight +and strength of the bill, compared with that of +the other woodpeckers, which enables them to +cut into the hardest wood and even into frozen +green timber; and the great development of the +tail, which now becomes a strong spring to support +and aid the bird in his work.</p> + +<p>As we try to group these particulars under +general heads, we see that we have observed +three things:—</p> + +<p><i>That the structure of a bird is adapted to its +kind of life.</i></p> + +<p><i>That the structure varies by small degrees +with the kind of life.</i></p> + +<p><i>That the kind of life is conditioned largely +upon the kind of food and upon the method of +procuring it, more particularly the latter.</i></p> + +<p>These are not so much different truths as +three aspects of one truth. When we study the +first we see why birds are grouped together into +orders and families: we study their resemblances. +When we observe the second we see +why they are divided into species, for we note +their differences. But when we consider the +third and reflect that birds have the power to +choose new kinds of food or new places and +means of getting it, we see how it is that there<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +can come to be new kinds of birds, new subspecies +and species, springing up from time to +time. Wonderful and improbable as it seems, +there is more reason to believe than there is to +doubt that new kinds of animals and plants are +constantly in process of making; that the laws +of change are constantly at work, adapting creatures +to their surroundings or crushing them +out of existence because they will not learn new +ways. And it is probable that these differences +which we mark in the woodpeckers have been +the result of efforts to adapt themselves to a +peculiar kind of life where food was abundant; +and also that by acquired habits and by acquired +tastes for different kinds of foods they will be +subject to still further variations in the future.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>XVI</h2> + +<h3>THE ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN</h3> + + +<p>But if the birds are making themselves into +new species, where is the place for God in the +universe? Did not God make all kinds of creatures +in the beginning? How can they go on +being made without God?</p> + +<p>These are questions every one ought to ask, +but—did God leave his world after He had +made it and go a long way off? Did He wind +it up like a watch to go till it should run down? +Is the world a machine, or is it alive?</p> + +<p>Long ago the wise and good man Socrates +argued that if you did not know there was a +God at all, you could at least infer it because +everything was so wonderfully made. “There +is our body,” said he: “every part of it so perfect +and so reasonable. Consider how the eyes +not only please us with agreeable sensations but +are protected in every way. The eyebrows stand +like a thicket to keep the perspiration from them, +the lids are a curtain to shut out too great light, +the lashes screen them from dust,—everything<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +is planned for some wise and reasonable end. +And where the evidence of design is so convincing +must we not believe that there was a Designer?” +Words like these he spoke, and we +know because everything is so perfectly contrived +that there must have been a contriver, +who knew all from the beginning. We are compelled +to believe that there is a God.</p> + +<p>Shall we believe it less because we find in the +creatures about us intelligence and the power to +care for their own lives? Has God gone on a +visit because these living creatures are looking +out for themselves? Were they made less perfectly +in the beginning because when new conditions +surround them they are able to change +to meet the strange requirements? This is not +less evidence of a Designer, but more. It was +long said that the existence of a watch was +proof of a watchmaker who had planned and +put together all the parts so that they worked +harmoniously. But if the watch had the power +to grow small to fit a small pocket, or large to +fit a large one, to become luminous by night, +and to correct its own time by the sun instead +of being regulated by outside interference, what +should we have said—that it was proof there +was no watchmaker? or that it showed a far +more skillful one, since he could make a living, +self-regulating, adaptive watch?<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span></p> + +<p>And so of the world and the creatures in it. +Every evidence we get that they can care for +themselves, that they can adapt themselves to +new conditions, that they are intelligent and +reasonable, capable of improvement in habits or +in structure, is so much surer proof that a wise +God made them what they are. Evolution—for +that is the name by which we call these +changes—does not take God out of the universe +but makes the need of Him stronger. +The argument from design is immensely +strengthened when we consider that we have +not only an obedient machine acting according +to a few fundamental rules, but one that is intelligent +also and capable of self-modification.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr /> +<h2>APPENDIX</h2> + +<h3><i>Explanation of Terms.</i></h3> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img src="images/fig_025.jpg" alt="Head of a Flicker." title="" /> +<br /> +<span class="caption">Head of a Flicker.</span> +</div> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Occipital</i> means “on the occiput.”</p> +<p><i>a.</i> Forehead; <i>b.</i> crown; <i>c.</i> occiput; <i>d.</i> nape; <i>e.</i> chin; <i>f.</i> throat; +<i>g.</i> jaw-patch, or mustache.</p> + +<p><i>Nuchal</i> means “on the nape.”</p> + +<p><i>Primaries</i> are the nine or ten wing-quills borne upon the last +joint of the wing.</p> + +<p><i>Secondaries</i> are the wing-quills attached to the fore-arm bones.</p> + +<p><i>Tertiaries</i> are the wing-quills springing from the upper arm +bones.</p> + +<p><i>Wing coverts</i> are the shorter lines of feathers overlapping these +long quills.</p> + +<p><i>Tail coverts</i> are the lengthened feathers that overlap the root of +the tail both above and below, called respectively upper and +under tail coverts.</p> + +<p><i>Ear coverts</i> are the feathers that over-lie the ear, often specially +modified or colored.</p> + +<p><i>Rump</i>, the space between the middle of the back and the root of +the tail.</p> + +<p>♂ is the sign used to indicate the male sex.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>♀ is the sign used to indicate the female sex.</p> + +<p>A <i>subspecies</i> is a geographical race, modified in size, color, or +proportions chiefly by the influence of climate. These variations +are especially marked in non-migratory birds of wide distribution, +subject, therefore, to climatic extremes. The Downy +and the Hairy Woodpeckers, for example, are split up into +numerous races. It should be remembered that when a species +has been separated into races, or subspecies, all the subspecies +are of equal rank, even though they are differently +designated. The one originally discovered and first described +bears the old Latin name which consisted of two words, while +the new ones are designated by triple Latin names—the old +binomial and a new name in addition. The binomial indicates +the form first described. The forms designated by trinomials +may be equally well known, abundant, and widely distributed. +For example, among the woodpeckers, the northern form of +the Hairy Woodpecker was first discovered and bears the +name <i>Dryobates villosus</i>; but the first Downy Woodpecker described +was a southern bird, and the northern form was not +separated until a few years ago, so that the southern bird is +the type, and the northern one bears the trinomial, <i>Dryobates +pubescens medianus</i>.</p> + +<p><i>North America</i>, by the decision of the American Ornithologists’ +Union, is held to include the continent north of the present +boundary between Mexico and the United States, with +Greenland, the peninsula of Lower California, and the islands +adjacent naturally belonging to the same.</p> + +<p>The following key and descriptions will enable the student to +identify any woodpecker known to occur within these limits:</p></div> + +<h4>A. <span class="smcap">Key to the Woodpeckers of North America.</span></h4> + +<p>Family characteristics: color always striking, usually in spots, +bars, or patches of contrasting colors, especially black and white. +Sexes usually unlike; male always with some portion of red or +yellow about head, throat, or neck. Tails stiff, rounded, composed +of ten fully developed pointed feathers (and two undeveloped +feathers). Wings large, rounded, with long, conspicuous +secondaries, and short coverts. Bill straight, stout, of medium<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +length. Toes four, arranged in pairs, except in the three-toed +genus. Iris brown, except when noted. Marked by a habit of +clinging to upright surfaces and digging a deep hole in a tree-trunk +for nesting. Eggs always pearly white.</p> + +<p>I. Very large—18 inches <i>or more</i>; conspicuously crested. A.<br /> +II. Medium or small—14 inches <i>or less</i>; never crested. B.</p> + +<dl class="key"> +<dd class="t0">A. a<sup>1</sup> Bill gleaming <i>ivory white</i>; fourth toe decidedly longest.</dd> +<dt>Ivory-billed Woodpecker. <a href="#b1">1.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t1">a<sup>2</sup> Bill <i>blackish</i>; fourth toe not decidedly longest.</dd> +<dt>Pileated Woodpecker or Logcock. <a href="#b14">14.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t0">B. a<sup>1</sup> Toes three; ♂ with <i>yellow</i> crown.</dd> +<dt>Three-toed Woodpeckers. <a href="#b9">9</a> & <a href="#b10">10.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t1">a<sup>2</sup> Toes four; crown never yellow (b).</dd> + +<dd class="t3">b<sup>1</sup> <i>Not spotted nor streaked either above or below</i> (c).</dd> + +<dd class="t5">c<sup>1</sup> Body clear black; <i>head white</i>.</dd> +<dt>White-headed Woodpecker. <a href="#b8">8.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t5">c<sup>2</sup> Blue-black above; <i>rump white</i>; <i>head</i> and <i>neck red</i>.</dd> +<dt>Red-headed Woodpecker. <a href="#b15">15.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t5">c<sup>3</sup> Greenish black above, with <i>pinkish red belly</i>.</dd> +<dt>Lewis’s Woodpecker. <a href="#b17">17.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t5">c<sup>4</sup> Greenish black with <i>sulphur yellow forehead</i> and <i>throat.</i></dd> +<dt>Californian Woodpecker. <a href="#b16">16.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t5">c<sup>5</sup> Glossy blue-black with <i>scarlet throat</i> and <i>yellow belly</i>.</dd> +<dt>Male of Williamson’s Sapsucker. <a href="#b13">13.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t3">b<sup>2</sup> <i>Spotted with black or brown on breast and sides</i>, but not +streaked nor barred with white (d).</dd> + +<dd class="t5">d<sup>1</sup> <i>Brown</i> spots on breast and sides; upper parts plain brown.</dd> +<dt>Arizona Woodpecker. <a href="#b7">7.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t5">d<sup>2</sup> <i>Black</i> spots on breast and sides; wings and tail brilliantly colored beneath (e).</dd> + +<dd class="t7">e<sup>1</sup> Wings and tail <i>golden</i> beneath; mustaches <i>black</i> in male, wanting in female.</dd> +<dt>Flicker. <a href="#b21">21.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">e<sup>2</sup> Wings and tail <i>golden</i> beneath; mustaches <i>red</i> in both sexes.</dd> +<dt>Gilded Flicker. <a href="#b23">23.</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></dt> + +<dd class="t7">e<sup>3</sup> Wings and tail <i>golden red</i> beneath; mustaches red.</dd> +<dt>Red-shafted Flicker. <a href="#b22">22.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">e<sup>4</sup> Wings and tail <i>golden red</i> beneath; mustaches red; crown brown.</dd> +<dt>Guadalupe Flicker. <a href="#b24">24.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t3">b<sup>3</sup> <i>Streaked, spotted, or barred with white on back and wings</i> (f).</dd> + +<dd class="t5">f<sup>1</sup> <i>Back streaked</i>, <i>plain</i>, or <i>varied</i>, <i>never</i> barred with white; wings <i>spotted</i> with white (g).</dd> + +<dd class="t7">g<sup>1</sup> <i>Clear</i> white and black; <i>white streak down the back</i> (h).</dd> + +<dd class="t9">h<sup>1</sup> Medium size, 9-11 inches.</dd> +<dt>Hairy Woodpecker. <a href="#b2">2.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t9">h<sup>2</sup> Small size, 6-7 inches.</dd> +<dt>Downy Woodpecker. <a href="#b3">3.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">g<sup>2</sup> <i>Grayish</i> white and black; <i>sides closely barred</i> (i).</dd> + +<dd class="t9">i<sup>1</sup> Back plain black, white <i>stripe</i> down side of throat.</dd> +<dt>Female of Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. <a href="#b9">9.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t9">i<sup>2</sup> Back with interrupted white stripe, white <i>line</i> down side of throat.</dd> +<dt>Female of American Three-toed Woodpecker. <a href="#b10">10.</a></dt> +<dd class="t10">(<span class="smcap">Note.</span>—The males are similar with the addition +of the yellow crown. The three toes cannot ordinarily be seen in life.)</dd> + +<dd class="t7">g<sup>3</sup> <i>Yellowish</i> (often dingy or smutty), white and black; +under parts yellowish; back varied with white, no +line nor streak; <i>rump white</i>; <i>white wing-bars</i> (j).</dd> + +<dd class="t9">j<sup>1</sup> Breast with black patch; head of adult with red patches.</dd> +<dt>Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. <a href="#b11">11.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t9">j<sup>2</sup> Breast and head red.</dd> +<dt>Red-breasted Sapsucker. <a href="#b12">12.</a></dt> + +<dd style="margin-left: 5.5em;">f<sup>2</sup> <i>Back barred with white</i>; wings spotted or barred with white (k).</dd> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>1</sup> Belly <i>white; ear coverts white</i>.</dd> +<dt>Red-cockaded Woodpecker. <a href="#b4">4.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>2</sup> Belly <i>white; forehead black</i>.</dd> +<dt>Nuttall’s Woodpecker. <a href="#b6">6.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>3</sup> Belly <i>smoky brown</i>; forehead and breast same.</dd> +<dt>Texan Woodpecker. <a href="#b5">5.</a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>4</sup> Belly <i>sulphur or lemon yellow</i>.</dd> +<dt>Female of Williamson’s Woodpecker. <a href="#b13">13.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>5</sup> Belly <i>pinkish red</i>.</dd> +<dt>Red-bellied Woodpecker. <a href="#b18">18.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>6</sup> Belly <i>yellow</i>, hind neck and forehead orange.</dd> +<dt>Golden-fronted Woodpecker. <a href="#b19">19.</a></dt> + +<dd class="t7">k<sup>7</sup> Belly <i>yellow</i>, hind neck brown.</dd> +<dt>Gila Woodpecker. <a href="#b20">20.</a></dt> +</dl> + +<h4>B. <span class="smcap">Descriptions of the Woodpeckers of North +America.</span></h4> + +<p>The following are descriptions of all the species of Woodpeckers +found in North America, arranged in their proper +genera and in the order given in the check list of the American +Ornithologists’ Union, 1895; with the range of species and subspecies +as defined by the same authority or by Bendire’s “Life +Histories of North American Birds.”</p> + +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b1">1. <span class="smcap">Campephilus principalis</span>, <i>Ivory-billed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Glossy black except <i>white secondaries</i> (very conspicuous) +and white stripe from beneath ear down neck and shoulders; +white nasal tufts; <i>bill white</i>. Both sexes crested; ♂ +with scarlet occipital crest, ♀ with crest black. Iris yellow. +20 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Cypress swamps of Gulf States, locally distributed.</dd> +<dd>The largest, shyest, and rarest of our woodpeckers.</dd> + +<dt id="b2">2. <span class="smcap">Dryobates villosus</span>, <i>Hairy Woodpecker</i>.</dt> + +<dd>Black and white. Upper parts glossy black with a broad +<i>white stripe</i> down the back; wings thickly spotted with +white; under parts white; three outer pairs of tail feathers +white; two white and two black stripes on sides of head; +nasal tufts brownish white. ♂ with scarlet occipital patch. +9-10 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Eastern United States except South Atlantic and Gulf +States, with the following subspecies, all the races being +resident the year round, and breeding in most places +where they are found:— +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>D. v. leucomelas</i>, <i>Northern Hairy Woodpecker</i>. 10-11 inches.</dt> +<dd>Larger, whiter.</dd> +<dd class="range">British America.</dd> + +<dt>b. <i>D. v. audubonii</i>, <i>Southern Hairy Woodpecker</i>. 8-8.5 inches.</dt> +<dd>Smaller, more dingy white.</dd> +<dd class="range">South Atlantic and Gulf States.</dd> + +<dt>c. <i>D. v. harrisii</i>, <i>Harris’s Woodpecker</i>. 9-10 inches.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts with less white, few wing spots, under parts +soiled white or smoky brown; larger than next.</dd> +<dd class="range">Northwest coast, northern California to Alaska.</dd> + +<dt>d. <i>D. v. hyloscopus</i>, <i>Cabanis’s Woodpecker</i>. 8.5-9.5 inches.</dt> +<dd>White stripe down back very wide; purer white below than +<i>harrisii</i>; fewer wing spots than <i>leucomelas</i> and <i>villosus</i>.</dd> +<dd class="range">Western United States, except northwest coast, east to +the Rocky Mountains.</dd> + +<dt>e. <i>D. v. monticola</i>, <i>Rocky Mountain Woodpecker</i>. 10-11 inches.</dt> +<dd>Larger; more white spots near bend of wing and secondaries +than <i>hyloscopus</i>, fewer than <i>villosus</i>; pure white below.</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountains west to Uintah Mountains, Utah.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b3">3. <span class="smcap">Dryobates pubescens</span>, <i>Southern Downy Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Black and white; broad <i>white stripe</i> down back; wings +thickly spotted with white; under parts white. ♂ with +scarlet occipital patch. A miniature Hairy Woodpecker, +differing only in having <i>four</i> outer pairs of tail feathers +more or less white and the <i>outermost barred</i>. 6.5 inches. +Like the Hairy Woodpecker, the Downy and its subspecies +are resident and breed wherever they occur.</dd> +<dd class="range">South Atlantic and Gulf States.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>D. p. gairdnerii</i>, <i>Gairdner’s Woodpecker</i>. 6.75 inches.</dt> +<dd>Bears same relation to Downy that Harris’s does to Hairy +Woodpecker; under parts smoky white; wings spots few.</dd> +<dd class="range">Pacific coast north to about lat. 55°.</dd> + +<dt>b. <i>D. p. oreoecus</i>, <i>Batchelder’s Woodpecker</i>. 7.5 inches.</dt> +<dd>Under parts pure white; under tail coverts unspotted; +fewer wing spots than <i>medianus</i> and <i>pubescens</i>.</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountain region of United States.</dd> + +<dt>c. <i>D. p. medianus</i>, <i>Downy Woodpecker</i>. 7 inches. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></dt> +<dd>The larger, whiter form seen in New England and the +Northern States.</dd> + +<dt>d. <i>D. p. nelsoni</i>, <i>Nelson’s Downy Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Whiter, larger, with fewer black bars on outer tail +feathers.</dd> +<dd class="range">Alaska and region north of 55°.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b4">4. <span class="smcap">Dryobates borealis</span>, <i>Red-cockaded Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts black <i>barred</i> with white, under parts dingy white; +sides streaked and spotted with black; wings spotted with +white; outer tail feathers barred; nasal tufts and <i>large ear</i> +<i>patch white</i>; stripe of black down side of neck. ♂ with +a tiny tuft of scarlet feathers on each side of head. 7.5-8.5 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Pine woods of southeastern United States, from Tennessee +southwest to eastern Texas and the Indian Territory; +casual north to Pennsylvania.</dd> + +<dt id="b5">5. <span class="smcap">Dryobates scalaris bairdi</span>, <i>Texan Woodpecker</i>, <i>Ladder-backed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts barred with black and white on back, wings, +and outer tail feathers; sides of head striped; forehead, +nasal feathers, and under parts <i>smoky gray</i>, brownest on +belly; <i>crown speckled with white or red</i>; ♂ with nape crimson. +7-7.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Southern border of United States, Texas to California, +north to southwestern Utah and southern Nevada; generally +resident.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>D. s. lucasanus</i>, <i>St. Lucas Woodpecker</i>. Larger.</dt> +<dd class="range">Lower California, north to 34° in Colorado desert.</dd> +<dd>These are both subspecies of a Mexican species not occurring +within our limits.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> + +<dt id="b6">6. <span class="smcap">Dryobates nuttallii</span>, <i>Nuttall’s Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts barred with black and white; under parts and +<i>outer tail feathers white</i> or dingy white; nasal tufts white; +<i>forehead and crown black sprinkled with white</i>. ♂ with red +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +on occiput and nape. 7-7.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Southern Oregon and California west of Sierra Nevada +and Cascade Ranges; most common in the oak belt of +the foothills.</dd> +<dd>Easily distinguished from Downy Woodpecker by being +barred on the back, instead of striped.</dd> + +<dt id="b7">7. <span class="smcap">Dryobates arizonæ</span>, <i>Arizona Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd><i>Upper parts plain brown, not spotted nor streaked</i>; primaries +dotted with fine white dots; outer tail feathers barred; +under parts white, <i>thickly spotted</i> (except throat), <i>with large,</i> +<i>round, brown spots</i>. ♂ with red occipital band. 7.5-8.5 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico; among +oaks of the foothills from 4000 to 7000 feet elevation.</dd> + +<dt id="b8">8. <span class="smcap">Xenopicus albolarvatus</span>, <i>White-headed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd><i>Glossy black all over, except showy white patch on primaries,</i> +and <i>head and throat pure white</i> (forehead and crown +sometimes grayish). ♂ with broad occipital band of scarlet. +9 inches. “Iris pinkish red” (Bendire).</dd> +<dd class="range">Mountains of Pacific coast, east to western Nevada and +western Idaho, usually in the pine and fir forests above +4000 feet altitude.</dd> + +<dt id="b9">9. <span class="smcap">Picoides arcticus</span>, <i>Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd><i>Glossy black above, unmarked</i> except by fine white spots on +primaries; under parts grayish white, sides thickly barred +black and white; three outer pairs of tail feathers white, +sides of throat with broad <i>white stripe</i>. ♂ with <i>large crown</i> +<i>patch of deep yellow</i>. 9.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">British America, south into the northern tier of States +and into the Sierra Nevada Mountains to Lake Tahoe.</dd> +<dd>Most commonly seen in the track of forest fires, where it +is usually abundant for about two years; rare outside of the +extensive soft wood tracts, and usually found singly or in +pairs except when on burnt land. I have found this species +far more common than the next, and the best mark in life +to be the white <i>stripe</i> on the neck, in distinction from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +white <i>line</i> of <i>P. americanus</i>.</dd> + +<dt id="b10">10. <span class="smcap">Picoides americanus</span>, <i>American Three-toed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Very similar to preceding species, but with narrow bars of +white forming an <i>interrupted stripe down the back</i>; head +thickly sprinkled with white in both sexes and a white line +on nape or just below; a <i>white line</i>, too narrow to be called +a stripe, down side of throat. ♂ with <i>crown bright yellow</i>. +9 inches. Same range in the East as last; replaced in West +by following subspecies:—</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>P. a. alascensis</i>, <i>Alaskan Three-toed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Smaller; more white; nape very white; more white on top +of head.</dd> +<dd class="range">Alaska, south to 48°. (Mt. Baker, Washington).</dd> + +<dt>b. <i>P. a. dorsalis</i>, <i>Alpine Three-toed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>More white on back and head than <i>P. americanus</i>, less than +<i>alascensis</i>; but continuous, not barred. “Iris dark cherry-red” +(Mearns).</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountain region, south to New Mexico and Arizona.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b11">11. <span class="smcap">Sphyrapicus varius</span>, <i>Yellow-bellied Sapsucker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Under parts whitish or pale sulphur yellow; upper parts +black, mottled with pure or yellowish white; <i>rump white</i>; +wings spotted, and with conspicuous white coverts; tail +black with <i>outer webs of outer feathers</i> and <i>inner webs of middle</i> +<i>feathers light colored</i>; sides streaked; breast with a <i>broad</i> +<i>black patch</i> extending in a “chin-strap” to the corners of +the mouth; sides of the head striped. Occiput black, nape +white. ♂ with forehead, crown, chin, and throat crimson; +♀ usually with crown crimson, forehead black, and throat +white, back more brownish; ♀ sometimes, and young always, +with crown blackish. 7.5-8.5 inches.</dd> +<dd>Colors vary much with age, sex, and season; the wing bar +and yellowish tinge are good marks for all plumages; the +rump and breast patch for adult birds.</dd> +<dd class="range">Eastern North America, breeding from Massachusetts +northward, migrating in winter to the Southern States.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>S. v. nuchalis</i>, <i>Red-naped Sapsucker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Similar, but an additional red stripe on nape, and the black +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> +chin-strap replaced by crimson. 8-8.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountains to Coast Range, replacing the above in +the mountains; usually breeding at from 5000 to 10,000 +feet elevation.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b12">12. <span class="smcap">Sphyrapicus ruber</span>, <i>Red-breasted Sapsucker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Body and under parts similar to <i>S. varius</i>, but back much +less variegated with white. No black on breast, no white +stripe through eyes. Nasal tufts brownish instead of white. +<i>Head</i>, <i>neck</i>, and <i>breast uniform crimson</i>. <i>Sexes alike.</i> Young +with crimson replaced by gray or “claret brown” (Bendire). +8.5-9 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Pacific coast, Sierra Nevada, and on both sides of Cascade +Mountains; a summer resident only north of northern +California.</dd> +<dd>At first sight the Red-breasted Sapsucker might be mistaken +for the Red-headed Woodpecker, but the two birds +do not inhabit the same country.</dd> + +<dt id="b13">13. <span class="smcap">Sphyrapicus thyroideus</span>, <i>Williamson’s Sapsucker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Sexes totally dissimilar except in having a white rump and +yellow under parts. <i>Male, glossy black all over except</i> conspicuous +<i>white rump</i> and <i>white wing coverts</i>, two white stripes +on sides of head, white nasal tufts, white spots on primaries; +sides and tail coverts mottled; a stripe of scarlet down middle +of throat and <i>brilliant yellow under parts</i>. <i>Female, light</i> +<i>brown</i>; head clear brown; body, wings, and tail closely +<i>barred</i> with black and white; no white wing coverts; rarely +a red throat like male; usually but not always a large +black patch on breast, and always a <i>yellow belly</i> and <i>white</i> +<i>rump</i>. Young males lack the red on the throat and usually +the yellow on the belly; the black is dull, and the throat a +dingy white. Young females lack the yellow on the belly +and the black on breast, and are dull-colored and indistinctly +marked. 9-9.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountain region, west to Sierra Nevada, Cascades +and northern Coast Ranges, breeding at from 5000 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +to 9000 feet elevation. The handsomest of our woodpeckers.</dd> + +<dt id="b14">14. <span class="smcap">Ceophloeus pileatus</span>, <i>Pileated Woodpecker, Logcock</i>.</dt> +<dd>Body blackish slate; wings with a large white patch conspicuous +only when flying; throat white; a white stripe +across cheek and down neck; jaw-stripe scarlet in male, +blackish in female; both sexes with scarlet crest, but in the +male the whole top of head (which is slaty black in female) +equally brilliant. This red cap gives the bird the name of +<i>pileated</i>. Iris yellow. 17 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Wooded regions of Southern States, Florida to North +Carolina, very rarely near settlements, but far more common +than the following subspecies of the North and +West.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>C. p. abieticola</i>, <i>Northern Pileated Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Larger; more extensive white markings; the black grayer +or browner.</dd> +<dd class="range">From Virginia northward to 63° in the East, and in the +West among the Rocky Mountains, north of Colorado, to +the northwest coast; a shy woodland bird to be looked +for only in the primitive evergreen forests, though sometimes +occurring in any heavy timber and, in New England, +upon the higher well-wooded mountains. The +largest of the northern woodpeckers; resident.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b15">15. <i>Melanerpes erythrocephalus</i>, <i>Red-headed Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Wings, tail, and upper parts glossy blue-black; rump, exposed +secondaries, and under parts from breast downward +pure white; <i>head</i>, <i>neck</i>, and <i>breast crimson.</i> <i>Sexes alike.</i> +Young with red and black wholly or partly replaced by +grayish brown; can be recognized by white markings. 9.5 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">United States, west to Rocky Mountains; rare east of +Hudson River, but ordinarily breeding wherever found; +in winter usually migratory from its northern limits, the +migration depending principally upon the food supply +and depth of snow.</dd> + +<dt id="b16">16. <span class="smcap">Melanerpes formicivorus</span>, <i>Ant-eating Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts, wings, and tail glossy greenish black; <i>rump</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +and lower parts <i>white</i>; white patch on primaries, conspicuous +in flight; upper throat and line about the bill dull +black; <i>forehead</i> with <i>wide white band</i>; lower <i>throat sulphur</i> +<i>yellow</i>; breast and sides thickly streaked with black and +white. ♂ with crown and occiput crimson; ♀ with crown +black, occiput crimson. Iris white. 7-9 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Mexico; western Texas.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>M. f. angustifrons</i>, <i>Narrow-fronted Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Similar, but with a <i>narrow band of white</i> across the <i>forehead</i>; +breast and sides not so thickly streaked.</dd> +<dd class="range">Lower California, never occurring within the borders of +the United States.</dd> + +<dt>b. <i>M. f. bairdi</i>, <i>Californian Woodpecker</i>, <i>El Carpintero</i>.</dt> +<dd>Similar to <i>M. formicivorus</i>, but the breast black, little +streaked with white except along the sides; yellow of throat +paler, or replaced by white. Iris white. Larger, 7.5-9.5 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Pacific coast, north into Oregon to 44°, east to southern +New Mexico and Texas in the south and to the eastern +slopes of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains in +the north, but more abundant, on the western than on the +eastern slopes of these mountains.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b17">17. <span class="smcap">Melanerpes torquatus</span>, <i>Lewis’s Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Upper parts, wings, and tail glossy greenish black; under +parts <i>pinkish red</i>; chest and <i>collar round hind neck hoary</i> +<i>gray</i>; crown and sides of head black; forehead, cheeks, and +chin crimson. <i>Sexes alike.</i> Young with pink replaced by +grayish. 10.5-11.5 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Pacific coast, east to Black Hills and Rocky Mountains +between Arizona and 49th parallel; casual still farther +east; migratory in its northern ranges; a silent, heavy +flying bird, different in habits and appearance from the +other woodpeckers; often seen flycatching.</dd> + +<dt id="b18">18. <span class="smcap">Melanerpes carolinus</span>, <i>Red-bellied Woodpecker</i>, <i>Zebra Bird</i>.</dt> +<dd>Back and wings black, <i>barred with white</i>; under and upper +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span> +tail coverts, middle and outer tail feathers, white varied +with black; head and under parts ashy; <i>belly tinged with reddish</i>. +♂ with whole top of head and nape bright red;♀ +with forehead and nape red, crown gray. 9-10 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Eastern and Southern States between the Hudson River +and the Rocky Mountains, north to southern New York, +Ohio, southern Michigan, etc.; migratory in its northern +ranges.</dd> + +<dt id="b19">19. <span class="smcap">Melanerpes aurifrons</span>, <i>Golden-fronted Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Back and wings barred with black and white; rump white; +entire under parts brownish white, unspotted (except under +tail coverts); primaries unspotted, except at tip; tail black +with slightly barred outer feathers; <i>belly yellowish; forehead</i> +<i>and hind neck orange in both sexes</i>. ♂ with <i>crown red</i> set in +a larger patch of clear gray; ♀ with crown clear gray. 9.5 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Central and southern Texas, north to about 33º; breeds +wherever found.</dd> + +<dt id="b20">20. <span class="smcap">Melanerpes uropygialis</span>, <i>Gila Woodpecker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Back and wings barred with black and white; <i>head and</i> +<i>lower parts smoky brown</i>; rump black and white; tail barred +on inner and outer feathers; primaries unspotted; belly yellow +(not conspicuous). ♂ with red crown surrounded by +brownish; “iris red” (Hayden). 9 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Southwestern New Mexico and Arizona to southeastern +California, usually above 2000 feet altitude; its distribution +depending principally upon the giant cactus.</dd> + +<dt id="b21">21. <span class="smcap">Colaptes auratus</span>, <i>Flicker</i>, <i>Yellow-hammer</i>, <i>High-hole</i>, <i>Clape</i>.</dt> +<dd>Back and wings (except primaries) brownish gray, barred +with black; under parts pale vinaceous spotted with black +spots from breast downward; rump white; tail and wings +<i>golden yellow beneath</i>, dark above, showing the yellow shafts; +<i>tail feathers with black tips below; top of head ashy gray,</i> +sides of head and throat vinaceous; a broad <i>black crescent</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> +across breast, a bright scarlet one on nape. ♂ <i>with black</i> +<i>jaw patches</i>; ♀ without them. 12 inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">South Atlantic and Gulf region, north to North Carolina.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>C. a. luteus</i>, <i>Northern Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Larger; paler; black bars above narrower; less black and +white below.</dd> +<dd class="range">North from North Carolina and west to the Rocky Mountains; +casual farther west; migratory from its northern +ranges.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b22">22. <span class="smcap">Colaptes cafer</span>, <i>Red-shafted Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Color pattern similar to above with the following differences: +<i>wings and tail red beneath</i> instead of yellow; throat +ashy gray; usually no red on occiput (though some specimens +show a narrow crescent). ♂ <i>with red jaw patches</i>. 12.5-14 +inches.</dd> +<dd class="range">Rocky Mountain region west to Pacific coast from +Mexico to British Columbia, except northwest coast +region of Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia, +and occasionally east to Kansas and Nebraska; resident +except in the more northern portions of its range.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>C. c. saturatior</i>, <i>Northwestern Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Darker; smaller; narrower breast crescent.</dd> +<dd class="range">Northwest coast, replacing the above, from which it cannot +be separated in life.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> + +<dt id="b23">23. <span class="smcap">Colaptes chrysoides</span>, <i>Gilded Flicker</i>; <i>Cactus Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Color pattern same as <i>C. auratus</i>, but throat gray; top of +head brown; <i>occiput without band</i>; tail band broader and +yellow paler than in <i>C. auratus</i>. ♂ with <i>jaw patches bright</i> +<i>red</i>; “iris blood red” (Hayden).</dd> +<dd class="range">Central and southern Arizona and Lower California.</dd> +</dl> +<dl class="subsp"> +<dt>a. <i>C. c. brunescens</i>, <i>Brown Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>A curious subspecies of the last, smaller, with larger, +more numerous spots and a smoky brown cast of plumage; +black tail band very wide; jaw patches red; wings and tail +yellow beneath.</dd> +<dd class="range">Lower (not southern) California; casual only in southern +California; in Arizona to 35°. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span></dd> +</dl> +<dl class="species"> +<dt id="b24">24. <span class="smcap">Colaptes rufipileus</span>, <i>Guadalupe Island Flicker</i>.</dt> +<dd>Coloration like <i>C. cafer</i>, crown decidedly brown; crescent +on nape wanting; jaw patches red; wings and tail <i>red</i> beneath.</dd> +<dd class="range">Guadalupe Island off the coast of Lower California.</dd> +</dl> +<hr /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2> +<p> +Aard-vark, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Acorns, eaten by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Acquired habits, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>-<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adaptations of woodpeckers to environment,<a href="#Page_104">104</a>-<a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ant-bear, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ants, as food for woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Argument from design, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Bear, black, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beechnuts, as food for woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Beetles, as food for woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bill of woodpeckers as a tool, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>-<a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Borers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Burroughs, John, quoted, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Cacti, woodpeckers nesting in, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cannibalism among woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Carpenter, the. <i>See</i> California woodpecker.<br /> +<br /> +Carpintero, El. <i>See</i> California woodpecker.<br /> +<br /> +Caterpillars, as food for woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cecropia chrysalids, eaten by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chestnuts, eaten by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chickadee, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chipmunks, hoarding food, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Clape. <i>See</i> Flicker.<br /> +<br /> +Creeper, brown, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Crossbills, eating salted food, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Crow, hoarding habit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>; <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cuckoo, ground, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Cuckoos, yoke-toed, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Drumming of yellow-bellied sapsucker, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Evolution, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Feeding young, how the flicker does it, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fence-posts used by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finch, purple, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Finches, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fish-spears, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Flicker, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>-<a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">brown, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cactus, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">gilded, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Guadalupe Island, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northern, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northwestern, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-shafted, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Flycatching habits of woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Foot, of a four-toed woodpecker figured, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of a three-toed woodpecker figured, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">discussed as a tool, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>-<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Grasshoppers, as food for woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grosbeaks, pine, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grouse, ruffed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Grouse, sharp-tailed, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Hawk, sparrow, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +High-hole. <i>See</i> Flicker.<br /> +<br /> +Hoarding habits, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hummingbird, Anna’s, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +Hummingbirds, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hyoid bones, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Jay, blue, hoarding habit, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Kinglets, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Lightning rods attracting woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Logcock. <i>See</i> Woodpecker, pileated.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Maple, rock and red, sugar made from, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Maize, eaten by English sparrows, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mandibles of woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Martin, sand, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mice, hoarding habit, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Migration, dependent upon food supply, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mountain-ash trees, sought by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Nesting of woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>-<a href="#Page_23">23</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nests, in unusual places, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.<br /> +<br /> +North America, ornithologically defined, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nuthatches, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Oaks, used by Californian woodpecker for storing nuts, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oranges, eaten by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Owls, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Pangolin, as an ant-eater, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parrot, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Parroquet, Carolina, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pigeon, domestic, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pines, acorns stored in, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.<br /> +<br /> +“Ploughshare,” anchylosed vertebræ of tail, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Ravens, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Reason in woodpeckers’ hoarding, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Red-head. <i>See</i> Woodpecker, red-headed.<br /> +<br /> +Robins, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Sap, not used as an insect-lure, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how its loss harms the tree, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sapsucker, orange, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>. <i>See, also</i>, Woodpecker, red-bellied.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-breasted, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-naped, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Williamson’s, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">yellow-bellied, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>-<a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>-<a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Skull of woodpecker figured, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sparrow, English <i>or</i> house, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spears, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Spruce, acorns stored in, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Squirrels, thievishness of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Subspecies defined, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Swallow, eaves <i>or</i> cliff, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Swallow, tree, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Swift, chimney, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Tail, shape, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of rectrices, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">experimental demonstration of shape <i>a priori</i>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reason for shape, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tail-feathers studied, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>-<a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Taste in the woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Telegraph poles resorted to by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thumb, of birds, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tin roofs resorted to by woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Titmouse, crested, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Toes, numbering of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tongue, appearance of, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">figured, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bones of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>-<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Trogons, yoke-toed, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Vanessa butterfly, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vegetable food of woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Vireos, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Warblers, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Weevils, not the object in storing nuts, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woodpecker, Alaskan three-toed, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alpine three-toed, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">American three-toed, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ant-eating, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">arctic three-toed, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Arizona, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Batchelder’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Batchelder’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">black-breasted, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>. <i>See, also</i>, Williamson’s sapsucker.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cabanis’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Californian, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>-<a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">downy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>-<a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gairdner’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Gila, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">golden-fronted, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hairy, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Harris’s, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ivory-billed, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ladder-backed, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lewis’s, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">narrow-fronted, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nelson’s downy, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northern hairy, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">northern pileated, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Nuttall’s, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pileated, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-bellied, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-cockaded, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">red-headed, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>-<a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>-<a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Rocky Mountain, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">St. Lucas, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern downy, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">southern hairy, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Texan, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">three-toed, foot figured, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">white-headed, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Woodpeckers, advantages of, as subject for study, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">bill as a tool, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>-<a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">carpenters or miners, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">character of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coloration of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coloration of sexes, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">covered nostrils, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">favorite haunts, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">foot, structure and uses, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">habit of drumming, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">how to recognize the woodpeckers, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">inferences from study of bills, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hunting borers, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nesting, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">preferred foods, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">tail, study of, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>-<a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">winter quarters, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">wooing, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Yoke-toed feet, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Zebra bird. <i>See</i> Woodpecker, red-bellied.<br /> +</p> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span></p> + +<div class="center"> +The Riverside Press<br /> +<br /> +<i>Electrotyped and printed by H. O. Houghton & Co.<br /> +Cambridge, Mass, U. S. A.</i><br /> +</div> + +<hr /> +<h4> +Transcribers Notes</h4> + +<ul> +<li>Various punctuation and other printing errors corrected</li> +<li>Inconsistent hyphenation of words regularised</li> +<li>Spelling of reëcho (page 16) left intact</li> +<li>Male symbol shown as ♂ Female symbol shown as ♀</li> +<li>Illustrations have been moved to not break paragraphs, this means +that the Illustration Index will not always give the exact location of pictures</li> +</ul> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Woodpeckers, by Fannie Hardy Eckstorm + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WOODPECKERS *** + +***** This file should be named 35062-h.htm or 35062-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/5/0/6/35062/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Steve Read and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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